International Journal of

Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
The Brief Form of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for
Individuals with Visual Impairments
Ali S. Brian 1, * , Angela Starrett 2 , Adam Pennell 3 , Pamela Haibach Beach 4 , Sally Taunton Miedema 1 ,
Alexandra Stribing 1 , Emily Gilbert 5 , Matthew Patey 6 and Lauren J. Lieberman 4

1 Department of Physical Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA;

[email protected] (S.T.M.); [email protected] (A.S.)
2 Child Development Research Center, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA;
[email protected]
3 Natural Science Division, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA 90263, USA; [email protected]
4 SUNY-Brockport, Kinesiology, Sport Studies, and Physical Education, Brockport, NY 14420, USA;
[email protected] (P.H.B.); [email protected] (L.J.L.)
5 SUNY-Cortland, Physical Education Department, Cortland, NY 13045, USA; [email protected]
6 Department of Movement Arts, Health Promotion, and Leisure Studies, Bridgewater State University,
Bridgewater, MA 02324, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Children with visual impairments (VI) tend to struggle with their fundamental motor skills
(FMS), and these difficulties often persist across the lifespan, requiring frequent assessment. The





 Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) shows robust psychometric properties for children with
Citation: Brian, A.S.; Starrett, A.;
VI. The TGMD, which includes 13 skills, is time-consuming to administer and score, warranting the
Pennell, A.; Beach, P.H.; Miedema, need to explore brief versions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the psychometric
S.T.; Stribing, A.; Gilbert, E.; Patey, M.; properties of three, six-skill versions of the TGMD-3 with children with VI. Children (n = 302;
Lieberman, L.J. The Brief Form of the Boys = 58%, Girls = 42%; Mage = 13.00, SD = 2.50 years) with VI (B1 = 27%, B2 = 20%, B3 = 38%,
Test of Gross Motor Development-3 B4 = 15%) participated in this study. We examined three different models using confirmatory factor
for Individuals with Visual analyses on the relationships between the motor skills and latent traits across the models. Scores from
Impairments. Int. J. Environ. Res. all three brief versions had acceptable global fit. Although further research should be conducted,
Public Health 2021, 18, 7962. practitioners can adopt a brief version of the TGMD to assess children with VI.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph18157962
Keywords: motor competence; fundamental movement skills; assessment; psychometrics; blindness

Academic Editor: Paul B. Tchounwou

Received: 27 June 2021

1. The Brief Form of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for Individuals with
Accepted: 23 July 2021
Visual Impairments
Published: 28 July 2021
Fundamental motor skills are a subset of gross motor skills (body movement patterns
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
which are goal-directed) that includes manipulating objects (e.g., ball, object control, or
with regard to jurisdictional claims in manipulative skills—throw, catch, strike), keeping the body “stabilized” (e.g., twisting,
published maps and institutional affil- bending, curling), or moving the body from one point in space to another (e.g., locomotor
iations. skills—run, jump, hop) [1]. Fundamental motor skills are the “building blocks” to more
complex movements necessary to play sports, games, or participate in physical activity
behaviors [1]. Thus, it is no surprise that fundamental motor skill in childhood/adolescence
can predict physical activity behaviors throughout the lifespan [2].
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Unfortunately, children, adolescents, and youth (herein referred to as children) with
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
visual impairments (VI), including blindness, tend to struggle with their fundamental
This article is an open access article
motor skills, and these difficulties often persist to the extent of arrested/delayed devel-
distributed under the terms and opment across the lifespan [3,4]. However, if children with VI receive intervention, their
conditions of the Creative Commons fundamental motor skill difficulties can resolve quickly [3] and to the level needed to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// support health-enhancing levels of fitness [5]. Thus, it is critical that children with VI have
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ their fundamental motor skills assessed as early and as frequently as possible.
4.0/).

