DISCRETE METHEMATICS

SUB CODE: CSE-245

Prepared By:
Prof. AMIT GOEL
Asst. prof. (SUSET)
 UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION TO SET
THEORY, RELATIONS AND
FUNCTIONS
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
 Discrete Mathematics is a branch of mathematics involving
discrete elements that uses algebra and arithmetic. It is
increasingly being applied in the practical fields of mathematics
and computer science. It is a very good tool for improving
reasoning and problem-solving capabilities.

 This subject covers the fundamental concepts of Sets, Relations

and Functions, Logic and Mathematical Induction and Algebraic
Structures and Lattices and Applications and Graph Theory and
its applications.
 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS: INTRODUCTION

 Mathematics can be broadly classified into two categories −

❑ Continuous Mathematics − It is based upon continuous
number line or the real numbers. It is characterized by the fact
that between any two numbers, there are almost always an
infinite set of numbers. For example, a function in continuous
mathematics can be plotted in a smooth curve without breaks.
❑ Discrete Mathematics − It involves distinct values; i.e.
between any two points, there are a countable number of points.
For example, if we have a finite set of objects, the function can be
defined as a list of ordered pairs having these objects, and can be
presented as a complete list of those pairs.
DIFFERENCE B/W CONTINUOUS AND
DISCRETE

CONTINUOUS DISCRETE
Which can be “measured”. Which can be “counted”.
Can take any value Have specific value
Ex:Temperature Ex: Dice [1,2,3,4,5,6]
DIFFERENCE B/W CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE
Continuous Vs Discrete Data
1. The speed of a car.
2. The number of children in a neighborhood.
3. Your body weight.
4. The number of doctors is a town.
5. The number of books in a shelf.
6. The height of a student.
7. The number of students in a classroom.
8. Your age rounded to the nearest whole number.
9. Your exact age.
 Sets
 German mathematician G. Cantor introduced the concept
of sets.
Set - Definition
 A set is an unordered collection of different elements. A set
can be written explicitly by listing its elements using set
bracket. If the order of the elements is changed or any
element of a set is repeated, it does not make any changes in
the set.
Example of Sets
 A set of all positive integers
 A set of all the planets in the solar system
 A set of all the states in India
 A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet
 Representation of a Set
Sets can be represented in two ways −
 Roster or Tabular Form
 Set Builder Notation
Roster or Tabular Form
 The set is represented by listing all the elements comprising it.
The elements are enclosed within braces and separated by
commas.
Example 1 − Set of vowels in English alphabet.
 A={a,e,i,o,u}
Example 2 − Set of odd numbers less than 10.
 B={1,3,5,7,9}
 Set Builder Notation
 The set is defined by specifying a property that elements of
the set have in common. The set is described as A={x:p(x)
Example 1 − The set {a,e,i,o,u} is written as
 A={x:x is a vowel in English alphabet}
Example 2 − The set {1,3,5,7,9} is written as
 B={x:1≤x<10 and (x%2)≠0}

If an element x is a member of any set S, it is denoted

by x∈S and if an element y is not a member of set S, it is
denoted by y∉S.
 Some Important Sets
 N − the set of all natural numbers = {1,2,3,4,.....}
 Z − the set of all integers = {.....,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,.....}
 Z+ − the set of all positive integers
 Q − the set of all rational numbers
 R − the set of all real numbers
 W − the set of all whole numbers
 Cardinality of a Set
 Cardinality of a set S, denoted by|S|, is the number of elements
of the set. The number is also referred as the cardinal number. If a
set has an infinite number of elements, its cardinality is ∞.
Example − |{1,4,3,5}|=4,
|{1,2,3,4,5,…}|=∞
If there are two sets X and Y,
 |X|=|Y| denotes two sets X and Y having same cardinality. It
occurs when the number of elements in X is exactly equal to the
number of elements in Y. In this case, there exists a bijective
function ‘f’ from X to Y.
 |X|≤|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than or equal
to set Y’s cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X
is less than or equal to that of Y. Here, there exists an
injective function ‘f’ from X to Y.

 |X|<|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than set Y’s
cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X is less
than that of Y. Here, the function ‘f’ from X to Y is injective
function but not bijective.

