Continuing Education: Technology

Steel Wire Ropes for Traction Elevators: Part Three

by Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Scheunemann, Dr.-Ing. Wolfram Vogel and Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Barthel

particular. When covering ropes for

Learning Objectives their protection, care must be taken
After reading this article, you to ensure adequate ventilation in order
should: to prevent condensation. For instance,
◆ Realize that ropes should be storage where temperature conditions
stored dry, frost free, dust free fluctuate should be avoided.
and protected against conden- Unrolling for Mounting
sate. The ground rules for rope mount-
◆ Understand that opposite bend- ing must be observed without fail. By
ing, horizontally running, lateral removing rope from the side via the
deflection and uneven tension reel coupling or from the coil strap, it
levels reduce the service life of is uncoiled or coiled, depending on
elevator ropes. the direction of lay. This twisting ac-
◆ Learn that wire ropes settle tion brings about a change in the
after installation and, in so rope structure that cannot be cor-
doing, do not have a constant rected. In the case of ropes with steel
elasticity modulus. cores, this type of forced rotation
◆ Realize that elevator ropes creates uneven strand lengths. The
should be re-lubricated after a result is an uneven distribution of
certain number of journeys. load in the rope bundle and the
◆ Understand that elevator ropes emergence of strands that have been
are discarded due to wire break- extended beyond their normal length
age, wear, diameter reduction (Figure 23).
or corrosion. Kink Formation and How
◆ Learn that when changing the It Can Be Remedied
elevator ropes, the groove pro- Carelessness (during, for example, Value: 1 contact hour
files of unhardened traction unrolling) can cause internal torsion
sheaves should always be re- (twist) in the rope. This, in effect, turns
(0.1 CEU)
measured. the rope into a braid that can only be
remedied by its end being turned. This article is part of ELEVATOR WORLD’s
Elevator Ropes in Operation Violent rotation at the braid itself or Continuing Education program. Elevator-industry
personnel required to obtain continuing-education
Storage pulling on the rope will nearly always
credits can receive one hour of credit by reading
Elevator ropes are made up of bright culminate in the formation of a kink.
the article and completing the assessment exami-
wires that are unprotected against The resulting damage makes the rope
nation questions found on page 145.
corrosion. In order to achieve slip-free unusable, and it must be replaced For this article and more continuing-education
operation in the elevator, they are (Figure 24). opportunities, visit www.elevatorbooks.com
given a relatively minimal coat of Untwisting NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF ELEVATOR CONTRACTORS

lubricant. Consequently, over extended Where long lengths are involved,

®

Approved by NAEC for CET

CERTIFIED

periods of storage prior to installation, a rope can untwist under its own
ELEVATOR TECHNICIAN

EDUCATION PROGRAM

ropes should be protected against weight when hanging freely in the

Approved by NAEC for CAT
corrosion. Ideally, they should be shaft without having been secured
stored in a dry, frost-free and dust- against rotation. The same effect oc-
free environment. Contact with cement curs if the rope is pulled upward Approved by NAESAI for QEI
dust or sand should be avoided, in using a thin auxiliary rope. Lang-lay
Continued

September 2009 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 95

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

How Drive Arrangement

Affects Ropes
Let’s assume that the elevator
drive system is arranged as shown in
Figure 25 for a variety of reasons.
The reduced space requirement
comes at a price: the ropes are bent
in opposite directions, which severely
Correct Incorrect compromises rope service life.
Another problem inherent in this
arrangement is brought about by its
horizontally running ropes, which
have a tendency to vibrate. The en-
ergy of this vibration is concentrated
at the point at which the ropes run
onto the sheaves, increasing the in-
ternal mechanical tensions in the rope.
This additional stress results in pre-
mature fatigue of the wires, culminat-
ing in wire breakage. The vibrations
occurring in the horizontal area of
Correct Incorrect the rope following deflection pro-
Figure 23 duce vertical vibration of the car and
counterweight, creating an obvious
ropes, ropes with steel-wire cores and (or at least rounded wooden beams) detrimental effect on ride comfort.
(in particular) double parallel ropes are should be used for rope deflection. In the case of elevators with a 2:1
especially susceptible in this context. Sandy or dusty surfaces are highly
suspension, the individual deflection
They react extremely sensitively if damaging for ropes. The lubricant on
sheaves are rotated by up to 90°. De-
commissioned when in this condition. the surface of the rope sticks to the
pending on the construction and the
The loosened rope is incapable of loose dirt particles and forms a
resulting deflection points, the ropes
absorbing loads evenly distributed over rough layer, which damages both the
may have a tendency to vibrate and
all the rope elements as intended by rope and sheaves during operation.
impact each other. This type of impact
the design, and can be destroyed as This effect can also compromise
does not necessarily result in a reduc-
early as the first load cycles. Conse- smooth running, as large dirt parti-
tion of service life, but it does create
quently, this type of rope is supplied cles can cause the ropes to run un-
evenly off deflection and traction perceptible noise to passengers in
with a marking line that makes in- the elevator car. Another problem
sheaves, resulting in rope vibrations.
correct rotation easily recognizable encountered by ropes is lateral de-
Some forms of damage caused by
and provides a way of realigning ropes flection when running over a sheave.
unsuitable installation methods only
during installation.
become evident after a relatively short
Hidden Dangers Inherent
period of operation. The ropes demon-
to Rope Installation
strate horizontal wear lines in parallel
Sharp concrete or steel edges rep-
formation in certain areas, while other
resent a major hazard for ropes. If they parts of the rope are almost intact.
are drawn over this type of edge One cause for this phenomenon is the
under load (and, in some cases, the use of an unsuitable fixture for tension-
intrinsic weight of the rope can be ing the ropes: for example, in order
sufficient), they will sustain perma- to measure the weight of the car or
nent damage. This type of damage is counterweight. The resulting rope
evident in the rope when in an un- deformation (and, in certain circum-
loaded condition. It will show a stances, additional kinking) result in
corkscrew-like deformation that, when local damage in the form of wire break
under load, is almost impossible to nests, rendering the rope open to im-
detect. To avoid this hazard, rollers mediate replacement. Kink Braid
Figure 24
96 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009
Figure 25: The laterally positioned machine Figure 26: Rope Tensile Force measurement

