PH8151/ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT – I

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Introduction
Elasticity
Elaticity is a branch of physics which deals with the elastic property of materials. When an
external force is applied to a body, there will be some change in its length, shape and volume.

Perfectly elastic body

When the external force is removed, if the body regain its original shape and size.

Perfectly plastic body

If the body does not regains its original shape or size, after the removal of the applied force.

Stress and Strain

Stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area which bring back the body to its original
state from the deformed state.

Type of Stress
Normal Stress
When the force is applied perpendicular to the surface of the body.

Tangentile Stess or shearing stress

When the force is applied along the surface of the body.

Strain
The change in dimension produced by the external force on the body.
Strain = Change in dimension/Original dimension

Types of Strain
i) Longitudinal or Tensile Strain
Ratio between the change in length to the original length, without any change in it shape, after
the removal of the external forces.
Longitudinal strain = l/L

ii) Shearing strain

The angular deformation produced on the body due to the application of external tangential
forces on it.

iii) Volume strain

The ratio between the change in volume to the original volume, without any change in its shape.
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Hooke’s Law
Stress is directly proportional to the strain produced, within the elastic limit.
E = Stress/Strain Nm-2

Classification of elastic modulus

There are 3 types of elastic modulus based on the 3 types of strain

i) Young‟s modulus(Y)
ii)Bulk modulus(K)
iii)Rigidity modulus(n)

Youngs modulus

The ratio between the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain, within the elastic limits.

Young‟s modulus(Y)=Longitudinal stress/Longitudinal strain Nm-2

Bulk modulus(K)
The ratio between the volume stress to the volume strain within the elastic limits

Bulk modulus(K)= Bulk stress/ Bulk strain Nm-2

RIGIDITY MODULUS (n)

Definition: It is defined the ratio between the tangential stress to the shearing strain with in the
elastic limits.

(i.e) Rigidity modulus (n)= Tangential stress / Shearing strain Nm-2 Φ

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Explanation: Let us consider a solid cube ABCDEFGH. Whose lower face CDHG is fixed as
shown in fig β.4. A tangential force „F‟ is applied over the upper face AψEF. The result is that
the cube gets deformed in to a rhombus shape A‟ψ‟ωDE‟F‟GH.(i.e) The lines joining the two
face are shifted to an angle ᶲ. If „L‟ is the original length and „l‟ is the relative displacement of
the upper face of the cube with respect to the lower fixed face, then

We can write tangential stress = F/A

The shearing strain (ᶲ) can be defined as the ratio of the relative displacement between the two
layers in the direction of stress, to the distance measured perpendicular to the layers.

We know, Rigidity modulus(n)= Tangential stress/ Shearing strain

n=F/AΦ

Rigidity Modulus(n) = F/AΦ Nm-2

POISSON’S RATIO(σ)
DEFINITION: It is defined as the ratio between the lateral strain per unit stress ( ) to the
longitudinal strain per unit stress (α) , within the elastic limits.
(i.e) Poisson‟s ratio(σ) = lateral strain/longitudinal strain
(or) σ = /α

Explanation: Let us consider a wire, fixed at one end and is stretched along the other end as
shown in fig 2.5.

Due to the force applied the wire becomes longer but it also becomes thinner (i.e) although
there is an increase in its length, there is a decrease in its diameter as shown in fig. 2.5. therefore
the wire elongates freely in the direction of tensile force and contracts laterally in the direction
perpendicular to the force. Let „L‟ be the original length and „D‟ be the original diameter of the
diameter decreases from D to d, then

Longitudinal strain =l/L

and Lateral strain = (D-d)/D

σ = -(D-d)/D/l/L

(-Ve sign indicates the decrease in length)

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(or) σ = - L (D-d)/lD

The negative sign indicates longitudinal strain and lateral strain are opposite to each other.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THREE MODULII OF ELASTICITY

There are many relations connecting the lateral strain( ) , strain (α), Poisson‟s ratio(σ) and the
three elastic moduli. Some of the relations are given below.

