1

The role of social media in the development or encouragement of

poor social interaction, FOMO, perceived emotional support in
young adult women.

Review of Literature Chapter

Submitted by:
Sulipi Biswas

Under the supervision of:

Dr. Ridhima Shukla
Assistant Professor,
CHRIST (Deemed to be University, Delhi- NCR)

Submitted to:

CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Delhi NCR

Nandgram Rd, Mariam Nagar, Sewa Nagar
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201003
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The internet has become a basic human necessity in recent years, since it has met a variety of

human needs. The primary goal of utilising the internet is to communicate, work, and participate

in community activities. According to the Indonesian Internet Service Providers Association's

(2017) infographics on Penetration and the Relationship of Indonesian Internet Users, 54.68

percent of Indonesia's entire population, or 143.26 million people, utilise the internet. This

indicates an increase in cyberspace activity, as they spend 79 percent of their daily time online.

The most common theory used to understand why people engage with social media is uses and

gratifications theory. This theory was first proposed by Elihu Katz and his partners Jay Blumler

and Michael Gurevitch in 1973 and was used to study the motives people have for engaging with

the media that they do in order to gratify their needs (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973).

Uses and gratifications theory is a psychological communication perspective and theorizes that

individuals are actively engaged in seeking out media that they believe will satisfy certain needs

(Katz et al., 1973; Rubin, 2009).

People choose which media to use to meet their requirements, yet those needs are not always

met. Although significantly linked, continuing usage of a medium over time suggests that the

gratifications received strongly promote ongoing use of that same medium in order to get the

gratifications desired. (Levy & Windahl, 1984; Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rayburn, 1980). Blumler

and Katz (1974) synthesized Uses & Gratification theory by explaining that is was focused on

social and psychological needs that create certain expectations of mass media which lead to

particular patterns of media exposure and result in need gratification as well as other

consequences, although these other consequences are perhaps unintended. Blumler et al. (1974)

further explained that there were five main components to Uses & Gratifications theory:
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● The audience is believed to be active

● The linking of gratification and media choice lies with the consumer

● The media compete with other sources of gratification

● The goals of mass media are derived from the content created by the consumers

● Value judgments of mass media should be suspended while consumer orientations

are explored

While the uses and gratifications theory was originally developed to investigate the benefits of

watching television and listening to the radio, it has since been adapted to the study of social

media and its various elements, including gratifications from Facebook use (Park, Kee, &

Valenzuela, 2009; Quan-Haase & Young, 2010), online privacy regulations (Quinn, 2016),

Chinese social media apps (Gan, 2018), and social capital (Petersen & Petersen).

Benefits of Social Media

With so many people using social media on a daily basis, there is mounting evidence that social

media provides a diverse experience for each user, with some of those encounters yielding good

outcomes. These advantages may explain why social media usage continues to rise throughout

the world. One of the most popular reasons people use social media is to connect with others.

Online profiles often reflect a version of offline life that they represent. In these online profiles,

social media users show certain elements of themselves that they want others to see. In other

words, users control their profile preferences to build an online identity (Pempek et al., 2009). In

addition to helping establish identities online, the use of social media also provides satisfaction

in certain emotional, cognitive, social and habitual areas of users' lives (Wang et al., 2012). In
 4

general, however, only some of these areas are fully satisfied, resulting in an accumulation of

non-hierarchical needs leading to increased use of social networks and contributing to user

dependency or less excessive use of social media, unless these needs are only met in offline

situations.

Desired social media gratification often results in behaviors that lead to that satisfaction. Hayes,

Carr and Wohn (2016) have explored what it means to 'like' a Facebook post (or 'favor' on

Twitter, etc.) both for the original poster and for the person who "liked" the post. . The results of

the study indicate that people enjoy "likes' ' on Facebook because they are more responsive than

aware. Twitter favorites don't matter because it's more about content than social capital. Likes on

Instagram are more selective. Support on Reddit helped make the post more trustworthy and

accepted by other redditors. OeldorfHirsch and Sundar (2016) explored what motivates people to

share photos online.

These results indicate that photo sharing is motivated by a social need and that platforms offer

special payments to trigger behavior (OeldorfHirsch & Sundar, 2016).