The ropes do not make central con- Lateral Arrangement are practically unavoidable. In instal-
tact with the deflection sheaves, but of the Traction Drive lations involving great shaft heights,
are slightly offset. Depending on Positioning the machine laterally the frequently deployed method of
properties of the grooves such as at the bottom results in more pro- pulling or pushing on the rope is no
aperture angle and surface rough- nounced rope deflection than is the longer adequate. Newly developed rope
ness, this causes the ropes to rotate. case with the machine positioned tension measuring devices that offer
The possible reaction of the rope to this above. Due to the extreme rope length, a method of adjusting the rope ten-
phenomenon is influenced by its more frequent shortening may be sile force to an even level can provide
structure (Lang lay or regular lay). anticipated. The high number of assistance. Uneven tension levels
Under unfavorable circumstances, a sheaves required exerts a negative bring about different degrees of con-
Lang-lay rope can become untwisted, impact on service life. According to tact pressure on the grooves of the
whereby the strands also offer no re- EN 81-1, all sheaves traveled over by traction sheave, resulting in correspon-
sistance to the rotation. In the worst- the same section of rope that also ding differences in rope slippage. In
case scenario, a regular-lay rope can runs over the traction sheave count. some cases, this brings about uneven
be untwisted to the point where the Positioning the machine laterally wear in the grooves and ropes. Con-
wires in the outer cores block this at the top reduces the necessary sequently, all ropes should be tested
rotation process. Although, compar- rope length as compared to that of a for even load after an initial operation
atively speaking, this is the less criti- bottom-positioned machine. This phase. This inspection should be car-
cal of the two situations, it should benefit is countered by the fact that ried out after four to six weeks. In
also be avoided. with this drive arrangement, all the some cases, delaying this inspection
When using ropes with a steel core, sheaves must be taken into account has resulted in premature wear of
assessment of the external torque when calculating anticipated service ropes and/or sheaves (Figure 26).
must be carried out in a similar way. life. In installations entailing particu- Rope Vibration
A rope with an independent wire- larly “angular” rope guidance with a Rope vibration brings about noise
rope core (IWRC) will always work correspondingly high number of in the elevator and a possible reduc-
sheaves, deficiencies can arise in terms tion of service life. Transversal rope
against torque effect, either by means
of traction. Although this does not vibration for a vibrating wire can be
of the inner or outer section. In the
bring about uncontrolled car move- approximately calculated using the
case of parallel-laid, full-steel rope
ment, it does cause occasional slip of following formula:
cores (PWRC) under unfavorable cir-
the traction sheave under the rope. n F
cumstances, the rope bundle can be
How Rope Tension f [Hz ] = ∗
permanently destroyed, resulting in Affects Elevator Ropes 2∗l q
strands emerging from the inner sec- When designing and calculating f = vibration frequency
tion of the rope. Once again, this risk elevators, the assumption is made n = 1. . . basic vibration
highlights the urgent necessity for that all the ropes proportionally n = 2, 3 . . . (for harmonics)
securing ropes against rotation in an transfer the same tensile force. In l = length (m)
elevator installation at the end ter- practice, this hardly ever happens. F = rope force (N)
mination points. Deviating relative rope tensile forces q = weight per meter of rope (kg/m)
Continued

September 2009 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 97

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

This type of transversal rope vi- ◆ Vibration of the car or counter- the rope to the starting value, 10
bration (as described in the context weight in the context of accelera- loading cycles are generally exe-
of drive-position-related issues) is tion/deceleration cuted, at up to 50% of the Fmin with a
caused by factors such as horizontal ◆ The elongation behavior encoun- subsequent release of the load (right-
rope alignment or deflected rope tered with even identical rope hand section of Figure 27). The pur-
paths. Conversely, vibrations in the constructions is largely dependent pose of these loading cycles is to settle
direction of the rope axis are caused on the competence of the manu- the ropes, and they are not recorded.
by stick-slip rope movements on the facturer and can vary tremendously. The pitch of the curves between
traction sheave, caused in turn by E Modulus two load points is frequently deter-
pitch errors generated by the drive The modulus of rope elasticity (E mined as the E modulus. A compari-
system or the motor. The interaction modulus) is frequently the subject of son between ordinary- and Lang-lay
between the rope and groove geom- inquiry. Its determination begins ropes is provided in Figure 28. The
etry when the rope runs off the trac-
with the measurement process per- significantly higher elongation of the
tion sheave can also bring about
formed on new ropes. In it, ropes are Lang-lay construction is clear. This is
vibrations.
subjected to continuously increasing particularly noteworthy when onsid-
Elimination/Reduction
loads that reach up to 10% of its min- ering the fitting of this rope in the
Initially, installation should be in-
imum breaking force. At the same case of extreme shaft heights/rope
spected to ascertain the condition of
time, the degree of elongation is lengths. The smallest elongation is
rope lubrication and equal tensions
recorded. The result of this loading provided by steel ropes as shown in
on the ropes, and corrected if required.
process is the first curve shown in Figure 29 in comparison to an 8-
Another check refers to measurement
of the running diameter of the rope Figure 27. After releasing the load on strand fiber-core rope. Continued

in the traction and deflection sheaves.

