Braz J Psychiatry.

2021 Mar-Apr;43(2):153-159
doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0965
Brazilian Psychiatric Association
0 0 0 0 -0 02-7316-1 85

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Sluggish cognitive tempo is associated with autistic traits

and anxiety disorder symptoms in children with attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Ozalp Ekinci,0 0 -0 0 -0 0 -0 0 Selin A. İpek Bas¸, Nazan Ekinci, Özge İ. Doğan, Cemre Yas¸öz, İbrahim Adak
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Medical Faculty, University of Health Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey.

Objective: To investigate the association of sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) with autistic traits (ATs)
and anxiety disorder symptoms among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Methods: A total of 195 children with a DSM-5 diagnosis of ADHD were included. The Barkley
Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Scale (BSCTS) was used to measure SCT symptoms. Other study
measures included the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), Screen for Child Anxiety and Related
Disorders (SCARED), Turgay DSM-IV Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale (T-DSM-IV-S), and
Conners’ Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS-R).
Results: The frequency of SCT was 30.3% (n=59) in the whole group. Those with SCT had higher
total AQ and SCARED scores. Significant associations and correlations were also found between SCT
and certain subscores of AQ and SCARED. According to the linear regression model, the total score
and social skills, attention switching, and imagination scores of AQ, as well as generalized anxiety and
panic/somatic scores of SCARED and the total and inattention scores of parent T-DSM-IV, were
predictive of SCT total score (p o 0.05).
Conclusions: SCT is associated with ATs and anxiety disorders. Children with ADHD and SCT
symptoms should be screened for such conditions.
Keywords: Sluggish cognitive tempo; ADHD; autism

Introduction to examine the phenomenology of SCT in ASD across

different developmental periods.
The term ‘‘sluggish cognitive tempo’’ (SCT) was first intro- Clinical and population-based studies have shown that
duced in the 1980s when a third factor named ‘‘sluggish many children display symptoms of both ADHD and ASD.
tempo’’ emerged in factor analytic studies of attention- Milder behavioral and cognitive characteristics of autism,
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).1 SCT is character- referred to as autistic traits (ATs), are also common in
ized by daydreaming, mental fogginess, confusion, ADHD. Symptoms of autism or ATs have been reported to
hypoactivity, sluggishness or slow movement, lethargy, appear in 20 to 30% of children with ADHD.9 There is
apathy, and sleepiness,2 although almost one-third of evidence that the comorbidity of ADHD and ATs is asso-
children with ADHD also demonstrate elevated levels of ciated with generally worse functioning.10 Children with
SCT symptoms.3,4 SCT has been suggested as a distinct ADHD and ATs are more impaired in the domains of
phenomenon from ADHD. The available research indi- interpersonal communication, empathy, social related-
cates that there is strong evidence for the internal and ness, school functioning, and family relations.10,11 Studies
external validity of SCT as a distinct construct.2 on the association of ADHD presentations (subtypes
There is growing interest in the relationship between according to the DSM-IV) with ATs are largely limited.
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and SCT. Specifically, It has been shown that ATs may be linked with a greater
the clinical correlates of SCT in ASD and the related likelihood of combined presentation of ADHD12 and
functional impairment have been examined. To date, hyperactive-impulsive symptoms.13
three studies in children and adolescents and one study Many cognitive functions, which are also interlinked,
in adults investigated SCT among patients with ASD. are crucial for initiating and maintaining reciprocal social
According to these studies, SCT+ASD was found to be interactions. Among these, attention skills are essential
associated with a higher degree of social and global due to their marked impact on various aspects of
impairment than ASD alone; mixed results were reported relationships, e.g., social awareness, perception of social
on comorbid psychopathology and executive functioning cues, engagement, and sustaining conversations. SCT,
deficits.5-8 It appears that additional research is warranted beyond being a different aspect of attention problems,

Correspondence: Ozalp Ekinci, Department of Child and Adolescent How to cite this article: Ekinci O, İpek Bas¸ SA, Ekinci N, Doğan OI,
Psychiatry, Medical Faculty, University of Health Sciences, Selimiye Yas¸öz C, Adak I. Sluggish cognitive tempo is associated with autistic
District, Tıbbiye Avenue no. 38, 34668, Üsküdar, İstanbul, Turkey. traits and anxiety disorder symptoms in children with attention-deficit/
E-mail: [email protected] hyperactivity disorder. Braz J Psychiatry. 2021;43:153-159. http://dx.
Submitted Mar 18 2020, accepted May 16 2020, Epub Aug 31 2020. doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0965
154 O Ekinci et al.

