BUSINESS

MATHEMATICS

UNIT 1 :SET THEORY

(definition of a set , representation of elements
of sets, methods of representing sets, types of
sets,operations on sets , cardinality of a set,
principle of inclusion and exclusion, venn
diagram, proof by using venn diagram)
DEFINITION OF A SET:
➢ A set is a collection of objects which are called the members or
elements of that set. A set can be defined by describing the
contents, or by listing the elements of the set, enclosed in curly
brackets.

➢ Some Example of Sets :

• A set of all positive integers

• A set of all the planets in the solar system
• A set of all the states in India
• A set of all the lowercase letters of the alphabet

➢ Notation

There is a fairly simple notation for sets. We simply list each

element (or "member") separated by a comma, and then put
some curly brackets around the whole thing:

The curly brackets { } are sometimes called "set brackets" or

"braces"..
If A is a set and a is an element of it, we write a ∈ A. The fact that
a is not an element of A is written as a ∉ A. For instance,
if A is the set {1, 4, 9, 2}, then 1 ∈ A, 4 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A and 9 ∈ A. But 7
∉ A, π ∉ A, the English word ‘four’ is not in A, etc.
Representation of a Set
Sets can be represented in two ways -

• Roster or Tabular Form

• Set Builder Notation

Roster or Tabular Form:

The set is represented by listing all the elements comprising it. The
elements are enclosed within brackets and separated by commas.

Examples: 1 − Set of vowels in English alphabet, A={a,e,i,o,u}

2 − Set of odd numbers less than 10, B={1,3,5,7,9}

Set Builder Notation:

The set is defined by specifying a property that elements of the set

have in common. The set is described as A={x:p(x)}

The general form is, A = { x : property }

Example − The set A = {a,e,i,o,u}

is written as − A={x:x is a vowel in English alphabet}

QUES. Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}

Sol: the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

➢ The IMPORTANT notations are :

1. N := {1, 2, . . .}, the set of Natural numbers;
2. W := {0, 1, 2, . . .}, the set of whole numbers
3. Z := {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . .}, the set of Integers;
 𝑝
4. Q := { 𝑞 : p, q ∈ Z, q ≠0}, the set of Rational numbers;
5. R := the set of Real numbers; and
6. Z+ − the set of all positive integers
CARDINALITY OF A SET
Cardinality of a set S, denoted by |S|, is the number of elements
of the set. The number is also referred as the cardinal number. If
a set has an infinite number of elements, its cardinality is ∞.

Example − |{1,4,3,5}|=4

- |{1,2,3,4,5,…}|=∞

If there are two sets X and Y,

⚫ |X|=|Y| denotes two sets X and Y having same cardinality. It

occurs when the number of elements in X is exactly equal to
the number of elements in Y. In this case, there exists a
bijective function ‘f’ from X to Y.
⚫ |X|≤|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than or equal to
set Y’s cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X is
less than or equal to that of Y. Here, there exists an injective
function ‘f’ from X to Y.
⚫ |X|<|Y| denotes that set X’s cardinality is less than set Y’s
cardinality. It occurs when number of elements in X is less than
that of Y. Here, the function ‘f’ from X to Y is injective function
but not bijective.
⚫ If |X|≤|Y| and |X|≥|Y| then |X|=|Y|. The sets X and Y are
commonly referred as equivalent sets.
TYPES OF SETS
Sets can be classified into many types. Some of which are finite,
infinite, subset, universal, proper, singleton set, etc.

1. Finite Set- A set which contains a definite number of elements

is called a finite set.

Example − S={x|x∈N and 70>x>50}

2. Infinite Set- A set which contains infinite number of elements is

called an infinite set.

Example − S={x|x∈N and x>10}

3. Subset - A set X is a subset of set Y

(Written as X⊆Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y.

Example 1 − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}.

Here set Y is a subset of set X as all the elements of set Y is in

set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.

Example 2 − Let, X={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3}.

Here set Y is a subset (Not a proper subset) of set X as all the

elements of set Y is in set X. Hence, we can write Y⊆X.

4. Proper Subset -The term “proper subset” can be defined as

“subset of but not equal to”. A Set X is a proper subset of set Y
(Written as X⊂Y) if every element of X is an element of set Y
and |X|<|Y| .

Example − Let, X={1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y={1,2}.

Here set Y⊂X since all elements in Y are contained in X too and X
has at least one element is more than set Y.

5. Universal Set - It is a collection of all elements in a particular

context or application. All the sets in that context or application
are essentially subsets of this universal set. Universal sets are
represented as U.
Example − We may define U as the set of all animals on earth. In
this case, set of all mammals is a subset of U, set of all fishes is a
subset of U, set of all insects is a subset of U, and so on.