Slight eccentricity (ovalization) can
result in an intrinsic vibration from
the ropes when combined with any
unfavorable deviation in the grooves.
The loss of ride comfort this causes
will be clearly noticed.
A vibrating system can be “retuned”
using certain measures, such as se-
lecting a higher weight per meter or
changing rope rigidity. Replacing an
8 X 19 construction with fiber core
with 6 X 19 ropes with fiber core has
often proved a successful remedy for
this problem.
Rope Elongation Figure 27
Rope elongation is one of the
most frequently misunderstood terms
and the cause of much confusion.
This is because there is no existing
unequivocal elasticity module for ropes
that can predict the elongation of the
rope over its complete service life. In
addition, the question of rope elon-
gation can arise in connection with
elevators for different reasons, such as:
◆ Rope shortening in connection
with initial elongation
◆ Adjustment work while loading
and unloading the car to ensure
floor leveling between the car and
landing entrance Figure 28

98 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

Table 2: Roped Hydraulic Elevators

Rope Configuration
For Service Life Frequency of Use
and Maintenance Low Medium High
Good Solution F F G
Better Solution - G J
General requirements: well but not liberally lubri-
cated, higher nominal wire strengths possible (as high
breaking force is particularly desirable in this case) and
rope diameter tolerance for non-elevator ropes = –0
+5%

Table 3: Tensioned Balance Ropes

Rope Diameter Rope Construction
Up to 24 mm K
Greater than
Figure 29 24 mm L
In Tables 1-3, two measurements are entered for comparison. These relate General requirements: well (but not liberally) lubri-
cated, no high breaking force required (with total
to a six-strand and an eight-strand rope, respectively, with fiber cores. The breaking force of balance ropes smaller than that of
higher metallic cross-section of the six-strand rope clearly results in lower suspension ropes), rope diameter tolerance for non-
elevator ropes, fiber core (due to rotation tendency of
elongation under the same load conditions. The final load, once again at 10%
balance ropes), fiber core made from synthetic mate-
of the minimum breaking force, is fully documented the same way as the first rial (as ropes with fiber core made from natural fiber
curve. This is shown in the right section of the diagram. The smallest elonga- react to high levels of humidity with a change of
length), and not regular-lay ropes
tion is provided by full-steel ropes, illustrated in the final diagram in compar-
ison to an eight-strand fiber-core rope. The breakdown in Table 5 is a recom-
mendation based on empirical values and intended as an aid in selection of
Table 4: Ropes for Overspeed
the most suitable rope configuration.
Controllers (Governor Ropes)
Required Rope
Table 1: Traction Elevators Grade Normal High Very High
Rope Configuration Rope Construction M N P
Rope Length Frequency of Use With High Comfort Complex Rope Requirements: precisely metered minimal lubrication;
Low Medium High Expectation Guidance galvanized with synthetic fiber core for humid condi-
tions:
Up to 40 m A C C D E Spring Deflection
Up to 100 m C D E E E of the Car under Load
Greater than The pitch of the curves depends
100 m D E E E E on the relevant E modulus of the
General requirements: precisely metered lubrication due to traction drive, narrow rope diameter tolerance and ropes. Elongation is then only depend-
strength of outer wires in lower range of tolerance field
ent upon the load. This characteristic
Shortening Ropes after Installation spective rope structure and generally of ropes, termed elastic elongation,
The horizontal distance between the lies between 0.15% and 0.35%. provides a measure for the frequency
two measurement curves is explained This type of universally applicable of readjustment following car load-
by the so-called initial elongation of guide is subject to the proviso of a ing and unloading. The competence
ropes. This is an irreversible process. “normal” loading of the rope. It is of the rope manufacturer is tested by
In an elevator, this elongation is the almost impossible for the rope man- these two characteristic values. A high
reason for the necessity to shorten ufacturer to predict beyond this degree of permanent elongation gen-
ropes following installation. guide, as this can only be determined erally gives rise to the need for sev-
A distinction must be made depend- from the operation of the elevator in- eral (costly) rope-shortening processes.
ent on rope construction. A class 6 X stallation. The elongation behavior “Direct” connection of the car to
19 rope with fiber core has a slightly of ropes depends on the load range the traction sheave using ropes that
lower permanent elongation (0.45- in which they are operated. Where demonstrate minimal elongation
0.75%) than a class 8 X 19 rope with extreme lifting heights are involved, under load is mostly synonymous
fiber core (0.55-1.0%). In the case of the intrinsic weight of the rope also with a high level of ride comfort. The
IWRC, this value depends on the re- has a role to play. transition from an 8 X 19 rope with
Continued

100 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009

Table 5: Stability of Rope Constructions for the Individual Rope Configurations of Tables 1-4
Corresponding Recommended Rope Configuration
Rope Construction Special Drako Benefits Drawbacks Rope Grade
Elevator Rope 1370 / 1370/ 1570 / 1770 1960
1370/ 1770 1570/
1570 1770
6 X 19 Seale Insensitive to mounting; With increasing diameter, – – M N –
+ FC price rigid to very rigid; also
see 6 X 19 Warrington
6 X 19 Compared to eight-strand Sometimes causes
Warrington + FC ropes, greater breaking vibrations and heavy
forces; for semi-circular groove wear when used – A A F P
grooves, service-life with V grooves and M N
Six-strand improvement over 6 X 19 undercut grooves.
with fiber core Seale

6 X 25 Filler + The fiber core makes the With full-steel upper

FC 180 B*) balance rope less ropes, more or thicker K – K – –
susceptible to the frequent balance ropes are
6 X 36 Warrington- occurrence of rope rotation required for weight L – L – –
Seale + FC due to the relatively weak compensation.
180 B*) rope tension.
8 X 19 Seale Universal rope for normal Low breaking force;
+ FC or 8 X 19 elevators; insensitive to more rope elongation
Warrington + FC mounting; adjusts to due tolarger fiber core; – C C – –
Eight-strand or 8 X 21 Filler slightly worn grooves; consequently faster rope
with fiber core + FC medium price range diameter reduction than
with 6 X 19 and full-steel
ropes.
8 X 25 Filler See 180 B. Lower weight per meter K – – – –
+ FC 200 B* than 180 B
6 X 19 Seale or Only for governor ropes Higher price than
6 X 19 Warrington with higher breaking 6 X 19 + FC – – P – P
+ IWRC -force requirement
Six-strand with
steel core DRAKO STX Suspension rope with Higher price than
high breaking force 8 X 19 + FC – – – – D/E
(d ≤ 6 mm)
DRAKO 250 T High breaking force; Higher price than
more liberal greasing; 8 X 19 + FC – – D – –
lower elongation; fewer P
rope shortening processes
DRAKO 210 TF High breaking force; easily
increased transversal – – D – –
Full-steel rope; elasticity
eight-strand with
steel-wire core DRAKO 250 H Increased breaking force; Higher price than
low rope elongation; fewer 6 X 19 + FC – – – G –
rope-shortening processes;
less-frequent re-lubrication
DRAKO 300 T High breaking force; Higher price than – – E – –
low rope elongation; very DRAKO 250 T P
Full-steel rope; good service life
nine-strand with
steel-wire core DRAKO 300 H Increased breaking force; Higher price than – – – J –
otherwise, see DRAKO 300 T.DRAKO 250 H
Special group of Extremely high breaking Extremely careful No general recommendation is possible,
full-steel ropes in forces; in some cases, very installation is required as suitability is strictly manufacturer
double-parallel high bending strength in for rope lengths as short dependent.**)
design laboratory testing as 40 m
*) Special weight compensating ropes for elevators, for exclusive use as tensioned balance ropes
**) The longer the period for which this type of rope construction has proven successful in the market, the more likely it is to demonstrate good suitability through
application type C.