may be among the key correlates between ADHD and Sciences Erenkoy Research Hospital. The inclusion
impaired social functioning. In line with this assumption, criteria were: 1) age 6-12 years; 2) no known diagnosis
Becker et al.14 have shown that, controlling for other psy- of chronic medical or neurological disease; 3) diagnosis of
chopathology symptoms, SCT was associated with lower primary ADHD according to Kiddie Schedule for Affective
social engagement, including starting conversations and Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Ver-
joining activities. A laboratory-based study also found sion (K-SADS-PL) interview; 4) no other psychiatric diag-
SCT symptoms to be associated with fewer responses nosis (only comorbid oppositional defiant disorder and
made during a chat room task and poorer perception of anxiety disorder were allowed); 5) no DSM-5 diagnosis
subtle social cues, after controlling for ADHD diagnosis.15 autism spectrum disorder; 6) normal intelligence based on
Given the well-described high frequency of SCT in ADHD, either a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised
research data linking SCT to social dysfunction, and (WISC-R) full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ) score above
the recent studies reporting a link between ASD and SCT, 80 or on average/above average academic performance
the investigation of these two concepts in non-autistic as documented by final school grades for the preceding
children with ADHD appears to be valuable. year. Normal intelligence was confirmed by at least one
In light of the well-documented high risk of anxiety faculty member specializing in child psychiatry. Children
disorders in ADHD, a number of studies have demon- with motor and visual handicaps were excluded.
strated a link between SCT and anxiety symptoms across A total of 195 children completed the study require-
different developmental periods. Skirbekk et al.16 found ments and were included in the study. The sample con-
that SCT was specifically associated with ADHD-anxiety sisted of both newly diagnosed, drug-naive children
disorder comorbidity. Although SCT symptoms are empi- (n=95) and children who had been receiving medication
rically distinct from anxiety symptoms, they are also strongly for ADHD for at least 3 months (n=100).
interlinked and associated. Mounting evidence suggests
that, besides being an ADHD-related construct, SCT Procedures
may be conceptualized as falling under the umbrella
of internalizing psychopathology, including anxiety. SCT The study lasted 12 months (December 1, 2017 to December
has been reported to be associated with neuroticism, which 1, 2018).
is widely considered the core of internalizing psycho-
pathology.17 Longitudinal co-occurrence of SCT with Measures
anxiety disorders has also been investigated. It has been
suggested that SCT symptoms, and the related impair- Study measures included the Turgay DSM-IV Disruptive
ments such as academic difficulties and poorer social Behavior Disorders Rating Scale (T-DSM-IV-S), Conners’
skills, may confer risk for subsequent internalizing symp- Teacher Rating Scale-Revised (CTRS-R), Barkley Slug-
toms. In line with this assumption, studies have found gish Cognitive Tempo Scale (BSCTS), Autism Spectrum
SCT to predict subsequent depressive symptoms and, to Quotient-Children’s Version (AQ-Child), and Screen for
a lesser extent, anxiety symptoms.18-20 More recently, Child Anxiety and Related Disorders (SCARED).
Becker et al.21 found that SCT symptoms predicted later
teacher-rated anxiety, and child-rated anxiety predicted T-DSM-IV-S parent and teacher forms
later SCT. The findings of these studies may suggest a
bidirectional relationship between anxiety and SCT, which T-DSM-IV-S parent and teacher forms were developed by
also changed according to the informant. Turgay22 and translated by Ercan et al.23 into Turkish.
The main aim of the present study is to investigate the The T-DSM-IV-S is based on DSM-IV diagnostic criteria
association between SCT and ATs in a clinical sample of and assesses hyperactivity/impulsivity, inattention, oppo-
children with ADHD. To adopt a broad perspective on the sition-defiance, and conduct disorder. Symptoms are
clinical meaning of SCT in ADHD, the relationship between scored on a four-point Likert scale (0 = not at all; 1 = just
SCT and comorbid anxiety symptoms will also be exami- a little; 2 = quite a bit; and 3 = very much).
ned. The rationale for this approach is that both high levels
of anxiety and reciprocal social interaction deficits may CTRS-R
result in social difficulties, and the independent impacts The CTRS-R is a commonly used teacher rating scale for
of both conditions should be investigated to clarify the diagnosing behavioral problems in children.24 The 28-
relationship between SCT and social dysfunction. item CTRS-R provides a total score and three subscale
We hypothesized that: 1) children with SCT would have scores: attention deficit; hyperactivity; and conduct pro-
higher ATs scores; and 2) children with SCT would have blems. Sener et al.25 reported that the CTRS-R-Turkish
higher anxiety disorder symptom scores. Version is valid and reliable for use in the Turkish
population.
Methods
AQ-Child
Participants
The AQ-Child is a 50-item parent-report questionnaire
This study was a cross-sectional cohort survey of children developed to detect ATs in children at 4-11 years of
with ADHD who were seen at the Child and Adolescent age.26 Items were worded to produce an approximately
Psychiatry Clinic of the Istanbul University of Health equal agree/disagree response in order to avoid response