6. Empty Set or Null Set - An empty set contains no elements. It

is denoted by ∅. As the number of elements in an empty set is
finite, empty set is a finite set. The cardinality of empty set or
null set is zero.

Example − S={x|x∈N and 7<x<8}= ∅

7. Singleton Set or Unit Set -Singleton set or unit set contains

only one element. A singleton set is denoted by {s}.

Example − S={x|x∈N, 7<x<9} = {8}

8. Equal Set - If two sets contain the same elements they are
said to be equal.

Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={6,1,2}, they are equal as every

element of set A is an element of set B and every element of set B
is an element of set A.

9. Equivalent Set- If the cardinalities of two sets are same, they

are called equivalent sets.

Example − If A={1,2,6} and B={16,17,22}, they are equivalent as

cardinality of A is equal to the cardinality of B. i.e. |A|=|B|=3

10. Overlapping Set - Two sets that have at least one common
element are called overlapping sets.

In case of overlapping sets −

⚫ n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)−n(A∩B)
⚫ n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)
⚫ n(A)=n(A−B)+n(A∩B)
⚫ n(B)=n(B−A)+n(A∩B)

Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={6,12,42}.There is a common

element ‘6’, hence these sets are overlapping sets.
11. Disjoint Set - Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they
do not have even one element in common. Therefore, disjoint
sets have the following properties −

⚫ n(A∩B)=∅
⚫ n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B)

Example − Let, A={1,2,6} and B={7,9,14}, there is not a single

common element, hence these sets are disjoint sets.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following are sets? Justify your answer.

(a) The collection of all the days in a week beginning with the letter
‘T’.

(b) The collection of all difficult questions in the chapter on sets.

(c) The collection of girls in your class.

(d) The collection of all rivers in India.

(e) The collection of all active teachers in the school.

(f) The collection of all integers more than -3.

(g) The collection of all beautiful flowers in the park.

ANSWER 1. (a), (c), (d) and (f) are sets.

Since they are well-defined collection of distinct objects.

2. If,
A = {3, 5, 7, 9}

B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

C = {12, 14, 18, 20, 24}

D = {21, 26, 31, 36}

(a) State whether true or false.

(i) 13 ∈ C

(ii) 6 ∉ A

(iii) 9 ∉ A

(iv) 24 ∈ C

(v) 31 ∈ D

(vi) 36 ∉ D

(vii) 20 ∉ C

(viii) 9 ∈ A

ANSWER 2. (a)

(i) False

(ii) True

(iii) False

(iv) True

(v) True

(vi) False

(vii) False
(viii) True

(b) Fill in the blanks.

(i) 3 ∈ ___

(ii) 4 ___ B

(iii) 26 ___ C

(iv) 8 ∈ ___

(v) 5 ___ A

(vi) 6 ___ C

(vii) 21 ___ D

(viii) 18 ___ B

ANSWER 2 (b)

(i) A

(ii) Є

(iii) ∉

(iv) B

(v) Є

(vi) ∉

(vii) Є

(viii) ∉
3. Write the following sets in the roster form.

(a) A = The set of all even numbers less than 12

(b) B = The set of all prime numbers greater than 1 but less than
29

(c) C = The set of integers lying between -2 and 2

(d) D = The set of letters in the word LOYAL

(e) E = The set of vowels in the word CHOICE

(f) F = The set of all factors of 36

(g) G = {x : x ∈ N, 5 < x < 12}

(h) H = {x : x is a multiple of 3 and x < 21}

(i) I = {x : x is perfect cube 27 < x < 216}

(j) J = {x : x = 5n - 3,n ∈ W, and n < 3}

(k) M = {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40}

(l) N = {x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}

(m) P = {x : x is an integer and x + 1 = 1}

(n) Q = {x : x is a color in the rainbow}

ANSWER 3.

(a) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

(b) {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23}

(c) {-1, 0, 2}
(d) {L, O, Y, A}

(e) {O, I, E}

(f) {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36}

(g) {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}

(h) {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}

(i) {64, 125}

(j) {-3, 2, 7}

(k) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

(l) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

(m) {O}

(n) {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet}

4. Write each of the following in set builder form.

(a) A = {5, 10, 15, 20}

(b) B = {l, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

(c) C = {P, R, I, N, C, A, L}

(d) D = {0}

(e) E = { }

(f) F = {0, 1, 2, 3, ......, 19}

(g) G = {—8, —6, —4, —2}

(h) H = {Jan, June, July}

(i) I = {a, e, i, 0, u}

(j) J = {a, b, c, d, …..., z}

(k) K = {1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6}

(l) L = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

ANSWER 4.