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157962 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 2 of 11

The Test of Gross Motor Development (2nd edition [6] or 3rd edition [7]) is one of
the most widely adopted assessments of fundamental motor skill in the United States and
across the world [8,9] and its psychometric properties were specifically vetted for children
with VI [10]. The TGMD is not only a common choice of practitioners for assessing children
with VI in rehabilitation [11], but also for researchers exploring descriptive, cross-sectional,
and/or longitudinal inquiries [3–5].
Despite its popularity among practitioners and researchers, there are some challenges
to both administering and scoring the TGMD (2nd or 3rd editions) with large samples
and in school-based settings due to the time needed to administer and score [8,9,12].
Administration of the TGMD-3 requires 20–30 min per child. Scoring the TGMD-3 may
require an additional 40–60 min per child [6,7]. Thus, it is not surprising that time tends to
be the more frequently reported barrier for assessing gross motor skills among teachers [12].
For practitioners, time with their students (if teachers) or patients (if employed in
rehabilitative settings) is quite limited. Often, teachers and physical therapists see their
students/patients 30 min a week for physical education or for therapy sessions. Faster
assessments in terms of administration and scoring may increase likelihood of assessment
amongst practitioners. More frequent assessment often leads to improved downstream
effects for children with VI (e.g., lessons rooted in present level of performance, knowledge
of program effectiveness, etc. [11,13]).
For researchers, time can also be of the essence when assessing children with VI
as access to the population tends to occur via schools or short-run events (e.g., camps).
Visual impairment is considered low incidence among children as there are approximately
547,000 children with VI (including those with vision difficulty despite the use of correc-
tive lens) in the United States [14] of which approximately 68,000 are considered legally
blind [15]. As a result, research teams need to travel to many schools or sites to accumu-
late a large enough sample sufficiently powered for analyses. Furthermore, schools and
short-run events tend to provide very limited time for research. Thus, it is very difficult
and expensive to capture robust, powered data sets given the time constraints inherent
within standardized motor assessments with good psychometric properties. Furthermore,
fewer skills should be faster to both administer and score (e.g., half as many items should
cut time in half, addressing the time constraints above), warranting the need to explore the
extent to which a brief version of the TGMD-3 can retain the stout psychometric properties
of the full battery for use with children with VI.
Along with time constraints, the use of the TGMD-3 for children with VI might oblige
criticism regarding its ecological and external validity. Ecological and external validity are
somewhat conflated terms but are not synonyms. Ecological validity refers to the extent to
which research occurs in a setting that best mimics the real world [16]. Similarly, external
validity refers to the extent to which findings from a study can then generalize from that
specific sample to a larger population. Thus, studies with good external validity may not
be ecologically valid and vice versa; however, assessing outcomes in a manner that best
mimics “real world” settings can certainly improve external validity [16].
For children with VI, many previous studies suffer from issues with external valid-
ity as samples are often limited in size and occur in somewhat contrived settings (e.g.,
laboratories; [17]). Issues with ecological validity also emerge as many skills within test
batteries may not be familiar [18], may not be developmentally appropriate (e.g., should an
18-year-old gallop), or may not translate to the sports and games specifically designed for
children/adults with VI (e.g., there is no throwing in Beep Baseball). Completing the entire
test battery (e.g., 13 skills on the TGMD-3) may result in issues surrounding ecological
validity. For example, certain items within the battery may be more appropriate than others
depending on the age, location, and culture of the sample. In addition, older samples
of children (e.g., 11 years+) with VI may participate in the United States Association for
Blind Athletes (USABA) track and field competition. Thus, hopping and running are
appropriate, familiar, and relevant. Furthermore, Beep Baseball is one of the most popular
sports in the United States for children and adults with VI, supporting the need to assess
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 3 of 11

strike, catch, and run. In other countries, other Paralympic sports are more the norm. For
example, children with VI in Brazil may be more likely to participate in 5-a-side soccer (a
new/growing sport in the United States) or goalball (Paralympic sport) warranting the
assessment of kick and roll (or underarm throw). Thus, brief versions of the TGMD-3 for
children with VI that include different skills warrant exploration.

2. Potential/Proposed Brief TGMD-3 Batteries for Children with VI

The TGMD-3 is a two-factor model (locomotor and ball skill subscales) with psy-
chometric properties that are typically stout [7]. While developed for children without
disabilities, Brian and others [10] showed that the two-factor structure holds for children
with VI. According to Kline [19], any factor within a model should have at least three
items. Therefore, target/exemplar models had to have at least three skills per factor, and
we followed that suggestion in the following ways.