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 Sluggish cognitive tempo in ADHD 155

bias. The AQ-Child consists of a series of descriptive school’’). In this study, we used the self-report version of
statements designed to assess five areas associated with the instrument. Children score each item on a three-point
autism and the broader phenotype: social skills (items 1, scale (0 = not true or hardly ever true; 1 = sometimes true;
11, 13, 15, 22, 36, 44, 45, 47, 48), attention switching 2 = true or often true). Total scores range from 0 to 82,
(items 2, 4, 10, 16, 25, 32, 34, 37, 43, 46), attention to with higher scores reflecting higher anxiety levels. The
detail (items 5, 6, 9, 12, 19, 23, 28, 29, 30, 49), commu- validity and reliability of the Turkish version were reported
nication (items 7, 17, 18, 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 38, 39), and by Çakmakc¸ı.31
imagination (items 3, 8, 14, 20, 21, 24, 40, 41, 42, 50),
each represented by 10 items. The minimum AQ score (0) Statistical analysis
indicates no ATs; the maximum score (150) suggests full
endorsement on all autistic items. The AQ-Child-Turkish The collected data were analyzed in SPSS version 21.0.
Version is valid and reliable for use in the Turkish Demographic variables were presented as descriptive
population.27 statistics. The Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed the normal
distribution of sociodemographic and clinical data. Chi-
square and likelihood ratio tests were used for the
BSCTS
comparison of categorical variables. Parametric variables
The BSCTS includes 14 items reflecting SCT and rated were compared between groups by using an indepen-
identically to those for ADHD. These symptoms were dent-samples t test. In the study, associated factors of
chosen from those most often identified by experts and SCT were examined in the following steps. Firstly, binary
that have been used in prior studies of SCT.28 They comparisons were performed between the sample with
included the following: 1) prone to daydreaming; 2) has and without SCT. Then, partial correlations were per-
trouble staying alert or awake; 3) mentally foggy or easily formed between SCT total score and all of the variables
confused; 4) stares a lot; 5) spacey, their mind seems to deemed significant on between-group analyses. To con-
be elsewhere and not paying attention to what is going on trol for possible impact of medication, treatment status
around them; 6) lethargic, more tired than others; 7) was taken as a covariate in the partial correlations.
underactive compared to other children; 8) slow-moving Finally, those factors with significant correlation coeffi-
or sluggish; 9) doesn’t seem to understand or process cients were entered into a linear regression model to
questions or explanations as quickly or as accurately as evaluate which were independently associated with SCT
others; 10) seems drowsy or has a sleepy appearance; total score. A p-value o 0.05 was accepted as statistically
11) apathetic or withdrawn, seems less engaged in significant.
activities than others; 12) gets lost in his or her thoughts;
13) slow to complete tasks, needs more time than others; Ethics statement
and 14) lacks initiative to complete work or their effort
fades quickly after getting started. All items have four The parents of the whole sample were informed about
Likert-type responses (1 = never or rarely; 2 = sometimes; the study procedure in detail and informed consent was
3 = usually; 4 = often). In factor analysis of these 14 items, obtained. The study protocol was approved by the
the last two symptoms (13, 14) loaded more highly on the Istanbul University of Health Sciences Erenkoy Research
ADHD in list than on the SCT factors; thus, they were not Hospital ethics committee.
used in determining SCT symptoms. The final scale
consisted of the remaining 12 items (1-12). Barkley3 sug- Results
gests that, if parents endorse three or more of the 12 SCT
items as occurring often or more frequently (scores of The mean age of the sample was 101.5 months (standard
3-4), this will place a child above the 93rd percentile for deviation = 19), and 78.5% (n=153) of participants were
the population, the traditional index of statistical deviance. males. The frequency of ADHD-inattentive presentation
In this study, if the parents score 3 or 4 points in any item, was 23.1% (n=45), while the frequency of ADHD-
that item is considered to be present. In total, the pre- combined presentation was 76.9% (n=150). The fre-
sence of three or more items is considered diagnostic of quency of SCT was 30.3% (n=59) in the whole sample:
SCT. The validity and reliability study of the scale in 30.5% (n=29) of the newly diagnosed children and 30%
Turkey was conducted by Fırat et al.29 in 2018. (n=30) of the children receiving treatment had SCT
(p 4 0.05). Among those receiving treatment, 88% (n=88)
were on stimulants and 5% (n=5), on atomoxetine. Risper-
SCARED
idone was the most commonly used additional medication in
The SCARED30 is a 41-item measure of pediatric anxiety both groups.
symptoms divided into five factors: panic/somatic (SOM; Demographic and psychiatric findings of the study sam-
13 items, e.g., ‘‘when I get frightened, my heart beats ple with and without SCT are shown in Table 1. As seen in
fast’’); generalized anxiety (GAD; nine items, e.g., ‘‘I am a the table, the frequency of anxiety disorder diagnosis was
worrier’’); social phobia or social anxiety (SoAD; seven higher in children with SCT (p o 0.05). Regarding the
items, e.g., ‘‘I feel shy with people I don’t know well’’); ADHD rating scale scores, the total (p o 0.01), inattention
separation anxiety (SeAD; eight items, e.g., ‘‘I worry that (p o 0.01), and oppositional defiance scores (p o 0.05)
something bad might happen to my parents’’); and school of parent T-DSM-IV-S were significantly higher in those
phobia (SCH; four items, e.g., ‘‘I worry about going to with SCT. The total scores of teacher T-DSM-IV-S and