(a) {x : x is a multiple of 5 and 5 ≤ x ≤ 20}

(b) {x : x is a factor of 18}

(c) {x : x is a letter of the word ‘Principal’}

(d) {x : x ∊ W and x < 1}

(e) {x : x ∊ N and x < 1)

(f) {x : x ∊ W and 0 ≤ x ≤ 19}

(g) {x : x = -2n and n ∊ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

(h) {x : x is a month of the year beginning with J}

(i) {x : x is a vowel of the English alphabet}

(j) {x : x is a letter of the English alphabet}

(k) {x : x = 1/x, n ∊ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 6}

(l) {x : x is odd, x ≤ 9}

5. Write the cardinal number for each of the following.

(a) X = The set of months in a year

(b) Y = The set of letters in the word INTELLIGENT

(c) Z = The set of prime numbers from 2 to 11

(d) P = {x : x is an even prime number}

(e) Q = {x : x is a quadrilateral having 5 sides}

(f) R = {x : x ∈ I, -5 < x < 2}

(g) S = {x | x ∈ W, x + 2 < 9}

(h) T = {x | x is a prime number which is a divisor of 60}

(i) V = {x : x is a 2-digit number such that the sum of digits is 6}

(j) W = The set of hours in a day

ANSWER 5.

(a) 12

(b) 6

(c) 5

(d) 1

(e) 0

(f) 6

(g) 7

(h) 3

(i) 6

(j) 24

6. Classify the following as finite and infinite sets.

(a) A = {x : x ∈ N and x is even}

(b) B = {x : x ∈ N and x is composite}

(c) C = {x : x ∈ N and 3x -2 = 0}

(d) D = {x : x ∈ N and x2 = 9}

(e) E = {The set of numbers which are multiples of 3}

(f) G = {The set of letters in the English alphabet}

(g) H = {The set of persons living in a house}

(h) I = {x | x ∈ I, x < -2}

(i) J = {x | x ∈ P, p is a prime number}

(I) K = The set of fractions with numerator 3.

ANSWER 6.

(a) infinite

(b) infinite

(c) finite

(d) finite

(e) infinite

(f) finite

(g) finite
(h) finite

(i) infinite

(j) infinite

(k) infinite
7. Identify the following as null set or singleton set.

(a) A = {x | x ∈ N, 1 < x < 2}

(b) P = {Point of intersection of two lines}

(c) C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}

(d) Q = {x | x is an even prime number}

(e) E = {x : x2 = 9, x is even}

(f) R = {The set of whole numbers lying between 0 and 2}

(g) B = {0}

(h) D = {The set of largest 1 digit number}

(i) F = {The set of triangles having 4 sides}

(j) H = {The set of even numbers not divisible by 2}

ANSWER 7.

(a) null

(b) singleton

(c) null

(d) singleton

(e) null

(f) singleton

(g) singleton
(h) singleton

(i) null

(j) null

8. From the sets given below, select the equal sets.

A = {3, 5, 9, 13}

B = {2, 3, 4, 5}

C = {5, 9, 13, 15}

D = {4, 2, 5, 3}

E = {-2, 2}

F = {o, b}

G = {2, -2}

H = {1, 2}

ANSWER 8. B = D and E = G

9. Are two sets A and B equal? Give reasons to support your

answer.

(a) A = {x : x is a letter in the word SEAT}

B = {x : x is a letter in the word TASTE}

(b) A = {2, 6, 10, 14}

B = {6, 2, 14, 16}

(c) A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

B = {x : x is a positive odd integer x ≤ 9}

(d) A = {0}

B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5}

ANSWER 9.

Equal sets (a), (c) Elements same

10. Which of the following pairs of sets are equivalent or

equal?

(a) A = {x : x ∈ N, x ≤ 6}

B = {x : x ∈ W, 1 ≤ x ≤ 6}

(b) P = {The set of letters in the word ‘plane’}

Q = {The set of letters in the word ‘plain’}

(c) X = {The set of colors in the rainbow)

Y = {The set of days in a week}

(d) M = {4, 8, 12, 16}

N = {8, 12, 4, 16}

(e) A = {x | x ∈ N, x ≤ 5}

B = {x | x ∈ I, 5 < x ≤ 10}

ANSWER 10.
Equal sets (a), (d)

Equivalent sets (b), (c), (e)

11. Find which of the following sets are disjoint or

overlapping.

