Heaven & Earth

EDITED BY
JENNY ALBANI AND EUGENIA CHALKIA

HELLENIC REPUBLIC BENAKI

MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND SPORTS MUSEUM

n at i o n a l g a l l e ry o f a rt

ATHENS 2013
 The Companion Volume is issued in conjunction with the exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections,
held at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., from October 6, 2013, through March 2, 2014,
and at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, from April 9 through August 25, 2014.

The exhibition was organized by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, Athens, with the collaboration of the Benaki Museum, Athens,
and in association with the National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., and the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Editors JENNY ALBANI, EUGENIA CHALKIA

Research assistants ELENI CHARCHARE, ANTONIS TSAKALOS, SOTIRIS FOTAKIDIS
Bibliography VASSILIKI P. KLOTSA
Translators from Greek FREYA EVENSON
VALERIE NUNN (Essay by I. Anagnostakis)
DEBORAH KAZAZI (Forewards, Essays by A. Tourta, E. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, E. Drakopoulou, Ch. Koilakou)
Translator from French ALEXANDRA BONFIONTE-WARREN (Essay by C. Abadie-Reynal)
Text editor RUSSELL STOCKMAN
Designer FOTINI SAKELLARI
Photographers VELISSARIOS VOUTSAS, ELPIDA BOUBALOU
Map design PENELOPE MATSOUKA, ANAVASI EDITIONS
Color separations PANAYOTIS VOUVELIS
Printing ADAM EDITIONS-PERGAMOS
Financial Management DIMITRIS DROUNGAS
Printed on Fedrigony 150 gsm

SPONSOR

The exhibition’s international tour is made possible through OPAP S.A.’s major funding. Financial support is also provided by the A.G. Leventis Foundation.
The exhibition is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities

Published by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports and the Benaki Museum, Athens
© 2013 Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
© 2013 Benaki Museum
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or information retrieval system, without permission from the publishers.

ISBN 978-960-476-132-6 (HC)

ISBN 978-960-476-133-3 (PBC)

Jacket / Cover illustration The city of Jerusalem, detail from the Entry into Jerusalem. Wall painting, circa 1428. Mistra, katholikon of the Pantanassa Monastery.
Frontispiece Backdrop, detail from the zone of the martyrs. Dome mosaic, late 4th–6th century. Thessalonike, Rotunda.

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FOREWARDS | 126 | Arta
BARBARA PAPADOPOULOU
| 007 | PANOS PANAGIOTOPOULOS Director of the 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Ioannina
Minister of Culture and Sports
| 140 | Nikopolis
| 008 | LINA MENDONI EUGENIA CHALKIA
General Secretary, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports Honorary Director of the Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens

| 011 | INTRODUCTION | 156 | “Christian” or Thessalian Thebes:

MARIA ANDREADAKI-VLAZAKI The port city of Late Antique Thessaly
Director General of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage, OLGA KARAGIORGOU
Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports Assistant Researcher, Academy of Athens,
Research Center for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Art
AIMILIA YEROULANOU
Art Historian, President of the Board of Trustees, Benaki Museum | 168 | Byzantine Athens, 330–1453
CHARALAMBOS BOURAS
Professor Emeritus, National Technical University, Athens
[CHAPTER 1]
| 180 | Thebes
| 014 | BYZANTIUM AND HELLAS. CHARIKLEIA KOILAKOU
SOME LESSER KNOWN ASPECTS OF THE Honorary Director of the 1st Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
HELLADIC CONNECTION (8th–12th CENTURIES) Athens
ILIAS ANAGNOSTAKIS
Senior Researcher, Institute of Historical Research/ | 192 | Corinth
Department of Byzantine Research, DEMETRIOS ATHANASOULIS
National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens Director of the 25th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Corinth

| 210 | Argos from the Fourth to Eighth Centuries

[CHAPTER 2] CATHERINE ABADIE-REYNAL
Professor, Université Lumière-Lyon 2
| 030 | RURAL GREECE IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD
IN LIGHT OF NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE | 216 | Argos from the Ninth to Fifteenth Centuries
EUGENIA GEROUSI ANASTASIA VASSILIOU
Director of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Antiquities, Curator of the 25th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Corinth
Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
| 224 | Mistra. A Fortified Late Byzantine Settlement
SOPHIA KALOPISSI-VERTI
[CHAPTER 3] Professor Emerita, National and Kapodistrian University, Athens