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156 O Ekinci et al.

Table 1 Demographic and psychiatric findings of the study sample, stratified by presence or absence of SCT
Sample with SCT symptoms (n=59) Sample without SCT symptoms (n=136) p-value
Age (months), mean (SD) 103.6 (20.4) 100.8 (18.2) 0.33
Gender (male) 45 (76.2) 107 (78.6) 0.64

ADHD subtype 0.15

Combined 41 (69.4) 109 (80.1)
Inattentive 18 (30.5) 27 (19.8)

Treatment status 0.89

Newly diagnosed 29 (49.1) 66 (48.5)
Receiving treatment 30 (50.8) 70 (51.4)

Comorbid diagnoses
Anxiety disorder 12 (20.3) 11 (8.0) o 0.05
Oppositional defiant disorder 6 (10.2) 21 (15.4) 0.31

Additional drug treatment

Risperidone 5 (8.5) 12 (8.8) 0.91
Aripiprazole 2 (3.4) 1 (0.7) 0.17
SSRI 4 (6.8) 5 (3.7) 0.35
Others 1 (1.7) 1 (0.7)
No additional treatment 47 (79.7) 117 (86.0)

Parent T-DSM-IV-S score, mean (SD)

Total 50.2 (17.9) 39.3 (17.9) o 0.01
Inattention 19.2 (4.9) 13.5 (5.8) o 0.01
Hyperactivity-impulsivity 15.8 (7.7) 14.8 (7.6) 0.40
Conduct disorder 4.6 (5.6) 4.0 (5.5) 0.50
Oppositional defiance 10.2 (6.9) 6.8 (6.1) o 0.05

Teacher T-DSM-IV total score, mean (SD) 30.3 (18.4) 39.8 (19.7) 0.18
CTRS total score, mean (SD) 29.7 (15.2) 36.1 (13.8) 0.26
Data presented as n (%), unless otherwise specified.
ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; CTRS = Conners’ Teacher Rating Scale; SCT = sluggish cognitive tempo; SD = standard
deviation; SSRI = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; T-DSM-IV-S = Turgay DSM-IV Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale.