(a) A = {The set of boys in the school}

B = {The set of girls in the school}

(b) P = {The set of letters in the English alphabet}

Q = {The set of vowels in the English alphabet}

(c) X = {x : x is an odd number, x < 9}

Y = {x : x is an even number, x < 10}

(d) M = {x : x is a factor of 24}

N = {x : x is a multiple of 3, less than 30}

(e) E = {9, 99, 999}

F = {1, 10, 100}

(f) G = {The set of letters in the word TAME}

H = {The set of letters in the word MATE}

ANSWER 11.

Disjoint sets (a), (c), (e)

Overlapping sets (b), (d), (f)

12. State whether the following are true or false.

(a) The set of letters in the word MASTER is finite.

(b) The set of vowels in the word PLANET is an empty set.

(c) {0} represents a null set.

(d) Equivalent sets are always equal.

(e) An empty set is a finite set.

(f) 10 ∉ set of multiples of 5.

(g) 4 ∈ {x : 4 ≤ x ≤ 10}

(h) If two sets are equal, they are also equivalent.

(i) If P = {x : x = 2n, n ∈ N}

Q = {x : x 2n + 1, n ∈ N}

then P and Q are disjoint sets

ANSWER 12.

(a) True

(b) True

(c) False

(d) False

(e) False

(f) True

(g) False

(h) True
(i) True

(j) True

OPERATIONS ON SETS
In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or
more sets combine to form a single set under some of the given
conditions. The basic operations on sets are:

• Union of sets
• Intersection of sets
• A complement of a set
• Cartesian product of sets.
• Set difference

1.Union of Sets - If set A and set B are two sets, then A union
B is the set that contains all the elements of set A and set B. It is
denoted as A ∪ B.

Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:

A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

2. Intersection of Sets- If set A and set B are two sets, then A

intersection B is the set that contains only the common elements
between set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:

A ∩ B = { } or Ø

Since A and B do not have any elements in common, so their

intersection will give null set.

3. Complement of Sets - The complement of any set, say P, is

the set of all elements in the universal set that are not in set P. It is
denoted by P’.

Properties of Complement sets

1. P ∪ P′ = U
2. P ∩ P′ = Φ
3. Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P
4. Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U
and U′ = Φ.

4. Cartesian Product of sets -If set A and set B are two sets
then the cartesian product of set A and set B is a set of all ordered
pairs (a,b), such that a is an element of A and b is an element of B.
It is denoted by A × B.

We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;

A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}

5.Difference of Sets- If set A and set B are two sets, then set A
difference set B is a set which has elements of A but no elements
of B. It is denoted as A – B.

Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}

A – B = {1}
SETS FORMULAS :
Some of the most important set formulas are:

For any three sets A, B and C

n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B) – n ( A ∩ B)
If A ∩ B = ø, then n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B)
n( A – B) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(A)
n( B – A) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(B)
n( A – B) + n ( A ∩ B) + n( B – A) = n ( A ∪ B )
n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n ( A ∩ B) – n ( B ∩ C) – n ( C ∩ A)
+ n ( A ∩ B ∩ C)

Practice Questions
Question 1: If ∪ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}, then which of the
following are subsets of U.
B = {2, 4}
A = {0}
C = {1, 9, 5, 13}
D = {5, 11, 1}
E = {13, 7, 9, 11, 5, 3, 1}
F = {2, 3, 4, 5}

Answer: Here, we can see that C, D and E have the

terms which are there in ∪. Therefore, C, D and E are the
subsets of ∪.
Question 2: Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A)
= 20, n(B) = 28 and n(A ∪ B) = 36, find n(A ∩ B).

Solution: Using the formula n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A

∩ B).
then n(A ∩B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪B)
= 20 + 28 - 36
= 48 - 36
= 12

Question 3: In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks

and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes at least one
of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?

Solution: Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks B =

Set of people who like hot drinks Given,
(A ∪B) = 60 n(A) = 27 n(B) = 42 then;
n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)
= 27 + 42 - 60
= 69 - 60 = 9
=9
Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.
Question 4: In a competition, a school awarded medals in
different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12 medals in
dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went
to a total of 45 persons and only 4 persons got medals in
all the three categories, how many received medals in
exactly two of these categories?

Solution: Let A = set of persons who got medals in

dance.
B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.
C = set of persons who got medals in music.
Given,
n(A) = 36
n(B) = 12
n(C) = 18
n(A ∪ B ∪C) = 45
n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4
We know that number of elements belonging to exactly
two of the three sets A, B, C
= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3 × 4 ……..(i)
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) -
n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩C)
Therefore, n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) +
n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C)
From (i) required number
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C) - 12
= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 - 45 - 12
= 70 - 57= 13
Question 5: In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can
speak English and 43 can speak French. How many can
speak English only? How many can speak French only
and how many can speak both English and French?