| 044 | BYZANTINE CITIES IN GREECE | 240 | The City of Rhodes

CHARALAMBOS BOURAS MARIA MICHAELIDOU
Professor Emeritus, National Technical University, Athens Director of the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Rhodes

| 074 | Thessalonike | 252 | Herakleion in Crete

ANASTASIA TOURTA MICHALIS ANDRIANAKIS
Honorary Director of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Honorary Director of the 28th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
Thessalonike, and Director of the European Center for Chania
Byzantine and Post-μyzantine Monuments

| 094 | Philippi [CHAPTER 4]

† EUTYCHIA KOURKOUTIDOU-NIKOLAIDOU
Honorary Director of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, | 264 | THE WORLD OF BYZANTIUM IN GREEK PUBLIC MUSEUMS:
Thessalonike, and Honorary Director of the European Center OLD AND NEW APPROACHES
for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments SUSANNA CHOULIA-KAPELONI
Director for Documentation and the Protection of Cultural Goods,
| 104 | Berroia Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
ANTONIS PETKOS
Honorary Director of the 11th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, | 276 | Bibliography–Abbreviations
Berroia
| 294 | Glossary
| 114 | Kastoria. Art, Patronage, and Society
EUGENIA DRAKOPOULOU | 297 | Index
Senior Researcher, Institute of Historical Research/
Department of Neohellenic Research, National Hellenic | 302 | Photographs credits
Research Foundation, Athens

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Foreword
PANOS PANAGIOTOPOULOS
Minister
Hellenic Republic
Ministry of Culture and Sports

he past twenty years have been a new and exceptionally creative era for Byzantine

T studies and Byzantine museums in Greece. New Byzantine museums have been
established, presenting finds from long-term systematic archaeological excavations by
the Archaeological Service of the Ministry of Culture and Sports, and older museums have
redesigned the exhibits of their collections. New interpretative methods, innovative
approaches, and the use of advanced technologies have created a contemporary museum
environment that is both attractive and accessible to the wider public.
Interest in Byzantine civilization has been further strengthened by the flourishing of
Byzantine studies in major European and American universities, and has manifested itself
over the past twenty years in the presentation of important exhibitions on Byzantium both in
Greece and abroad.
Within this climate of creativity, new pursuits, and extroversion, the Hellenic Ministry of
Culture and Sports in collaboration with the Benaki Museum is offering its own
contribution to international exhibition activity with the traveling exhibition Heaven and
Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections. The exhibition, to be shown in two leading U.S.
museums, presents aspects of Byzantine civilization through featured works of high historical
and artistic value in addition to recent excavation finds from public, private, and ecclesiastical
collections.
The exhibition is accompanied by its catalog and the present companion study Heaven and
Earth: Cities and Countryside in Byzantine Greece, in which prominent Greek and foreign
scholars contribute to the enrichment of contemporary research on Byzantium, providing the
international scientific community as well as the wider public with stimuli for new scholarly
interpretations and research.
Two of the exhibition’s main goals are to familiarize visitors with Byzantine civilization,
which is an integral part of Greece’s cultural heritage, and to highlight the important role
played by the Greek region within the broader context of the Byzantine Empire. Above and
beyond this, however, we believe that this multifaceted exhibition will form another link in
the chain of acquaintance, friendship, and cooperation between the Greek and American
peoples, and further the climate of dialogue and exchange of ideas at the international level.
I wish to congratulate and extend my thanks to all the exhibition’s contributors, both
Americans and Greeks, who collaborated harmoniously and with noteworthy zeal toward its
realization and exceptional attractive and scholarly presentation.