Interactions on social media are often referred to as social capital bridges and ties (Ellison,

Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Putnam, 2000). Since it is related to social media, social capital is a

relationship established online that can enrich virtual interactions. Bridge social capital consists

of several elements, including: making connections with people who think differently from "me";

connections are usually weak and fragile, but allow more connections that cannot open doors;

and they are more likely to promote social relationships. Social capital is comparable, but the

main difference lies in: connecting with like-minded people; stronger connections, generally held

in a smaller circle of contacts; due to strong intra-group loyalty, which leads to social exclusion;

suitable for the past; and it can be. When a user engages with others on social media they
 5

incorporate both bridging and bonding techniques in order to maximize the benefits of their

social media usage in the form of social capital. Considering these levels of privacy, it is

interesting to see how these privacy behaviors affect the way users engage with others on social

media as well as how those online behaviors impact the relationships that are formed both on

social media and in the physical world.

Interpersonal Relationships in a Digital Age

Interpersonal relationships are relationships that take place between two or more people and can

include both online (thanks to the Internet) and offline interactions. Rather, this study is

interested in understanding how individuals use the Internet, in particular social media, and to

to what extent it affects their offline interpersonal relationships. As the proclivity of cell phone

use increases, the likelihood of phubbing occurring more frequently will also increase leading to

a more permanent change in the way we interact with each other. In a study seeking to

understand the role of technology in changing family relationships, Hertlein (2012) found that

the rules of interaction with online peers had several negative effects on daily life such as

compromising the function of offline relationships, detracting from job performance, and

increasing the potential for Internet addictions.

Family System Theory, Uses and Gratification Theory, and Technological Determinism were

used to guide this research. Bowen's Family System Theory holds that people cannot be

understood in isolation from one another, but rather as part of their family, because the family is

an emotional unit, according to Kerr (2000). Families are complex systems of interrelated and

interdependent individuals, none of whom can be comprehended in isolation. It emphasises the

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significance of family members in maintaining control over one another, such as while using

Facebook. Furthermore, this study discovered that the amount of friends a college student has on

social media platforms may have an impact on their self-esteem. It was discovered that the

majority of college students had between 300 and 600 friends on their accounts, with the number

of friends growing by the day. Social networking sites have ushered in a new era of

communication, but they have also had an impact on people's self-perception.

In his paper, Ruggiero (2000) quoted Blumers and Katz, who argued that the media cannot affect

an individual if they are not interested in utilising it or the messages in the media, according to

the Uses and Gratification Theory. It also underlines the desire of family members to meet their

requirements through the usage of Facebook. Those who are less exposed to Facebook, on the

other hand, are more inclined to spend more time with their family. Loneliness, despair, and

anxiety are some of the side effects of technology on teenagers, which stem from their excessive

use of the internet to get emotional support, meet new people, and connect with people near and

distant (Selfhout et al., 2009).Macluhan's concept of Technological Determination was cited by

Adler (2008). (TD). Simply expressed, it is the belief that technology has a significant impact on

our lives. This concept is prevalent in popular culture and political discourse, as seen by the

notion that the Internet is transforming the economy and society. As a result, Facebook

empowers people to affect positive or harmful societal change.

Sponsil (Sponsil, M., and Gitimu, P. 2013) conducted research into the impact of social media

on college students' communication and self-concept. In their research, they discovered that 50%

of students feel social networking websites have a beneficial impact on their self-esteem,
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whereas 50% believe neither favourably nor negatively. Face-to-face communication is preferred

by students over social media platforms. They also discovered that social media has influenced

the behaviour of pupils. The amount of lurking behaviour is rising by the day. Students would

rather look at other people's lifestyles, even if they don't know them, and chat to them than go

out and make new acquaintances. This might imply that other users' opinions will have an impact

on pupils' self-perception.

Gilani et al. conducted a study to determine the impact of social media sites on changing the

mindset of teenagers. Social networking platforms have both beneficial and bad effects on young

people, according to one study. To begin with, social media is heavily used by youth. The study

discovered that youth's good usage of social media can affect their socio-political awareness and

help them improve abilities like online communication and language fluency. This study also

discovered that students' study and learning habits are affected by their excessive usage of social

media in educational computer laboratories.The majority of pupils are unable to concentrate on

their studies throughout class. They are prone to disregarding the lecturer's actions and

tutorials.They often use the internet to communicate, remark, and even share videos on social

networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. This has had an impact on their

educational behaviour. Negative and immoral pictures, videos, or links on social media sites also

have an impact on the lives of young people. They begin to distribute meaningless information or

pictures that harm the country's foreign relations and national dignity.