Solution: Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B be the set of people who speak French.
A - B be the set of people who speak English and not
French.
B - A be the set of people who speak French and not
English.
A ∩ B be the set of people who speak both French and
English.
Given,
n(A) = 72
n(B) = 43
n(A ∪ B) = 100
Now, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)
= 72 + 43 - 100
= 115 - 100
= 15
Therefore, Number of persons who speak both French
and English = 15
n(A) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B) ⇒
n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)
= 72 - 15
= 57
and n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B)
= 43 - 15
= 28
Therefore, Number of people speaking English only = 57
Number of people speaking French only = 28

Question 6. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor

of 18} and B = {x : x is a natural number and less than 6}.
Find A ∪ B.

Solution:

A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 18}

Question 7. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 3,

5, 7}

Verify (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

Solution:

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

L.H.S. = (A ∪ B) ∪ C

A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ……………….. (1)

R.H.S. = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} ……………….. (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2), we conclude that;

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) [verified]

Question 8. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {2, 3, 5} and Z = {4, 5, 6}.

(i) Verify X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X

(ii) Verify (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z)

Solution:

(i) X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X

L.H.S = X ∪ Y

= {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 3, 4} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

R.H.S. = Y ∪ X

= {2, 3, 5} U {1, 2, 3, 4} = {2, 3, 5, 1, 4}

Therefore, X ∪ Y = Y ∪ X [verified]

(ii) (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z)

L.H.S. = (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z
X ∪ Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} U {2, 3, 5}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Now (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} {4, 5, 6}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

R.H.S. = X U (Y ∪ Z)

Y ∪ Z = {2, 3, 5} ∪ {4, 5, 6}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

X ∪ (Y ∪ Z) = {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Therefore, (X ∪ Y) ∪ Z = X ∪ (Y ∪ Z) [verified]

Question 9. Let A = {x : x is a natural number and a factor of

18}

B = {x : x is a natural number and less than 6}

Find A ∪ B and A ∩ B.

Solution:

A = {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Therefore, A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3}
Question 10. If P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20} and Q =
{even natural numbers upto 15}. Find the intersection of the
two given set P and set Q.

Solution:

P = {multiples of 3 between 1 and 20}

So, P = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}

Q = {even natural numbers upto 15}

So, Q = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

Therefore, intersection of P and Q is the largest set containing only

those elements which are common to both the given sets P and
Q

Hence, P ∩ Q = {6, 12}.

Question 11. Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1,

3, 5, 7}

Verify (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Solution:

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

L.H.S. = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
A ∩ B = {2, 4}

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = {∅} ……………….. (1)

R.H.S. = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

B ∩ C = {∅}

A ∩ {B ∩ C} = {∅} ……………….. (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2), we conclude that;

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) [verified]

Question 12.. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) =
20, n(B) = 28 and n(A ∪ B) = 36, find n(A ∩ B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B).

then n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 20 + 28 - 36

= 48 - 36

= 12

Question 13. If n(A - B) = 18, n(A ∪ B) = 70 and n(A ∩ B) = 25,

then find n(B).
Solution:

Using the formula n(A∪B) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

70 = 18 + 25 + n(B - A)

70 = 43 + n(B - A)

n(B - A) = 70 - 43

n(B - A) = 27

Now n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

= 25 + 27

= 52

Question 14. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and

42 like hot drinks and each person likes at least one of the
two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?

Solution:

Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks.

B = Set of people who like hot drinks.

Given

(A ∪ B) = 60 n(A) = 27 n(B) = 42 then;

n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 27 + 42 - 60

= 69 - 60 = 9
 =9

Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.

Question 15. There are 35 students in art class and 57

students in dance class. Find the number of students who are
either in art class or in dance class.

• When two classes meet at different hours and 12 students

are enrolled in both activities.

• When two classes meet at the same hour.

Solution:

n(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, n(A ∩ B) = 12

(Let A be the set of students in art class.

B be the set of students in dance class.)

(i) When 2 classes meet at different hours n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) -

n(A ∩ B)

= 35 + 57 - 12

= 92 - 12

= 80

(ii) When two classes meet at the same hour, A∩B = ∅ n (A ∪ B) =

n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= n(A) + n(B)

= 35 + 57
 = 92

Question 16. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak

English and 43 can speak French. How many can speak
English only? How many can speak French only and how
many can speak both English and French?

Solution:

Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B be the set of people who speak French.

A - B be the set of people who speak English and not French.