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 Foreword
LINA MENDONI
General Secretary
Hellenic Republic
Ministry of Culture and Sports

e knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no

“W such splendor or beauty.” These were the words used by a number of foreign
ambassadors in describing the impression the church of Hagia Sophia made on
them during their visit to the “Queen of Cities” in the tenth century. Indeed, the fame of
what later scholars named “Byzantium”—i.e. the empire that ruled in the eastern part of the
Mediterranean for eleven consecutive centuries, which at its apogee embraced three continents
(Europe, Asia, and Africa)—was enormous, and of decisive influence during the Middle Ages.
At that time Byzantium was a model, a benchmark, and a standard of comparison for the
entire then-known world. This also explains the successive attempts to besiege Constantinople,
which the Byzantines managed to repulse for a long time until the first fall to the Franks in
1204 and the city’s final fall to the Turks in 1453. In the eyes of people that lived in those
times, Byzantium never ceased to be compared to an earthly paradise, against which many
measured themselves and strove to compete, and which others fought to conquer.
Most of the envious or contemptuous stereotypes linked with Byzantium in the past,
which for a long time dominated scholarly literature and affected collective perceptions and
ideologies, have today been largely left behind. Now we tend to find Byzantine history and art
ever more impressive and charming, and at the same time we realize that there is a wealth of
knowledge to be drawn from them. We are thus discovering anew a powerful state with an
elaborate administration, robust legislation, a well-developed taxation and financial system, an
effective army, and flourishing education. We are further astonished as we get to know the
material remains of an exceptionally high level of culture, both with respect to the urban
arrangement of Byzantine cities, their churches, palaces, civic buildings, private residences, and
infrastructure, as well as the multitude of monasteries and monastic communities scattered
throughout the countryside. Not to mention the glorious examples of wall painting, unique
portable icons and illuminated manuscripts, masterpieces of sculpture and silver- and
goldsmithing, and works in the other minor arts.
All these artworks and artifacts are abundant sources of information about institutions,
mores, customs, and practices that have survived down to our own time, and constitute a
sizeable part of our living intangible heritage. In the same spirit, the poet Constantine Cavafy
refers to the memories awakened every time he entered a Greek church: “its aroma of incense,
its liturgical chanting and harmony,” as well as “the majestic presence of the priests.” He
concludes by recalling what he calls “the great glories of our race, the splendor of our
Byzantine heritage” (C. Cavafy, “In Church,” trans. John Cavafy). For Byzantium was a

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multinational state distinguished by the Orthodox Christian faith and Greek education.
The language substrate of the Hellenistic koine, accompanied by the study and preservation of
ancient Greek literature and the growth of a literate society, functioned as a unifying
component par excellence within a multicultural reality. Through a process of assimilation,
mediation, and transformation, the secular heritages of Greece and Rome eventually became
constituents of the cultural distinctiveness of Byzantium, to the point that the last emperor,
Constantine XI Palaiologos, thought it appropriate to describe himself as a descendent of the
Greeks and the Romans.
The third major contributor to Byzantium’s long-lasting power and prestige was
undoubtedly the adoption of the Orthodox faith, which for a long period made it the sole
model of a Christian kingdom. The concurrence of secular and religious power, the formation of
an official ideology according to which imperial power emanated from divine power, the
osmosis between the Christian ideal and civic agendas, played a decisive role in the creation of
an idiosyncratic but exceptionally coherent system of sovereignty. A system with both the
emperor and the patriarch at its core. While the imperial court appeared as the reflection of the
heavenly one, at the level of the common man earthly obligations and pleasures, in concert with
the expectation of eternal life and the consequent care for the soul, defined the axes of life in the
present. In this life, the “here” and “now” were directly linked with the hereafter and eternity.
A new and fuller picture of the various aspects of Byzantine private and social life, as well as of
the venues and artifacts associated with it, continues to emerge from ongoing research.
The secular and the religious, the earthly and the heavenly, earth, paradise, and hell, the
Greco-Roman heritage in conjunction with Christian theology and Orthodox dogma, all
permeate the objects displayed in this exhibition, whose goal is to shed new light on the many
facets of Byzantium by suggesting a new way of “reading” and interpretation. The more than
170 exhibits from museums and collections around Greece presented to the American public
on this occasion are in the lead in what has become a fascinating journey. This exhibition
could not have been mounted without the active participation and arduous efforts of almost
every archaeological department of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, which has
been committed, together with the staff of the Benaki Museum, to the necessary preparations
since 2010. Collaboration between Greek museums, academic institutions, and individual
scholars and researchers and their counterparts in the United States has also been exemplary.
I therefore wish to congratulate them and express my deep appreciation and gratitude to all
involved for their dedication and contributions to the success of this major endeavor.

