BUILDING

UTILITIES 3
Acoustics and Lighting Systems

[School]
[Course title]
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Definition of Acoustic …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3
Sound Theory
Longitudinal and Transverse Waves ………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

Frequency …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4

Velocity of Sound Wave Propagation ………………………………………………………………………………….5

Speed of Longitudinal and Transverse Sound Waves ……………………………………………………………6

Wavelength Sound Intensity (Free Field Propagation) ………………………………………………………..8

Inverse Square Law (Free Field Condition) ………………………………………………………………………….9

Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level ………………………………………………………………………..10

Intensity Level Changes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………10

Sound Absorption, Reflection and Transmission, Mechanism of Absorption

Sound Absorption Coefficient (SAC) ………………………………………………………………………………….11

Noise Reduction and Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) …………………………………………………..13

Sound Absorption and Treatment ……………………………………………………………………………………15

Absorptive Materials and Its Application ………………………………………………………………………..17

Relative Efficiency of Sound Absorbers ……………………………………………………………………………22

Reverberation Time ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..24

Room Acoustics
Directivity Contour for Speech …………………………………………………………………………………………25

Sight Line ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..26

Ray Diagram and Sound Paths ………………………………………………………………………………………..26

Echoes and Its Control …………………………………………………………………………………………………….28

Auditorium Acoustics – Calculation and Design Application ……………………………………………38

Lighting Fundamentals …………………………………………………………………………………………………..53
Luminous Intensity, Luminous Flux, Illuminance ……………………………………………………………..53
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Definition of Terms …………………………………………………………………………………………………………54

Physics of Light …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………54

Inverse Square Law …………………………………………………………………………………………………55
Quantity of Light …………………………………………………………………………………………………..57
Light Source: Their Characteristics and Application …………………………………………………………..58
Incandescent Lamps ……………………………………………………………………………………………..58
Fluorescent Lamps ………………………………………………………………………………………………..59
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps …………………………………………………………………..62
Lighting Design
Illumination Methods ………………………………………………………………………………………….65
Types of Lighting Systems …………………………………………………………………………………..67
Lighting Fixtures and Their Distribution ……………………………………………………………...70
Luminaire Efficiency Coefficient of Utilization (CU) …………………………………………..…73
Illumination Calculation
Calculation of Average Luminance ………………………………………………………………….....73
Calculation of Loss Factor (LLF) …………………………………………………………………………...76
Calculation of Horizontal Illuminance by Lumen ……………………………………………..….80
Coefficient of Utilization (CU) Calculation ………………………………………………………..….80
Lumen Flux/Zonal Cavity Method …………………………………………………………………......81
Point Method …………………………………………………………………………………………………....86
Lighting Application and Design Using Zonal Cavity Method (General Lighting) ………….....95
ACOUSTICS
Acoustic as defined in Oxford Languages, is the properties or qualities of a room or building that
determine how sound is transmitted in it.

The area of physics known as acoustics is devoted to the study of the production, transmission, and
reception of sound. The science of sound, which in its most general form endeavors to describe and
interpret the phenomena associated with motional disturbances from equilibrium of elastic media.

Architectural Acoustics. Study of sound waves distribution in variously shaped enclosed or partly
enclosed spaces with effects of sound waves on objects of different shapes which are in their way.
Architectural acoustics is the study of sound in homes and other buildings and the design of those
structures for optimal acoustic performance, including control of sound transmission throughout the
building, maintaining conditions for good speech intelligibility, and maintaining sound isolation for
speech privacy.

Within the built environment, it would be easy to think that indoor noise might not have any adverse
impact compared to environmental noise. However, even within the confines of a building, architectural
acoustics play a significant role in the occupant’s experience (e.g. environmental noise can be periodic
and decrease during evening hours and overnight, while excessive reverberation inside a room is always
present, interfering with every word spoken).

Every element of a building’s construction contributes to its acoustical characteristics. It’s more than just
walls and ceilings: its shapes, surfaces, furniture, light fixtures, mechanical systems and materials used in
construction all have an impact on a building’s acoustics.

All of the sounds we hear on a daily basis can contribute to a host of problems.

Acoustics – the science of sound from the Greek word “akouien” meaning to hear.

Architectural acoustics – deals with sound in the built environment.

Sound theory

In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves and their perception by the
brain. Sound can be viewed as a wave motion in air or other elastic media. In this case, sound is a
stimulus. Sound can also be viewed as an excitation of the hearing mechanism that results in the
perception of sound. In this case, sound is a sensation.

Sound can be described as a disturbance or turbulence which passes through a physical medium in the
form of longitudinal waves from a source to a receiver causing a sensation of hearing. This medium
could be solid, fluid or gas. The speed of sound through these different media differs due to their
molecular composition.

 Longitudinal Waves and Transverse Waves

Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called
compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be
transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
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 Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the vibration of the medium is parallel to the
direction the wave travels displacement of the medium is in the same (or opposite) direction
of the wave propagation. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure
deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and
rarefaction. Longitudinal waves include sound waves (vibrations in pressure, a particle of
displacement, and particle velocity propagated in an elastic medium) and seismic P-waves
(created by earthquakes and explosions).
Example of a longitudinal wave is a sound wave or "pressure wave" in gases, liquids, or
solids, whose oscillations cause compression and expansion of the material through which
the wave is propagating.

 Transverse Waves
This is in contrast to a longitudinal wave. A transverse wave is a wave whose oscillations are
perpendicular to the direction of the wave's advance.
Example is the waves that are created on the membrane of a drum. The waves propagate in
directions that are parallel to the membrane plane, but the membrane itself gets displaced
up and down, perpendicular to that plane.

Frequency
Frequency, sometimes referred to as pitch, is the number of times per second that a sound
pressure wave repeats itself. The spectrum is the distribution of the energy between the
different component waves. It is the highness or lowness of a tone determined by the rapidity of
the oscillations producing it. The lower the frequency, the fewer the oscillations. High
frequencies produce more oscillations.
The units of frequency are called hertz (Hz). Humans with normal hearing can hear sounds
between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies above 20,000 Hz are known as ultrasound.
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The crack of thunder can exceed 120 decibels, loud enough to cause pain to the human ear.

Shows an example of pitch recognition. During the listening process, each sound is analyzed for a
repeating pattern (orange arrows) and the results forwarded to the auditory cortex as a single pitch of a
certain height (octave) and chroma (note name).

Velocity of Sound Wave Propagation

Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure which propagates through compressible media such as
air or water. (Sound can propagate through solids as well, but there are additional modes of
propagation). During their propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attentuated by the
medium.

All media have three properties which affect the behavior of sound propagation:
 A relationship between density and pressure. This relationship, affected by temperature,
determines the speed of sound within the medium.
 The motion of the medium itself, e.g., wind. Independent of the motion of sound through
the medium, if the medium is moving, the sound is further transported.
 The viscosity of the medium. This determines the rate at which sound is attenuated. For
many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible.

The sound velocity through a given material is the distance that the sound energy will propagate in
that material in a given time, and it is a function of material density, acoustic impedance and
temperature. Since sound velocities are relatively high, most values are given in meters or feet per
second.
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The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit of time by a sound wave as it propagates
through an elastic medium. At 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound in air is about 343 metres per
second (1,235 km/h; 1,125 ft/s; 767 mph; 667 kn), or a kilometre in 2.9 s or a mile in 4.7 s. It
depends strongly on temperature as well as the medium through which a sound wave is
propagating.

Speed of Longitudinal and Transverse Sound Waves

In a gas or liquid, sound consists of compression waves. A longitudinal wave is associated with
compression and decompression in the direction of travel, and is the same process in gases and
liquids. Only compression waves are supported in gases and liquids. An additional type of wave,
the transverse wave, also called a shear wave, occurs only in solids because only solids support
elastic deformations. These different waves (compression waves and the different polarizations of
shear waves) may have different speeds at the same frequency.

 Speed of Longitudinal Waves

The approximate speed of sound in dry (0% humidity) air, in metres per second, at temperatures
near 0 °C, can be calculated from

where is the temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).

The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally
decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground,
creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. Wind shear of 4 m/(s · km) can
produce refraction equal to a typical temperature lapse rate of 7.5 °C/km. Higher values of wind
gradient will refract sound downward toward the surface in the downwind direction, eliminating
the acoustic shadow on the downwind side. This will increase the audibility of sounds downwind.
This downwind refraction effect occurs because there is a wind gradient; the sound is not being
carried along by the wind.

For sound propagation, the exponential variation of wind speed with height can be defined as
follows:

Where:
o U(h) is the speed of the wind at height h;
o ζ is the exponential coefficient based on ground surface roughness, typically between 0.08
and 0.52;
o dU/dH(h) is the expected wind gradient at height h.
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In fact, assuming an ideal gas, the speed of sound c depends on temperature only, not on the
pressure or density (since these change in lockstep for a given temperature and cancel out). Air is
almost an ideal gas. The temperature of the air varies with altitude, giving the following variations
in the speed of sound using the standard atmosphere—actual conditions may vary.

Effect of temperature on properties of air

Temperature, Speed of Density of air, Characteristic specific acoustic

T (°C) sound, ρ (kg/m3) impedance, z0 (Pa·s/m)
c (m/s)

35 351.88 1.1455 403.2

30 349.02 1.1644 406.5

25 346.13 1.1839 409.4

20 343.21 1.2041 413.3

15 340.27 1.2250 416.9

10 337.31 1.2466 420.5

5 334.32 1.2690 424.3

0 331.30 1.2922 428.0

−5 328.25 1.3163 432.1

−10 325.18 1.3413 436.1

−15 322.07 1.3673 440.3

−20 318.94 1.3943 444.6

−25 315.77 1.4224 449.1

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 Speed of Transverse Sound Waves

Three-dimensional solids. In a solid, there is a non-zero stiffness both for volumetric

deformations and shear deformations. Hence, it is possible to generate sound waves with
different velocities dependent on the deformation mode. Sound waves generating volumetric
deformations (compression) and shear deformations (shearing) are called pressure waves
(longitudinal waves) and shear waves (transverse waves), respectively. Pressure waves travel
faster in materials than do shear waves.

Where:

 K is the bulk modulus of the elastic materials;

 G is the shear modulus of the elastic materials;
 E is the Young's modulus;
 ρ is the density;
 ν is Poisson's ratio.

One-dimensional solids. The speed of sound for pressure waves in stiff materials such as metals
will always be slightly less than the same speed in homogeneous 3-dimensional solids.

where E is Young's modulus.

Wavelength Sound Intensity (Free Field Propagation)

When a sound wave propagates in air, the oscillations in pressure are above and below the
ambient atmospheric pressure. The free field is a region in space where sound may propagate
free from any form of obstruction. This term describes sound propagation in an idealized free
space where there are no reflections. These conditions hold in the open air (sufficiently far
enough away from the ground) or in an anechoic room where all the sound striking the walls is
absorbed. Free field propagation is characterized by a 6 db drop in sound pressure level and
intensity level (in the direction of sound propagation) each time the distance from the source is
doubled.