 If |X|≤|Y|If and |X|≥|Y| then |X|=|Y|. The sets X

and Y are commonly referred as equivalent sets.
 Types of Sets
Sets can be classified into many types:
Finite Set
 A set which contains a definite number of elements is called a
finite set.
Example − S={x|x∈N and 60>x>50}

Infinite Set
 A set which contains infinite number of elements is called an
infinite set.
Example − S={x|x∈N and x>10}
Subset
 A set X is a subset of set Y (Written as X⊆Y) if every
element of X is an element of set Y.
Example 1 −
Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} andY={1,2}. Here set Y is a subset of
set X as all the elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can
writeY⊆X.
Example 2 − Let, X={1,2,3} andY={1,2,3}. Here set Y is a
subset (Not a proper subset) of set X as all the elements of
set Y is in set X. Hence, we can writeY⊆X

Proper Subset
 The term “proper subset” can be defined as “subset of but not
equal to”. A Set X is a proper subset of set Y (Written
as X⊂Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y
and |X|<|Y|.
Example − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} andY={1,2}. Here
set Y⊂X since all elements inY are contained in X too
and X has at least one element is more than setY

Universal Set
 It is a collection of all elements in a particular context or
application. All the sets in that context or application are
essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal sets are
represented as U.
Example − We may define U as the set of all animals on earth. In
this case, set of all mammals is a subset of U, set of all fishes is a
subset of U, set of all insects is a subset of U, and so on.
Empty Set or Null Set
 An empty set contains no elements. It is denoted by ∅∅. As the
number of elements in an empty set is finite, empty set is a finite
set. The cardinality of empty set or null set is zero.
Example − S={x|x∈NS={x|x∈N and 7<x<8}=∅
Singleton Set or Unit Set
 Singleton set or unit set contains only one element. A singleton
set is denoted by {s}.
Example − S={x|x∈N, 7<x<9}= {8}
Equal Set
 If two sets contain the same elements they are said to be equal.
Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={6,1,2}, they are equal as every
element of set A is an element of set B and every element of set B
is an element of set A.
Equivalent Set
 If the cardinalities of two sets are same, they are called equivalent
sets.
Example − If A={1,2,6}and B={16,17,22}, they are equivalent
as cardinality of A is equal to the cardinality of B.
i.e. |A|=|B|=3
Overlapping Set
 Two sets that have at least one common element are called
overlapping sets.
 In case of overlapping sets −
n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)
n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
n(A)=n(A−B)+n(A∩B)
n(B)=n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={6,12,42}}. There is a
common element ‘6’, hence these sets are overlapping sets.
Disjoint Set
 Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do not have
even one element in common. Therefore, disjoint sets have
the following properties −
 n(A∩B)=∅
 n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)
 Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={7,9,14}, there is not a
single common element, hence these sets are overlapping
sets.
Power Set
 Power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S including the empty set.
The cardinality of a power set of a set S of cardinality n is 2n. Power set is
denoted as P(S).
 Example −
 For a set S={a,b,c,d}let us calculate the subsets −
 Subsets with 0 elements − {∅} (the empty set)
 Subsets with 1 element − {a},{b},{c},{d}
 Subsets with 2 elements − {a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d}
 Subsets with 3 elements − {a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
 Subsets with 4 elements − {a,b,c,d}
 Hence, P(S)={{∅},{a},{b},{c},{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},
{c,d},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}
 |P(S)|=24=16|P(S)|=24=16
 Note − The power set of an empty set is also an empty set.
 |P({∅})|=20=1
 Venn Diagrams
 Venn diagram, invented in 1880 by John Venn, is a schematic
diagram that shows all possible logical relations between different
mathematical sets.
 Set Operations
 Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set
Difference, Complement of Set, and Cartesian Product.
Set Union
 The union of sets A and B (denoted by A∪B) is the set of
elements which are in A, in B, or in both A and B.
Hence, A∪B={x|x∈A OR x∈B}.
 Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15},
then A∪B={10,11,12,13,14,15}
(The common element occurs only once)
Set Intersection
 The intersection of sets A and B (denoted by A∩B) is the set of
elements which are in both A and B.
Hence, A∩B={x|x∈A AND x∈B}.
 Example − If A={11,12,13} and B={13,14,15},
then A∩B={13}.
Set Difference/ Relative Complement
 The set difference of sets A and B (denoted by A–B) is the set of
elements which are only in A but not in B.
Hence, A−B={x|x∈A AND x∉B}
Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B={13,14,15},
then (A−B)={10,11,12} and (B−A)={14,15}.
Here, we can see (A−B)≠(B−A)
Complement of a Set
 The complement of a set A (denoted by A′) is the set of elements
which are not in set A. Hence, A′={x|x∉A}.
 More specifically, A′=(U−A) where U is a universal set which
contains all objects.
Example − If A={x|x belongs to set of odd integers}
then A′={y|y does not belongs to set of oddintegers}
Cartesian Product / Cross Product
 The Cartesian product of n number of sets A1, A2,…An
denoted as A1×A2⋯×An can be defined as all possible ordered
pairs (x1, x2,… xn) where x1 ∈ A1, x2 ∈ A2,… xn ∈ An