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INTRODUCTION
MARIA ANDREADAKI-VLAZAKI
Director General of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage
Hellenic Republic
Ministry of Culture and Sports

AIMILIA YEROULANOU
Art Historian, President of the Board of Trustees
Benaki Museum

ny attempt to understand a civilization must also consider the space within which it

A developed. Accordingly, the design of the exhibition Heaven and Earth. Art of
Byzantium from Greek Collections, connects the exhibited items with the Greek
territory, the environment within which the objects were created and/or hoarded. The present
companion volume furthers this contextualization by providing an overview of the Byzantine
period in the area of modern Greece.
What role did Greece play in the Middle Byzantine period, a time characterized by a
general trend expressing a turn toward antiquity, known as the “Macedonian renaissance”?
This question, complex and far from unambiguous, is explored through evidence from the
written sources, and is discussed in terms of its ideological-political dimension, in the first
chapter, “Byzantium and Hellas. Some lesser known aspects of the Helladic Connection
(8th–12th centuries)”.
Our fragmentary knowledge of the rural countryside of Byzantine Greece has been
substantially enriched through archaeological projects undertaken in the framework of large-
and small-scale public works over the last two decades. Newly identified rural sites, including
way stations or inns, rural villas, cemeteries, settlements, baths, and large or small workshop
installations, contribute to the composition of an archaeological map of Byzantine Greece.
These new discoveries are examined in the second chapter, “Rural Greece in the Byzantine
Period in Light of New Archaeological Evidence.”
Moving from the countryside to more organized urban centers, the introductory chapter
“Byzantine Cities in Greece” initiates the discussion by posing the issues surrounding the use
of the term “city.” Focusing the study on the built environment and public space, urban
planning, architecture, and the functions of Byzantine cities in Greece, this chapter also raises
the issue of the tremendous gaps in our knowledge resulting from the loss of a significant
portion of written sources and archaeological data. Methodologically, the subject is divided
into four large chronological units, a division adopted by other essays in this volume as well
as by Byzantine studies in general: the Early Christian or Proto-Byzantine period (4th–6th
centuries), the Dark Ages (7th–9th centuries), the Middle Byzantine period (10th century–
1204), and the Late Byzantine period (1204–1453).
In the fourteen essays that follow, the reader is given the opportunity to “visit imaginarily”
an equal number of Byzantine cities in Greece, starting in the north of the country and
ending at its southernmost edge, the island of Crete. Common to all of these cities is their
Greco-Roman past, as well as their historical, political, social, and cultural importance during
the Byzantine era.
Our first destination on the tour is Thessalonike, the second largest city of the Byzantine
Empire, after the capital Constantinople, and the second largest city of Greece today, after the
capital Athens. Rich in secular and ecclesiastical monuments dating from all the historical
periods of Byzantium, Thessalonike is in our day an outstanding “open museum” of
Byzantine art.