Sound intensity is the sound energy passing through a unit normal area per unit time. It is a
vector quantity having units of watts per square meter (w/m2).
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Free field is a sound environment in which there are no appreciable effects on sound
propagation from obstacles, boundaries, or reflecting surfaces. Under free-field conditions, the
loss of energy with distance may be predicted by the inverse-square law.

Inverse Square Law (Free Field Condition)

According to the Oxford Dictionary, the inverse square law states that “the intensity of [a sound
wave] changes in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from the source.”

In audio production, the inverse square law describes the reduction of a sound’s intensity over
distance. The inverse square law states that with every doubling of distance away from the
sound source, the sound will be four times less intense.
As a sound wave travels away from its source, a sphere of acoustical energy is formed. The finite
amount of energy created by the sound source is spread thinner and thinner along the
expanding surface area of the sphere.

In this image, the sphere on the left has a radius of 2 feet, while the sphere on the right has a radius of 4
feet. The sound source is located at the center of each sphere. So, think of the radius as the distance
between you and the sound source.

While the radius of the second sphere is only twice the radius of the first sphere, the surface area of the
second sphere is four times the surface area of the first sphere! Everytime the radius is doubled, the
surface area is quadrupled.
The energy from the source is now spread out over four times the area, resulting in four times less energy
per square meter.

In free field condition, this means that there are no nearby obstructions or boundaries.
When we are thinking of a sound source in a free-field (i.e. nothing for the sound to hit as it
travels away from the source) we can think of the sound waves as expanding like the surface of
a balloon being blown up. As it travels outwards the surface of the balloon gets bigger and
bigger - the sound energy is spread out over a larger and larger area. As the radius of the balloon
doubles, the area goes up four-fold. Remember, the area of a sphere is given by: Area of sphere
= 4 π r2
So, if r goes up by a factor of 2, then the area increases by a factor of 22 or 4.
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From a point source in free-field sound radiates outwards in all directions. We assume that at a given (R) from the
source a certain amount of sound energy flows through area (A). If we now double the distance from the source, the
same amount of energy now flows through an area 4 times the size - i.e. for an area of the same size of A, only a
quarter of the sound energy passes through it

The inverse square law is a way of understanding something we already know on a basic level:
that sounds get quieter as they travel away from their sources. You can use it to predict sound
intensity at a given distance from the sound source.To predict sound pressure level, the inverse
distance law is used.

Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level

Sound pressure or acoustic pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average or
equilibrium) atmospheric pressure, caused by a sound wave. In air, sound pressure can be
measured using a microphone, and in water with a hydrophone. The SI unit of sound pressure is
the pascal (Pa).
.
Sound pressure levels are a way of describing the strength of a sonic event, usually given in
decibels and abbreviated as dB. The lowest sound pressure which can be heard by humans is called
the hearing threshold, the highest which can be endured is known as the pain threshold. The
softest sound a person can typically perceive – also known as the threshold of human hearing – is
approximately 0.00002 pascal or 20 micro pascal (μPa) – really an incredibly small disturbance of
air pressure, which goes to show how sensitive the human is designed to be. The sound made by a
chainsaw, on the other hand, is approximately 20 pascal. The difference between 0.00002 and 20
pascal corresponds to a factor of 1 to 1 million.

Intensity Level Changes

Intensity level increases I (decreases) 3 db with every doubling (halving) of power and decreases
(increases) 6 db with every doubling (halving) of distance.
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Sound Absorption, Reflection and Transmission, Mechanism of Absorption

Acoustic absorption refers to the process by which a material, structure, or object takes in sound
energy when sound waves are encountered, as opposed to reflecting the energy. Part of the
absorbed energy is transformed into heat and part is transmitted through the absorbing body. The
energy transformed into heat is said to have been 'lost'.

When sound from a loudspeaker collides with the walls of a room part of the sound's energy is
reflected, part is transmitted, and part is absorbed into the walls. Just as the acoustic energy was
transmitted through the air as pressure differentials (or deformations), the acoustic energy travels
through the material which makes up the wall in the same manner.

Acoustic absorption is of particular interest in soundproofing. Soundproofing aims to absorb as

much sound energy (often in particular frequencies) as possible converting it into heat or
transmitting it away from a certain location.

Sound Absorption Coefficient (SAC)

How well a room absorbs sound is quantified by the effective absorption area of the walls, also
named total absorption area. This is calculated using its dimensions and the absorption
coefficients of the walls. The total absorption is expressed in Sabins and is useful in, for instance,
determining the reverberation time of auditoria. Absorption coefficients can be measured using
a reverberation room, which is the opposite of an anechoic chamber.

Sound absorption coefficient is used to evaluate the sound absorption efficiency of materials. It
is the ratio of absorbed energy to incident energy.
The sound absorption coefficient is the ratio of absorbed sound intensity in an actual material to
the incident sound intensity and can be expressed as

α = Ia / Ii

where:

o α = sound absorption coefficient

o Ia = sound intensity absorbed (W/m2)

o Ii = incident sound intensity (W/m2)

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Noise Reduction and Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)

Noise reduction is the process of removing noise from a signal. Noise reduction techniques exist
for audio and images. Noise reduction algorithms may distort the signal to some degree.
All signal processing devices, both analog and digital, have traits that make them susceptible to
noise. Noise can be random or white noise with an even frequency distribution, or frequency-
dependent noise introduced by a device's mechanism or signal processing algorithms.
Altering the paths of sound transmission is a common way to control noise in architecture.
When sound strikes on a surface, part of the sound reflects off the wall surface back into the
space, and part of it is transmitted through the wall to the space beyond.

Noise in the building can be control by following methods:

 Room arrangement
 Use of solid walls
 Planning for single story houses
 Proper arrangement of balconies
 Having courtyards

The Noise Reduction Coefficient (commonly abbreviated NRC) is a single number value ranging
from 0.0-1.0 that describes the average sound absorption performance of a material. An NRC of
0.0 indicates the object does not attenuate mid-frequency sounds, but rather reflects sound
energy. This is more conceptual than physically achievable: even very thick concrete walls will
attenuate sound and may have an NRC of 0.05. Conversely, an NRC of 1.0 indicates that the
material provides an acoustic surface area (in units sabin) that is equivalent to its physical, two-
dimensional surface area. This rating is common of thicker, porous sound absorptive materials
such as 2"-thick fabric-wrapped fiberglass panel. Materials can achieve NRC values greater than
1.00. This is a shortcoming of the test procedure and a limitation of how acousticians define a
square unit of absorption, and not a characteristic of the material itself.

Factors affecting noise reduction coefficient:

 Mounting Type
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The NRC is highly dependent on the type of mounting, which, if not specified, is usually a
Type A mounting (ABPMA mounting #4) where the material is placed directly on the
floor, wall, or ceiling.

Acoustical ceiling tiles are often tested in Type E400 mounting, which simulates a 16
inch-deep plenum. This deeper airspace typically boosts the low frequency performance
of the tile, but may not impact the NRC rating (since the NRC does not include the 125Hz
octave band).

 Sample Size
There's potential for greater error or overemphasizing the acoustic efficacy of a material
if tested sample sizes are smaller than the standardized 8ft x 9ft modules. The
perimeter-to-area ratio has a significant effect on the overall sound absorption of a
material, and may affect the NRC.

 Thickness
Thicker samples of the same material often absorb more sound and are better at
absorbing lower in frequency. Thicker materials also have larger surface area at the
sides, resulting in increased sound absorption due to edge effects.

Applications

NRC is most commonly used to rate general acoustical properties of acoustic ceiling tiles, baffles,
banners, office screens, and acoustic wall panels. It is occasionally used to rate floor coverings.

NRC is intended to be a simplified acoustical rating of room construction and finish materials when the
acoustical objectives of the space are less than sensitive. The NRC average is rounded to the nearest
0.05 due to a typical lab repeatability of ±0.05 for 2 standard deviations. Reproducibility between
different labs is roughly three times higher at ±0.15 for 2 standard deviations. NRC is a useful rating for
general purpose rooms where speech noise build-up is the major concern: lobbies, open offices,
reception areas, etc. In certain applications, such as designs of music rehearsal rooms, performance
spaces, and rooms employed for critical speech, it is usually more appropriate to consider the sound
absorption coefficients at the individual one-third octave band frequencies, including those above and
below the bands used to compute NRC.

When evaluating the NRC of similar materials, the following table can be used to approximate
whether there's an aural difference:
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Sound Absorption and Treatment

Soundproofing is any means of reducing the sound pressure with respect to a specified sound
source and receptor. There are several basic approaches to reducing sound: increasing the
distance between source and receiver, using noise barriers to reflect or absorb the energy of the
sound waves, using damping structures such as sound baffles, or using active anti – noise sound
generators.
There are 5 elements in sound reduction:
1. Absorption
Sound absorbing material controls reverberant sound pressure levels within a cavity,
enclosure or room. Synthetic Absorption materials are porous, referring to open cell
foam (acoustic foam, soundproof foam). Fibrous absorption material such as cellulose,
mineral wool, fiberglass, sheep’s wool, are more commonly used to deaden resonant
frequencies within a cavity (wall, floor, or ceiling insulation), serving a dual purpose for
their thermal insulation properties. Both fibrous and porous absorption material are
used to create acoustic panels, which absorb sound reflection in a room, improving
speech intelligibility.
 Porous absorbers
Porous absorbers, typically open cell rubber foams or melamine
sponges, absorb noise by friction within the cell structure. Porous open cell
foams are highly effective noise absorbers across a broad range of medium-high
frequencies. Performance can be less impressive at lower frequencies.

The exact absorption profile of a porous open-cell foam will be

determined by a number of factors including the following:
- Cell size
- Tortuosity
- Porosity
- Material thickness
- Material density
 16

 Resonant absorbers
Resonant panels, Helmholtz resonators and other resonant absorbers
work by damping a sound wave as they reflect it. Unlike porous
absorbers, resonant absorbers are most effective at low-medium
frequencies and the absorption of resonant absorbers is always
matched to a narrow frequency range.

2. Damping
Damping means to reduce resonance in the room, by absorption or redirection
(reflection or diffusion). Absorption will reduce the overall sound level, whereas
redirection makes unwanted sound harmless or even beneficial by reducing coherence.
Damping can reduce the acoustic resonance in the air, or mechanical resonance in the
structure of the room itself or things in the room.

An anechoic chamber, showing acoustic damping tiles used for sound absorption.

3. Decoupling
Creating separation between a sound source and any form of adjoining mass, hindering
the direct pathway for sound transfer.

Decoupling a wall involves the use of Resilient Isolation Clips or Sound Damping Pads.
The clips should be staggered when installed (every other stud) to create fewer
pathways for sound to transfer. The Resilient Isolation Channel easily clicks into the
Resilient Clips, resulting in a 1 5/8” gap between the stud and drywall. Fine thread
screws are used to screw the drywall into the Resilient Channel. Screws should be the
correct length in order to not pierce a stud, this will compromise the efficiency of the
decoupled wall.

4. Distance
The energy density of sound waves decreases as they become farther apart so that
increasing the distance between the receiver and source results in a progressively lesser
 17

intensity of sound at the receiver. In a normal three-dimensional setting, with a point

source and point receptor, the intensity of sound waves will be attenuated according to
the inverse square of the distance from the source.