According to Al-Sharqi et al., their study looked at the differences and similarities in perceptions

of social media's influence on social behaviour among Arts and Science students. The goal of

this study is to learn about students' perspectives on the benefits and drawbacks of social media.
 8

This study found that using social media allows students to learn about diverse thinking patterns,

interact with others and groups, relieve boredom, and increase their capacity to be open-minded.

Furthermore, social media has an effect on the behaviour of each group of students due to two

unusual variables. Students in science are interested in respecting other people's opinions, but

students in the arts value freedom of speech.This influence on social behaviour is significant

since it provides several benefits to pupils. Furthermore, social media has a harmful influence on

kids. The most widespread fear is that kids would become physically inactive as a result of their

use of social media. After that, social media has an impact on pupils, exposing harmful ideas and

causing inefficiency and distraction from regular activities. Because they waste so much time on

social networking sites, students become less friendly and cognitively dull.

Chris conducted research on how social media influences the study habits of undergraduate

students. Many students spent significant time on social media, particularly Facebook and

WhatsApp, even during lecture hours, according to this survey. This study found that while

social media is beneficial to students' study habits during the day, its addiction throughout the

night hours has a detrimental impact on their revision time. These studies also revealed that

students, particularly at night, were unable to exert self-control over the interference of social

media with their revision. Social media had affected the students’ revision habits which made

them prefer to engage in social media during night time rather than doing revision.

The impacts of social media at universities can alter students' and lecturers' performance,

decision-making, communication, engagement, trust, and leadership, according to Romero et al.

The study discovered that university students utilise social media for public relations, branding,

and advertising. Users of social networking sites made better use of social media technologies in
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terms of information and utility. Despite the fact that transparency has been pushed, the

relationship discovered is medium to low. Students' interactions and communication with

instructors and staff are influenced by social media. The interaction between students and

professors has evolved as a result of the usage of technology.

Kerkhof, Finkenauer, and Muusses (2011) called this phenomenon a “syntopia” explaining that

the physical/social situations and history of a person influenced what they did and learned online

which spilled over into their offline experiences. Conversely, Jenkins-Guarnieri, Wright, and

Hudiburgh (2012) found that those with lower levels of perceived competency at initiating

offline relationships was related to increased use of Facebook. Additionally, heavy social media

users have decreased interpersonal competency at initiating offline relationships meaning that the

more a person uses social media Park, Kim, and Park, (2016) revealed that a person who had

developed a dependency to their cell phone experienced decreased attention and increased

depression which led to a negative impact on their social relationships with their friends.

Additional research revealed that overuse of social networking sites significantly affects the lives

of adolescents with negative consequences on their personal, psycho-social well-being (Marino,

Vieno, Pastore, Albery, Frings, & Spada, 2016).

Finally, Seo, Park, Kim, and Park, (2016) claimed that the more problematic mobile phone

addiction becomes, the more people will experience decreased self-esteem and emotional well-

being. From the aforementioned research, it is clear that our use of social networking sites

influences our offline relationships and vice-versa. Hence,

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H1a: Increased time spent on social media will lead to decreased overall quality of the users’

interpersonal relationships.

H1b: High frequency of accessing social media will lead to decreased overall quality of the

users’ interpersonal relationships.

Fear of Missing out

Fear of missing out (FOMO) is a mental state where people may miss opportunities or social

occasions. This mentality requires them to keep in touch with others and keep abreast of the

latest developments of their friends (Beyens et al., 2016; Elhai et al., 2016). The fact that these

people had to constantly stay in touch with their colleagues resulted in smartphone usage

problems. One side effect of excessive smartphone use is decreased emotional self-control which

is determined by two processes: decreased cognitive reassessment (inability to assess mental or

emotional state in a different way) and increased emotional inhibition (regular suppression of

emotions leads to a build-up of pressure and stress) both of which lead to an inability to regulate

emotions properly (Elhai et al., 2016). Elhai et. al (2016) argued: Excessive use of smartphones

does not fully explain depression or anxiety; on the contrary, other intervention variables may

influence. Specifically, less behavioral activation and (only for depression) more emotional

suppression seems to explain this relationship. Problematic smartphone use can interfere with

other enjoyable activities and disrupt social activities, reducing behavioral activation and

subsequently increasing depression. Emotional suppression may be linked to problem use, which

disrupts adaptive processing of emotions, which in turn is linked to more severe depression.
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Fear of missing out (FoMO) is characterized as the fear of being detached, absent, or missing out

on an experience that others (i.e., peers, friends, and family) may get or enjoy (Pollard,2012;