i. Relation between α and young‟s modulus is α=1\Y

ii. Relation between α and with the bulk modulus is (α-β )=1\3K
iii. Relation between α and with the Rigidity modulus is (α+ )=1\2n
iv. Relation between Y, n, and K is Y=9Kn\3K+n
v. Relation between n, K and σ is σ =3K-2n\6K+2n
vi. Relation between Y, n and σ is σ =Y\2n-1

ELASTIC LIMIT

When forces are applied to bodies, each and every body has a tendency to oppose the forces
and try to regain its original position after the removal of the force. When the applied force is
increased beyond the maximum value, the body does not regain its original position completely,
even after the removal of the external forces. Hence the maximum stress up to which a body can
recover its original shape and size, after removing the external forces is called as elastic limit.

STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Let us consider a body which is subjected to an uniformly increasing stress. Due to application of
the stress , the change in dimension of the body takes place(i.e.) the strain is developed . If we
plot a graph between stress and strain we get a curve as shown in fig.2.7. and is called as STRESS-
STRAIN Diagram.

i. From the fig.β.7, it is found that the body obeys Hooke‟s law up to the as region OA
called as elastic range.
ii. As soon as the maximum elastic limit (i.e) yield point „ψ‟ is crossed, the strain increases
rapidly than the stress.
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iii. Now, even f a small external force is applied , the body will take a new path CD and
remains as plastic called as plastic range, where D is called as ultimate strength.
iv. After this, the body will not come to its original state and the body acquires a permanent
residual strain and it breaks down at a point as breaking stress, indicated by dotted line
EF.

FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTICTIY

It is found that some bodies lose their elastic that even within the elastic limit, due to elastic
fatigue. Therefore the manufacture should choose the material in such a way it should regain its
elastic property even when it is subjected to large number of cycles of stresses.

For example substance like Quartz, phosphor, bronze etc., may be employed in the
manufacturing of galvanometers, electrometers etc., after knowing their elastic properties.

Apart from elastic fatigue some materials will have change in their elastic property because of
the following factors.

1. Effect of stress
2. Effect of annealing
3. Change in temperature
4. Presence of impurities
5. Due to the nature of crystals.

Effect of stress:
We know that when a material is subjected to large number of cycles of stresses. It loses its
elasticity property even within the elastic limit.

Effect of annealing:
Annealing is a process by which the material is heated to a very high temperature and then it is
slowly cooled.

Effect of temperature:
The elastic property of the materials changes with the temperature. Normally the elasticity
increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.

Effect of impurities:
The addition of impurities produces variation in the elastic property of the materials. The
increase and decrease of elasticity depends on the type of impurity added to it.

Effect of nature of crystals:

The elasticity also depends on the type of the crystals, whether it is a single crystal or poly
crystals. For a single crystal the elasticity is more and for a poly-crystal the elasticity is less.
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TWISTING COUPLE ON A WIRE

Consider a cylindrical wire of length l and radius r fixed at one end. (fig. 1.11a). It is twisted
through an angle θ by applying couple to its lower end. Now, the wire is said to be under torsion.

Due to elastic property of the wire, an internal restoring couple is set up inside the wire. It
is equal and opposite to the external twisting couple (applied). The cylinder is imagined to consist
of a large number of thin hollow coaxial cylinders.

Consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness dx (fig. 1.11b)

AB is a line parallel to PQ on the surface of this cylinder. As the cylinder is twisted, the line AB
is shifted to AC through an angle BAC = Φ

Shearing strain or Angle of shear = Φ

Angle of twist at the free end = θ

From the figure (1.11 (b))

BC = xθ = l

xθ
=
l
Sℎearing stress
Rigidity nodulus n =
Sℎearing strain

∴ Sℎearing stress = n × Sℎearing strain = n

nxθ
=
l
Sℎearing force
Sℎearing stress =
Area over wℎicℎ tℎe force acts
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Area over wℎicℎ tℎe force acts = n x + dx 2

− nx2

= n(x2 + 2xdx + dx2 − nx2

= nx2 + 2nxdx + ndx 2 − nx2

(dx2 term is neglected since it is very snall)

= 2nxdx
nxθ
Hence, Sℎeraing force F =
l
2πnθ 2
= x dx
l

∴ Moment of tℎis force about tℎe axis PQ of tℎe cylinder.