5. Adding Mass
Adding dense material to treatment helps stop sound waves from exiting a source wall,
ceiling or floor. Materials include mass-loaded vinyl, drywall, soundproof sheetrock,
plywood, fibreboard, concrete or rubber. Different widths and densities in
soundproofing material reduces sound within a variable frequency range. Use of
multiple layers of material is essential to the success in any treatment.

NB: Sound absorption is not the same as sound insulation which is used to prevent sound
travelling between separate spaces across a partition such as a wall, ceiling or floor.
Sound absorbing materials can convert some of the absorbed sound energy into heat,
rather than transmitting it, which improve sound insulation, but it should not be seen as
a substitute for adequate sound insulation.

Absorptive Materials and Its Application

All materials can absorb sound energy to an extent. However, materials that are specifically
noted as sound-absorbing will absorb most of the sound energy that collides with them. These
specialized materials are usually referred to as "acoustical materials" and they are designed to
have high absorption qualities.

The major use of these materials is to reduce reverberant sound pressure levels. This leads to a
reduction of overall reverberation in a space.

Sound-absorbing materials will absorb most of the sound energy that collides with them and will
reflect very little. These qualities make them useful in the control of noise within a space or
enclosure. They are used in a variety of locations: close to the source of the noise, paths , or
close to receivers.

Acoustic absorption is the process by which sound energy is dissipated and transformed into
another form of energy: heat, mechanical, or deformation.

From a scientific standpoint, there are three primary types of sound absorbers:

 Porous
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Materials with a high sound absorption coefficient are usually porous.

Unlike soundproofing materials, sound absorbent materials aren't dense, they're

permeable. Soundwaves penetrate the surface of these materials, and flow into the
fibrous or cellular structure that it's comprised of.

The amount of heat that soundwaves generate is minimal; less than 1/1,000,000 of a
watt. When porous sound absorbers are used, only a small portion of the sound energy
is reflected back into the space.

Porous sound absorbers are most effective for mid-range frequencies or treble tones.
They tend to have less effect towards lower frequencies and have minimal effect with
bass.

Common examples of porous sound absorbers include mineral wool, carpets,

fibreboards, insulation blankets, and certain forms of foam plastic.

It's important to remember that energy can never be created or destroyed, it can only
be transformed. Porous absorbers will convert incident sound energy into heat energy
through frictional and viscous resistance in the fribrous or cellular structure of the
material.

 Membrane/Plate Absorbers

A membrane or plate absorber is an air impervious, non-rigid, non-porous material

that's placed over an airspace. When sound energy is applied to the absorber it causes
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the oscillating system (mass of the front panel and the spring formed by trapped air) to
transform into mechanical energy.

These materials are typically solid in appearance, and as such, they are commonly
overlooked as sound absorbing materials. With that said, they are particularly effective
against low-range frequencies, such as bass.

They also will reflect higher frequency sounds. Other forms of soundproofing and
absorbing will need to be applied to counter-act this added effect.

Common examples of membrane absorbers are wood or hardboard paneling,

suspended plaster ceilings, windows, wood doors, gypsum boards, and wood floors.

 Resonate/resonance absorbers

These types of sound absorbers are typically only used when you need to combat sound
in a narrow, yet defined frequency range. They're used to focus on issues related to bass
frequencies.

These types of absorbers work based on sound pressure. It's essentially a mass (front
wall or diaphragm) vibrating against a spring (the air inside the resonant absorber). By
changing either the mass or the spring's stiffness, you can adjust for resonant frequency.

They work in a similar manner to that of a membrane absorber. Meaning they consist of
a mechanical oscillation system with a solid plate and tight air space.

An example of a resonance absorber would be a bottle of Coca-cola. However, a more

practical example would be layers of perforated plasterboard or perforated metal
corrugated sheets. Where the perforations are the bottle's neck and the space behind
the sheets are the bottle's container.

Materials Used as Sound Absorbers:

 Cushions and Pillows
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Cushions and pillows are considered porous sound absorbers. Their soft surfaces, and
porous material can absorb soundwaves and turn them into heat energy. Generally
speaking, the thicker they are the more sound you can absorb.

Arrange over-sized pillows and cushions on chairs, sofas, and beds. You can even
arrange them on the floor to create a casual yet welcoming seating area that can absorb
sound.

 Wall Hangings

You can also use wall hangings to absorb soundwaves. Paintings, tapestries, and large
pictures can reduce reverberations that pass through walls. If you have bare walls in
your home or workplace, arrange wall hangings to cover the void space.

Of all of these options, cloth/linen tapestries are best for absorption, as they’re highly
porous, thick materials.
 21

 Carpets and Area Rugs

Carpets and area rugs can help to absorb impact noise and prevent the transmission of
sound through structures. For instance footfalls through shared floors/ceilings.

If you have the budget, installing wall to wall carpet with a sound deadening
underlayment is your best option.

However, wall-to-wall carpet is expensive. A good substitute are thick area rugs with a
layer of mass loaded vinyl (MLV) affixed to the bottom. They add mass to the floor and
prevent structure-borne noise.

 Curtains and Blankets

The best way to soundproof windows is by replacing them with double/triple pane
windows or laminated glass.

However, replacing windows is rather expensive. As an alternative you can use

soundproof curtains and blankets to help absorb and slow the passage of soundwaves.
 22

These mediums can also be hung above doors, on walls, etc.

 Acoustic Window Film

Glass is thin, highly conductive, and very reflective, which makes them very poor sound
barriers. Acoustic window film will beef up the density of the window and absorb the
transmission of soundwaves, thereby minimizing unwanted sounds.

 Acoustic Partitions
Another product that you can use to absorb sound is an acoustic partition. While they
don’t do a lot to block out sound, they do offer great sound absorption capabilities.
These partitions are made of sturdy structural materials that are covered with porous
fabrics that act as sound absorbers. Essentially, they act as a large piece of soft furniture
in the middle of an open room.

 Acoustic Foam Panels

Acoustic foam panels are made of soft, porous material that feature notches or cups.
Hang them on walls, doors, or ceilings so that instead of soundwaves reflecting off these
surfaces, they'll be absorbed within the porous material.

Acoustic foam panels come in a variety of sizes and colors. For improved visual appeal,
choose a few different colors and hang them in a pattern on the surface you are
applying them to.

Relative Efficiency of Sound Absorbers

The basic types of sound absorbers are porous materials, vibrating (or resonant) panels, and
volume resonators (called Helmholtz resonators). Porous sound absorbers (thick materials or
thin materials with airspace behind) should be placed at location of maximum compression for
impinging sound waves (e.g., lambda/4 distance from backup wall surface). Combinations of
porous materials and vibrating panels or volume resonators can provide the uniform, or “flat,”
sound absorption with frequency required in recording or radio/TV studios.
 23

Thin Porous Materials (Convert sound energy into heat by friction)

Thick Porous Materials; Vibrating Panels (Convert sound energy into vibrational energy which is dissipated
by internal damping and radiation)
 24

Volume Resonators (Reduce sound energy by friction at opening and by Inter-reflections within cavity)

Reverberation Time
Reverberation is the persistence of sound after the cause of sound has stopped - a result of repeated
reflections.

Reverberation time is the time required for the sound to “fade away” or decay in a closed space. Sound
in a room will repeatedly bounce off surfaces such as the floor, walls, ceiling, windows or tables. When
these reflections mix, a phenomeon known as reverberation is created. Reverberation reduces when the
reflections hit surfaces that can absorb sound such as curtains, chairs and even people.

When it comes to accurately measuring reverberation time with a meter, the term T60 (an abbreviation
for Reverberation Time 60 dB) is used. T60 provides an objective reverberation time measurement. It is
defined as the time it takes for the sound pressure level to reduce by 60 dB, measured after the
generated test signal is abruptly ended.
 25

Room Acoustics

Room acoustics describes how sound behaves in an enclosed space. Sound of different frequencies
behaves differently in a room. Reflections between walls, floor and ceiling create room modes at
specific frequencies and locations. Reflections also produce reverberation.

Directivity Contour for Speech

Directivity is a measure of the directional characteristic of a sound source. It is often
expressed as a Directivity Index in decibels, or as a dimensionless value of Q. This is an
important aspect of a sound source, especially in a reverberant field.

The polar coordinate graph below plots contours of sound levels for speech. The shapes of
the contours show the directional characteristics of speech at low frequencies (<= 500 Hz to
represent vowels, which contribute to the tone of an individual’s speech) and at high
frequencies (=> 4000 Hz to re-present consonants, which strongly influence intelligibility of
sibilants). 00 is the direction the speaker is facing, 180° the direction behind the speaker.
Sound levels at low frequencies are diminished very little at the sides (90° orientation) and
moderately at the rear (8 dB lower). However, sound levels at high frequencies are
diminished by about 6 dB at the sides and 20 dB (about one- fourth as loud) at the rear.
When speakers turn their backs to the audience, consonants can become completely
inaudible!
 26

Sight Line
Unobstructed sight lines (i.e., straight lines drawn from eyes of seated occupants to stage
area) from all seats to the front of the forestage allow full view of performers and
unobstructed propagation of the direct sound. Sight lines are normally drawn to converge at
a point on stage called the arrival point of sight APS. Audiences should be able to hear and
to see clearly and comfortably to fully perceive the intended effects of performances.

Average Seating Dimensions; Every-Row Vision; Every-Other-Row Vision; Note: To achieve liveness
within a reasonable room volume, the back-to-back seat dimension B and center-to-center seat
dimension W should be as small as possible consistent with the requirements for comfort and life
safety.

Ray Diagram and Sound Paths

A ray diagram is an acoustical analogy to the specular reflection of light where the angle of
incidence angle i of an impinging sound wave equals the angle of reflection angle r, with
angles measured from the perpendicular to the surface. That is, sound waves are reflected
from surfaces in the same way a billiard ball, without spin, rebounds from a cushion. Ray-
diagram analyses can be used to study the effect of room shape on the distribution of sound
and to identify surfaces which may produce echoes.
 27

Some limitations of ray-diagram studies are as follows:

 Sound reflects in the manner indicated by ray diagrams only when surface
dimensions are large relative to the wavelength X of sound being evaluated
(>4X).

 Normally, the source of speech or music will not radiate from a fixed position.
Optimum room shape therefore depends on a careful balance of the best sound
distribution from several source positions to the listening area.

 A detailed evaluation of diffusion of sound by room surfaces is not possible with

ray diagrams. Therefore, scale models which allow frequency-scaled acoustical
studies are often used in design, particularly in rooms where music perception is
important.

In spite of these limitations, ray diagrams can be an important design tool in establishing
optimum room shape.
 28

Echoes and Its Control

Echo is a reflection of sound that arrives at the listener with a delay after the direct sound.
The delay is directly proportional to the distance of the reflecting surface from the source
and the listener. Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well, by a
building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. A true echo is a single
reflection of the sound source.

Acoustic waves are reflected by walls or other hard surfaces, such as mountains and privacy
fences. The reason of reflection may be explained as a discontinuity in the propagation
medium. This can be heard when the reflection returns with sufficient magnitude and delay
to be perceived distinctly. When sound, or the echo itself, is reflected multiple times from
multiple surfaces, the echo is characterized as a reverberation.