2.1. Brazilian TGMD-2 Short Form (TGMD-2-SF; V-6)

There is precedent for adopting a brief version of the TGMD-2 [14,20]. Although
originating from the TGMD-2 (and not the current TGMD-3), Valentini and colleagues [21]
introduced a short form for the TGMD-2 using Brazilian youth aged three to ten years
of age. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, the two-factor TGMD-2-SF
included the run, gallop, and hop (i.e., locomotor factor) and the two-handed strike, kick,
and throw (i.e., object control/ball skill factor) skills. Due to the previously established
precedence of this short form (albeit in Brazilian youth without VI using a previous version
of the TGMD), the skills within the TGMD-2-SF were investigated as a potential two-factor
solution within the current sample (referred to as V-6).

2.2. A Novel, Paralympic, and VI Sport-Specific Inspired Short Form (SPT-6)

Based on sports that are common in the VI community (e.g., goalball, beep base-
ball, blind 5-a-side soccer) and the foundational requirements needed for skilled move-
ment/mobility (e.g., strength, power, rhythm, coordination) the run, hop, and skip (lo-
comotor factor) as well as the two-hand strike, kick, and underhand throw (ball skill
factor) were hypothesized skills for the proposed VI sport-specific battery. For example,
the two-hand strike is a significant component of beep baseball (i.e., batting) while the
underhand throw (also described as the toss) is biomechanically similar to rolling as rolling
is a major component of goalball. Unfortunately, although present in the TGMD-2, the roll
was removed from the TGMD-3 [6,7]. The kick was included as it is a necessary skill in 5-a-
side soccer and, importantly, the kick represents lower-body ball skill motor competence.
Concerning locomotor skills, running is a ubiquitous transportation skill. The hop requires
a significant amount of power production and dynamic postural control while both the hop
and the skip require substantial inter-limb coordination and rhythmicity. While rationales
were provided for the inclusion of each skill, youth with VI may not regularly participate
in and/or have consistent access to the acknowledged VI-specific sports. Thus, while
the selection of said VI-specific skills was advisable, the premise that such skills may be
developed, experienced, or were motorically representative of American youth with VI
was based on ecological assumptions/hypotheses.

2.3. Previous Results of Psychometrics of TGMD-3 for Children with VI (STAT-6)

In order to determine a statistically based brief form, we selected six skills based upon
the factor loadings from the original psychometric evaluation of the TGMD-3 for children
with VI [10]. Using factor loadings, the top three ball skills (i.e., overarm throw, dribble,
and one-hand strike) and two of the top three locomotor skills (i.e., run and hop) were
included. We chose to not include skip as it was already the third locomotor skill in the
SPT-6 model. As such, we strategically opted for slide instead of jump since the slide shows
discrimination into the frontal plane and out of the sagittal plane. Most children with VI
are taught to move within the sagittal plane from orientation and mobility specialists by
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 4 of 11

using their canes [22]. However, the ability to locomote within the frontal plane may better
predict the ability to avoid obstacles and shed light into co-morbidities associated with VI
that result from cortical or cerebral etiologies [23]. Thus, we wanted to assess movements
into the frontal plane in concert with skills that assess movements within the sagittal plane
(e.g., running).
Although there are previous inquiries to support the statistical and theoretical basis
of this study, it is important to explore the psychometric properties of brief versions of
the TGMD-3 specifically for children with VI. Thus, the purpose of the current study
was to examine the psychometric properties of the three brief versions of the TGMD-3
for adequately measuring locomotor and ball skills in children with VI. We hypothesize
that the STAT-6 and SPT-6 models, developed for US children with VI statistically and
contextually, respectively, will measure locomotor and ball skills as well as the full TGMD-3
battery. We were unsure how the V-6 model would perform compared to the full battery,
as this brief version was previously vetted on Brazilian children without VI.

3. Methods and Materials

3.1. Design, Participants, and Setting
This study featured a descriptive-analytic design with convenience sampling. Children
(n = 302; Boys = 58%, Girls = 42%; Mage = 13.00, SD = 2.50 years) with VI (B1 = 27%,
B2 = 20%, B3 = 38%, B4 = 15%; see below for definitions) participated in this study. This
study occurred at several seven-day sports camps specifically designed for children with
VI across New York, Florida, and Texas. All children with VI who attended these camps
were invited to participate.