Przybylski, Murayama, DeHaan, & Gladwell, 2013). When people have FoMO, they are more

inclined to seek out and acknowledge the actions of others in a persistent and desirable manner

(Pollard, 2012; Przybylski et al., 2013). According to experts, those who have FoMO are more

vulnerable to be consumed by psychological desires to be linked, related, and intimate with

others (Beyens, Frison, & Eggermont, 2016; Deci & Ryan,1985). Furthermore, those with low

emotional well-being and life satisfaction are more prone to have FoMO (Cohen, 2013;

Przybylski et al., 2013). FoMO has been associated to a variety of undesirable outcomes in

recent research. High levels of alcohol, for example, might cause psychological and

physiological problems (Riordan, Flett, Hunter, Scarf, and Conner (2015)), as well as

melancholy and other emotional issues (Baker, Krieger, & LeRoy, 2016; Elhai et al., 2016;

Baker, Krieger, & LeRoy, 2016).

Scholars have just lately begun to look into the negative repercussions of social media users

experiencing FOMO (Alt,2015; Beyens et al., 2016; Elhai et al., 2016; Hetz, Dawson, & Cullen,

2015; Przybylski et al., 2013; Wolniewicz, Tiamiyu, Weeks, & Elhai, in press). Several

researchers have found that social media users with high FoMO spend more time on the platform

and are more prone to experience despair and negative emotions (Baker et al., 2016); insomnia,

compulsive social media use and eating disorder (Beyens et al., 2016); low life satisfaction,

competency and personal interconnection (Elhai et al., 2016); emotional tensions (James et al.,

2017; Lai, Altavilla, Ronconi, & Aceto, 2016); deterioration of physical as well as mental

well-being (Alt, 2015); depressive and anxious feelings (Oberst et al., 2017); problems in

regulating mobile phone usage and emotional control (Wolniewicz et al., 2018); and inadequate
 12

sleep and poor sleep quality (Adams et al., 2017). Previous FoMO research has shown that a

high level of FoMO has detrimental psychological and physiological repercussions.

Although it is known that persons with high FoMO are more likely to display high engagement

with social media usage as well as participate in compulsive social media use (Oberst et al.,

2017; Wolniewicz et al., 2018), it is unclear if FoMO is significantly connected to social media

fatigue. Furthermore, social media weariness is caused by frequent and excessive usage of social

media (Karapanos, Teixeira, & Gouveia, 2016; Yoa & Cao, 2017; Zheng & Lee, 2016).

In a study conducted by Lai, Altavilla, Ronconi, and Aceto (2016), EEG brain scans are used

to detect the parts of the brain that glow when participants are exposed to certain images. In this

study, they examined FOMO, inclusive social experience, and exclusive social experience.

Their findings indicate that those with higher FOMO scores are more aware of the mental states

of other people participating in active social interactions, and show a greater need for

self-recognition, which may be the reason why people continue to return to social media. Closely

related to FOMO is the anxiety that often manifests in the lives of people who use social media

and experience FOMO. Cheever, Rosen, Carrier, and Chavez (2014) attempt to explore when

anxiety appears in the lives of college students separated from mobile phones.

After collecting the reasons for each participant’s mobile phone use and obtaining data on the

amount of time each participant used the mobile phone in the activities they mentioned, the

researchers found that each college student spends 4444 hours on their mobile phone on average

per day in a year. The main reasons for using it for hours (in order of most frequently used to

least frequently used) are as follows: sending text messages, listening to music, visiting websites,
 13

calling, using email, watching TV/movies, playing games, and reading books. The time of each

activity is averaged together and divided into three categories: low-day use (17hours),

moderate-day use (7.5-16.5 hours), and high-day use (17-64.5 hours). The study results showed

that those with low daily use had barely experienced or had no anxiety during the survey.

Compared to the times it took to complete the first survey, moderate users initially experienced

high anxiety due to the longer time to complete the second survey, but the anxiety levelled off

during the third survey. For the group of high daily use, the time it took to complete each of the

three surveys increased significantly, indicating that anxiety increased over time and continued to

increase (Cheever et al., 2014). These findings have little to do with whether this person is

separated from the mobile phone, but they have to do with the weight of its user. This study

emphasizes that people who abuse mobile phones experience a high level of anxiety when

separated from them. This may explain why those who carry mobile phones and use them often

experience a high level of anxiety when detaching from those who are active on social media. As

a result, we believe that FoMO causes social media tiredness, and that this link persists over

time. Therefore,

H2a: Increased time spent on social media will lead to the user’s decreased overall emotional

well-being.