To determine if echoes are present in completed spaces, sharply clap your hands or slap two
books together. Listen for any strong repetition of the original clap. Note the direction and
strength of any echoes and how long it takes any “fluttering” or “ringing” to drop off to
inaudibility.
 29

The graph below shows the amount in decibels an echo is above or below the direct speech
for time delays (ms) in rooms with a reverberation time of about 1 s at mid-frequencies. An
echo that falls in the shaded area on the upper right of the graph will be annoying to most
listeners (> 50 percent disturbed).

 Patterns of reverberant decay

Examples of sound decay in large and small rooms are shown below. A noise source (e.g.,
broadband noise from a loudspeaker, a bursting fully inflated balloon, or the “blast” of a
blank fired from a starter’s revolver) can be used to determine the time it takes the sound to
fall off, or decay, by 60 dB. The starter’s revolver has directional characteristics and a sound
spectrum similar to speech.

Because the noise source is abruptly stopped or impulsive, its decay can be recorded and
displayed on a graph of sound level vs. time. This graphical information can provide the
designer with a greater understanding of the acoustical quality of rooms. For example,
spikes on the decay curves shown below indicate echoes. Double-sloped decay curves could
indicate room resonances or reverberance from coupled spaces such as large stage houses
or transepts.
 30

Reverberant Decay of Sound in Large Room; Echo may be due to rear wall or other remote sound-reflecting surface.

Reverberant Decay of Sound in Small Room

 Flutter echo

Flutter echo is usually caused by the repetitive inter-reflection of sound energy between opposing
parallel or concave sound-reflecting surfaces. Flutter is normally heard as a high-frequency ringing or
buzzing. It can be prevented by reshaping to avoid parallel surfaces, providing deep sound-absorbing
 31

treatment, or breaking up smooth surfaces with splayed or ‘scalloped” elements. A 1:10 splay (or > 50
tilt) of one of the parallel walls will normally prevent flutter echo in small rooms.

In small rooms flutter can be most noticeable at specific locations of noise source and listener.

Corridor; Small room with concave wall

The echo phenomenon called pitched-roof flutter can occur in rooms with nonparallel walls.
 32

 Small rooms

Audible resonance is the emphasis of sound energy at particular frequencies. It can occur in small rooms
entirely finished with sound-reflecting materials when the dimensional ratios are whole numbers (e.g.,
cube). This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the “bathroom tenor” effect. Consequently,
preferred ratios of room dimensions may be recommended to prevent resonance (or “boominess’) by
achieving even distribution of low- frequency sound energy.

- Sound-Absorbing Surfaces Opposite Sound-Reflecting Surfaces

In the small music practice rooms, the amount of sound which will reflect between hard, sound-
reflecting surfaces will be minimized by installing sound-absorbing materials on adjacent walls or at two
opposite corners. Effective treatment finishes can be provided by sound- absorbing panels furred out
from the backup wall or heavy fabric curtains hung 100 percent full (i.e., 2 ft of curtain to 1 ft of surface
width). To enhance low-frequency absorption, be sure there is a deep airspace between the sound-
absorbing treatment and the backup surface.

Adjacent-Wall Treatment; Corner Treatment

 33

Nonparallel-Wall Surfaces, sound-absorbing ceiling or fully carpeted floor normally will be required if walls are
hard-surfaced

- Sound-diffusing wall modulations

(Large-scale cylindrical, triangular, or other surface irregularities can be used to provide diffusion)

 Concave Surfaces

Concave wall and ceiling surfaces usually require treatment to prevent annoying sound reflections which
reduce intelligibility of direct sound. Concave shapes (circle, ellipse, parabola) cause reflected sound to
converge at a focal point. For example, sound energy may be concentrated in certain areas (called
focusing) or reflected along smooth concave surfaces (called creep echo, or the “whispering gallery
effect” because low voice levels can be heard at considerable distances away).

- Focused sound
 34

Surface undulations: Large-scale, random-sized surface undulations can provide diffusion to minimize focusing of
reflected sound energy (e.g., convex brick surfaces at M.I.T. Chapel, Cambridge, Mass., Eero Saarinen, architect)

M.I.T. Chapel, Cambridge, Mass

- Creep
 35

Sound-absorbing treatment Acoustically transparent material (e.g., spaced wood slats or open metal grille)
conceals actual enclosure, which can be treated with deep sound-absorbing material to reduce reflected sound
energy and creep echoes.

An example of the whispering gallery effect. Sound energy is reflected along the domed ceiling surface
allowing persons at opposite ends of the rotunda (> 180 ft apart) to easily converse at whisper voice
levels; however, persons only a few feet away from the speakers can't hear the conversation.

Creep Echo from Dome

 36

the old Senate Chamber at the U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C

Note: Domed planetariums can be designed to avoid focusing by using a sound- transparent liner on which the sky
images are projected. The plenum above the perforated liner can be treated with either deep sound absorption or
sound-diffusing elements.

examples of poor distribution of sound in domed auditoriums. In the auditorium shown at the left, the extent of
seating affected by focusing will be far greater than indicated because source locations on the stage will vary

 Sound Reflectors

An effective sound reflector has a hard surface, such as thick plaster, double-layered gypsum board,
sealed wood, or acrylic plastic, and is significantly larger than the wavelength of sound it's designed to
reflect.

The sound-reflecting pulpit canopy shown below can provide useful reinforcement of the direct sound
as well as prevent long-delayed reflections and potential echo conditions from the high ceiling. In the
church example shown below, the organ and console are located within the sanctuary, not in a gallery or
other deep recess.
37
 38

Auditorium Acoustics – Calculation and Design Application

An auditorium is a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch performances. For movie
theatres, the number of auditoria (auditorium) is expressed as the number of screens. Auditoria can be
found in entertainment venues, community halls, and theaters, and may be used for rehearsal,
presentation, performing arts production, or as a learning space.

Ancient theaters

Open-air Greek and Roman theaters (constructed about 2000 years ago) most often had good listening
conditions for drama and instrumental recitals by small groups. The Greek theaters usually were located
on steep hillsides in quiet rural locations. Successful sites had few gusty winds (which cause noise when
they blow past trees, buildings, and audience). Seating layouts were semicircular so the audience would
be close to the stage, thus reducing sound energy loss by distance

Modern open-air theaters should be designed to achieve low noise intrusion and satisfactory
distribution of sound. However, an enclosure is required to achieve the reverberation and fullness of
tone needed for modern symphonic music and opera (especially since the nineteenth century).

Factors That Affect Auditorium Acoustics

 Size of the Auditorium
In any room, size has an important influence on acoustics. Size includes the length, width and
height of the room. Larger and smaller auditoriums come with their own acoustical advantages.

 Shape of the Room

Like size, the shape of your auditorium will play an important role in determining the acoustics.
many auditoriums have more of a fan shape. Some auditoriums also feature curved walls, which
help diffuse sound. In addition to the general shape of a room, other architectural features like
the ceiling pitch and structures in the room will affect the way sound waves behave in the space.

 Materials in the Room

 39

A common problem in auditoriums is reverberation, which occurs when sound waves bounce off
surfaces and congregate. For most auditoriums, the reverberation time will be too long unless
there are sound-absorbing materials throughout the room. This includes acoustic panels,
upholstered chairs, curtains and other soft, porous surfaces. If your auditorium is full of surfaces
that are hard and nonporous, like windows or wood floors, these materials will reflect sound
waves and contribute to higher levels of reverberation.

 Balconies and Orchestra Pits

these features can affect the acoustics in the room. Balconies can be a helpful way to include
more seating in a room without lengthening the room to the point where attendees in the back
have trouble hearing. The shape and size of a balcony and the materials it includes all affect the
way sound waves behave in the room.

 Auditorium Use

 Doors and Buffer Zones

Doors can be a point where outside noises are let in. Solid-core doors with higher sound
transmission control (STC) ratings will do a much better job of blocking outside noises than
hollow-core doors with lower STC ratings.

Some auditoriums use buffer zones to help prevent noise from getting into the auditorium.
These are areas that lie between your auditorium and other rooms used for other purposes,
such as classrooms, restrooms or dressing rooms. These areas, which can take the form of
hallways or foyers, provide a blanket of space around your auditorium that should be relatively
free of noise and activity during a performance.

 Background Noises
Even if you have soundproof doors and buffer zones to keep out noise from the outside, that
doesn’t mean the auditorium will sound completely silent when empty. All rooms have ongoing
noises from HVAC equipment and even plumbing pipes running in the background. In most
situations, we hear these as white noise, and it’s not much of a bother. These sorts of
background noises may not pose a problem in an auditorium if they are very quiet. However, if
the air conditioning comes on and is noisy, it will interfere with the quality of a performance on
your stage and may make it harder to understand a speaker.

The acoustical environment for an auditorium project can be enhanced in following respects:

 The floor area and volume of the auditorium should be kept at a reasonable minimum
for adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium.
 Optimum reverberation characteristics should be provided in the auditorium to
facilitate whatever function is required.
 The sound energy should be uniformly distributed within the room.
 The room should be free from acoustical defects (distinct echoes, flutter echoes, picket
fence echo, sound shadowing, room resonance, sound concentrations and excessive
reverberation).
 40

there should be adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium, especially in remote seats. The
problems of providing adequate loudness result mainly from the inverse square law and excessive
absorption by the audience attenuating the direct sound before it reaches the listener. the floor area
and volume of the auditorium should be kept at a reasonable minimum, thus shortening the sound
paths.

Type of auditorium minimum optimum maximum

Rooms for speech 2.3 3.1 4.3
Concert halls 6.2 7.8 10.8
Opera houses 4.5 5.7 7.4
Catholic churches 57 8.5 12
Other churches 5.1 7.2 9.1
Multipurpose halls 5.1 7.1 8.5
cinemas 2.8 3.5 5.6
Recommended Volume-Per-Seat Values (m3) for Auditoria

Auditoriums require premium sound quality for voice and music, delivering crisp tones and clarity to
sound to every member of the seated audience.
 41

Typical variation of reverberation time with volume for auditoria considered to have a good acoustical properties.

Sight Line Layouts

For proscenium theaters, lateral sight lines (shown in plan view below) normally should be within a
preferred “view angle” of 300. View angle is measured from the perpendicular at the end of the
proscenium opening. In multi purpose auditoriums, the proscenium line may vary from full width for
ballet and symphonic orchestra (often located downstage to provide orchestra and closure of shallow
depth) to smaller widths for drama and music performance by soloists.

Plan view

Detail at Stage

Floor and balcony slopes should be designed so seated audience will have unobstructed view of entire
performing area, performers, and scenery. For example, the vertical sight lines shown below illustrate
 42

acceptable viewing conditions and preferred layout of seating in the front of auditorium where an
uninterrupted view of entire stage floor is essential for ballet. Balconies should not have excessive floor
slope (> 26°), and the top balcony should not be more than 65 ft above the stage to avoid vertigo. A
balcony view of the first few rows of main floor seating also may be desirable to achieve a sense of
congregation with audience below and the proscenium arch should not obstruct the view of bottom 7 ft
of the backstage wall.