3.2. Instrumentation
3.2.1. United States Association of Blind Athletes (USABA) Classification System
Participants were stratified across degree of vision based upon the United States
Association for Blind Athletes (USABA) classification scale. The USABA scale includes
four levels: B1 includes no light perception in either eye up to light perception, as well
as an inability to recognize the shape of a hand at any distance or in any direction and is
considered the lowest level of visual acuity. Children who are B2 can recognize the shape of
a hand with a visual acuity up to 20/600; B3 includes 20/600–20/200. Both B2 and B3 may
or may not include a visual field of less than 5◦ in the best eye including eye correction. In
contrast, children who are B4 possess visual acuity above 20/200 and up to 20/70, as well
as a visual field larger than 20◦ in the best eye with the best practical eye correction.

3.2.2. TGMD-3
The TGMD-3 [24,25] includes 13 items within two subscales: locomotor and ball
skills. The locomotor subscale contains six items (run, jump, hop, skip, gallop, and slide)
and the ball skills subscale includes seven object control skills (catch, kick, strike with a
bat, strike with a racquet, underarm throw, overhand throw, and dribble) that are each
scored on several performance criteria, resulting in a raw score ranging between 0–100
(locomotor = 46, ball skills = 54) points. Standardized procedures include: (1) a verbal
and visual demonstration for each skill one at a time; (2) one practice trial for each skill
(again, one skill at a time); (3) if necessary, the repetition of an additional verbal and visual
demonstration after the practice trial; and (4) two trials (by the participants) without cueing
or assistance from the administrator. All trials should be digitally video recorded for
scoring purposes [7]. The TGMD-3 holds good psychometric properties for youth without
VI ages 3 to 10 years, 11 months [7].
In 2018, Brian and colleagues [10] established the psychometric properties of the
TGMD-3 for children/adolescents (ages 8–19 years) with VI. The psychometric properties
were quite stout, revealing high internal consistency (ω = 0.89–0.95), strong interrater
reliability (ICC = 0.91–0.92), convergence with the TGMD-2 (r = 0.96), and good model
fit, χ2 (63) = 80.10, p = 0.072, χ2 /df ratio = 1.27, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.97. Not only were
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 5 of 11

the psychometrics acceptable, but Brian and colleagues also established recommendations
to modify the TGMD-3 for individuals with VI as needed [10]. Modifications included:
(1) using least-to-most prompting for the demonstration (no modifications, demonstration
from different angles, tactile modeling, the use of verbal cues only if necessary); (2) placing
audio devices, such as a buzzer, or a human guide as a clapper at both the start/stop
points for each locomotor skill item (only if needed); (3) using bright-colored/reflective
tape around the boundaries; and (4) allowing the participant to walk the test area, if
necessary, to assure their safety for comfort [10]. Historically, there have been no significant
differences when those without VI performed the TGMD with and without the same
affordances/modifications for those with VI [24]. Furthermore, it is acceptable to administer
the TGMD-3, using raw scores for analyses, when participants fail to reach a maximum
score, if they are beyond the age of 11 years [25].

3.3. Procedures
The Institutional Review Board of the University of South Carolina (CR00026556)
approved all procedures. Parents of participants provided written informed consent and
completed a demographic survey for their children while all child participants provided
verbal assent. All participants completed the entire TGMD-3 battery with members of
the research staff following the procedures outlined within the TGMD-3 manual [7] and
featuring vetted modifications, if necessary [10]. All TGMD-3 trials occurred within a
seven-day period in the summer at various sport camp locations in New York, Florida,
and Texas. Research staff digitally recorded each trial and then coded from the digital
recordings. All raters passed inter-rater reliability requirements of greater than 80% with
the lead researcher.