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 Philippi, in eastern Macedonia, was also a city with a multicultural character. Home to
the first Christian community of Europe, Philippi flourished during the Roman and Early
Christian periods. This brilliant past is visible today in the city’s large archaeological site
preserving magnificent, richly decorated churches, the forum, and the theater.
In the hills of western Macedonia the Byzantine city of Berroia developed into the
administrative and ecclesiastical center of the region. At the peak of its prosperity in the
fourteenth century, the city hosted the most prominent figures of the political, intellectual,
and artistic life of the empire, such as the emperor John Kantakouzenos, the spiritual leader of
the Hesychast movement Gregory Palamas, and the painter Georgios Kallierges, who
decorated the church of the Anastasis with outstanding wall paintings, examples of the
Palaiologan renaissance.
Kastoria, in western Macedonia, occupies a unique geographical position, built on a
peninsula extending into the homonymous lake. The city gradually developed within its
Early Christian walls, and at the end of the tenth century appears as a well-organized and
lively urban center. A particular characteristic of the city is its numerous small churches
decorated with high-quality wall paintings.
The city of Arta, occupying the site of ancient Ambrakia in northwestern Greece,
particularly flourished during the Late Byzantine period. At this time, after the Byzantine
Empire fell to the Crusaders, the city became the capital of the new independent Greek state,
the Despotate of Epiros. The despotai, members of the noble Komnenos Doukas family,
adorned the city and its surrounding area with important buildings, many of which survive
today, including numerous churches with elaborate decorative brickwork, sculpture, and
murals.
Nikopolis—the City of Victory—was founded by the Roman emperor Octavian
Augustus in honor of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Aktium
in 31 B.C. The city prospered during the Roman and Early Byzantine periods, when it
functioned as the administrative and ecclesiastical center of the wider region. Today it is an
organized archaeological site, impressive to visitors for the size and opulence of its
monuments.
The city of Thessalian Thebes, on the western shore of the Pagasetic Gulf, succeeded
ancient Pyrassos, the harbor of Phthiotic Thebes. From the time of the Pax Romana onward,
the coastal city began to absorb the residents of Phthiotic Thebes and eventually appropriated
its name. Although a large part of Thebes is and will remain buried beneath the modern city
of Nea Anchialos, both the Byzantine sources and the finds from excavations help compose a
picture of a port city brimming with life during the Early Byzantine period.
Due to its glorious past, the city of Athens continued to function as a center for
education and culture into the Early Byzantine period. The abolition of its philosophical
schools in 529 by decree of the emperor Justinian irreparably damaged the city’s development.
Later, during the Middle Byzantine period, at the time of the resurgence of the empire,
Athens again saw new growth. New churches were constructed; their harmonious
proportions, serenity, and classical spirit make them significant landmarks in today’s dense
urban fabric.
Thebes, the city of mythical Kadmos, with its seven-gated wall, has been located on the
same spot since prehistory. Early Byzantine Thebes prospered and flourished until
approximately the middle of the sixth century. During the Middle Byzantine period the city
became a medieval urban center, with artisanal production, commercial traffic, and intense
building activity. The main source of wealth was its craft production of luxurious silk textiles,
the fame of which, in the twelfth century, surpassed even that of Constantinopolitan goods.
Corinth, one of the leading urban centers of Greek antiquity, retained its importance
during the Byzantine period as well. Its privileged geographical position on the only land
passage connecting the Peloponnesos with the Greek mainland made the city a political,
military, and economic center. Moreover, with its two harbors, Lechaion and Kenchreai, the
city developed as the commercial hub of the Mediterranean. In more recent times, Corinth

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played a crucial role in the development of Byzantine archaeology; the systematic excavations
undertaken there by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens since the end of the
nineteenth century and the Greek Archaeological Service have made substantial
contributions to the study of Byzantine culture.
Another important city of antiquity, Argos, also flourished in the Early Byzantine period,
when its urban fabric became enriched with ecclesiastical complexes as well as luxurious
residences with elaborate mosaic floors. From the tenth to the twelfth centuries Argos saw a
second period of economic prosperity through the development of artisanal production. This
prosperity is reflected in an impressive group of Middle Byzantine churches preserved in the
wider Argolid region.
The citadel of Mistra in the southern Peloponnesos developed around a mid-thirteenth
century Frankish fortress that came under Byzantine control. Today it preserves the form of
a fortified urban center of the Late Byzantine period. The city initially served as the seat of
the administration of the Peloponnesos, and from the middle of the fourteenth century
onward the capital of the semi-autonomous Despotate of the Morea, which enjoyed an
immediate political relationship with Constantinople. Ascribed to this close and continuous
contact with the capital is the city’s high level of intellectual and cultural development,
following the prototype of the metropolis.
The Byzantine city of Rhodes, although more limited in size and power than the ancient
city, nevertheless retained its strategic importance in the eastern Mediterranean. In 1309 the
island was conquered by the religious-military Order of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem,
and the city of Rhodes became the administrative center of the State of the Knights, to
which most of the islands of the Dodekanese belonged. As the harbor of Rhodes developed
into an important hub for trade between East and West, the city, with its intense
multicultural character, saw great economic, social, and cultural growth, and developed its
own particular architecture with strong Western influences.
The city of Herakleion on the north coast of Crete is attested in the Early Byzantine
period as a fortified city, known also as Kastro. After the island’s fall to the Arabs in 827,
Chandax, the city’s new name, became the Cretan capital, and a period of notable commercial,
economic, and cultural development ensued. Significant prosperity was also known in the
city after the reconquest of Crete by the Byzantines in 961. During the period following the
Fourth Crusade (1204) up until the Ottoman conquest (1669), the city, now called Candia,
lived under Venetian domination. It acquired imposing secular and ecclesiastical buildings,
while its harbor developed into an international center of sea trade between East and West.
This tour through Byzantine Greece would not be complete without a stop examining
the modern approach to the world of Byzantium in Greek museums. This is all the more
important since many of these museums are sited in the very cities that form the stations of
this tour, and furthermore, have lent works for the present exhibition. This subject forms the
topic of the final chapter, “The world of Byzantium in Greek Public Museums: Old and
New Approaches.” In addition, this chapter discusses the growing interest in Greece in
promoting the Byzantine past, attributing it to a quest for self-knowledge, as well as an
attempt to show the nation’s historical continuity from prehistory through modern times.
In closing, we wish to take this opportunity to thank the specialists who contributed their
texts to this collaborative publication effort.