Section View

Reflection, Diffusion, And Diffraction

 Reflection

Reflect/on is the return of a sound wave from a surface. If the surface dimension x is larger than about 2
to 4 times the wavelength (λ) of the impinging sound wave, the angle of incidence angle i will equal the
angle of reflection angle r. When an array of suspended panels is used to direct reflected sound energy
toward the audience, the individual panels should be of varying sizes to prevent creating a “rasping”
sound.
 43

 Diffusion

Diffusion is the scattering or random redistribution of a sound wave from a surface. It occurs when the
surface depths of hard-surfaced materials are com parable to the wavelengths of the sound. Diffusion
does not “break up” or absorb sound—sound is not fragile or brittle. However, the direction of the
incident sound wave is changed as it strikes a sound-diffusing material. Diffusion is an extremely
important characteristic of rooms used for musical performances. When satisfactory diffusion has been
achieved, listeners will have the sensation of sound coming from all directions at equal levels.

 Diffraction

Diffraction is the bending or “flowing” of a sound wave around an object or through an opening. For
example, a truck located behind a building can be heard because the sound waves bend around the
corners. In auditoriums, because impinging sound waves will readily diffract around panels that are
smaller than their wavelength, suspended panels must be carefully designed to be large enough (length
and width) to effectively reflect the desired wavelengths of sound.

A single frequency can be emphasized (called diffraction grating effect) when an array of small overhead
panels are of equal length and width or vertical projecting slats on walls are of equal depth and spacing.
This phenomenon must be avoided because it can impart an odd tonal distortion to music due to
cancellation effects
 44

Wavelength and Frequency For Sound In Air

Most musical instruments don't, however, radiate sound in all directions at the same sound level. The
directional characteristics of example wind instrument (trombone) and string instrument (cello) are
shown below. The shaded portion between sound rays on the illustrations indicate where the sound
level is within 3 dB of its maximum level. Note that sound from a trombone is directed primarily toward
the front at high frequencies and to the ceiling at low frequencies.

Pattern of Reflected Sound

 Concave Reflector
 45

Concave sound-reflecting surfaces (such as barrel-vaulted ceilings in churches and curved rear walls in
auditoriums) can focus sound, causing hot spots and echoes in the audience seating area. Because
concave surfaces focus sound, they also are poor distributors of sound energy and therefore should be
avoided where sound-reflecting surfaces are desired (e.g., near stage, lectern, or other source locations
in rooms).

 Flat Reflector

Flat, hard-surfaced building elements, if large enough and oriented properly, can effectively distribute
reflected sound. The reflector shown below is tilted slightly to project sound energy toward the rear of
an auditorium.

 Convex Reflector

Convex, hard-surfaced building elements, if large enough, can be most effective as sound-distributing
forms. The reflected sound energy from convex surfaces diverges, enhancing diffusion, which is highly
desirable for music listening. In addition, reflected sound from convex surfaces is more evenly
distributed across a wide range of frequencies.
 46

Ray-Diagram Graphics

an auditorium section with sound path differences calculated to front and middle- rear audience locations from a
typical source location

Sound Paths in Auditoriums

The initial-time-delay gap is the time interval between the arrival of the direct sound and the first
reflected sound of sufficient loudness. It should be less than about 30 ms (path difference < 34 ft) for
good listening conditions because sounds within this time interval can coalesce as one impression in a
listener’s brain.

Early-arriving reflected sound energy is important for clarity and definition of music. “Early” sound is
usually defined as the direct and reflected sound arriving within the first 80 ms. Clarity can be defined as
the ratio of early sound energy to late or reverberant sound energy. Auditoriums with narrow shapes
 47

support direct and early-reflected sound because the initial-time-delay gaps will be short. In the design
of auditoriums, ray diagrams can be used to determine initial-time-delay gaps. The initial-time-delay gap
also strongly influences a listener’s perception of the size of an auditorium (called intimacy).

Sound Paths from Stage in Auditorium

Sound Level vs. Time Graph for Auditorium

Ceilings

The preferred ceiling shape and height depend on the intended use of the room. For example, ray-
diagram analysis indicates that the hard, sound- reflecting flat ceiling shown below provides useful
sound reflections which cover the entire seating area in a lecture room. Useful sound reflections for
speech are those which come from the same direction as the source and are delayed by less than 30 ms.
 48

However, by carefully reorienting the ceiling, as shown by the lower illustration, the extent of useful
ceiling reflections can be increased so that the middle-rear seats actually receive reflections from both
ceiling planes.

Flat and Sloped Ceiling

For concert halls, where long reverberation is a design goal, high ceilings are preferred and all walls
should be sound-reflecting. In addition, ceilings that are diffusing can improve audibility of lateral sound
by diminishing the strength of ceiling reflections.

Side Walls

Ray-diagram analyses are useful in the horizontal plane to study sound energy reflected from the side
walls. These lateral reflections help create a favorable auditory spatial impression (or intimacy), which is
essential for the satisfactory perception of music performances. Early sound reflections from side walls
can add strength to the direct sound.

The initial-time-delay gap ITDG can be found by subtracting the direct sound path D from the reflected
sound path R. Both paths are measured to a listener seated near the centerline of the hall, halfway
between the conductor and the first balcony face (or rear wall). ITDG in milliseconds equals the path
difference (R - D) in feet times 0.9. For concert halls, ITDG should be less than 20 ms.

Wide fan shapes and semicircular floor plans usually don't provide strong, early lateral reflections
because the side walls will be located too far apart. Unless overhead sound reflectors can be used to
help overcome the absence of lateral sound reflected from walls, music will sound distant and lack
fullness of tone. The “reverse” fan shape (rooms with decreasing width to ward rear) can provide
strongest lateral reflections and spatial impression for music.
 49

Fan Shape (For lecture room)

 50

Rectangular Shape (Dashed lines indicate preferred orientations for a lecture room); Stepped Shape (Alternate
elements of side walls are parallel to provide lateral reflections toward audience for music hall)
 51

Reverse Fan Shape (Side walls at rear reflect sound toward audience for definition of music)

Samples of Famous Auditoriums

Perth Concert Hall (Western Australia.) The main auditorium of the hall seats 1,729 people, as well as a 160-
person choir gallery and a 3000-pipe organ. Acoustically, the venue is considered one of the best in Australia, with
the design overseen by the New Zealand acoustician Sir Harold Marshall.
 52

The Tokyo Opera City concert hall seats 1632, volume 15 300 m3, and reverberation time, with audience and
orchestra, 1.95 s. The hall in plan is rectangular. The ceiling is a distorted pyramid, with its peak 28 m above the
main floor and nearer the stage than the rear of the hall. As part of the design process, measurements on CAD
computer and 1:10 wooden models of the hall and full-sized materials samples were conducted over a 5-yr. period.
Due to the mixture of the building’s unconventional design and use of materials the concert hall is able to create
the sonic illusion that it is much larger than it is, without the use of electronic speakers.

The Philharmonie de Paris is a complex of concert halls in Paris, France. The buildings also house exhibition spaces
and rehearsal rooms. The main buildings are all located in the Parc de la Villette at the northeastern edge of Paris
in the 19th arrondissement. At the core of this set of spaces is the symphonic concert hall of 2,400 seats designed
by Jean Nouvel and opened in January 2015.
 53

References:

 https://www.rockwool.com/north-america/advice-and-inspiration/blog/fundamentals-of-
architectural-acoustics/
 https://www.nps.gov/subjects/sound/understandingsound.htm
 https://audiouniversityonline.com/inverse-square-law-of-sound/
 https://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/richard.baker/BasicAcoustics/4_inverse_square_l
aw.html
 https://blog.teufelaudio.com/sound-pressure-human-hearing-perceived-volume/
 http://docshare02.docshare.tips/files/15966/159663175.pdf
 https://www.audimute.com/nrc-ratings-noise-reduction-coefficient
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_reduction_coefficient
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundproofing
 https://www.snoringsource.com/sound-absorbing-materials/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverberation
 https://www.slideshare.net/RohitBhatt15/sound-absorption-and-sound-absorbers
 http://www.industrial-electronics.com/measurement-testing-com/architectual-acoustics-3-
0.html
 54

LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS
Light is the great enabler. It profoundly influences health, wellbeing, and productivity. When used
properly, designed properly, and/or installed and maintained properly, lighting will not burden our
energy infrastructure and Earth’s environment. Fundamentals of light and vision are introduced as a
foundation for appreciating design decisions and use patterns.

Lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects. Lighting
includes the use of both artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination
by capturing daylight.

Lighting” is the application of light to spaces. Where the light is placed, at what relative intensities, and
in what direction, can have a major impact not only on vision and visual comfort, but perception

Luminous Intensity, Luminous Flux, Illuminance

 Luminous intensity – this is defined as the flux of light emitted in a certain direction.
Luminous intensity is the perceived power per unit solid angle. The unit of luminous
intensity is the candela (cd).
Examples (center of beam)
 5W bicycle lamp without reflector – 2.5 cd
 5W bicycle lamp with reflector – 250 cd
 120 W incandescent reflector lamp – 10,000 cd
 Lighthouse – 2,000,000 cd

 Luminous flux – is the measure of brightness of a light source in terms of energy being
emitted. Luminous flux, in SI units, is measured in the lumen (lm). It is a measurement of
energy released in the form of visible light from a light-producing source. Luminous flux
is often a criteria of light bulb comparison.
Luminous flux is also known as luminous power.
The total perceived power emitted in all directions.
- This expresses the total quantity radiated per 1 sec by a light source.
Examples:

 75W incandescent lamp – 900 lm

 39W fluorescent lamp – 3 500 lm
 250W high pressure sodium lamp – 30 000 lm
 2000W meatl halide lamp – 200 000 lm

 Illuminance
Illuminance is the total luminous flux incident on a surface, per unit area. It is a
measure of how much the incident light illuminates the surface, wavelength-
weighted by the luminosity function to correlate with human brightness perception
 55

this is the quantity of light falling on a unit area of a surface. The unit of
illuminance is lumen/m2, or lux (lx)

Examples:

 summer, at noon, under a clear sky (equator) – 100,000 lux

 in the open under a heavily – overcast sky – 5,000 lux
 artificial light, in a well-lit office – 800 lux
 full moon, on a clear night – 0.25 lux

Definition of Terms
 ambient - relating to the immediate surroundings of something
 Ballast - a passive component used in an electric circuit to moderate changes in current
 flux - the action or process of flowing or flowing out
 glare - strong and dazzling light
 lumen - the SI unit of luminous flux, equal to the amount of light emitted per second in a
unit solid angle of one steradian from a uniform source of one candela
 luminaire - a complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the
parts designed to distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps, and to connect
the lamps to the power
 Ultraviolet light - a form of radiation which is not visible to the human eye. It's in an
invisible part of the "electromagnetic spectrum"
 wavelength - the distance between successive crests of a wave, especially points in a
sound wave or electromagnetic wave

Physics of Light
 56

A triangular prism dispersing a beam of white light. The longer wavelengths (red) and the shorter
wavelengths (blue) are separated.

Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation within the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that
can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of
400–700 nm, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter
wavelengths). This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430–750 terahertz (THz).