= Force × perpendicular distance

2���
= x2dx × x
�
2���
= x3dx
�

The moment of the force acting on the entire cylinder of radius r is obtained by integrating the
expression (3) between the limits x =0 and x =r.

Hence, twisting couple

2n 3
C
r
x dx
l
2n 3 2n  x4 
l 0
0

  
r r

l  4 0
x dx

Applying the limits, we

have

2n  r 4  2n r 4

l  4
 

0
4l

n r 4
C
2l

In the above eqn if θ = 1 radian, then we get.

n r 4
Twisting couple per unit twist C 
2l
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This twisting couple required to produce a twist of unit radian in the cylinder is called torsional
rigidity for material of the cylinder.

Hollow cylinder

For a hollow cylinder of the same length l and of inner radius r 1 and outer radius r2

2n 2
Twisting couple of the cylinder C  
r2

x dx
l

r 
r1

n
  r1
4 4
2
2l

r 
Twisting couple per unit twist of the cylinder

n
C  r1
4 4
2
2l

TORSIONAL STRESS AND DEFORMATIONS

The shear stress set up in the shaft when equal and opposite torques (twisting moments) are
applied to the ends of a shaft about its axis, is called torsional stress.
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Note that shear strain does not only change with the amount of twist, but also varies along the radial
direction such that it is zero at the center and increases linearly towards the outer periphery.

TORSION PENDULUM – THEORY AND EXPERIMENT

A circular metallic disc suspended using a tin wire that executes torsional oscillation is called
torsional pendulum.

It executes torsional oscillation whereas a simple pendulum executes linear oscillations.

Description

A torsional pendulum consists of a metal wire suspended vertically with the upper end
fixed. The lower end of the wire is connected to the centre of a heavy circular disc.

When the disc is rotated by applying a twist, the wire is twisted through an angle θ. Then,
the restoring couple set up in the wire

= Cθ — — — — — —(1)

Where C – couple per unit twist.

If the disc is released, it oscillates with angular velocity dθ/dt in the horizontal plane about the
axis of the wire. These oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.

If d2θ/dt2 is the angular acceleration produced in the disc and I its moment of inertia of the
disc about the axis of the wire then,

d2θ
Applied couple = I — — — — — (2)
dt 2

In equilibrium, applied couple = restoring couple

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d2θ
I = Cθ
dt2
d2θ C
= θ −−−−−−
dt2 I

This equation represents simple harmonic motion which shows that angular acceleration
2
(d θ) is proportional to angular displacement θ and is always directed towards the mean position.
dt 2

Hence, the motion of the disc being simple harmonic motion, the time period of the
oscillation is given by

T  2
Displacement
Accelerati on


 2

C
I

T  2
I
−−−−−
C

Determination of Rigidity Modulus of the wire

The rigidity modulus of the wire is determined by the following eqn

T  2
I −−−−−
C

Experiment

A circular disc id suspended by a thin wire, whose rigidity modulus is to be deterrmined.

The top end of the wire is fixed firmly in a vertical support.

The disc is then rotated about its centre through a small angle and set it free. It executes
torsional oscillations.

The time taken for 20 complete oscillations is noted. The experiment is repeated and the
mean time period (T) of oscillation is determined.

The length l of the wire is measured. This length is then changed by about 10 cm and then
experiment is repeated. The readings for five or six different lengths of wire are measured.
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The disc is removed and its mass and diameter are measured.

The time period of oscillation is

T  2
I
−−−−−
C

Squaring on both sides, we have

 I 
T  2    − − − − − −(3)
2


 
2 2 2

4 2 I
T2  − − − − − −(4)
C

n r 4
Substituting couple per unit twist C  in eqn(4)
2l
4 2 I 4 2 I
T2   
n r 4 n r 4
2l

2l
Rearranging the eqn (5)

The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire

4 2 I 4 2 I
T   2l 
n r 4 n r 4
2

2l
8 I  l 
n  
r 4 T2 

I – moment of inertia of circular disc = MR2/2

M – Mass of the circular disc

R – Radius of the disc

RIGIDITY MODULUS BY TORSION PENDULUM (DYNAMIC TORSION METHOD)

The torsion pendulum consists of a steel or brass wire with one end fixed in an adjustable
chuck and the other end to the centre of a circular disc as shown in fig.