3.4. Analytic Methods

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was an appropriate statistical analysis for our
study for several reasons. Gross motor skill is represented as two latent traits: locomotor
skills and object control skills [10], and CFA can handle the measurement errors [20]. CFA
allowed us to examine the relationships between the observed skills and the two latent
traits across the different versions of the TGMD proposed. Lastly, given the a priori decision
of a two-factor model, the CFA framework provided more information than exploratory
factor analysis. As such, CFA was deemed the most methodologically sound approach for
addressing the research questions.
All analyses were completed using Mplus version 8.4 statistical software. The maxi-
mum likelihood estimation method was used to estimate parameters. In accordance with
current methodological research, global model fit was examined using a variety of fit
indices [19]. We considered the p-value of the model χ2 statistic, where a nonsignificant
value indicated good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed variables.
Furthermore, the ratio of χ2 /df should be a relatively small number with most recommend-
ing less than three [19]. We also examined the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA), the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and the comparative fit
index (CFI). RMSEA values less than 0.08, SRMR values less than 0.05, and CFI values
greater than 0.90 are recommended for relatively good evidence of model-to-data fit [26].
We also considered psychometric properties of the manifest indicator variables, including
reliability estimates and convergent validity [27,28]. In Mplus, the parameter estimate
(loading) divided by the standard error is treated as a z-score, where significant values for
all indicators of the factor indicate convergent validity [29]. Lastly, we examined psycho-
metric properties of the latent factors by calculating composite reliability and the variance
extracted estimate. Composite reliability reflects the internal consistency of the individual
skills that are hypothesized to measure the latent trait (e.g., locomotor skills). The variance
extracted estimate for the latent trait indicates the amount of variance that is captured
by that factor in relation to the amount of variance that is due to measurement error.
Composite reliability should exceed 0.70 [30], and the variance extracted estimate should
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 6 of 11

exceed 0.50 [31]. Finally, we used global fit indices and the psychometric properties of the
observed variables and latent factor to compare our proposed versions of the TGMD-3.

4. Results
4.1. Model Fit
Descriptive statistics for observed skills are shown in Table 1, and correlations among
skills are presented in Table 2. Item difficulty represents the proportion of children with
VI who got the maximum score for a skill. Difficulty values for each item should range
between 0.20 and 0.80 [32]. Item discrimination is a point-biserial correlation and refers
to the ability of a skill to differentiate among children with VI based on how well they
perform on locomotor and object control skills. The accepted practice is to omit or revise
items with indexes below 0.35 [33]. According to Table 3, nearly all models had acceptable
global fit. For the model χ2 statistic, the full TGMD-3 (χ2 (64) = 79.39, p = 0.093), STAT-6
(χ2 (8) = 10.45, p = 0.24), and V-6 (χ2 (8) = 7.44, p = 0.49) had nonsignificant values indicating
good fit. Conversely, SPT-6 (χ2 (8) = 18.07, p = 0.02) had a significant value suggesting
possible poorer fit. All models had a ratio of χ2 /df below the suggested cutoff of 3. All
models had CFI values above 0.90, and, similarly, they all had SRMR values below 0.05.
With RMSEA, the results were mixed with three of the four models showing acceptable
fit, meaning an estimate below 0.08 and preferably a 90% confidence interval reflecting as
much. The full TGMD-3 (estimate = 0.028, 90% CI [0.00, 0.05]), STAT-6 (estimate = 0.032,
90% CI [0.00, 0.08]), and V-6 (estimate = 0.00, 90% CI [0.00, 0.06]) had good fit based on
both the estimate and the confidence interval. SPT-6 (estimate = 0.065, 90% CI [0.02, 0.10])
had RMSEA estimates below 0.08 but probabilities being in range below 90%.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for individual skills.

Gross Motor Skill Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Item Difficulty Item Discrimination
Locomotor Skills
Run 5.39 2.53 −0.71 −0.62 0.31 0.60
Gallop 4.06 2.37 −0.47 −0.89 0.05 0.47
Hop 4.16 2.41 −0.07 −0.88 0.13 0.61
Skip 2.97 2.23 −0.22 −1.33 0.17 0.73
Jump 5.06 2.41 −0.43 −0.87 0.23 0.74
Slide 6.51 2.22 −1.72 2.15 0.53 0.51
Object Control Skills
Two-handed Strike 6.70 2.44 −0.49 −0.42 0.15 0.64
One-handed Strike 3.80 2.60 −0.15 −1.17 0.08 0.37
Dribble 3.99 2.22 −0.70 −1.00 0.42 0.59
Catch 3.33 1.69 0.17 −0.90 0.16 0.67
Kick 4.13 2.34 −0.03 −0.95 0.11 0.50
Overhand Throw 3.19 3.06 0.35 −1.44 0.15 0.68
Underhand Throw 5.21 2.10 −0.92 0.53 0.15 0.42

Table 2. Correlations among motor skills.