 Inverse square law

S represents the light source, while r represents the measured points. The lines represent the flux emanating from
the sources and fluxes. The total number of flux lines depends on the strength of the light source and is constant
with increasing distance, where a greater density of flux lines (lines per unit area) means a stronger energy field.
The density of flux lines is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source because the surface
area of a sphere increases with the square of the radius. Thus the field intensity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the source.
 57

The inverse square law describes the intensity of light at different distances from a light source. Every
light source is different, but the intensity changes in the same way. The intensity of light is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance. This means that as the distance from a light source increases,
the intensity of light is equal to a value multiplied by 1/d2,. The proportional symbol, is used to show
how these relate. The relationship between the intensity of light at different distances from the same
light source can be found by dividing one from the other.

The intensity of visible light is measured in candela units, while the intensity of other waves ( radio
waves, microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays) is measured in Watts per
meter squared (W/m2).

Proportional:

 l= light intensity (candela, W/m2)

 means “is proportional to “
 d = distance from a light source (m)
 58

Intensity at Different Distances :

 L1 = light intensity at distance 1

 L2 = light intensity at distance 2
 D1 = distance 1 from the light source (m)
 D2 = distance 2 from the light source (m)

 Quantity of light - luminous energy that is the product of mean luminous flux by time

Light Output

The most common measure of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled
with an output rating in lumens. For example, a T12 40-watt fluorescent lamp may have a rating of 3050
lumens. Similarly, a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens. As lamps and fixtures age and
become dirty, their lumen output decreases (i.e., lumen depreciation occurs). Most lamp ratings are
based on initial lumens (i.e., when the lamp is new).

Light Level

Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called illuminance. Illuminance is measured
in footcandles, which are workplane lumens per square foot. You can measure illuminance using a light
meter located on the work surface where tasks are performed. Using simple arithmetic and
manufacturers' photometric data, you can predict illuminance for a defined space. (Lux is the metric unit
for illuminance, measured in lumens per square meter. To convert footcandles to lux, multiply
footcandles by 10.76.)

Brightness

Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called brightness. This measures light "leaving" a
surface in a particular direction, and considers the illuminance on the surface and the reflectance of the
surface.

The human eye does not see illuminance; it sees luminance. Therefore, the amount of light delivered
into the space and the reflectance of the surfaces in the space affects your ability to see.

Quantity Measures

Luminous flux is commonly called light output and is measured in lumens (lm).

Illuminance is called light level and is measured in footcandles (fc).

Luminance is referred to as brightness and is measured in footlamberts (fL) or candelas/m2 (cd/m2).

 59

Light Sources: Their Characteristics and Application

There are countless sources of light, but they can all be categorized under either of the two following
categories

 Natural sources
The Sun is the major source of light for the earth. The sun is a massive ball of fire, at the
center of which nuclear fusion produces massive energy. This energy comes out as heat
and light. The light from the sun is one of the major factors behind the sustainability of
life on earth.

 Artificial sources
Apart from natural sources, light can be produced artificially too. The different light
sources produced artificially can be put under three broad categories-
 Incandescent Sources:
 Luminescent Sources
 Gas Discharge Sources:

1. Incandescent lamps. An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent

light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated until it glows. The filament is
enclosed in a glass bulb with a vacuum or inert gas to protect the filament from
oxidation. Current is supplied to the filament by terminals or wires embedded in the
glass. A bulb socket provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage
ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating
equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either alternating
current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent bulb became widely used in
household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car
headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting.
For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb consumes more power and
emits more heat than a fluorescent lamp. In buildings where air conditioning is used,
incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system. While
heat from lights will reduce the need to run a building's heating system, the latter can
usually produce the same amount of heat at lower cost than incandescent lights.
 60

Advantages:
1. Inexpensive
2. Available in many configurations and c
3. No warm-up required
4. Not temperature sensitive
5. Easily controlled

Disadvantages:

1. Inefficient (10-25 lumens/watt)

2. Short lamp life
3. Vibration sensitive
4. Over-voltage sensitive

2. Fluorescent lamps. A fluorescent lamp, or fluorescent tube, is a low-pressure mercury-

vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric
current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces short-wave ultraviolet light
that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow.

Advantages:

 Luminous efficacy. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light
much more efficiently than incandescent lamps. The typical luminous efficacy of
fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of
incandescent bulbs with comparable light output.
 Life. Typically, a fluorescent lamp will last 10 to 20 times as long as an equivalent
incandescent lamp when operated several hours at a time. Fluorescent lamp fixtures
are more costly than incandescent lamps because they require a ballast to regulate
the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher
initial cost.
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 Lower luminance. Compared with an incandescent lamp, a fluorescent tube is a

more diffuse and physically larger light source. In suitably designed lamps, light can
be more evenly distributed without point source of glare such as seen from an
undiffused incandescent filament; the lamp is large compared to the typical distance
between lamp and illuminated surfaces.
 Lower heat. Fluorescent lamps give off about one-fifth the heat of equivalent
incandescent lamps. This greatly reduces the size, cost, and energy consumption
devoted to air conditioning for office buildings that would typically have many lights
and few windows.

Disadvantages:

 Frequent switching. Frequent switching (more than every 3 hours) will shorten the
life of lamps. Each start cycle slightly erodes the electron-emitting surface of the
cathodes; when all the emission material is gone, the lamp cannot start with the
available ballast voltage.
 Mercury content. If a fluorescent lamp is broken, a very small amount of mercury
can contaminate the surrounding environment. Because they contain mercury,
many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste.
 Ultraviolet emission. Fluorescent lamps emit a small amount of ultraviolet (UV) light.
A 1993 study in the US found that ultraviolet exposure from sitting under
fluorescent lights for eight hours is equivalent to one minute of sun exposure.
Ultraviolet radiation from compact fluorescent lamps may exacerbate symptoms in
photosensitive individuals. Museum artifacts may need protection from UV light to
prevent degradation of pigments or textiles.
 Ballast. Fluorescent lamps require a ballast to stabilize the current through the
lamp, and to provide the initial striking voltage required to start the arc discharge.
Electromagnetic ballasts can produce an audible humming or buzzing noise.
 Operating temperature. Fluorescent lamps operate best around room temperature.
At lower or higher temperatures, efficacy decreases. At below-freezing
temperatures standard lamps may not start. Special lamps may be used for reliable
service outdoors in cold weather.
 Lamp shape. Fluorescent tubes are long, low-luminance sources compared with high
pressure arc lamps, incandescent lamps and LEDs.
 Dimming. Fluorescent light fixtures cannot be connected to dimmer switches
intended for incandescent lamps.

Applications:

 Fluorescent bulbs can provide high light output to light large areas and are well
suited for detailed task lighting in Industrial applications.
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 Fluorescents provide a uniform light level for office space and are also well
suited for detailed task lighting in commercial applications.

 They can also be used in residential applications as up lighting from cabinets,

beams or coves and under cabinet lighting. Fluorescents are effective lighting
for kitchens, valences, comices, and fascias.

 T8 fluorescents are the most common for commercial and industrial use
 63

 Smaller fluorescent lamps such as T5’s are used in sign and display applications
such as jewelry stores

 Ceiling fixtures tend use a circline fluorescent light which can be found in
residential applications.

3. High intensity discharge (HD) lamps

 64

High-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) are a type of electrical gas-discharge

lamp which produces light by means of an electric arc between tungsten electrodes
housed inside a translucent or transparent fused quartz or fused alumina arc tube. This
tube is filled with noble gas and often also contains suitable metal or metal salts. The
noble gas enables the arc's initial strike. Once the arc is started, it heats and evaporates
the metallic admixture. Its presence in the arc plasma greatly increases the intensity of
visible light produced by the arc for a given power input, as the metals have many
emission spectral lines in the visible part of the spectrum. High-intensity discharge
lamps are a type of arc lamp.

Brand new high-intensity discharge lamps make more visible light per unit of
electric power consumed than fluorescent and incandescent lamps, since a greater
proportion of their radiation is visible light in contrast to infrared. However, the lumen
output of HID lighting can deteriorate by up to 70% over 10,000 burning hours.

HID lamps are typically used when high levels of light over large areas are
required, and when energy efficiency and/or light intensity are desired.

Applications:

 gymnasiums, large public areas, warehouses, movie theaters, football stadiums,

outdoor activity areas, roadways, parking lots, and pathways.
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 Ultra-high performance (UHP) HID lamps are used in LCD or DLP projection TV
sets or projection displays as well.

 HID lamps have made indoor gardening practical, particularly for plants that
require high levels of direct sunlight in their natural habitat

 HID lamps have seen applications in automotive headlamps

 HID lamps have also become common on many aircraft as replacements for
traditional landing and taxi lights.

 HID lamps are used in high-performance bicycle headlamps, as well as

flashlights and other portable lights
 66

 HID lamps are also used in lamps for underwater diving.

Lighting design
Architectural lighting design is a field of work or study that is concerned with the design
of lighting systems within the built environment, both interior and exterior. It can
include manipulation and design of both daylight and electric light or both, to serve
human needs.
Lighting design is based in both science and the visual arts. The basic aim of lighting
within the built environment is to enable occupants to see clearly and without
discomfort. The objective of architectural lighting design is to balance the art and the
science of lighting to create mood, visual interest and enhance the experience of a space
or place whilst still meeting the technical and safety requirements.

 Illumination Methods

1) Downlighting is most common, with fixtures on or recessed in the

ceiling casting light downward. This tends to be the most used method,
used in both offices and homes. Although it is easy to design, it has
dramatic problems with glare and excess energy consumption due to
large number of fittings. The introduction of LED lighting has greatly
improved this by approx. 90% when compared to a halogen downlight
or spotlight. LED lamps or bulbs are now available to retro fit in place of
high energy consumption lamps.

2) Uplighting is less common, often used to bounce indirect light off the
ceiling and back down. It is commonly used in lighting applications that
require minimal glare and uniform general illuminance levels. Uplighting
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(indirect) uses a diffuse surface to reflect light in a space and can

minimize disabling glare on computer displays and other dark glossy
surfaces. It gives a more uniform presentation of the light output in
operation. However indirect lighting is completely reliant upon the
reflectance value of the surface. While indirect lighting can create a
diffused and shadow free light effect it can be regarded as an
uneconomical lighting principle.

3. Front lighting is also quite common, but tends to make the subject
look flat as its casts almost no visible shadows. Lighting from the side
is the less common, as it tends to produce glare near eye level.

4. Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent.

Backlighting is used to illuminate a background or backdrop. This
adds depth to an image or scene. Others use it to achieve a more
dramatic effect.
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 Types of Lighting Systems

Lighting is classified by intended use as general, accent, or task lighting,
depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture.