Example − If we take two sets A={a,b} and B={1,2},

 The Cartesian product of A and B is written as
− A×B={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}
 The Cartesian product of B and A is written as
− B×A={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}
 RELATIONS
Definition:
A binary relation R from set x to y (written as xRy or R(x,y) is a
subset of the Cartesian product x×y. If the ordered pair of G is
reversed, the relation also changes.
 A binary relation R on a single set A is a subset of A×A.
 For two distinct sets, A and B, having
cardinalities m and n respectively, the maximum cardinality of a
relation R from A to B is mn.
Domain and Range
 If there are two sets A and B, and relation R have order pair (x,
y), then −
 The domain of R, Dom(R), is the set {x|(x,y)∈R for some y in
B}
 The range of R, Ran(R), is the set {y|(x,y)∈R for some x in A}
Examples
 Let, A={1,2,9} and B={1,3,7}
Case 1 − If relation R is 'equal to' then R={(1,1)}
 Dom(R) = {1}, Ran(R)={1}
Case 2 − If relation R is 'less than'
then R={(1,3),(1,7),(2,3),(2,7)
 Dom(R) = {1,2},Ran(R)={3,7}
Case 3 − If relation R is 'greater than'
then R={(2,1),(9,1),(9,3),(9,7)}
 Dom(R) = {2,9}, Ran(R)={1,3,7}
Representation of Relations using Graph
 A relation can be represented using a directed graph.
 The number of vertices in the graph is equal to the number of
elements in the set from which the relation has been defined. For
each ordered pair (x, y) in the relation R, there will be a directed
edge from the vertex ‘x’ to vertex ‘y’. If there is an ordered pair (x,
x), there will be self- loop on vertex ‘x’.
 Suppose, there is a relation R={(1,1),(1,2),(3,2) on set
S={1,2,3}, it can be represented by the following graph −
2