September 2009 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 101

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

fiber-core construction to a rope ropes. As long as wiping a finger Using them with caution (including
with a steel-wire core reduces elastic over the rope shows a faint smudge, good ventilation) and avoiding ex-
rope elongation by approximately there is no need for lubrication. cessive application (as a solvent that
50% if the other installation parame- Applicable Criteria has not quite evaporated compromises
ters are kept constant. This notable It is not possible to provide any traction) is the ideal combination.
difference is primarily the result of definitive statement in respect of re- In some countries, re-lubrication
the different E modulus, and second- lubrication intervals, as they depend on: agents containing solvent are pro-
arily of the far larger metallic rope ◆ The frequency of elevator use hibited for occupational safety rea-
cross-section with steel core. ◆ The environment (temperature, sons. Hydraulic oils or worm-gear
When considering spring deflec- presence of dust, etc.) oils are unsuitable. Lubricants with
tion of the car, it should also be ◆ The sheave material and sheave particle content (such as molybde-
borne in mind that the elasticity of wear: hardened traction sheaves num sulphide or Teflon® particles)
the car frame and compression of the require more re-lubrication, as no are also unsuitable for traction ele-
springs exert an additional influence. graphite is released from the vators, as these agents can reduce
Note that should the elongation sheave as a result of wear. the friction between rope and groove
behavior of ropes be contrary to ex- ◆ Slippage between the rope and to a high degree.
perience gained in application, a check sheave Ropes for roped hydraulic eleva-
should be performed of whether this Methods tors and compensating ropes should
could be due to an installation error Re-lubrication using fluid lubri- be more heavily lubricated. This type
– in this case, untwisting of the rope. cants can be carried out using a can of rope may only be re-lubricated
Rope end terminations that have not of lubricant and a paintbrush or dec- with suitable lubricating grease, as
been secured against rotation can orator’s roller. Lubricant spray in this application, the precise
also be the cause of untwisted ropes. should only be used for short ropes. amount of lubricant is not as critical
In particular, ropes with steel-wire In any case, only very minimal quan- as it is with traction sheave ropes.
cores demonstrated substantially tities should be applied, after which Generally speaking, however, cus-
higher elastic elongation when un- the elevator should execute several tomary lubricating oils for traction
twisted, as the outer strands were complete round trips, while attention sheave ropes would also be used in
loosened and the load increasingly is paid to the slip behavior. After- these applications.
suspended only on the steel core. ward, additional lubricant can be Lubricants for Unusual
The rumored practice of “improv- added if necessary. Elevator Installations
ing” the elongation behavior of ropes If there is any doubt whether the For humidity in the shaft, no spe-
by simply twisting them (even if they rope still has adequate traction after cial precautions need be taken, only
are flawlessly installed) is highly un- re-lubrication, carry out a complete more frequent checks. If applicable,
advisable and should not be used. round trip before and after re-lubri- use galvanized ropes.
Although it can actually reduce rope cating: take the car completely up, In outdoor elevator installations,
elongation, this practice can also make a joint chalk mark across the apart from installations in extremely
drastically reduce rope life. rope and elevator, then take the car dry climates, use galvanized elevator
Rope Re-Lubrication completely down and back up again; ropes. The basic lubrication provided
Elevator ropes are lubricated dur- there should be no major offset be- when the ropes are manufactured
ing manufacture in order to prevent tween the chalk marks. should not be normal rope lubricant
corrosion and abrasion. However, Permanent lubrication devices (which can be washed away by
only enough lubricant to ensure that can cause problems when used con- water) in this case, but a water-re-
the elevator operates with sufficient tinuously and with installations in sistant medium. Special types of lu-
traction and without slippage should which there is little lift-system trac- bricant exist for this purpose. Re-lu-
be applied. As lubricants also tend to tion in reserve. brication, essential for galvanized
bind dust and abraded particles, Lubricant Properties ropes, should be performed without
however, this initial lubrication is Lubricants should not be too low in fail using lubricants containing sol-
hardly ever sufficient to be effective viscosity but have sufficient penetra- vents. These should be applied dur-
over the entire service life of the tive capability to get inside the rope. ing cooler weather (as the solvent
rope. It is, consequently, advisable to The most suitable lubricants are should not evaporate as quickly) and
occasionally re-lubricate elevator rope lubricants diluted with solvent. after extended dry periods. Continued