Locomotor Skills Object Control Skills

Two-Handed One-Handed Overhand Underhand
Run Gallop Hop Skip Jump Slide Dribble Catch Kick
Strike Strike Throw Throw
Run 1
Gallop 0.35 1
Hop 0.45 0.24 1
Skip 0.51 0.28 0.45 1
Jump 0.48 0.27 0.45 0.46 1
Slide 0.45 0.29 0.36 0.28 0.40 1
Two-handed
0.49 0.36 0.48 0.55 0.44 0.34 1
Strike
One-handed
0.50 0.30 0.48 0.42 0.42 0.32 0.55 1
Strike
Dribble 0.53 0.27 0.49 0.40 0.45 0.34 0.48 0.53 1
Catch 0.53 0.27 0.41 0.46 0.43 0.31 0.56 0.49 0.50 1
Kick 0.57 0.26 0.42 0.39 0.48 0.39 0.54 0.49 0.55 0.47 1
Overhand Throw 0.50 0.28 0.43 0.47 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.50 1
Underhand Throw 0.52 0.36 0.30 0.38 0.36 0.46 0.42 0.50 0.41 0.42 0.38 0.44 1

Note. All correlations are significant at p < 0.001.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 7 of 11

Table 3. Fit indices for the measurement model of various versions of the TGMD-3.

Model chi-Square
Model chi-Square df p chi/df CFI SRMR RMSEA RMSEA 90% CI
TGMD-3 79.39 64 0.093 1.24 0.986 0.039 0.028 0.000, 0.047
STAT-6 10.45 8 0.235 1.31 0.994 0.032 0.032 0.000, 0.079
V-6 7.44 8 0.490 0.93 1.000 0.021 0.000 0.000, 0.064
SPT-6 18.07 8 0.021 2.26 0.975 0.033 0.065 0.024, 0.105

4.2. Psychometric Properties of Individual Skills

Table 4 reports information related to the psychometric properties of the measurement
models investigated in the current study. For each skill within each model, standardized
loadings are presented, along with z-scores for the loadings and item reliabilities. For each
model, the group of skills displayed convergent validity since the factor loading statistic for
each skill was significant (p < 0.001). Regarding reliability at the skill level, skill reliabilities
across the models ranged from 0.19 to 0.58 (Mdn = 0.50). Only gallop (Mdn = 0.19) and
slide (Mdn = 0.295) had reliabilities below 0.30.

Table 4. Psychometric properties of the latent traits and motor skills that constitute each model.

Results for Indicators (Skills) Results for Composites

Latent Trait Indicators Standardized Composite Variance
Estimate/s.e. Item Reliability
Loading Reliability Extracted
TGMD-3
Run 0.759 23.73 ** 0.576 0.79 0.39
Gallop 0.434 8.32 ** 0.188
Hop 0.636 15.65 ** 0.405
Locomotor
Skip 0.660 16.85 ** 0.436
Jump 0.666 17.08 ** 0.443
Slide 0.540 11.41 ** 0.292
Two-handed Strike 0.741 19.44 ** 0.549 0.87 0.50
One-handed Strike 0.721 17.90 ** 0.520
Dribble 0.714 17.47 ** 0.510
Object Control Catch 0.708 17.01 ** 0.501
Kick 0.701 16.63 ** 0.492
Overhand Throw 0.730 18.52 ** 0.533
Underhand Throw 0.615 12.20 ** 0.379
STAT-6
Run 0.751 17.10 ** 0.563 0.70 0.42
Locomotor Hop 0.634 12.93 ** 0.401
Slide 0.546 10.49 ** 0.298
One-handed Strike 0.733 16.10 ** 0.537 0.79 0.55
Object Control Dribble 0.762 17.72 ** 0.580
Overhand Throw 0.730 15.91 ** 0.534
V-6
Run 0.727 15.93 ** 0.529 0.63 0.37
Locomotor Gallop 0.438 7.78 ** 0.192
Hop 0.618 12.84 ** 0.381
Two-handed Strike 0.746 17.00 ** 0.556 0.77 0.53
Object Control Kick 0.733 16.24 ** 0.537
Overhand Throw 0.697 14.51 ** 0.485
SPT-6
Run 0.736 18.34 ** 0.542 0.72 0.47
Locomotor Hop 0.628 13.72 ** 0.394
Skip 0.680 15.74 ** 0.463
Two-handed Strike 0.755 16.62 ** 0.570 0.72 0.46
Object Control Kick 0.686 13.81 ** 0.471
Underhand Throw 0.582 10.15 ** 0.339
Note. ** denotes p < 0.001.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 8 of 11