Table 2 AQ-Child and SCARED scores in the study sample, stratified by presence or absence of SCT
Sample with SCT symptoms (n=59) Sample without SCT symptoms (n=136) p-value
AQ-Child total 62.2 (15.3) 55.6 (12.9) o 0.01
Social skills 10.3 (4.7) 8.0 (3.6) o 0.01
Attention switching 13.5 (3.6) 11.7 (3.9) o 0.01
Attention to details 11.5 (4.3) 13.3 (4.3) 0.01
Communication 13.5 (5.1) 11.1 (4.8) o 0.01
Imagination 12.3 (4.8) 9.9 (3.8) o 0.01

SCARED total 7.9 (3.7) 5.1 (3.6) o 0.01

Panic/somatic 4.2 (4.0) 2.4 (2.8) o 0.01
Generalized anxiety 5.8 (4.0) 3.9 (3.4) o 0.01
Separation anxiety 6.9 (4.6) 5.6 (3.2) o 0.05
Social phobia 7.9 (3.7) 5.1 (3.6) o 0.01
School phobia 1.7 (1.6) 1.0 (1.2) o 0.01
Data presented as mean (standard deviation).
AQ-Child = Autism Spectrum Quotient-Children’s Version; SCARED = Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Disorders; SCT = sluggish
cognitive tempo.

CTRS were not significantly different between children phobia (p o 0.01), separation anxiety (p o 0.05), gene-
with and without SCT. ralized anxiety (p o 0.01), and social phobia (p o 0.01)
Table 2 shows the comparison of AQ and SCARED scores of the scale were significantly higher in those
scores between children with and without SCT. As seen in with SCT. Of note, in contrast with other AQ scores, the
the table, the total score (p o 0.01) and social skills (p o attention to details score of AQ was found to be higher in
0.01), attention switching (p o 0.01), communication children without SCT. In light of the study findings, this
(p o 0.01), and imagination (p o 0.01) scores of AQ were association was interpreted as coincidental.
found to be higher in children with SCT. Significant In addition to the above-mentioned comparisons,
differences were also found in SCARED scores. The total partial correlations were performed between SCT total
score (p o 0.01) and panic-somatic (p o 0.01), school score and AQ, SCARED, and parent T-DSM-IV-S scores.

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 Sluggish cognitive tempo in ADHD 157