1. Task lighting is mainly functional and is usually the most

concentrated, for purposes such as reading or inspection of materials.
For example, reading poor-quality reproductions may require task
lighting levels up to 1500 lux (150 footcandles), and some inspection
tasks or surgical procedures require even higher levels.
Different strategies for task lighting exist. The three main approaches
are:
o Localized average lighting, where a lamp supplies both
ambient light and task light
o Freely adjustable task light such as a gooseneck, balanced-arm
lamp, or swing-arm light.
o Asymmetric task light, where the lamp is placed at the side of
the work area
There are also other approaches to task lighting, for example under-
shelf luminaires.
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o ILLUMINATES specific areas of space for the performance of

visual tasks or activities.
o The light sources are placed close to either above or beside
the task surface enabling available wattage to be used more
efficiently than with general lighting.
o The luminaries are normally of direct type and adjustably in
terms of brightness and in direction is always desirable.
o To minimize the risk of an unacceptable brightness ratio
between the task and surrounding tsk lighting is often
combined with general lighting. Depending on the types of
luminaries used local lighting can also contribute to the
general lamination of space.
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2. Accent lighting is mainly decorative, intended to highlight pictures,

plants, or other elements of interior design or landscaping.
Accent lighting is a form of local lighting which creates focal points or
rhythmic patterns of light and dark within a space.
Instead of serving simply to illuminate a task or activity, accent
lighting can be used to relieve the monotony of general lighting ,
emphasize a room feature or high light art objects or prized
possessions.

3. General lighting (sometimes referred to as ambient light) fills in

between the two and is intended for general illumination of an area.
- Illuminates the room in a fairly uniform, generally diffuse manner.
- The dispersed quality of the illumination can effectively reduce the
contrast between task lighting. It can also be used to soften
shadows, smooth out and expand the corners of a room and
provide a comfortable level of illumination for safe movement and
general maintenance.
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Lighting Fixtures and Their Distribution

Lighting fixtures are integral parts of a buildings electrical system, transforming energy into
usable illumination. Light fixtures require an electrical connection or power supply, a house
assembly, and a lamp.

We are not only concerned with the shape and form of the fixture but also with the form of
illumination it provides. Point source give focus to a space since the area of greatest brightness in a
space tends to attract our attention. They can be used to highlight an area or an object of interest. A
number of point sources can be arranged to describe rhythm and sequence. Small point sources,
when grouped, can provide glitter and sparkle.

o Direct lighting fixtures – project 90 to 100 percent of their light downward toward the work
area. Direct lighting tends to create shadows. This kind of light comes from the sources such
as ceiling fixtures or luminous ceiling that shed light downward, or from lamps with
translucent shades spreading light in all directions.
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o Direct-indirect light fixtures distribute light equally upward and downward. They reflect
light off the ceiling and other room surfaces. Little light is emitted horizontally meaning
direct glare is often reduced. They are usually used in “clean” manufacturing areas.

o Indirect light fixtures distribute 90 to 100 percent of the light upward. The ceiling and upper
walls must be clean and highly reflective to allow the light to reach the work area. They
provide the most even illumination of all types of fixtures and the least direct glare. Indirect
light fixtures are usually used in offices.

o Shielded light fixtures use diffusers, lenses and louvers to cover bulbs from the direct view;
therefore, helping to prevent glare and distribute light. Diffusers are translucent or semi-
transparent covers made usually of glass or plastic. They are used on the bottom or sides of
light fixtures to control brightness. Lenses are clear or transparent glass, or plastic covers.
The lens design incorporates prisms and flutes to distribute light in specific ways.
 73

Louvers are baffles that shield the bulb from view and reflect light. The baffles can be contoured to
control light and decrease brightness. Parabolic louvers are specially shaped grids that concentrate and
distribute light.
 74

Luminaire Efficiency: Coefficient of Utilization (CU)

Luminaire efficiency is the ratio of light output emitted by the luminaire to the light output emitted by
its lamps. Another way of looking at it: Luminaire efficiency is the percentage of light output produced
by the lamps that are in turn emitted by the luminaire

Luminaire efficiency is important because while you can have a very efficient lamp-ballast system, if the
luminaire itself is not efficient at delivering lumens, then the lighting system overall is not either. Factors
that affect the efficiency of the luminaire include its shape, the reflectance of its materials, how many
lamps are inside the luminaire (and how close they are to each other), and whether shielding material
such as a lens or louver is used to soften or scatter the light.

While a high level of luminaire efficiency should be valued, overemphasizing it can lead to poor lighting
quality and angry users. After all, a bare lamp offers 100 percent efficiency, but is hardly a good choice.
In reality, the most “efficient” luminaires are often candidates for direct glare, particularly unshielded
luminaires with direct distribution at lower mounting heights typically found in offices, classrooms and
similar applications. In such cases, light may exit the luminaire very efficiently, but the luminaire itself is
a “glare bomb,” and users are likely to resort to wearing baseball caps.

A coefficient of utilization (CU) is a measure of the efficiency of a luminaire in transferring luminous

energy to the working plane in a particular area. The CU is the ratio of luminous flux from a luminaire
incident upon a work plane to that emitted by the lamps within the luminaire. As a ratio, the coefficient
of utilization is unitless.

For example, some of the light emitted by a luminaire may exit away from the desired plane and is
therefore wasted. A CU measures the light actually reaching the desired plane as a percentage of the
total light produced by the fixture. The value for direct lighting varies from 0.2 to 0.5 while that of
indirect lighting varies from 0.1 to 0.3

Factors influencing coefficienrt of utilization:

o The efficiency of the luminaire

o The luminaire distribution
o The geometry of the space
o The reflectance’s of the room surface

Illumination Calculation
Calculation of Average Luminance
Generally, when we talk about of illuminance, we refer to the operating average illuminance Em,
especially in the application of the levels prescribed by the regulations in force. This value is the
average illuminance on the worktop in the environment considered, referring to an
intermediate aging state and acquired during the ordinary lighting. Instead, in the generality of
the measures, we tend to consider a series of illumination point which have no connection with
the actual average illuminance of a given environment.
 75

To measure the average illuminance, you need to detect a certain number of illuminance points.
This number must be sufficient for obtaining a mean value acceptable. You have to choose this
number in relation to the dimensions of the room, the height of the worktop and the height of
lighting fixtures.
The term illuminance, measured in lux, concerns a photometric magnitude which represents the
ratio between the luminous flux Φ on a surface and the area S of the same surface, ie, the
amount of light present on a given surface defined worktop (this surface is placed at 0.8 m
above the floor at the workplace and at 0.2 m above the floor in the transit zones) and not the
quantity of incident light on a possible observer.

In order to assess the amount of light that actually reaches the eyes you must also
consider other variables such as luminance, illuminance of the retina, the light flux, glare. This
factors also take into account both the reflective properties of the surfaces and the observer’s
position as well as the illuminance itself.

Consequently, the relationship between level of illumination and visual performance

should be considered purely indicative, because, for example, a young subject needs of 200 lx
for reading a document, whereas an elderly subject needs at least 600 lx.

Therefore, the illuminance levels, necessary to define an optimal object visualization,

cannot be defined in absolute. This is not only because the reflection coefficients of the walls
and objects can change the illuminated visual perception, but also because each individual has
different reactions to the stimulus of light.

Description of the method:

First, you need to calculate the coefficient of detection KR of the environment, using the
following formula:
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o a = length of the room in meters;

o b = width of the area in meters;
o h = distance in meters between the lighting fixtures and the plane on which you have to
measure illuminance (eg height of lighting fixtures 2.80 m, worktop at height 0.8 m, h = 2.80
to 0.8 = 2).

Once you have obtained the value of KR, you can determine the minimum number of
measurement points “n” using the following table:

‘n’ represents the number of zones needed for carrying out to measure the illuminance.
The sides of each zone are obtainable by applying the following formula:

o a = length of the room

o a1 = length of the measurement zone
o b = width of the room
o b1 = width of the measurement zone
o n = the number of measurement zones
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If a1 is higher than the double of b1, you have to proceed by trial and error increasing
the n number of measurement points, respecting the following conditions:

o a1 ≤ 2·b1;
o a1/b1 ≤ 2;
o zones with larger side ≤ 2·zones with smaller side

Once you have determined the minimum number of measurement points, you can start
to identify the points of measurement and then to the actual measurement, but not before the
sensor of the luxmeter has been exposed to the ambient lighting for at least 5 minutes.

The measures must be carried out without the contribution of other light sources and
you need to verify the value obtained with small displacements around the point of measure
chosen (15/20 cm) being careful not to position directly under any light source. If you have to
measure on a worktop such as a desk or a counter in a shop, you must to keep the measuring
sensor up for at least 3/4 cm from the surface and not placed directly on it.
Should be noted that the procedure just described, identifies the minimum number of
measurement points so that the value of average illuminance can be considered acceptable;
therefore it is advisable to increase the number of the measurement points rather than to
decrease them, especially when you are performing the measure in particularly complex
environments or with the purpose of a more reliable detection.

Calculation of Loss Factor (LLF)

 A Light Loss Factor is a multiplier that is used to predict future performance
(maintained illuminance) based on the initial properties of a lighting
system.
o LLF = 1 – Expected Depreciation
o The Total LLF is determined by multiplying the
independent effects of multiple factors.
 A factor used in calculating luminance after a given period of time and
under given conditions. It takes into account temperature and voltage
variations, dirt accumulation on luminaire and lit surfaces, lamp
depreciation, maintenance procedures and atmosphere.
 LLF allows the forecasting of system performance over a given lifetime to
meet the minimum lighting standards.
 Can help minimize liability – system has been planned and designed for
future operation, not just for the day it is installed.

There are two types of Light Loss Factor (LLF) as follows:

 Recoverable,
 Non-recoverable.
1. Recoverable LLF

This factor type will include the following sub-factors:

o Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD),

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- The lamp lumen depreciation factor is the fraction of initial

lumens at a specific time during the life of the lamp
- Lamp lumen depreciation comes from aging and dirt
accumulation on lamps, reflectors, lenses and room surfaces.
- Most lighting designs base calculations on “maintained” as
opposed to “initial” lamp lumens.

o Lamp Burnout Factor (LBO),

- If lamps are not replaced immediately after burnout, a lamp
burnout factor should be applied to any analysis of the
system.
- Unreplaced burned- out lamps will vary in quantity,
depending on the kind of lamps and the relamping program
used.
- This factor is simply the ratio of the number of lamps that
would be burning o the total number of lamps in the system.

o Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor (LDD),

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor (LDD) depends on three (3) aspects
of the situation as follows:
1. The amount and type of dirt in the environment (a clean
office environment compared to a dirty manufacturing
facility),
2. The type of luminaire used,
3. The expected cleaning cycle for the equipment.

o Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor (RSDD),

Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor (RSDD) is influenced by:
1. The amount of dirt in the environment,
2. The room cavity ratio (proportions of the room),
3. Type of lighting equipment used.

o Area of work plane (AWP)

- Is the area of the entire work plane, which is typically the
same as the floor area.
- Illuminance will be greatest near the center of the room and
slightly less toward the walls for a given uniform layout of
luminaires
-
2. Non- Recoverable LLF

This factor type will include the following sub-factors:

o Luminaire Ambient Temperature Factor,

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Variations in temperature, above those normally encountered in

interiors, have little effect on the output of incandescent and high
intensity discharge (HID) lamps, but can have a significant effect on
light output of fluorescent lamps.
o Heat Extraction Thermal Factor,
- Heat extraction factor is the fractional lumen loss or gain due
to airflow.
- Airflow has an effect on lamp temperature and lamp lumens
especially those air handling fluorescent luminaires which are
integrated with the HVAC system as a means of introducing or
removing air from the room.