102 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

For installations operating in lubrication should be performed from the two most heavily damaged outer
high- or low-temperature environ- the outside in such a way that lubri- strands, and should also be evaluated
ments, remember that no special cant also penetrates the fiber core. separately. For six- and eight-strand
measures are required for tempera- Degreasing Over-Lubricated elevator ropes with fiber cores, ISO
tures ranging between 0°C and 50°C. Elevator Ropes 4344 provides an indication of the
Where temperatures are constantly One possible cause of excessive maximum admissible wire breaks.
between 40°C and 50°C, the condi- rope slippage on the sheave can be For all other elevator ropes, refer-
tion of the lubrication should be over-lubrication. Under no circum- ence is made to the specifications of
checked at more frequent intervals, stances should an attempt be made the relevant rope manufacturer. Tak-
as the lubricant becomes less vis- to wash ropes using cleaning agents ing the number of wire breaks at dis-
cous and is, consequently, used up or solvents. The solvent penetrates card as a reference, it is then possi-
faster. The lubrication effect is also the rope and draws a greater amount ble to determine whether the rope
less pronounced. of lubricant toward the outside. The should be discarded immediately,
Lubricant in the Fiber Core method of external degreasing was more intensively monitored or con-
Requests are sometimes made for developed over 30 years ago and has tinue to be monitored normally
the fiber core, during manufacture, been very successful in solving prob- (Table 6). To avoid strand breakages
to be provided with a lubricant that lems. It uses very fine, neutral-react- and consequential damage, the max-
ing, powdery quartz flour. imum admissible number of wire
will last for the lifetime of the rope. It
This powder can be ordered as breaks must also be examined in ac-
would be an easy matter for a rope
Florideal and applied by forming a cordance with ISO 4344 relative to
manufacturer to inject a generous
funnel shape with gloved hands, fill- the crown of a strand.
helping of grease (for instance, 25%)
ing them with the powder and slowly In old installations in compliance
into the fiber core. However, far from
dusting the ropes in a downward di- with TRA 102,[22] elevator ropes are
the desired effect of providing gradu-
rection from the traction sheave, classified, monitored and discarded
ally metered lifetime lubrication, the
with the machine positioned at the under the highest gear drive group of
excess grease would seep out within
top. The powder absorbs the oil/ DIN 15020[23]/ISO 4309.[24] If the
just weeks of fitting the rope. How-
grease. The dried mass then crum- outer wires demonstrate heavy signs
ever, the main reason for carefully
bles away. Brush away the remains of abrasion, they are likely to break
limiting the grease content of the fiber
of the powder/grease mixture using at these points and in relatively
core becomes evident upon studying
a wire brush. The sheaves should quick succession. If wire breaks are
Figure 30, which illustrates the cross-
also be cleaned, possibly using solvent. evenly distributed, the residual serv-
section of a new, unloaded 8 X 19
When to Discard Elevator Ropes ice life can be estimated relatively
Seale. The outer strands are sup- Elevator ropes are normally dis- easily.
ported on the fiber core; the rope di- carded due to wire breakage, wear The European Rope Standard EN
ameter is consequently determined by and diameter reduction. However, 12385 Part 3[25] refers to ISO 4344 for
the volume on the inside of the rope other discarding criteria such as cor- elevator ropes in this context. In
(fibers and grease). rosion or excessive elongation can non-European countries, the rele-
As the life of an elevator rope is also take effect. vant national regulations apply to
closely linked to its effective rope di- How Many Wire Breaks determining when a rope should be
ameter, it is essential for the fiber Are Admissible? discarded. The number of wire
core to maintain its volume for as The number and distribution of breaks can sometimes fail as a dis-
long as possible. Consequently, re- externally visible wire breaks are the card criterion under certain circum-
most important criteria when it stances: wire breaks due to external
comes to detecting when an elevator wear only occur when the sheaves
rope should be discarded. This is (in particular, the traction sheaves)
quantified by a count of the maxi- in a rope drive system are made of
mum number of visible wire breaks gray cast iron or steel. If only plastic
over a reference length of the rope. sheaves are used, the safety directive
According to ISO 4344,[3] the maxi- for elevators “Plastic Rope Sheaves”
mum number of wire breaks over must be observed, as here, under
one length of lay must be determined certain circumstances, inner wire
Figure 30: Support of the outer strands on the fiber separately, for all outer strands and breaks can occur instead. Continued
core

104 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

Table 6: Discard Criteria

Discard or examination within the time
span prescribed by an expert Immediate discard
Criteria Rope grade Rope grade Rope grade Rope grade Rope grade Rope grade
6 x 19 8 x 19 9 x 19 6 x 19 8 x 19 9 x 19
Average number More than 12 More than 15 More than 17 More than 24 More than 30 More than 34
of wire breaks among per length of per length of per length of per length of per length of per length of
outer strands lay lay lay lay lay lay
Number of wire breaks, More than 6 More than 8 More than 9 More than 8 More than 10 More than 11
predominatly per length of per length of per length of per length of per length of per length of
in one or two strands lay lay lay lay lay lay
Number of wire breaks 4 4 4 More than 4 More than 4 More than 4
adjacent to another in
outer strand
Intermediate wire break 1 1 1 More than 1 More than 1 More than 1
per length of per length of per length of per length of per length of per length of
lay lay lay lay lay lay

Discard criteria for single-layer ropes with fiber cores, according to visible wire breaks

Rope Discarding Due to should be checked in the affected breaks, which only become visible
Reduction in Wire Diameter sections for reduction in diameter. In after load relief and extreme rope
Due to external and internal wire the case of diameter reductions of bending (Figures 33 and 34). The
wear, over long service periods, a less than 4% relative to the nominal long wire break ends are character-
continuous diameter reduction can diameter, further reduction can be istic of this phenomenon.
take place in elevator ropes. In ropes slowed by re-lubrication. Suspected Traction Sheaves
with fiber core, this effect is exacer- causes for the formation of what is Groove Shapes
bated by the drying out and abrasion commonly known as “rouging” or A distinction is drawn between
of the fiber core. “red dust” are insufficient lubrica- shaped grooves (V-grooves or U-
With a diameter reduction of 6% tion, incorrect re-lubrication and a grooves with undercut) and round
relative to the nominal diameter (for damp or aggressive shaft atmosphere. grooves. The groove shape exerts
example, when a 13-mm rope re- Where a diameter is reduced by not only a significant effect on trac-
duces to 12.2 mm), the elevator rope more than 6% relative to the nominal tion, but also on rope service life.
should be discarded immediately, as: diameter, generally speaking, a rope The grooves can become worn with
◆ There is a risk of sudden rope change is necessary. In this case, the operation and must be subjected to a
breakage, e.g., due to inner wire suspected cause for corrosion for- special inspection when exchanging
breakage at the contact points be- mation is excessive friction between ropes. New ropes (perhaps those at
tween strands. the outer strands. Normally, the the upper end of diameter tolerance)
◆ The traction calculation is based outer strands rest on the rope core, will respond to worn and excessively
on the fact that the rope fits pre- and friction between the outer small grooves with a shortened serv-
cisely into the groove. Conse- strands is minimal. However, if the ice life. The reason for this is exces-
quently, the projected traction is diameter of the rope core reduces sive Hertz pressure when a rope with
no longer provided if the elevator due to rope wear, the outer strands a nominal diameter of 13 mm im-
ropes are too thin. begin to mutually support each pacts on a worn groove with a diam-
◆ Driving grooves abraded by ropes other, with the result of greater fric- eter of, for example, 12.7 mm.
that are too thin are consequently tion between them. The abraded Another damaging influence on
too narrow for new ropes, which particles produced by this process rope service life is a groove worn to
are then inevitably damaged. are not metallically bright, but red- an uneven depth, particularly in
Internal Corrosion in Strand Gaps brown in color (fretting corrosion). drive systems with double wrap. The
If there is evidence of abraded red This abrasion process is known as ropes run at different speeds in
particles exuding from the rope “rope bleeding.”[26] The risk lies in grooves with different heights. Because
strand gaps, the rope diameter the possible resulting inner wire of the difference in height between
Continued
106 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009
 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