The experiment consists of three parts.

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First the disc is set into torsional oscillations without any cylindrical masses on the disc.
The mean period of oscillation T 0 is found out.

T0  2
I0
C

Were IO – moment of inertia of the disc

4 2 I 0
T0  — — — — — (1)
2

Two equal cylindrical masses are placed symmetrically along a diameter of the disc at
equal distance d1 on the two sides of the centre of the disc.

Mean time period of oscillation T 1 is found.

Then, T1  2
I1
C
4 2 I1
T1 
2
— — — — — —(2)
C
Then, by the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia of the whole system is given by,

I1= IO + 2i + 2m d21 — — — — — —(3)

 
Subs I1 ion eqn (2)
4 2
T1  — — — — — —(4)
2 2
I 0 + 2i + 2m d1
C

Now, two cylindrical masses are placed symmetrically at equal distances d2 from the axis of the
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wire
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T2  2
I2
C
4 2 I 2
T2 
2

 
C
4 2
T2 
2 2
I 0 + 2i + 2m d 2 — — — — — —(5)
C
 I 2  I 0 + 2i + 2m d 2
2

Now,

I 2  I1  I0 + 2i + 2m d 2  I 0  2i  2m d1  2m (d 2  d1 )
2 2 2 2

 
Subtracting (4) from (5)
4 2 4 2
T2  T1  I 0 + 2i + 2m d 2  I 0  2i  2m d1  2m (d 2  d1 )
2 2 2 2 2 2

C C

4 2
T2  T1  ( I 2  I1 ) — — — — — —(6)
2 2

Dividing eqn (1) by (6) 2

 0
2
T0 I
T2  T1 I 2  I1
2 2
— — — — — — (7)

Substituting the value of ( I 2  I1 ) in this equations (7) we have


2
T0 I0
T2  T1 2m (d 2  d1 )
2 2 2 2

2m (d 2  d1 ) T0
I0 
2 2 2

T2  T1
2 2

Thus moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of rotation is calculated substituting the values
of TO, T1,T2, d1 and d2 in the above formula.

Calculation of rigidity modulus of the wire

We know that restoring couple per unit twist

n r 4
C
2l

Subs value of C in eqn (6)

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4 2
T2  T1  2m (d 2  d1 )
n r
2 2 2 2
4

2l
4 2  2l
T2  T1  2m (d 2  d1 )
n r
2 2 2 2
4

16 l m (d 2  d1 )
T2  T1 
2 2
2 2

nr 4

16 l m (d 2  d1 )
n Nm2
2 2

(T2  T1 )r 4
Or 2 2

Using the above relation the rigidity modulus of wire is determined.

STRESS DUE TO BENDING IN BEAMS

Fig shows a beam under the action of a bending moment M. In a particular segment of the beam,
bending occurs with center of curvature at O, radius of curvature R, included angle θ and neutral
surface MN.

If the longitudinal stress at a filament Aψ at distance x from the neutral surface MN‟ is σ,
then the strain in AB is given as

change in length P1Q1  PQ

Strain = 
original length PQ

( R  x)  R
Strain =
R

R  x  R x
 
R R R
x
=


But = 
stress
Y Young ' s modulus



x
Thus
Y R
Here x/R is constant for a particular cross section of the beam. Thus, the bending stress (σ) at a
particular cross section is proportional to the distance from the neutral aaxis (x).

For filaments above neutral axis (i.e). negative values of x), bending stress is compressive (i.e., σ is
negative). For filaments below neutral axis (for positive values of x) bending stress is tensile (i.e., σ is
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positive)

DEPRESION OF A CANTILEVER LOADED AT ITS END

Theory: let I be the length of the cantilever OA fixed at O. let w be the weight suspended at the
free end of the cantilever. Due to the load applied the cantilever moves to a new position OA as
shown in fig. 2.16.