o Voltage to Luminaire Factor,

- High or low voltage at the luminaire will affect the lumen
output of lamps.
- High voltage condition will increase the lumen output of
lamps over their rated output.
- Low voltage condition will reduce the lumen output.
- The rate of change of lumen output with a voltage change
varies with each light source, but has the greatest effect on
incandescent lamps.

o Ballast Factor,
- Ballast used for a specific application is usually different from
the ballast used to determine the rated lumen output for a
lamp.
- Ballast factor corrects this difference to maintain the arc
within the lamp.
- Ballast factor is the ratio of the lamp lumens generated on
commercial ballasts to those generated on the test quality
ballasts . The ballast factor for good quality fluorescent ballast
is nominally is 0.95while electronic ballasts can have ballast
factors ranging from 0.70 to 1.28.

o Ballast Lamp Photometer Factor,

- Ballast Lamp Photometer Factor adjusts the lumen output
when a different lamp ballast combination is used other than
the manufacturer’s set- up.
- Temperature effects within the luminaire may cause the lamp
to operate at less than the rated output and should be
considered in the determination of the luminaire’s

o Equipment operating Factor,

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- Ballast Lamp Photometer Factor adjusts the lumen output

when a different lamp ballast combination is used other than
the manufacturer’s set- up.
- Temperature effects within the luminaire may cause the lamp
to operate at less than the rated output and should be
considered in the determination of the luminaire’s

o Lamp Position (Tilt) Factor,

- Lumen output is sensitive to the lamp orientation especially
for high intensity discharge (HID) lamps when they are tilted
from their rated horizontal or vertical position.
- Lamp position factor adjusts the lumen output and is defined
as the ratio of luminous flux in the given operating position to
that in the test position.

o Luminaire Surface Depreciation Factor.

- Luminaire surface depreciation results from adverse changes
in metal, paint and plastic.
- components that result in permanently reduced light output.
- Luminaire surface depreciation factor adjusts light output to
original reflectance.

Assuming the following:

1- Recoverable Factors:

o Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LDD) 0.90

o Lamp Burnout Factor (LBO) 1.00
o Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor (LDD) 0.94
o Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor (RSDD) 0.96

2- Nonrecoverable Factors:

o Ballast Factor 0.93

o Other Non Recoverable Factors 1.00

Calculate lights loss factor (LLF).

Answer:

LLF Total = Recoverable Factors x Nonrecoverable Factors

LLF Total = 0.90 x 1.00 x 0.94 x 0.96 x 0.93 x 1.00

LLF Total = 0.75 Total Light Loss Factor (LLF) is 0.75, which means that 25% (100%-75%) of the luminous
flux that might otherwise reach the work plane is lost due to ballast factor, dirty luminaires, room
surfaces, and aged lamps
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Calculation of Horizontal Illuminance by Lumen

Horizontal illuminance describes the amount of light landing on a horizontal surface, such a
desk.

where, EG and α are the global horizontal illuminance in KLx and the solar altitude angle in
radian, respectively

Mean Bias Deviation (MBD)

Root Mean Square Deviation (RMSD)

where, yi is the predicted ith value, xi is the ith measured value and N is the number of values.

Coefficient of Utilization (CU) Calculation

Factors influencing coefficient of utilization:
 The efficiency of the luminaire,
 The luminaire distribution,
 The geometry of the space,
 The reflectances of the room surface.

Knowing the ceiling, walls and floor reflectances and the room cavity ratio, the
coefficient of utilization may be found from the manufacturers published data

Example:

For a room cavity ratio of 1.0 and reflectances of 30 (ceiling), 30 (wall), and 20 (floor).
determine the CU for this luminaire.
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Answer:

CU = 0.63 which means that 63% of the lumens given off by the lamps reach the work
plane and the other 37% are absorbed by the luminaire or the room surfaces and never reach
the work plane.

Lumen Flux/Zonal Cavity Method

In lighting design, the lumen method, (also called zonal cavity method), is a simplified method to
calculate the light level in a room. The method is a series of calculations that uses horizontal
illuminance criteria to establish a uniform luminaire layout in a space. In its simplest form, the
lumen method is merely the total number of lumens available in a room divided by the area of
the room. In order to perform this calculation, many factors, coefficients, lamp lumen data and
other quantities must be gathered. Despite the scientific impression of the lumen method
equations, there are inaccuracies and assumptions built into the method. Therefore, the lumen
method should not typically be used as a standalone, final solution; it should be used as a tool in
particularly uniform settings of lighting design if a simple, rough technique of illuminance
quantification is desired.

1. Divide the room into layers or cavities

2. Determine the cavity ratios by formulas

- If fixtures are surface mounted or recessed, CCR will be zero
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3. Find the effective ceiling and floor cavity reflectances (from the reference #1)
- Use the actual ceiling reflectance value for
when fixtures are surface mounted or recessed
- Use the actual floor reflectance for if the floor is the work plane

4. Select the CU from fixture manufacturer’s data

Adjust the CU if is other than 20%, using factor from reference #2

5. Determine the required total lumens (F), number of luminaires (N), and area per
luminaire (AL)
F = E·A / (CU·LLF)
N=F/Fʅ
A ʅ = L·W /
- Light loss factor LLF = LLD x LDD
Where LLD = Lamp Lumen Depreciation
LDD = Luminaire Dirt Depreciation
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The LDD factor is determined from the category of luminaire

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6. Check S:MH ratio.

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Reference #1
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Reference #2
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Point Method
The percentage of light generated within a luminaire which ultimately strikes the work
surface. It is usually expressed as a decimal percentage.

Three Factors must be considered for applying the Point by point method:

o Luminous intensity,
o Distance,
o Orientation of the surface
1. Luminous Intensity (I)

The luminous intensity (candelas) is the strength (intensity) of the light produced in a specific direction.
It’s unit is candela.
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Candlepower Distribution Curve

A curve, generally polar, represents the variation of luminous intensity of a lamp or luminaire in a plane
through the light center.

The luminous intensity (I) is determined using the photometric data for the specific luminaire used and
the angular relationship between the luminaire aiming direction and the direction from the luminaire to
the calculation point.

There are three types of Candlepower Distribution Curve as follows:

 Rotational symmetrical

Light distribution same in all planes. Usually Circular or ‘Bowl shaped’ luminaire

 Planar symmetrical
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Luminaire distribution is confined to two vertical planes separately. Typical distribution for Fluorescent Lamp
luminaires and Road Lighting

 Asymmetrical

Asymmetry present in one of the Planes of measurement.

2. Distance between a surface and the source affects the illuminance (luminous flux per unit of
area) striking that surface.

Surface of a given area that is closer to the source captures a larger portion of the flux in
the cone than a surface of the same given area that is further away.

Considering the luminous intensity as the luminous flux (lumens) leaving a source in a
cone traveling in a specific direction, as the area increases the iluminance decreases while the
luminous flux remains the same.
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Inverse Square Law states that

E = I/ d2

Where:

o E = Illuminance on the surface

o I = Luminous intensity of the source in the direction of the surface
o d = Distance from the source to the surface

3. Orientation of the Surface

Surface orientation is included in the Inverse Square Law by adding a cos θ term:

E = I/ d2 cos θ

Where:

θ is the angle between the light ray coming from the source to the point, and a line that is perpendicular
(normal) to the plane or surface on which the illuminance is being measured or calculated
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Example #1:

This example will consider the illuminance at a single point on a horizontal surface from a single
luminaire straight down, given that:

o D = 2.13 m
o θ = 15°
o LLF = 0.85
o I = 2200 candelas

Calculate the illuminance level on this point.

Answer:

o Using the equation;

o E = I/ d2 x cos θ x LLFTOTAL
o E = 2200 cd x cos 15° x 0.85 / 2.13 m2
o E = 398 lux (maintained)

This tells us that 398 lux will strike the point in question directly from the luminaire and no reflected
light is calculated. The answer is a maintained illuminance level since a light loss factor of 0.85 was
included to account for the loss of light over time due to reduced lumen output of the lamp and dirt on
the luminaire surfaces.

Point by point method calculations for different cases:

Based on the orientation of the surface, we have (5) cases in application of point to point method for
lighting design as follows:

1. Illuminance directly below the luminaire on a horizontal surface,

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2. Illuminance on horizontal surface but at angle to luminaire,

3. Illuminance on vertical surface at angle to luminaire,

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4. Illuminance on a tilted or sloped surface,

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5. Illuminance on for multiple point source calculations.

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Example 2:

This example will consider the illuminance at a single point on a horizontal surface from two luminaires
aimed straight down. An assumed LLF of 0.85 will be used and Luminaire #1 is the same in Example#1
and given that:

o D1 = 2.13m, θ1 = 15°
o D2 = 2.29m, θ2 = 25°
o β1 = 15°, I1 = 2200 cd
o β2 = 25°, I2 = 2000 cd

Calculate the illuminance level on this point.

Answer:

E1 = 398 lux (from previous calculation in example#1)

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E2 = 291 lux (same calculation method as E1)

Hence, Illumination from more than one source is added arithmetically

So, E total = E1 + E2 = 689 lux

Limits for using point by point method:

 Maximum physical dimension of the surface under design is not larger than 1/5th the mounting
height above the evaluation point.
 Does not apply to a surface of infinite length.

Lighting Application and Design Using Zonal Cavity Method (General Lighting)
General Lighting is installed electric lighting that provides a uniform level of illumination throughout an
area, exclusive of any provision for special visual tasks or decorative effect, exclusive of daylighting, and
also known as ambient lighting.

Achieving the required illuminance level does not necessarily ensure good lighting quality. The quality as
well as the quantity of illuminance is important to produce a comfortable, productive, aesthetically
pleasing lighting environment. The quality of the lighting system refers, but is not limited to, aspects of
lighting such as proper color, good uniformity, proper room surface luminances, adequate brightness
control and minimal glare.

Research has suggested that the lighting system can affect user's impressions of visual clarity,
spaciousness and pleasantness. These feelings occur in spaces that are uniformly lighted with emphasis
on higher luminances on room surfaces.

When used correctly, ambient light creates a fantastic environment to relax from an overly stressful day
or to have a warm conversation with an old friend. Ambient lighting is often referred to as mood
lighting, because this light captures the soft curves of your face and allows your pupils to dilate slightly
(a physical sign of affection). Some yoga studios have even begun using the softer ambient lighting in
their classes to help draw stress from the body.

Use the following lights to create ambient light:

 Chandeliers
 Pendants
 Recessed
 Track
 Ceiling
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References:

 https://www.slideshare.net/KetheesWaran/building-services-ii-lighting
 https://www.softschools.com/formulas/physics/inverse_square_law_formula/82/
 uperiorlighting.com/lighting-resources/light-bulb-learning-center/fluorescent-light-
bulbs/fluorescent-lamp-applications/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp#Applications
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-intensity_discharge_lamp
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting#Types
 https://www.meccanismocomplesso.org/en/determination-average-illuminance-2/
 http://www.electrical-knowhow.com/2012/12/interior-lighting-design-methods-part.html