H2b: High frequency of accessing social media will lead to the user’s decreased overall

emotional well-being.
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Perceived emotional support

With the widespread use of the Internet and social media in the 21st century, chances for

connection and support have grown both in number and complexity. Between 2005 and 2013, the

number of internet users aged 18–29 who use social media climbed from 9% to 90%, with over

74 percent of all online adults now claiming use. It's possible that electronic social networks are

modelled after face-to-face social networks, which have been shown to boost emotional support.

According to some findings, greater social networks and perceived audiences are associated with

better levels of life satisfaction. Similarly, increasing social capital has been linked to increased

social network usage. Positive feelings were shown to be more widespread than negative

emotions in a research of Facebook user replies, suggesting that Facebook use is linked to

happiness.

Furthermore, according to a recent Facebook study, users perceive emotional support to be

higher than that of other internet users with similar demographic features. The ability of social

media to assist build both strong and weak social bonds is one option for social media's possible

good influence on emotional support. Depending on the strength of the bond, it may be useful for

emotional support or acquiring new sources of knowledge. Others have said that using social

media promotes an ambient awareness among users, keeping them aware of one other's daily

social activities.

Social Presence Theory is beneficial in attempting to explain what we feel while engaging with

people using digital technology in order to comprehend how mediated social connectedness

could give emotional advantages akin to conventional social connectivity. According to

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Gunawardena's (1995) Social Presence Theory, mediated communication is considered "real" to

the extent that it is viewed as both immediate and personal. Because digital technology allows

for immediate connection and response, every social media now has the potential for immediacy.

Intimacy, on the other hand, is a far more subjective aspect that most likely exists in the "eye" of

the beholder, and it is the most important factor.

Intimacy, according to Granovetter (1973), is described as mutual confiding or disclosure, in

which both partners may comfortably reveal facts about themselves. Because specific forms of

social media have been associated with reduced loneliness (Pittman, 2015) and enhanced

happiness (Pittman & Reich, 2016), it is hypothesised that frequency of social media usage alone

will predict a reduction in loneliness and an increase in happiness in this study. Taking things a

step further, this study theories that because lonely individuals use social media less frequently

than others, they would experience it as less personal, and hence less beneficial for interacting

with others.

On the other hand, the more one uses social media, the more likely it is to provide gratifications

like social interaction, entertainment, or relaxation (Whiting & Williams, 2013). People who are

happy are more likely to perceive social media as intimate, or at the very least as more useful in

facilitating disclosure and self-presentation to others and the world.

However, the usage of social media is more complicated than simple linear effects. Scholars

must reconcile seemingly contradicting facts. On the one hand, Primack et al. (2017) discovered

that young people in the highest quartile of social media usage (compared to those in the lowest)

were twice as likely to feel socially isolated. Conversely, (Pittman & Reich, 2016) discovered

that college students who utilised Instagram more regularly (as opposed to those who did not)
 16

were less likely to be lonely. Granted, loneliness and social isolation are not the same thing;

social isolation refers to a sense of being alone, whereas loneliness refers to emotional suffering

caused by a gap between perceived and desired social support. According to the Primack et al.

(2017) study, it's likely that people use social media a lot, but it's all for naught because it doesn't

provide them with any emotional or social advantages. What distinguishes those individuals

from those in Pittman and Reich's (2016) study, which found a correlation between high social

media usage (of image-based platforms) and higher emotions of social connection? Perhaps

image-based platforms allowed for more closeness, and hence more sense of social connection..

Users, on the other hand, will not see all social media sites as equally "intimate," and these

individual variances may explain the disparities in emotional well-being impacts. As a result, this

study proposes a mediation model to explain how social media use can reduce loneliness and

happiness. That is, while frequent usage may appear to have a direct influence on favourable

emotional outcomes (e.g., decreased loneliness and greater happiness), it really has an indirect

effect via perceived closeness. To put it another way, the more one uses social media, the more

intimate one perceives their use, and it is this perceived closeness with others that makes one feel

better. Therefore,

H3a: Emotional well-being mediates the relationship between time spent on social media and

the overall quality of the users’ interpersonal relationships.

H3b: Emotional well-being mediates the relationship between frequency of accessing social

media and the overall quality of the users’ interpersonal relationships.

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