1 3
 Types of Relations
 The Empty Relation between sets X and Y, is the empty set ∅.
 The Full Relation between sets X and Y is the set X×Y.
 The Identity Relation on set X is the set {(x,x)|x∈X}.
 The Inverse Relation R' of a relation R is defined as -
R′={(b,a)|(a,b)∈R}.
Example − If R={(1,2),(2,3)}R={(1,2),(2,3)} then R′R′ will
be {(2,1),(3,2)}.
• A relation R on set A is called Reflexive if ∀a∈A∀a∈A is related
to a (aRa holds).
Example − The relation R={(a,a),(b,b)}R={(a,a),(b,b)} on
set X={a,b is reflexive.
 A relation R on set A is called Irreflexive if no a∈A is related to a
(aRa does not hold).
Example − The relation R={(a,b),(b,a)}R={(a,b),(b,a)} on
set X={a,b} is irreflexive.
 A relation R on set A is called Symmetric if xRy implies yRx,
∀x∈A and ∀y∈A.
Example − The relation R={(1,2),(2,1),(3,2),(2,3)} on
set A={1,2,3} is symmetric.
• A relation R on set A is called Asymmetric if (x,y) ∈ R then
(x,y) ∉ R.
Example- “Is less than” is an asymmetric, such as 7<15 but 15 is not
less than 7
 A relation R on set A is called Anti-Symmetric if xRy and yRx
implies x=y ∀x∈A and ∀y∈A if R(x, y) with x ≠ y, then R(y, x)
must not hold..
Example − The relation R={(x,y)→N|x≤y}is anti-symmetric
since x≤y and y≤x implies x=y.
 A relation R on set A is called Transitive if xRy and yRz
implies xRz,∀x,y,z∈A.
 Example − The relation R={(1,2),(2,3),(1,3)} on
set A={1,2,3} is transitive.
 A relation is an Equivalence Relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.
 Example − The relation
R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,2),(1,3),(3,1)} on
set A={1,2,3} is an equivalence relation since it is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 4),
(3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 4)}.Show that R is an Equivalence Relation.
Solution:
 Reflexive: Relation R is reflexive as (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) and (4, 4) ∈
R.
 Symmetric: Relation R is symmetric because whenever (a, b) ∈ R,
(b, a) also belongs to R.(2, 4) ∈ R ⟹ (4, 2) ∈ R.
 Transitive: Relation R is transitive because whenever (a, b) and (b, c)
belongs to R, (a, c) also belongs to R. (3, 1) ∈ R and (1, 3) ∈ R ⟹
(3, 3) ∈ R.
 So, as R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, hence, R is an
Equivalence Relation.
Note: If R1and R2 are equivalence relation then R1∩ R2 is also an
equivalence relation.
Partial Order Relations
 A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation if it
satisfies the following three properties:
 Relation R is Reflexive, i.e. aRa ∀ a∈A.
 Relation R is Antisymmetric, i.e., aRb and bRa ⟹ a = b.
 Relation R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc ⟹ aRc.
Example: (a) The relation ⊆ of a set of inclusion is a partial
ordering or any collection of sets since set inclusion has three
desired properties:
 A ⊆ A for any set A.
 If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A then B = A.
 If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C then A ⊆ C
Example: Show that the relation 'Divides' defined on N is a partial
order relation.
Solution:
 Reflexive:We have a divides a, ∀ a∈N. Therefore, relation
'Divides' is reflexive.
 Antisymmetric: Let a, b, c ∈N, such that a divides b. It implies b
divides a iff a = b. So, the relation is antisymmetric.
 Transitive: Let a, b, c ∈N, such that a divides b and b divides c.
 Then a divides c. Hence the relation is transitive. Thus, the relation
being reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, the relation 'divides'
is a partial order relation.
 FUNCTIONS

 Definition: A function or mapping (Defined as f:X→Y) is a

relationship from elements of one set X to elements of another
set Y (X and Y are non-empty sets). X is called Domain and Y is
called Codomain of function ‘f’.
 Function ‘f’ is a relation on X and Y such that for each x∈X, there
exists a unique y∈Y such that (x,y)∈R. ‘x’ is called pre-image and
‘y’ is called image of function f.
 A function can be one to one or many to one but not one to
many.
 Injective / One-to-one function:
 A function f : X →Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the
images of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for
every x1, x2,.. ∈ X, there exists distinct y1, y2,.. ∈Y, such that
f(x1) = y1, and f(x2) = y2...
• In an injective function, every element of a given set is related to
a distinct element of another set.
Example
 f:N→N,f(x)=5x is injective.
 f:N→N,f(x)= x2 is injective.
 f:R→R,f(x)= x2 is not injective as (-x)2 = x2