Let us consider an element PQ of the beam of length dx, at a distance OP= x from the
fixed end. Let C be the centre of curvature of the element PQ and let R be the radius of curvature.

Due to the applied at the free end of the cantilever, an external couple is created between
the load W at A and the force of reaction at Q. here, the arm of the couple is (l-x).

The external bending moment = W.(l-x) ............. (1)

We know the

Internal bending moment = YI/R .............. (2)

We know under equilibrium condition

External bending moment = internal bending moment

Therefore we can write equ (1) = equ (2)

(i.e) W(l-x) = YI/R

R= YI/W (l-x) ..............(3)

Two tangents are drawn at points P and Q, which meet the vertical line AA‟ at T and S
respectively.

Let the smallest depression produce from T to S = dy

And let the angle between the two tangents = dθ

Then we can write

The angle between ωP and ωQ is also dθ (i.e) PωQ = dθ

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Therefore we can write the arc of the length PQ = R dθ = dx

Or dθ = dx/R ......................(4)

Sub, equ (3) in equ (4)

dθ = dx/[YI/W (l-x)]

or dθ = W/YI(l-x) ....................................(5)

From the QA‟S we can write sin dθ = dy/(l-x)

If dθ is vey small then we can write,

dy=(l-x)dθ ................................................. (6)

sub, equ (5) in equ(6), we have

dy =W/YI(l-x)2dθ .......................................... (7)

Therefore the depression at the free end of the cantilever can be derived by integrating the
equ (7) within the limits 0 to „l‟

Therefore y= W/YI (l-x)2 dx

= W/YI (l2+x2- 2lx) dx

= W/YI (l2+x2- 2lx2/2 + x3/3)

= W/YI (l3- l3 + l3/3)

y= W/YI( l3/3)

therefore the cantilever at free end

y= W l3/3YI ......................................................... (8)

Special cases

(i) Rectangular cross section

If „b‟ be the breadth and „d‟ is the thickness of the beam then we know

I = bd3/12

Sub, the value of Ig in equ (8), we can write

The depression produced at free end for a rectangular cross section
Y = Wl3/3Y(bd3/12)

Y = 4Wl3/Ybd3
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(ii) Circular cross section

If „r‟ is the radius of the circular cross section, then
We know, I = πr4/4

Sub, the value of Ig in equ (8), we can write

The depression produced y = Wl3/γY (πr4/4) or

y = 4Wl3/γπr4Y)

EXPRIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS BY CANTILEVER

DPRESSION

Description: it consists a beam clamped rigidly at one end on the table by the use of a G-clamp.
The weight hanger (H) is suspended at the other end of the beam, through a small groove on the
beam as shown in fig. 2.17. A pin is fixed at the free end of the beam by means of a wax. A
microscope (M) is placed in front of this arrangement for measuring the variation of height of the
pin.

Procedure: The weight hanger is kept hanged in a dead load position (W) (i.e) without any
slotted weights. The microscope is adjusted and the tip of the pin is made to coincide with the
horizontal cross wire. The reading in the vertical scale of the microscope is noted.

s.no. Load(W) Microscope reading Depression M/y

Increasing Decreasing mean (y)
load load
Unit Kg 10-2m 10-2m 10-2m Meter Kg m-1
1. W
2. W + 50
3. W + 100
4. W + 150
5. W + 200
6. W + 250

Then the weights m, 2m, 3m etc. are increased in steps to the weight hanger. Each time the
microscope is adjusted to coincide the tip of the pin to the horizontal cross wire and the readings
are noted from the vertical scale of the microscope.
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The experiment is repeated by decreasing the loads and the respective readings are noted from the
vertical scale of the microscope and are tabulated in the tabular column as shown. The mean
depression „y‟ for a load M kg is found.

Theoretically, we know the depression produced for a load of M kg is

Y= Wl3/3YI .........................................................(1)

Where „l‟ is the length of the beam (i.e) the distance between the clamped end and the
loaded end.