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 Corinth
DEMETRIOS ATHANASOULIS

ithout a doubt, Corinth

W occupies a privileged position

in the study of Byzantine
culture in Southern Greece.1 First, Corinth
was the Byzantine heir of an important
center of Greek antiquity, and a metropolis
of numerous Greek colonies such as Corinthian Gulf
Syracuse. Although the ancient city
reached the peak of its power in the
Archaic Period (6th century B.C.), it did
not cease to have a key role until Late
Antiquity. The Greco-Roman past was Lechaion
constantly present in the city of the
Middle Ages, not only through the Greek
literary tradition of Byzantium2 but also
because the Byzantine city lived and grew
among the buildings of antiquity. Second,
Corinth was the capital of the Byzantine Corinth
regional administration of the Greek
peninsula, and the most important
medieval city south of Thessalonike.
Finally, Corinth played an instrumental
role in the birth and development of
Byzantine archaeology. The large
systematic excavations that began there at
the end of the nineteenth century under
the auspices of the American School of
Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA), with
the aim of uncovering ancient Corinth,
came across the great medieval ruined
town.3 Thus in the first decades of the
twentieth century, and despite the largely
dismissive opinion of Byzantium held by
archaeologists of the day, a methodical
excavation of an important section of a
Byzantine city was undertaken in Greece
for the first time. A few years later the
finds were systematically published by R.
Scranton, C. Morgan, and other scholars,
comprising a unique corpus for the study
of Byzantine civilization.4

Fig. 171 | Aerial view of Acrocorinth from the west.