B - A be the set of people who speak French and not English.

A ∩ B be the set of people who speak both French and English.

Given,

n(A) = 72 n(B) = 43 n(A ∪ B) = 100

Now, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 72 + 43 - 100

= 115 - 100

= 15

Therefore, Number of persons who speak both French and English

= 15

n(A) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B)

⇒ n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)

= 72 - 15

= 57

and n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= 43 - 15

= 28

Therefore, Number of people speaking English only = 57

Number of people speaking French only = 28

Question 17. In a competition, a school awarded medals in

different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12 medals in
dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went to a
total of 45 persons and only 4 persons got medals in all the
three categories, how many received medals in exactly two of
these categories?

Solution:

Let A = set of persons who got medals in dance.

B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.

C = set of persons who got medals in music.

Given,

n(A) = 36 n(B) = 12 n(C) = 18

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 45 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We know that number of elements belonging to exactly two of the

three sets A, B, C

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3 × 4 ……..(i)

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ C)

+ n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) +

n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C)

From (i) required number

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C) - 12

= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 - 45 - 12

= 70 - 57

= 13

Question 18.. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one

indoor game chess, carrom and scrabble. 18 play chess, 20
play scrabble and 27 play carrom. 7 play chess and scrabble,
12 play scrabble and carrom and 4 play chess, carrom and
scrabble. Find the number of students who play (i) chess and
carrom. (ii) chess, carrom but not scrabble.
Solution:

Let A be the set of students who play chess

B be the set of students who play scrabble

C be the set of students who play carrom

Therefore, We are given n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 40,

n(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 n(C) = 27,

n(A ∩ B) = 7, n(C ∩ B) = 12 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We have

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(C ∩ A)

+ n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 - 7 - 12 - n(C ∩ A) + 4

40 = 69 – 19 - n(C ∩ A)

40 = 50 - n(C ∩ A) n(C ∩ A) = 50 - 40

n(C ∩ A) = 10

Therefore, Number of students who play chess and carrom are 10.

Also, number of students who play chess, carrom and not scrabble.

= n(C ∩ A) - n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= 10 – 4

=6
 VENN DIAGRAMS
Venn diagram, invented in 1880 by John Venn, is a schematic
diagram that shows all possible logical relations between different
mathematical sets.

Examples

SET OPERATIONS
Set Operations include Set Union, Set Intersection, Set Difference,
Complement of Set, and Cartesian Product.

⚫ Set Union -The union of sets A and B (denoted by A∪B) is

the set of elements which are in A, in B, or in both A and B.
Hence, A∪B={x|x∈A OR x∈B}.

Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B = {13,14,15}, then

A∪B={10,11,12,13,14,15}. (The common element occurs only
once)
2. Set Intersection -The intersection of sets A and B (denoted
by A∩B) is the set of elements which are in both A and B. Hence,
A∩B={x|x∈A AND x∈B}.

Example − If A={11,12,13} and B={13,14,15},

then A∩B={13}.

3.Set Difference/ Relative Complement -The set difference

of sets A and B (denoted by A–B) is the set of elements which are
only in A but not in B. Hence, A−B={x|x∈A AND x∉B}.

Example − If A={10,11,12,13} and B={13,14,15},

then (A−B)={10,11,12} and (B−A)={14,15}.

Here, we can see (A−B)≠(B−A)

4.Complement of a Set -The complement of a set A
(denoted by A′) is the set of elements which are not in set A.
Hence,A′={x|x ∉A}.

More specifically, A′=(U−A)

where U is a universal set which contains all objects.

Example − If A={x|x belongs to set of odd integers}

then A′={y|y does not belong to set of odd integers}

5.Cartesian Product / Cross Product -The Cartesian product of n

number of sets A1, A2,…An denoted as A1×A2⋯×An can be
defined as all possible ordered pairs (x1,x2,…xn) where
x1∈A1,x2∈A2,…xn∈An

Example − If we take two sets A={a,b} and B={1,2},

The Cartesian product of A and B is written as −
A×B={(a,1),(a,2),(b,1),(b,2)}

The Cartesian product of B and A is written as −

B×A={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}

⚫ Power Set

Power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S including the

empty set. The cardinality of a power set of a set S of cardinality n
is 2n. Power set is denoted as P(S)

Example −For a set S={a,b,c,d} let us calculate the subsets −

⚫ Subsets with 0 elements − {ø} (the empty set)

⚫ Subsets with 1 element − {a},{b},{c},{d}
⚫ Subsets with 2 elements − {a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d}
⚫ Subsets with 3 elements − {a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d}
⚫ Subsets with 4 elements − {a,b,c,d}

Hence,
P(S)={{ø},{a},{b},{c},{d},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{b,c},{b,d},{c,d},{a,b,c},{a,b,
d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}

|P(S)|=24=16

Note − The power set of an empty set is also an empty set.

|P({ø})|=20=1

⚫ Partitioning of a Set- Partition of a set, say S, is a collection of

n disjoint subsets, say P1,P2,…Pn that satisfies the following
three conditions −

◆ Pi does not contain the empty set.