Re-Machining characteristics are also influenced by

During elevator maintenance, it is the formation and distribution of the
frequently found that while a sheave graphite particles in the cast iron.
may have worked without problems The fact that the sheaves are no
for 10-15 years with its original rope longer stored prior to utilization, but
Figure 32: Inner wire breaks are visible when stretched. set, after re-machining (re-cutting or machined and mounted immediately
re-grooving) and fitting it with new after casting can also have a detrimen-
ropes, wear or rope imprints occur at tal effect on the material properties.
a far faster rate. This was proved as Hardened Sheaves
long as 25 years ago by a major car The hardening of V-grooves has
manufacturer with around 700 ele- been performed in Europe since
vator installations on its plants. It 1967. Hardened, undercut U-grooves
proved that 60% of such sheaves had have been a familiar feature since
Figure 33: Inner wire breaks are visible when bent. to be exchanged again after only a 1978. When using hardened rope
year in operation. grooves, it should be noted that:
the grooves, a slack condition occurs
Unhardened Traction Sheaves ◆ The profile of the different grooves
The material used to make trac- and groove depth must be correctly
in some of the ropes, which causes
tion sheaves cannot be easily deter- matched. If the groove is hardened,
excessive slip, indicated in some cases
mined without detailed metallo- the rope is no longer able to help
by an audible creaking. In this case,
graphic examination. However, the correct the groove.
the rope sections between the trac-
hardness of the traction sheave can ◆ The edges of the undercut must be
tion sheave and secondary sheave of
be measured. Long-term studies well rounded; otherwise, two deep
the double wrap can be exposed to
have shown that for a sheave with a wear lines will appear in the ropes.
extremely high “strain tension.”
hardness of up to 180 Brinell hard- ◆ In hardened V-grooves, no dual-
When changing the rope, the
ness (HB), signs of rope impressions tensile ropes with “soft” outer wires
groove profiles of unhardened trac- or higher levels of groove wear may be used – only ropes made of
tion sheaves should always be re- occur. With a groove hardness of wires with nominal tensile strengths
measured. The measurement gauges 180-195 HB, the probability of this of 1570 and 1770 N/mm2.
for the grooves should always be kind of damage occurring is reduced. ◆ The ropes must be re-lubricated.
graduated in 1/10-mm steps. It is With increasing groove hardness (to ◆ Ropes that reduce too much in di-
important that a new rope is not fit- above 200 HB, or better still, over ameter will run onto the edges of
ted into a groove that has worn to 210 HB), this type of damage pattern the undercut, resulting in insuffi-
suit the existing ropes, and replace- becomes highly unlikely. cient traction.
ment of the traction sheave should For GG 25 gray cast iron, the hard- Plastic in Traction Sheaves
be considered in the following rea- ness limit achievable using modern A plastic or plastic-lined traction
sons: foundry methods is around 230 HB. sheave (which can radically increase
◆ Evidence of excessive traction The hardness test should only be ex- Continued

caused by the traction-sheave ecuted on the machined surfaces of

grooves being machined by the the casting and by preparing the top 140 kg/cm2
d

reduced diameter of the rope. (For layer of the machined surface to any α

paint or surface imperfections, or the 120

example, the lift car can be lifted
measured results will be incorrect.
upward after the counterweight
Pressure produced by the test process 100
has been buffered.)
must be sufficient to ensure that this
permissible pressure

◆ Ignoring wear in the traction 80

prepared surface is penetrated.
sheave grooves will seriously re- freight elevator, low speed,
Spherical graphite cast iron GGG 60
4 seldom used

duce the service life of the new 60 demonstrates better material

3 freight elevator, seldom used

ropes. characteristics than GG 25, but is 40

2 passenger elevator, seldom used

1 passenger elevator, usage 8 – 10

◆ The ropes in question have a fiber also more costly. Experience and
or steel core, as steel-core ropes will analyses gained from expert consul- 20

not adapt to a worn groove profile. tation demonstrate that not only the
Never change only the traction sheave; hardness of the groove, but also the 0 1 2 3 3,5 m/sec.

always change both ropes and sheave alloy component (such as copper) rope speed
Figure 34: Upper limit of contact pressure in elevator
to obtain the required service life. determine resistance to wear. Wear traction grooves