To control for the possible impact of medication treat- ADHD has been documented previously.19,32 However, to
ment, treatment status was taken as a covariate in partial the best of our knowledge, the association between SCT
correlations. Significant correlations were found between and ATs in non-autistic children with ADHD had not been
SCT total score and social skills (r = 0.349, p o 0.01), shown to date. Several factors should be taken into
attention switching (r = 0.333, p o 0.01), communication account to interpret our findings.
(r = 0.253, p o 0.01), imagination (r = 0.293, p o 0.01), In the present study, all scores (total and subscale) of
and total scores of AQ (r = 0.291, p o 0.01). Significant SCARED, including panic/somatic, generalized anxiety,
correlations were also found between SCT total score and separation anxiety, social phobia, and school phobia,
school phobia (r = 0.417, p o 0.01), generalized anxiety were found to be higher in children with SCT, indicating
(r = 0.436, p o 0.01), panic/somatic (r = 0.452, p o 0.01), an association with a broad spectrum of anxiety symp-
separation anxiety (r = 0.190, p = 0.008), social phobia toms. Moreover, the frequency of anxiety disorder diag-
(r = 0.430, p o 0.01), and total scores (r = 0.514, nosis was higher in those with SCT. A linear regression
p o 0.01) of SCARED, as well as with the inattention model showed that panic/somatic and generalized anxiety
(r = 0.488, p o 0.01), oppositional defiance (r = 0.166, scores were predictive of SCT total score. These findings
p o 0.05), and total scores (r = 0.246, p = 0.01) of parent suggest a general tendency to anxiety symptoms in various
T-DSM-IV. domains. Few studies have investigated the association of
A linear regression analysis of the predictors of SCT SCT with specific anxiety domains. Harrington & Wald-
total score in the study sample is shown in Table 3. All man33 reported increased rates of generalized anxiety and
of the significant AQ, SCARED, and parent T-DSM-IV social phobia symptoms in children with severe SCT
scores from both the above-mentioned between-group when compared to those with low SCT. Mikami et al.15
analyses and correlations were entered in the model. As also found that children with SCT had higher levels of
seen in the table, the total score and social skills, attention anxiety in social interactions. The use of a self-report
switching, and imagination scores of AQ, generalized scale to measure anxiety and the investigation of various
anxiety and panic/somatic scores of SCARED, and total anxiety dimensions may be considered as strengths of
and inattention scores of parent T-DSM-IV were pre- our study.
dictive of SCT total score. The complex relationship between ADHD, SCT, and
impaired social functioning has been the topic of a handful
of recent studies.14,34 Becker et al.14 showed that social
Discussion
difficulties associated with SCT are primarily due to
This study investigated the association of SCT with ATs withdrawal, isolation, and low initiative in social situations
and anxiety symptoms in a clinical sample of children with in a sample of children, 87% of whom had a diagnosis of
ADHD. We found that children with SCT were more likely ADHD. However, ATs were not mentioned as a possi-
to have ATs and anxiety symptoms than those without ble underlying condition by the authors. More recently,
SCT. Moreover, these findings were still evident when McFayden et al.7 used the social communication and
controlling for the possible impact of medication treat- interaction subscales of the Social Responsiveness Scale
ment. The link between SCT and anxiety symptoms in (SRS-2) to compare children and adolescents diagnosed
with ADHD, ASD, and ASD+ADHD. The found those
with ASD+ADHD and SCT had greater social impair-
Table 3 Linear regression model on the predictors of SCT
total score
ment, and the frequency of SCT did not differ among the
diagnostic groups. In the present study, the total score
95%CI for beta and communication, social skills, imagination, and atten-
Beta Lower Upper p-value tion switching scores of AQ were higher in children with
ADHD and SCT. Regarding these subscales, attention
AQ-Child
Social skills 0.22 0.09 0.58 o 0.01 switching and imagination scores deserve special atten-
Attention switching 0.17 0.01 0.54 o 0.05 tion, since these categories include traits associated with
Communication 0.10 -0.07 0.34 0.21 ASD, independent of social functioning. The attention
Imagination 0.25 0.13 0.60 o 0.01 switching category consists of items on insistence on
Total -0.37 -0.31 -0.02 o 0.05
sameness, narrow interests, and inability to understand
SCARED humoristic social behaviors, while the imagination cate-
Social phobia 0.11 -0.03 0.38 0.09 gory measures imagination ability, pretend play, and
Panic/somatic 0.21 0.12 0.68 o 0.01 the perception of emotions and intentions. When all of
School phobia 0.06 -0.29 0.85 0.33
the significant AQ and SCARED scores were entered in
Generalized anxiety 0.17 0.03 0.52 o 0.05
Separation anxiety -0.06 -0.30 0.08 0.25 the linear regression model, including those on social
functioning, attention switching and imagination still per-
Parent T-DSM-IV-S sisted as predictors of SCT. Taken together, the AQ
Inattention 0.52 0.35 0.69 o0.01 scores of our participants with SCT appear to reflect a
Oppositional defiance 0.15 -0.01 0.29 0.06
Total -0.44 -0.22 -0.07 o0.01 milder form of ASD symptomatology, which is not limited
to social withdrawal and isolation.
95%CI = 95% confidence interval; AQ-Child = Autism Spectrum The link of SCT with both ATs and anxiety disorders
Quotient-Children’s Version; SCARED = Screen for Child Anxiety
and Related Disorders; SCT = sluggish cognitive tempo; T-DSM-IV- may not be considered surprising, as all of these three
S = Turgay DSM-IV Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale). constructs have developmental overlaps and shared

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158 O Ekinci et al.