[Pi ≠ {ø} for all 0<i≤n]

◆ The union of the subsets must equal the entire original set.

[P1∪P2∪⋯∪Pn=S]

◆ The intersection of any two distinct sets is empty.

 [Pa∩Pb={ø}, for a≠b where n≥a,b≥0].

Example- Let S={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}

One probable partitioning is {a},{b,c,d},{e,f,g,h}

Another probable partitioning is {a,b},{c,d},{e,f,g,h}

⚫ Bell Numbers -Bell numbers give the count of the number of

ways to partition a set. They are denoted by Bn where n is the
cardinality of the set.

Example − Let S={1,2,3} , n=|S|=3

The alternate partitions are −

1. ø,{1,2,3}

2. {1},{2,3}

3. {1,2},{3}

4. {1,3},{2}

5. {1},{2},{3}

Hence B3=5

PRACTCE QUESTIONS:
Question 1: In a class of 100 students, 35 like science
and 45 like math. 10 like both. How many like either of
them and how many like neither?

Solution:
Total number of students, n(µ) = 100

Number of science students, n(S) = 35

Number of math students, n(M) = 45

Number of students who like both, n(M∩S) = 10

Number of students who like either of them,

n(MᴜS) = n(M) + n(S) – n(M∩S)

→ 45+35-10 = 70

Number of students who like neither = n(µ) – n(MᴜS) =

100 – 70 = 30

The easiest way to solve problems on sets is by drawing

Venn diagrams, as shown below.

Question 2: There are 30 students in a class. Among

them, 8 students are learning both English and French. A
total of 18 students are learning English. If every student
is learning at least one language, how many students are
learning French in total?

Solution:

The Venn diagram for this problem looks like this.

Every student is learning at least one language. Hence

there is no one who fall in the category ‘neither’.

So in this case, n(EᴜF) = n(µ).

It is mentioned in the problem that a total of 18 are

learning English. This DOES NOT mean that 18 are
learning ONLY English. Only when the word ‘only’ is
mentioned in the problem should we consider it so.
Now, 18 are learning English and 8 are learning both. This
means that 18 – 8 = 10 are learning ONLY English.

n(µ) = 30, n(E) = 10

n(EᴜF) = n(E) + n(F) – n(E∩F)

30 = 18+ n(F) – 8

n(F) = 20

Therefore, total number of students learning French = 20.

Note: The question was only about the total number of

students learning French and not about those learning
ONLY French, which would have been a different answer,
12.

Finally, the Venn diagram looks like this.

Question 3: Among a group of students, 50 played cricket,

50 played hockey and 40 played volley ball. 15 played
both cricket and hockey, 20 played both hockey and volley
ball, 15 played cricket and volley ball and 10 played all
three. If every student played at least one game, find the
number of students and how many played only cricket,
only hockey and only volley ball?

Solution:

n(C) = 50, n(H) = 50, n(V) = 40

n(C∩H) = 15

n(H∩V) = 20

n(C∩V) = 15

n(C∩H∩V) = 10

No. of students who played at least one game

n(CᴜHᴜV) = n(C) + n(H) + n(V) – n(C∩H) – n(H∩V) –

n(C∩V) + n(C∩H∩V)

= 50 + 50 + 40 – 15 – 20 – 15 + 10

Total number of students = 100.

Let a denote the number of people who played cricket and

volleyball only.
Let b denote the number of people who played cricket and
hockey only.
Let c denote the number of people who played hockey
and volleyball only.
Let d denote the number of people who played all three
games.

Accordingly, d = n (CnHnV) = 10

Now, n(CnV) = a + d = 15
n(CnH) = b + d = 15

n(HnV) = c + d = 20

Therefore, a = 15 – 10 = 5 [cricket and volleyball only]

b = 15 – 10 = 5 [cricket and hockey only]

c = 20 – 10 = 10 [hockey and volleyball only]

No. of students who played only cricket = n(C) – [a + b + d]

= 50 – (5 + 5 + 10) = 30

No. of students who played only hockey = n(H) – [b + c +

d] = 50 – ( 5 + 10 + 10) = 25

No. of students who played only volley ball = n(V) – [a + c

+ d] = 40 – (10 + 5 + 10) = 15

Alternatively, we can solve it faster with the help of a Venn

diagram.