 Surjective/Onto function:
 A function 'f' from set A to set B is called a surjective function if for
each b ∈ B there exists at least one a ∈ A such that f(a) = b.
 A function f : X →Y is defined to be ∀a ∈ A there exists at least one b
∈ B such that f(b) = a.
Example
 f:N→N,f(x)=x+2 is surjective.
 f:R→R,f(x)= x2 is not surjective since we cannot find a real number
whose square is negative.
 Example: The function f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers to
the set of non-negative even numbers is a surjective function.
 BUT f(x) = 2x from the set of natural numbers to the set of natural
numbers is not surjective, because, for example, no member in can
be mapped to 3 by this function.
 None of the elements are left out in the onto function because they are
all mapped from some element of set A.
 Bijective / One-to-one Correspondent
 A function f:A→B is bijective or one-to-one correspondent if and
only if f is both injective and surjective.
Problem
 Prove that a function f:R→R defined by f(x)=2x–3 is a bijective
function.
 Explanation − We have to prove this function is both injective and
surjective.
 If f(x1)=f(x2), then 2x1–3=2x2–3 and it implies that x1=x2.
Hence, f is injective.
 Here, 2x–3=y
So, x=(y+5)/3 which belongs to R and f(x)=y.
Hence, f is surjective.
 Since f is both surjective and injective, we can say f is bijective.
 Inverse of a Function
 The inverse of a one-to-one corresponding function f:A→B, is
the function g:B→A, holding the following property −
f(x)=y⇔g(y)=x.
 The inverse of a function f(x) is represented as f-1(x)
 The function f is called invertible, if its inverse function g exists.
Example
 A Function f:Z→Z, f(x)=x+5, is invertible since it has the inverse
function g:Z→Z, g(x)=x−5.
 A Function f:Z→Z, f(x)= x2 is not invertible since this is not one-
to-one as (−x)2 = x2.
 Let there be a function f(x) = 2x+3, the inverse of this function
be (y-3)/2.
Let x=4 then f(x)=(2*4)+3=11 now f-1(11)=(11-3)/2=4.
 Composition of Functions
 Two functions f:A→B and g:B→C can be composed to give a
composition gof. This is a function from A to C defined
by (gof)(x)=g(f(x))
Example
 Let f(x)=x+2 and g(x)=2x+1, find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x).
Solution
 (fog)(x)=f(g(x))=f(2x+1)=2x+1+2=2x+3
 (gof)(x)=g(f(x))=g(x+2)=2(x+2)+1=2x+5
 Hence, (fog)(x)≠(gof)(x)
Some Facts about Composition
 If f and g are one-to-one then the function (gof)is also one-to-one.
 If f and g are onto then the function (gof)is also onto.
 Consider the function f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b)} and g = {(a, 5),
(b, 7)} as in figure. Find the composition of gof.

 Solution: The composition function gof is shown in fig:

 (gof) (1) = g [f (1)] = g (a) = 5, (gof) (2) = g [f (2)] = g (a) = 5

(gof) (3) = g [f (3)] = g (b) = 7.
Example2: Consider f, g and h, all functions on the integers, by f
(n) =n2, g (n) = n + 1 and h (n) = n - 1.
 Determine (i) hofog (ii) gofoh (iii) fogoh.
Solution:
 (i) hofog (n) = n + 1, hofog (n + 1) = (n+1)2 h [(n+1)2 ] =
(n+1)2 - 1 = n2 + 1 + 2n - 1 = n2 + 2n.
 (ii) gofoh (n) = n - 1, gof (n - 1) = (n-1)2 g [(n-1)2 ] = (n-1)2 + 1
= n2 + 1 - 2n + 1 = n2 - 2n + 2.
 (iii) fogoh (n) = n - 1 fog (n - 1) = (n - 1) + 1 f (n) = n2.
 Operations on Functions
 If f(x) and g(x) are two functions, then for all x in the
domain of both functions the sum, difference, product
and quotient are defined as follows.
 Recursively Defined Functions
We can define functions recursively: in terms of the
same function of a smaller variable. In this way, a
recursive function "builds" on itself.