external correlates. In the case of anxiety symptoms, it is cognitive flexibility are also common in ASD, and related
widely known that children and adolescents with ASD with impairments in daily life.40 Future prospective
experience higher rates of comorbid anxiety disorders (up studies, preferably including the early stages of develop-
to 40%) than the general population.35 Reinvall et al.6 ment, neurocognitive evaluation and neuroimaging, are
have shown that SCT was related to higher internalizing needed to clarify the complex relationship between ATs,
scores, including anxiety symptoms, in adolescents with SCT, and ADHD.
ASD. Duncan et al.5 also examined adolescents with ASD In the present study, beside ATs and anxiety dimension
and found that SCT symptoms were associated with ASD, scores, the total, inattention, and oppositional defiance
ADHD, and internalizing symptoms. In contrast, a more scores of parent T-DSM-IV were found to be higher in
recent study in adults with ASD reported that co-occurring children with SCT. Amongst these, the total and inatten-
SCT may not pose a heightened risk for anxiety symptoms.8 tion scores of parent T-DSM-IV were also found to be asso-
Temperamental traits of certain anxiety dimensions ciated with SCT total score. The relationship between SCT
may also shed light on the link between SCT and anxiety. and ADHD, especially inattention symptoms, has been
For instance, social anxiety is usually accompanied by widely documented in previous studies.2 Of note, teacher-
marked behavioral inhibition, and said inhibition may rated ADHD scale scores were not found to be associa-
partly explain the SCT characteristics of hypoactivity and ted with SCT symptoms in our sample. This discrepancy
lower engagement in social situations. To investigate between parent- and teacher-rated tools is common in
the possible association between SCT and personality, ADHD.41 Since SCT was rated by parents in our study, the
Becker et al.17,36 conducted two studies. One, in a com- association of SCT with parent-rated ADHD symptoms may
munity sample of children, found that fear/shyness (repre- be considered a reliable finding.
senting the fight-flight-freeze system, or FFFS), was a This study has several major limitations, including the
strong predictor of SCT symptoms.36 More recently, in a small sample size and cross-sectional design. Investiga-
sample of college students, they found that SCT was tion of SCT based on both parent and teacher ratings
significantly associated with higher behavioral inhibition would increase our reliability, since marked differences
system (BIS).17 Taken together, the association between may exist between home and school settings. Although
anxiety and SCT appears to extend beyond a sole we controlled for medication treatment in the study
comorbidity to include certain personality characteristics analyses, the inclusion of both drug-naive children and
and the possible impacts of ADHD and ASD. those who were receiving medication may be considered
The association between SCT and ATs may be a major drawback. The use of cross-informant measures
interpreted in several ways. First, SCT may be partly on SCT and anxiety symptoms is also another major
responsible for the clinical picture of ATs in ADHD. It has limitation, since rater-specific effects may decrease the
been previously suggested that some symptoms of ATs reliability of some findings. Finally, the lack of the investi-
in ADHD may reflect the pervasiveness of inattention gation of depression symptoms is a major limitation. The
symptoms. For instance, those children with high levels of investigation of a broad range of internalizing symptoms,
hypoactivity, daydreaming, mental fogginess, and con- including depressive symptoms, might reveal additional
fusion may be less aware of the social cues and may be findings.
too slow in interactive communication. All of these factors The findings of the present study have several clinical
may result in a more socially withdrawn temperament. implications for the assessment and management of
Second, the association between SCT and ATs may be children with ADHD. Although the investigation of core
explained from a developmental perspective. Since ASD symptoms is a gold standard in ADHD, the screening of
symptoms and/or ATs develop mainly in the first 3 years SCT and social deficits is also crucial for an overall
of life, SCT may be secondary to ATs in the develop- evaluation of impairment. According to our findings, which
mental order. Third, there may be a bilateral relationship warrant replication in future studies, a link between SCT
between ATs and SCT, with each of these clinical and ATs appears to be evident. From a diagnostic
conditions representing a risk factor for the development perspective, clinicians should screen the signs of ATs in
of the other. Finally, shared brain regions and neurocog- children with overt SCT symptoms. It should be kept in
nitive deficits may be responsible for the emergence of mind that some children with ADHD and SCT symptoms
both conditions. One of the suggested regions is the may have ATs and/or missed diagnosis of a mild form of
superior parietal lobule (SPL), which has been specifically ASD. On the other hand, some children with ADHD and
linked with SCT in adolescents with ADHD.37 Hypoactivity marked social difficulties, who are labeled as having ATs,
in the SPL was shown to be related to impaired reori- may also be experiencing SCT symptoms. Lastly, the
enting, shifting of attention, and deficits in behavioral management of those with ADHD and SCT should include
learning.37 Specifically in patients with ASD, a previous comprehensive interventions to improve social skills in
study has found decreased activation in the right SPL.38 school and daily life – e.g., support in peer interactions,
The authors of this study suggested that SPL may play an hobby training, and group-based school activities – and
important role in motor learning and repetitive behavior in overcome social difficulties.
individuals with ASD. In a recent study, Baytunca et al.39
compared the neurocognitive scores of ADHD children Disclosure
with and without SCT, and showed that cognitive flexibility
was more severely impaired in those with SCT. Deficits in The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Braz J Psychiatry. 2021;43(2)

 Sluggish cognitive tempo in ADHD 159

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