108 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

traction) is a practically unknown the standard. From the point of view service life. To increase user satis-
phenomenon in Europe. It is impor- of the rope manufacturer, this is a faction, there should be better com-
tant to bear in mind that when used major omission. Contact pressure is munication between partners at the
with steel wire ropes, determination “indirectly” included in the calculation pre-planning stage of the design to
of the discard age by externally visi- of the safety factor in accordance determine the expectations on serv-
ble wire breaks can be impeded. with Annex N of EN 81-1. Although ice life. This should increase aware-
However, it is also true to say that focus has correctly been placed on a ness of the fact that a long service
this material is in use in other coun- minimum rope service life, the stan- life is associated with costs.
tries for sheaves. dard neglects to include an explicit Deflection and Diversion Sheaves
While TRA 003 and EN 81/1986 verification of contact pressure. It is Deflection and diversion sheaves
still stipulate a binding requirement possible to state that a configuration should be made of the same high-
for gray cast-iron or steel traction in compliance with EN 81-1/1998 per- grade cast iron as traction sheaves.
sheaves, specifying a coefficient fric- mits significantly higher contact The grooves of deflection and diver-
tion of µ = 0.09, in EN 81-1/1998, the pressure than was admissible accord- sion sheaves rarely wear to such a
required coefficient of friction is ing to EN 81-1/1986. The fundamental degree that new ropes could be
specified relative to the nominal correlation between contact pres- damaged as a result. Despite this,
speed of the installation. As the stan- sure and serviceability was established however, the grooves of the deflec-
dard gives recommendations in this as far back as the standard reference tion and diversion sheaves should be
area, if evidence of compliance in work on traction published in 1927.[30] included in the inspection when
terms of safety can be proved, it Regulations changing ropes. The frequently
leaves the door open for the use of Rope manufacturers only have the voiced opinion that a sheave with a
alternative traction-sheave materials. opportunity to see machine rooms if minimal wrap angle is consequently
Contact Pressure the rope service life is shorter than exposed to minimal stress is a mis-
As an important influence on the the operator has anticipated. In conception. Contact pressure (in
service life of the rope and traction many cases, it becomes evident that other words, the force per millimeter
sheave, too little attention is paid by although the design has been per- of wrap length) is just as great as if
elevator constructors to contact forming in accordance with EN 81-1 the sheave had a wrap angle of, for
pressure occurring between them. (where a safe minimum service life instance, 180°. Here, too, the degree
By adjusting contact pressure (for has been calculated), this should not of contact pressure determines the
example, to the frequency of use), it be confused with an elevator bal- extent of sheave and rope wear. Ac-
is possible to exert an instrumental anced to achieve maximum eco- cording to elevator manufacturers,
influence on load and, consequently, nomic efficiency. It is frequent that the use of universal sheaves for a
the service life of the rope. However, the parameters that determine the range of rope diameters has not
in EN 81-1/1998, there is no mention service life of a rope are maximized proven successful. Deflection sheaves
of the contact-pressure calculation to their limits, which in turn brings can be made of plastic, such as
featured in the previous version of about a corresponding reduction of polyamide. Their use is regulated in
Germany by the Safety Guidelines for
Lifts SR plastic sheaves.[31] There is
no concern regarding the use of
plastic sheaves in conjunction with a
steel or gray cast-iron sheave. The
discard age of the ropes can be de-
termined by symptoms such as ex-
ternally visible wire breaks, which
are results of running over cast-iron
traction sheaves.
Groove Wear Due
to Rope Impressions
If rope impressions (braid forma-
tion) (Figure 35) occur as a form of
groove wear evenly in all grooves
and is highly pronounced, then the
sheaves probably have an insuffi-
cient hardness level. Continued
Figure 35: Rope impressions in the grooves of a traction sheave
110 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009
 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