The Venn diagram for the given information looks like this.
Subtracting the values in the intersections from the
individual values gives us the number of students who
played only one game.

Question 4:In a group, there were 115 people whose

proofs of identity were being verified. Some had
passport, some had voter id and some had both. If 65
had passport and 30 had both, how many had voter id
only and not passport?

Solution:

Let us draw the Venn diagram for the given information.

n(PᴜV) = n(P) + n(V) – n(P∩V)

115 = 65+n(V) – 30

n(V) = 80

People with only voter id = 80-30 = 50

Question 5 :Among a group of people, 40% liked red,

30% liked blue and 30% liked green. 7% liked both red
and green, 5% liked both red and blue, 10% liked both
green and blue. If 86% of them liked at least one
colour, what percentage of people liked all three?

Solution:

n(RᴜBᴜG) = n(R) + n(B) + n(G) – n(R∩B) – n(B∩G) –

n(R∩G) + n(R∩G∩B)

86 = 40+30+30-5-10-7+ n(R∩G∩B)

Solving this gives 8.

PROPERTIES OF SETS
Commutative Property :

• A∪B = B∪A
• A∩B = B∩A

Associative Property :

• A ∪ ( B ∪ C) = ( A ∪ B) ∪ C
• A ∩ ( B ∩ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C

Distributive Property :

• A ∪ ( B ∩ C) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
• A ∩ ( B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C)

De morgan’s Law :

• Law of union : ( A ∪ B )’ = A’ ∩ B’
• Law of intersection : ( A ∩ B )’ = A’ ∪ B’

Complement Law :

• A ∪ A’ = A’ ∪ A =U
• A ∩ A’ = ∅

Idempotent Law And Law of a null and universal set :

For any finite set A

• A∪A=A
• A∩A=A
• ∅’ = U
• ∅ = U’
 PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION AND
EXCLUSION (PIE)
In the field of Combinatorics, it is a counting method used
to compute the cardinality of the union set. According to
basic Inclusion-Exclusion principle:

⚫ Two Sets - In the case of objects being separated into

two (possibly disjoint) sets, the principle of inclusion
and exclusion states

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣

where ∣S∣ denotes the cardinality, or number of elements,

of set S in set notation.

For 2 finite sets and , which are subsets of

Universal set, then
and

are disjoint sets.

 Hence it can be said that,

⚫ Three Sets and More - If there are three sets, the

principle of inclusion and exclusion states

∣A∪B∪C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩B∣−∣A∩C∣−∣B∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C I
Principle :
Inclusion-Exclusion principle says that for any number of
finite sets , Union of the sets is given by
= Sum of sizes of all single sets – Sum of all 2-set
intersections + Sum of all the 3-set intersections – Sum of
all 4-set intersections .. + Sum of all the i-set
intersections.

In general it can be said that,

Example 1:
As shown in the diagram, 3 finite sets A, B and C with
their corresponding values are given.
Compute .

Solution : The values of the corresponding regions, as

can be noted from the diagram are –

By applying Inclusion-Exclusion principle,

Properties :

1. Computes the total number of elements that satisfy at

least one of several properties.
2. It prevents the problem of double counting.

Applications :
⚫ Derangement:
A derangement is a permutation of objects that leaves
no object in the original position.

Example: The permutation of 21453 is a derangement

of 12345because no number is left in its original
position. But 21543is not a derangement of 12345,
because 4 is in its original position.

To determine the number of derangements( or

permutations) of n objects such that no object is in its
original position (like Hat-check problem).
As an example we can consider the derangements of the
number in the following cases:
For i = 1, the total number of derangements is 0.
For i = 2, the total number of derangements is 1. This
is .
For i = 3, the total number of derangements is 2. These
are and 3 1 2.

Theorem : The number of derangements of

a set with n elements is :
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Dn = n! [𝟏 − + 𝟐! − +. . . . . . . . +( −𝟏𝒏 ) ]
𝟏! 𝟑! 𝒏!
The Hatcheck Problem:
A new employee checks the hats of n people at
restaurant, forgetting to put claim check numbers on
the hats. When customers return for their hats, the
checker gives them back hats chosen at random
from the remaining hats. What is the probability that
no one receives the correct hat.
Solution: The answer is the number of ways the
hats can be arranged so that there is no hat in its
original position divided by n!, the number of
permutations of n hats.

Remark: It can be shown that the probability of a

derangement approaches 1/e as n grows without
bound.