4.3. Psychometric Properties of the Latent Trait

Across all models, composite reliabilities exceeded 0.70 for the latent trait of object
control skills. For locomotor skills, most models had composite reliabilities that exceeded
0.70, excluding V-6 (0.63). For the variance extracted estimate for object control skills,
STAT-6 (0.55) and V-6 (0.53) had variance extracted estimates above the full TGMD-3 (0.50).
SPT-6 (0.46) had a variance extracted estimate below the full TGMD-3. For the latent trait of
locomotor skills, STAT-6 (0.42) and SPT-6 (0.47) had variance extracted estimates above the
full TGMD-3 (0.39). However, V-6 (0.37) had a variance extracted estimate below the full
TGMD-3. Lastly, the correlation between locomotor and object control skills was similar
across all four models (TGMD-3: 0.945, STAT-6: 0.923, V-6: 0.989, SPT-6: 0.990).

5. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to assess the psychometric properties of brief, six-skill
versions of the TGMD-3 for children with VI. Within this study, we examined three different
models using CFA to examine the relationships between the motor skills and latent traits
across the models. Originally, the psychometrics for the TGMD-3 were acceptable with
modified equipment for children with VI [10]. The results of this current study are also very
promising, like previous findings on a brief version of the TGMD-2 for Brazilian youth [21].
All models had acceptable global fit, indicating much potential and flexibility in
developing a brief version of the TGMD. All models also had good SRMR and CFI values;
however, the SPT-6 model showed potential issues with the global model fit based upon
the 90% confidence interval for RMSEA. With regard to reliability, all three brief versions
were above the cutoff of 0.70 for ball skills, and the STAT-6 and SPT-6 models were above
the cutoff for locomotor skills. Regarding variance extracted estimates, the STAT-6 and
V-6 models do better than the full TGMD-3 model for ball skills. Similarly, the STAT-6 and
SPT-6 models do better than the full battery for locomotor skills. In combination, these
results demonstrate how locomotor and ball skills need to be strategically selected for
the brief versions for children with VI. Contextually, gallop should be used with caution
to measure locomotor skills in children with VI. From our results, we glean that gallop
is an extremely difficult skill that has lower discrimination for children in the sample,
regardless of degree of VI. Gallop is a continuous skill that relies upon rhythmical control
and multi-limb coordination. It is very difficult to provide a tactile model that replicates the
gallop. Unsurprisingly, gallop had a low factor loading on both the full TGMD-3 and the
V-6 models, resulting in lower reliability and variance extracted for the locomotor latent
trait for the V-6 model. These data are similar to those from Brian et al. (2018) when they
vetted the full TGMD-3 in children with VI. Could the low discrimination of the gallop be
due to the need for a visual representation to mimic the demonstration? Interestingly, these
low discriminations did not emerge for the skip (another continuous skill which relies
upon rhythm). Plausibly, the contralateral nature of the skip along with its even rhythm
pattern lends itself better to featuring physical prompting than gallop (ipsilateral pattern
with uneven rhythms). The uneven rhythm of the gallop might require visual information
whereas the vertical movements in the skip can be felt via haptics alone, rendering it less
reliant upon visual information than the gallop. However, future research efforts should
explore different ways though which to demonstrate skills that may be more reliant upon
vision (e.g., gallop) than closed ball skills (e.g., two-hand strike).
Concurrently, we see that the underhand throw has a lower factor loading than the
other ball skills, resulting in a lower variance extracted estimate for the SPT-6 model
compared to the full TGMD-3. Item analysis showed that underhand throw is a somewhat
difficult skill with the lowest discrimination among the ball skills. In the a priori model
development, underhand toss was strategically selected as the closest TGMD-3 skill to
rolling a ball (necessary as the roll (from the TGMD-2) was removed from the TGMD-3).
The roll (now underarm throw) is an important skill for goalball and other Paralympic
sports. Unfortunately, based upon our results, the underhand throw may be more difficult
than rolling a ball in the VI context. The underhand throw requires a judgement of distance
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 9 of 11