However, if the sheave hardness [7] DIN EN 81, Safety Rules for the Construction [30] Hymans, F./Hellbronn, A. V., Der neuzeitliche
and Installation of Lifts – Particular Applica- Aufzug mit Treibscheibenantrieb (The Mod-
is proven to be correct, other circum- tions for Passenger and Goods Passenger ern Lift with Traction Drive), Springer Verlag
stances can result in rope impres- Lifts Part 1: Electric Lifts, October 1986 [31] SR Kunststoffrollen, Sicherheitstechnische
sions. These include: [8] EN 12385 – Part 1 (published 2003), Steel Richtlinien für Aufzüge – Seilrollen aus
Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 1: General Re- Kunststoff (SR Plastic Sheaves, Safety
◆ Uneven rope tension levels quirements Guidelines for Lifts – Plastic Sheaves], De-
◆ Dry ropes (lack of re-lubrication) [9] ASME A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and cember 1984, Carl Heymanns Verlag KG,
Escalators. The American Society of Me- Köln, Berlin
◆ Excessively worn grooves, e.g., chanical Engineers, New York [32] Molkow, Michael, Stahlseile und neuartige
ropes have been changed without [10] EN 13411 – Part 4 (2002), Terminations for Tragmittel (Steel Ropes and New Means of
Steel Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 4: Metal and Suspension), Lift Report 27. Year of publica-
the worn traction sheave being re- Resin Sockets. tion (2001), Volume 5, p. 6-12
placed. [11] DIN 3093, Wrought Aluminium Alloy Fer-
rules; Parts 1 and 2, December 1988, Beuth
In each instance, the quality of the Verlag GmbH, Berlin
Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Scheunemann is technical
cast iron is the most important fac- [12] EN 13411 – Part 3 (2003), Terminations for
Steel Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 3: Ferrules director and head of the Technical Competence
tor. It is highly likely that a correla-
and Ferrule-Securing Center at Pfeifer Drako Drahtseilwerk GmbH &
tion exists between this form of [14] EN 13411 – Part 1 (2002), Terminations for
Co. KG.
groove wear and rope elasticity. Im- Steel Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 1: Thimbles
for Steel Wire Rope Slings
prints of this type in the groove must [15] DIN 15315, Wire Rope Grips for Elevators,
have been filed out by a twisting May 1983, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin Dr.-Ing. Wolfram Vogel is head of R&D at
[16] EN 13411 – Part 7 (2004), Terminations for Pfeifer Drako Drahtseilwerk.
movement of the rope as it runs over Steel Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 7: Symmet-
the sheave. Evidence has shown that ric Wedge Socket
[17] DIN 1142, Wire Rope Grips for Rope Termi-
elevators fitted with eight-strand nations, January 1982, Beuth Verlag GmbH,
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Barthel is head of Testing
ropes with a fiber core made of Berlin for Elevator Technology at Pfeifer Drako Draht-
[18] EN 13411 – Part 5 (2003), Terminations for seilwerk.
polypropylene result in a higher Steel Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 5: U-bolt
number of cases in which rope im- Wire Rope Grips
[19] EN 13411 – Part 6 (2003), Terminations for
pressions have been discovered in Steel Wire Ropes. Safety – Part 6: Asymmet-
grooves. Conversely, ropes with ric Wedge Socket Learning-Reinforcement Questions
[20] Czitary, E., Seilschwebebahnen [Cable pul-
steel-wire cores (i.e., ropes with a Use the below learning-
leys], Springer Verlag, Vienna, 1951
substantially reduced elongation be- [21] Wyss, Th., Stahldrahtseile der Transport- reinforcement questions to study
havior) are very seldom found re- und Förderanlagen (Steel Wire Ropes in
Transport and Conveyor Systems) for the Continuing Education
sponsible for rope impressions in Schweizer Druck- und Verlagshaus AG, Assessment Exam available online
grooves, provided the sheave has Zürich 1956
[22] TRA 102, Technische Regeln für Aufzüge –
at www.elevatorbooks.com or on
sufficient hardness. Where traction Prüfung von Aufzugsanlagen, (Technical page 145 of this issue.
sheaves of inferior cast-iron quality Rules Governing Lifts – Inspection of Lift
◆ How should ropes be unrolled
Systems) April 1981, Verein
and hardness are used, it is possible der Technischen Überwachungsvereine e. V., for mounting?
to avoid excessive groove wear by Essen ◆ Why do ropes untwist?
[23] DIN 15020, Principles Relating to Rope Dri-
selecting a “non-hard” rope. In this ves Sheet 2, Monitoring of Rope Installa- ◆ How does the drive arrange-
type of rope, the outer wires of its tions, April 1974, Beuth Verlag GmbH, ment affect the rope?
Berlin
outer strands comprise wires of a [24] ISO 4309, Wire Ropes for Lifting Appli- ◆ Can rope vibration be elimi-
relatively low wire tensile strength – ances – Code of Practice for Examination nated or reduced?
and Discard, 1990
around 1180-1370 N/mm2. ◆ Which types of rope elongation
[25] EN 12385 – 3 (2003), Steel Wire Ropes –
Bibliography: Safety – Part 3: Information for Use and are to distinguish?
[1] EN 10016, Non-Alloy Steel Rods for Drawing Maintenance
and/or Cold Rolling [26] Wire Rope Users Manual, American Iron ◆ How is the elasticity modulus of
[2] EN 12385 – Part 5 (2003), Steel Wire Ropes and Steel Institute, Washington ropes defined?
– Safety Part 5: Stranded Ropes for Lifts [27] Babel, H., Metallische und nichtmetallis-
[3] ISO 4344 (published 2004), Steel Wire Ropes che Futterwerkstoffe für Aufzugscheiben
◆ What criteria are applicable to
for Lifts – Minimum Requirements (Metallic and Non-Metallic Filler Materials rope relubrication?
[4] DIN 50150, Conversion Table for Vickers for Elevator Sheaves), Dissertation Univer-
◆ How many wire breaks are ad-
Hardness, Brinell Hardness, Rockwell Hard- sity of Karlsruhe, 1979
ness and Tensile Strength, December 1976, [28] Hafenbautechnische Gesellschaft e. V., missible?
Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin Hinweis für den Einsatz von Seiltrieben mit ◆ What should be done in case of
Kunststoff-Seilrollen in Kranen, fördern
[5] EN 81-1/1998, Safety Rules for the Con-
und heben 33 (1983) (Notes on the Use of internal corrosion development
struction and Installation of Lifts – Part 1:
Rope Traction Systems with Plastic Sheaves in the strand gaps?
Electric Lifts
in Cranes, Transport and Lifting), No. 1, p. 33
[6] TRA 003, Technical Rules for Elevators – [29] DIN 15063, Lifting Appliances; Sheaves, ◆ What is a hardened traction
Calculation of Traction Sheaves, September Technical Conditions, see explanations on sheave?
1981, Verein der Technischen Überwach- 5.4 December 1977, Beuth Verlag GmbH,
ungsvereine e. V., Essen Berlin

112 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | September 2009

Continuing Education: Technology

ELEVATOR WORLD Continuing Education

Assessment Examination Questions
Instructions:
◆ Read the article “Steel Wire Ropes for Traction Elevators: Part 3” (page
95) and study the learning-reinforcement questions.
◆ To receive one hour (0.1 CEU) of continuing-education credit, answer the
assessment examination questions found below online at www.elevatorbooks
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◆ Approved for Continuing Education by NAEC for CET® and CAT® and NAESAI
for QEI.

1. How should ropes ideally be stored? 7. Which method of re-lubrication is not recommended
a. Dry. for elevator ropes?
b. Frost free. a. A can of lubricant and a paintbrush.
c. Dust free. b. Using lubricant spray.
d. Protected against condensate. c. Moving the rope through a dipping bath.
e. All of the above. d. Using a can of lubricant and a roller.

2. Which is not a “hidden danger” inherent in rope instal- 8. What is not an indication that elevator ropes must be
lation? discarded?
a. Concrete or steel edges. a. Wire breakage.
b. A glass shaft. b. They have been installed for more than a year.
c. Sandy surfaces. c. They have reduced diameters.
d. Dusty surfaces. d. They have corrosion.

3. Which does not reduce the service life of elevator 9. Which is not a groove shape that a traction sheave can
ropes? have?
a. Opposite bending. a. Round groove.
b. Horizontally running. b. V-groove.
c. Lateral deflection. c. U-groove with undercut.
d. Car with mirrors. d. TT-groove.

4. Rope vibration frequency does not depend on: 10. Which circumstances can result in the occurrence of
a. Rope length. rope impressions?
b. Rope force. a. Uneven rope lengths.
c. Rope weight per meter. b. Dryness and excessively worn grooves.
d. Rope grade. c. Round grooves.
d. Over-lubricated ropes.
5. What’s the elasticity module of an elevator rope?
a. About 210 N/mm2.
b. About 135 N/mm2.
c. It is not constant and depends on the rope force.
d. 1570 N/mm2.
e. 1770 N/mm2.

6. Which rope construction has the smallest degree of

elongation?
a. Regular lay, full steel.
b. Lang lay, full steel.
c. Regular lay, fiber core.
d. Lang lay, fiber core.

September 2009 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 145

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