If „b‟ be the breadth of the beam and „d‟ is the thickness of the beam then

The geometrical moment of inertia for a rectangular cross sectional bar

I = bd3 /12 .............. (2)

Also the weight W= Mg........................................................ (3)

Sub, equ (2) and (3) in equ (1), we have

Y = 4Mgl3/Ybd3........................................... (4)

Rearranging equ(4) we get

Young‟s modulus

Y = 4Mgl3/bd3y

Or Y = 4gl3/bd3(M/y) Nm-2 .......................... (5)

UNIFORM BENDING – ELEVATION AT THE CENTR OF THE BEAM LOADED AT

BOTH ENDS

Theory:

Let us consider a beam of negligible mass, supported symmetrically on the two knife edges
A and ψ as shown in fig.β.19. let the length between A and ψ be „l‟ . let equal weights W, be
added to either end of the beam C and D.

Let the distance CA = BD = a

Due to the load applied the beam bends from position F to E into an arc of a circle and
produces as elevation „x‟ from the position F to E. let „W‟ be the reaction produced at the points A
and B which acts vertically upwards as shown in fig. 2.19.
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ωonsider a point „P‟ on the cross section of the beam. Then the forces acting on the part PC of
the beam are

(i) Forces W at „ω‟ and

(ii) Reaction W at A as shown in fig. 2.20
Let the distance PC = a1 and PA = a2, then
The external bending moment about „P‟ is
Mp = W × a 1 - W × a 2
Here, the clockwise moment is taken as negative and anticlockwise moment is taken
as positive.
External bending moment about P can be written as

Mp = W. (a1- a2)

Mp = Wa............................................ (1)

We know the internal bending moment = YI/ R................. (2)

Under the equilibrium condition

External bending moment = internal bending moment

We can write equ(1) = equ (2)

Wa = YI/R ................................................ (3)

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Since for a given load (W) Y, I g, a and R are constant. The bending is called as uniform
bending.

Here it is found that the elevation „x‟ forms an arc

of the circle of radius „R‟ as shown in fig. 2.21.

From the ∆ AFO we can write

OA2 = AF2 + FO2

Since OF = FE,

Therefore we can write

OA2 = AF2 + FE2 or AF2 = OA2 - FE2

Rearranging we can write

AF2 = FE [OA2 /FE -FE]................................... (4)

Here, AF= l/2 ; FE= x= R/2; OA = R

Therefore equ (4) can be written as

(l/2)2 = x [R2 / (R/2)-x]

(l2/4) = X [2R -x]

(l2/4) = 2Rx –x2

If the elevation „x‟ is very small, then the term x2 can be neglected.

Therefore we can write l2/4 = 2xR

Or x = l2/8R

Radius of curvature R = l2/8x............................... (5)

Sub, the value of „R‟ value in equ (γ) we have

Or W.a = YI/(l2/8x)
Or W.a = 8YIx/l2

Rearranging the equation (6),

The elevation of point „E‟ above „A‟ is
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X= Wal2/8YI
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EXPERIMENTAL DETRMINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS BY UNIFORM

BENDING
Statistical method
Description:
It consists of a beam, symmetrically supported on the two knife edges A and B. Two
weight hangers are suspended on either side of the beam at the position C and D. the distance
between AC and BD are adjusted to be equal. A pin is fixed vertically at the centre of the beam.
A travelling microscope is placed in front of the whole set up for finding the position of the pin.

Procedure:
Taking the weight hanger as the dead load (W), the microscope is adjusted and the tip of
the pin is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire. The reading is noted from the vertical
scale of the microscope.

Now the load on each hanger is increased in equal steps of m, 2m, 3m etc, kilogram and
the corresponding readings are noted from the vertical scale of the microscope. The same
procedure is repeated during unloading. The readings are noted from the vertical scale of the
microscope. The readings are tabulated in the tabular column as shown.