(e.g., hit a wall 15 feet away). Judging distance requires figure ground and visual motor
integration. Although sound sources can assist judgement, clearly more support is needed.
However, future research is needed to discern whether additional supports with the
underhand toss might improve its discriminant function and whether rolling a ball (instead
of toss) might contribute similarly to the latent trait of ball skills in the VI context.
Overall, the authors recommend using the locomotor skills for the STAT-6 (run, hop,
slide) and SPT-6 (run, hop, skip) models and the ball skills for the STAT-6 (one-hand strike,
dribble, overhand throw) and V-6 (two-handed strike, kick, overhand throw) models. These
shorter, latent traits are reliable and show more convergent validity that the full TGMD-3.

5.1. Implications for Practitioners

The findings of this study provide some important implications for practitioners. Most
importantly, a brief version of the TGMD could be adopted by practitioners for evaluation
or investigation based upon the reliability/validity results of the present study. Brief
versions of the TGMD are highly desirable due to the lengthy administrative and scoring
time required for each assessment (going from 13 to 6 skills should cut time in half). Often
administrative time is even lengthier in children with VI due to reduced experience in
many motor skills and adapted teaching strategies when necessary [24]. Although saving
administrative time is important, it is critical that any version of the TGMD that is adopted
should be vetted regarding its psychometric properties. Notably, practitioners should
not use a brief version of the TGMD as a normative reference for placement. Rather, the
brief versions should be used for program evaluation purposes or to provide additional
assessments with the full battery.

5.2. Strength, Limitations, and Future Research

To our knowledge, the is the first investigation of brief version of the TGMD-3 for
individuals with VI. Along with the innovation behind this inquiry, there are other strengths.
Specifically, our analyses incorporated both item difficulty and discrimination. We also
considered composite reliability and convergent validity for the latent traits of locomotor
and object control skills across multiple models. Although there is always an inherent
risk when running multiple models on a single sample, these robust analyses (namely
composite reliability and variance extracted) take that risk into account, thus mitigating
some of the potential for risk.
In addition to the rigor with our analyses, we specifically focused on practical trans-
lations of these findings. Specifically, we suggest that practitioners may now have an
efficient way to evaluate formative and summative gains with their students, patients,
and stakeholders in a manner that converges with the full battery. Practitioners could
use the abbreviated batteries as formative, summative, and criterion references to better
evaluate their programs and the extent to which their clients (students, children, patients,
etc.) are making gains towards goals. By knowing programmatic effectiveness early and
often, assessment data can then better support learning in the long run. Thus, providing
ecologically valid brief versions of the TGMD-3 can only support maximation of learning
and meeting programmatic goals.
Although this study includes many strengths, it is certainly not without limitations.
These limitations should be addressed within future research in the following ways. Further
research should be conducted on brief versions of the TGMD for children with VI. Although
we conducted several evaluations of various models, we are not suggesting that researchers
choose skills at random yet. These data allude to a trend that skill choice may be a
possibility; however, further testing and replication are needed with different samples. We
suggest that when researchers conduct future inquiry, they select half locomotor and half
ball skills in order to maintain the general trait of motor. In addition, researchers using the
brief versions of the TGMD should investigate different populations, specifically children
with VI outside of camps, both from integrated schools and schools for the blind.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7962 10 of 11

6. Conclusions
Scores from all three brief versions of the TGMD tested had acceptable global fit,
indicating much potential of the use of a shorter version of the TGMD, saving not only
considerable administrative and assessment time, but also potentially providing flexibility
to tailor the instrument to be most ecologically valid. Although further research should be
conducted, practitioners can adopt a brief version of the TGMD to assess children with VI.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.S.B.; methodology, A.S.B., A.S. (Angela Starrett), and
A.P.; formal analysis, A.S. (Angela Starrett); data curation, A.S.B., A.P., S.T.M., A.S. (Alexandra
Stribing), E.G., M.P., and P.H.B.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S.B., A.S. (Angela Starrett),
P.H.B., and A.P.; writing—review and editing, A.S.B., A.S. (Angela Starrett), A.P., P.H.B., and L.J.L.;
project administration, A.S.B., A.P., S.T.M., A.S. (Alexandra Stribing), E.G., M.P., P.H.B., and L.J.L. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research received no funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of
the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of University of South
Carolina (CR00026556—17 October 2018).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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