| 192 |
Isthmus Saronic Gulf

Peloponnesos

Acrocorinth

| 193 |
 Kenchreai

To Kenchreai
Harbor

| 194 |
 Proto Transi- Middle Crusader Today we may again appreciate
No. MONUMENT - EXCAVATION Byzantine tional Byzantine and Late Byzantine Corinth and the role it played
Period Period Period Byz. Period
using data from field research. However,
1. SW citadel X X
the most crucial fact arising from this
2. Byzantine church in sanctuary of Aphrodite X X X X new research is that, in effect, we are in
Proto-Byzantine cemetery in sanctuary of Demeter no position to evaluate the overall
3. X
and Kore importance of the city. This comes from
4. Proto-Byzantine cemetery X the realization that the plethora of
5. Middle Byzantine building (10th – 11th c.) X information that originally proved the
city a hallmark for Byzantine archaeology
6. Tri-conch building X
was in fact entirely generated from
7. Middle Byzantine building X excavation of only a small portion of its
8. Middle Byzantine buildings X X X area, which does not even include the
9. Panagia Field (Proto-Byzantine building & bath) X X
city’s administrative and religious centers
in the first millennium.5
10. Church of Hagia Paraskeve X X X
Undoubtedly, Corinth’s comparative
11. Byzantine house (5th – 12th c.) X X X advantage, which ensured its prominence
12. Middle Byzantine building X throughout classical antiquity and the
13. Early Christian basilica (?) X
medieval period, was its geographic
position (figs. 171–72). Founded next to a
Proto-Byzantine bath and Middle Byzantine building
14.
(12th – early 13th c.)
X X X X narrow neck of land connecting the
Peloponnesos with the mainland Greek
15. Middle Byzantine urban fabric (12th – early 13th c.) X X X X
peninsula, it developed into the crossroads
16. Kraneion Basilica X X X X
where overland routes from all over the
Early Christian complex with centrally planned Peloponnesos converged to traverse the
17. X
building
Isthmus.6 It thus acquired strategic
Proto-Byzantine building reused until the Middle
18.
Byzantine Period and Proto-Byzantine enceinte
X X X importance in the military, commercial,
and finally political control of the
19. Proto-Byzantine bath with new use until the 11th c. X X X
Peloponnesos. Of even more importance
20. Proto-Byzantine enceinte & extra muros cemetery X was its function as a link connecting sea
21. Proto-Byzantine cemetery (5th – 7th c.) X communication. With two harbors from
22. Proto-Byzantine & Middle Byzantine house X X X X
antiquity, at Lechaion on the Gulf of
Corinth with an eye to the West, and at
23. Proto-Byzantine building X
Kenchreai on the Saronic Gulf oriented
Proto-Byzantine cemetery of Asklepieion-Lerna &
24. X X toward the East,7 Corinth occupied a
chapel
nodal position on the main crossroads for
25. Proto-Byzantine cemetery (5th – 6th c.) X
maritime trade in the Mediterranean.
26. KodratÔs Basilica X X X The urban core of ancient and
27.
Proto-Byzantine cemetery & buildings (Highway
X
medieval Corinth developed on the gently
rescue excavation)
sloping plateau at the northern foot of the
28. Proto-Byzantine cemetery at Plevres X Acrocorinth hill, with a view toward the
29. Basilica at Skoutela X Gulf of Corinth. It boasted abundant
Proto-Byzantine agricultural-industrial installation
fountains and was surrounded by fertile
30. X
(6th-7th c.) soil, while the subsoil provided high-
31. Proto-Byzantine buildings X quality porous stone for building material
and clay for the production of pottery.8
32. Proto-Byzantine buildings X
The ancient acropolis and later medieval
33. Proto-Byzantine buildings X citadel occupied the peak of the naturally
34. Roman Fountain X fortified Acrocorinth. The city, the
35. Leonides Basilica X X X
acropolis, and the harbor of Lechaion were
connected in antiquity by walls.
Fig. 172 | Topographical map of Byzantine Corinth with locations of monuments and excavations. Based on: ASCSA
In Byzantium Corinth’s function was
plan (J. Herbst). Site indications: 25th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities (D. Athanasoulis and G. Kousoulos). based on a unique, polycentric model, with

| 195 |
 Fig. 173 | Aerial view from the south of the Kraneion Basilica (Basilica of the Kenchrean Gate), first half of the 6th century.

the “chora” and the “emporion” in the emerged as the seat of the proconsul of the and two additions made to it in the fifth
center, surrounded by the satellites of the province of Achaia, in other words capital and sixth centuries14 show that Corinth
citadel at Acrocorinth, the two harbors at of the Roman administration in Greece. continued to function as an urban center,15
Lechaion and Kenchreai, and the Around the hillock with the archaic though the forum gradually lost its
Hexamilion Wall with its castle on the Temple of Apollo, Corinth’s diachronic monumental character and was finally
Isthmus. In the late Middle Ages the city landmark, the public buildings of the abandoned at the end of the sixth
moved to the castle of Acrocorinth, while Roman city developed: to the north, the century.16 Ancient temples and public
later, during the period of Ottoman theater and the odeon, and to the south, buildings, when not in ruins, were given
domination, it developed in its former the large forum (figs. 172, 179).10 This is new functions.
location anew.9 precisely the only section of the ancient During this period, Corinth, like most
city and its medieval successor that has of the cities of the empire, was refortified.
been systematically excavated and studied.11 Its new enceinte encloses a much smaller
Proto-Byzantine Corinth Proto-Byzantine Corinth remained the area than that encompassed by the ancient
(4th–7th centuries) capital of the province of Southern Greece, walls, which were rendered useless by
and developed dynamically, as indicated by Mummius. The fortified area, though
In 146 B.C. the final victory of the intense building activity.12 Earthquakes in relatively large for the time, only enclosed a
Romans over the Greeks was sealed with the middle of the fourth century and raids portion of Proto-Byzantine Corinth, a
the complete destruction of the leading by the Goths under Alaric (395) failed to discordance that begs the question not
Greek city of Corinth by the general lead to the city’s decline. On the contrary, only of the dating but also of the course of
Lucius Mummius. A century later, in 44 it continued to evolve. At the end of the the enclosure.
B.C., Julius Caesar reestablished the city as fourth–beginning of the fifth century, the The courses of the eastern and
a Roman colony (Colonia Laus Iulia forum was radically rearranged.13 The northeastern fortification walls have been
Corinthiensis), which fully regained its monumental reconstruction of the Peirene traced by excavations (fig. 172:18, 20).17 At
significance in the imperial period. Corinth Fountain at the end of the fourth century, the site of Kraneion, the development of