The mean elevation „x‟ of the centre for M kg is found. The distance between the two knife
edges is measured as „l‟ and the distance from the point of suspension of the load to the knife
edge is measured as „a‟

S.No. Load(W) Microscope reading Elevation M/x

Increasing Decreasing Mean (x)
load load
Unit Kg ×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-2m Meter Kg m-1
1. W
2. W + 50
3. W + 100
4. W + 150
5. W + 200
6. W + 250
7. W + 300
8. W + 350

NON- UNIFORM BENDING

If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression produced does not form an arc of a circle.
This type of bending is called non-uniform bending.

Consider a uniform cross sectional beam (rod or bar) AB of length l arranged

horizontally on two knife edges K1 and K2 near the ends A and B.
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A weight W is applied at the midpoint „O‟ of the beam. The reaction force at each knife
edge is equal to W/2 in the upward direction. y is the depression at the midpoint O.

The bent beam is considered to be equivalent to two inverted cantilevers, fixed at O each
length (l/2) and each loaded at K1 and K2 with a weight W/2.

In the case of a cantilever of length (l/2) and load (W/2), depression = Wl3/3Iy

Hence, for cantilever of length (l/2) and load (W/2), depression is

 W  l  W  l
     3
3 3
W l3
y         28
2 2 2 2
3IY 3IY 3IY

y
W l3
48 IY

Y
W l3
48 Iy

If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W is W = Mg

If the beam is a rectangular, I = bd3/12, where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the beam.

Hence,
Mgl3
Y=
bd3
48 y 12

Mgl3 × 12
y=
48bd3y

Mgl3
Y = Nm–2
4bd3y

The value of Y can be determined by the above equation.

Experiment

The given beam AB of rectangular cross section is arranged horizontally on two knife edges
K1 and K2 near the ends A and B.
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A weight hanger is suspended and a pin is fixed vertically at mid-point O. A microscope is

focused on the tip of the pin.

The initial reading on the vertical scale of the microscope is taken. A suitable mass M is
added to the hanger. The beam is depressed. The cross wire is adjusted to coincide with the tip of
the pin. The reading of the microscope is noted.

The depression corresponding to the mass M is found.

The experiment is repeated by increasing and decreasing the mass step by step. The
corresponding readings are tabulated. The average value of depression y is found from the
observation.

S. No. Load(W) Microscope reading Mean depression

Increasing Decreasing Mean (y) for a load of
load load M
Kg.cm
Unit Kg ×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-2m Meter
1. W
2. W + 50
3. W + 100
4. W + 150
5. W + 200
6. W + 250

The breadth b, thickness d and length l of the beam are measured. The value of Young‟s
modulus of the beam is found by the relation.

Mgl3
Y = Nm–2
4bd3y
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I SHAPE GIRDERS

Definition: The girders with upper and lower section broadened and the middle section tapered,
so that it can withstand heavy loads over its called as I shape girders. Since the girders look like
letter I as shown in fig 2.24 they are named as I shape girder

EXPLANATION: In general any girder supported at its two ends as on the opposite walls of a
room, bends under its own weight and a small depression is produced at the middle portion. This
may also be caused when loads are applied to the beams.

Due to depression produced, the upper parts of the girder above the neutral axis contracts,
while, the lower parts below the neutral axis expands. i.e the stresses have a maximum value at
the top and bottom. The stresses progressively decreases as it approaches towards the neutral
axis. Therefore the upper and lower surfaces of the girder must be stronger than the intervening
part. Thus the girders are made of I shape girders. We know the depression produced in the case of
a rectangular section.

Y= 4Wl3/Ybd3

Therefore for stability, the upper part and the lower part is made broader than the centre part and
hence forming an I shape called as I shape girders. The depression can also be reduced by properly
choosing the materials of high young modulus.

APPLICATIONS

 They are used in the construction of bridges over the rivers.

 They are very much useful in the production of iron rails which are employed in railway
tracks.
 They are used as supporting beams for the ceilings in the construction of buildings.
 They are used in the construction of iron beams to support the bridges for the heavy vehicles
and also in the construction of dams.

 More stability
ADVANTAGES

 More stronger
 High durability