A recursive definition has two parts:

Definition of the smallest argument (usually f (0) or

f (1)).

Definition of f (n), given f (n - 1), f (n - 2), etc.

 Here is an example of a recursively defined
function:

 We can calculate the values of this function

f (0) = 5
f (1) = f (0) + 2 = 5 + 2 = 7
f (2) = f (1) + 2 = 7 + 2 = 9
f (3) = f (2) + 2 = 9 + 2 = 11
The Fibonacci Numbers:
One special recursively defined function, which has no
simple explicit definition, yields the Fibonacci numbers:

f (1) = 1
f (2) = 1
f (3) = 1 + 1 = 2
f (4) = 1 + 2 = 3
f (5) = 2 + 3 = 5
f (6) = 3 + 5 = 8
f (7) = 5 + 8 = 13
f (8) = 8 + 13 = 21
f (9) = 13 + 21 = 34
 Mathematical Induction
 Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is
used to prove a statement, a formula or a theorem is true for
every natural number.
 The technique involves two steps to prove a statement, as stated
below −
 Step 1(Base step) − It proves that a statement is true for the
initial value.
 Step 2(Inductive step) − It proves that if the statement is true
for the nth iteration (or number n), then it is also true
for (n+1)th iteration ( or number n+1).
How to Do It?
 Step 1 − Consider an initial value for which the statement is true.
It is to be shown that the statement is true for n = initial value.
 Step 2 − Assume the statement is true for any value of n = k.
Then prove the statement is true for n = k+1.

Problem: Prove using mathematical induction that for all n≥1,

 1+3+5+...+(2n−1)= n2
Solution
 Step 1 − For n=1,1= 12 = 1, Hence, step 1 is satisfied.
 Step 2 − Let us assume the statement is true for n=k.
 Hence, 1+3+5+⋯+(2k−1)= k2 is true (It is an assumption)
 Now put n=k+1
 We have to prove that 1+3+5+...+(2(k+1)−1)= (k+1)2 also
holds
 1+3+5+⋯+(2(k+1)−1)
 =1+3+5+⋯+(2k+2−1)
 =1+3+5+⋯+(2k+1)
 =1+3+5+⋯+(2k−1)+(2k+1)
 = k2 +(2k+1)
 = (k+1)2
 So, 1+3+5+⋯+(2(k+1)−1)= (k+1)2 hold which satisfies the
step 2.
 Hence, 1+3+5+⋯+(2n−1)= n2 is proved.
Problem: Prove using mathematical induction
3n-1 is a multiple of 2 for n = 1, 2, …
Solution:
 Step 1 − For n=1, 31−1=3−1=2 which is a multiple of 2
 Step 2 − Let us assume 3n−1 is true for n=k, Hence, 3k−1 is true
(It is an assumption)
• We have to prove that 3k +1−1 is also a multiple of 2
3k +1 −1=3× 3k −1=(2× 3k )+(3k −1)
• The first part (2× 3k) is certain to be a multiple of 2 and the
second part (3k −1) is also true as our previous assumption.
 Hence, 3k +1−1 is a multiple of 2.
 So, it is proved that 3n-1 is a multiple of 2.
 More Questions for Practice
Q1. Prove using mathematical induction that for all n ≥ 1,
1+2+3+……n = n(n+1)/2

Q2. Prove using mathematical induction that for all n ≥ 1,

1+4+7+...+(3n-2) = n (3n -1)/2

Q3. Prove using mathematical induction that for all n ≥ 1,

12 +22 +32 + 42 +…..+ n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

Q4. Prove using mathematical induction that for all n ≥ 1,

21 +22 +23 + 24 +…..+ 2n = 2n+1 -2
THANK YOU!!!