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the northeastern cemetery right up to the sixth century. In fact, recent excavations by the city after the advanced sixth century,20
edge of the Proto-Byzantine enceinte the 25th Ephorate of Byzantine a time when insecurity reigned during the
confirms the walls’ course in this area, Antiquities have extended Proto-Byzantine Slavic raids. As the existence of successive
given that burials continued to be made Corinth even farther to the west up to the phases in the walls has been documented
extra muros during this period. To the site of Zekio (fig. 172:11), toward the north by archaeological research,21 we should not
north, the enclosure followed the brow to the site of Murat Aga (fig. 172:22), and rule out the possibility that there was a
formed by the edge of the Corinthian toward the south as far as an impressive larger enclosure wall at the beginning of
plateau. To the west, the fact that the tri-conch fountain building (fig. 172:6). the fifth century,22 but that its western
forum was used as an area for burial after Given the fact that the fortifications do edge was moved farther to the east in the
the advanced sixth century makes a not seem to match the extent of the city of second half of the sixth century.
convincing case for the view that the the fourth to the beginning of the sixth The Proto-Byzantine defensive
fortifications closed farther to the east, centuries, it is possible that the enceinte organization of Corinth also included a
leaving the Roman agora outside.18 belongs to the extensive Justinian building linear fortification that blocked the
Nevertheless, the area containing the program which changed the physiognomy Isthmus, the Hexamilion Wall, as well as
forum and the theater, surrounding the of Corinth and included fortification the autonomous fortified citadel at
hill of the Temple of Apollo, continued to works.19 Even more likely, however, they Acrocorinth (figs. 171–72).23 This defensive
be an active section of the city until the may be associated with the shrinking of arrangement would be of decisive

Fig. 174 | Aerial view of the Lechaion harbor and the Leonides Basilica (first half of the 6th c.) from the northwest.

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 expanded to the south inside the ruined
ancient walls up to the outer face of the
Proto-Byzantine fortifications (fig. 172:20–
21, 24–25, 27–28).38 The area around the
Asklepieion and the Lerna Fountain was
transformed into a Christian cemetery in
the sixth century (fig. 172:24).39 To the
south of the town, at the foot of
Acrocorinth, a Proto-Byzantine cemetery
developed in the space between the
Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore and the
fountain of Hadjimustafa40 (fig. 172:3–4).
Fig. 175 | Early Christian animal capital Toward the end of the sixth and into the
from Arapomahalas, intra muros
Corinth, 6th century. Corinth, 25th seventh century, the forum also became a
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities. cemetery.41 The Christianization of
Corinth is encapsulated in the history of
the Peirene Fountain, which, in order to
importance for the spatial organization of centuries, had a large, elongated space be used as a cemetery, was stripped of its
Corinth throughout the Middle Ages. divided in half by a tribelon—a passage ancient statuary. The statues were then cut
The Hexamilion Wall24 formed the with two columns creating three curtained to pieces and buried.42 The Proto-
boundary of the Peloponnesos for openings—an arrangement reminiscent of Byzantine Christian tombs of Corinth
approximately a thousand years. a house to the east of the Peirene belong to two main categories; simple tile-
Constructed in a similar way to the Fountain.30 Two more houses with mosaic covered graves or more ornate cist graves.
fortifications of Corinth, the wall is floors were recently discovered farther to The number and quality of the latter are
reinforced at intervals by dozens of the west at the site of Zekio by the 25th indicative of the city’s prosperity during
quadrilateral towers. Its first phase has been EBA (fig. 172:11, 23). this period.
dated to the beginning of the fifth century, Farmsteads and rural houses developed The Apostolic Church of Corinth,
but it was drastically reconstructed by in the suburban zone around the city, and founded by the apostle Paul, evolved into
Justinian during the years 548–60. On in particular on the plain between Corinth the metropolitan see of the province of
Acrocorinth the ancient fortifications were and Lechaion. A recently excavated Greece (Achaia). Nevertheless, the
repeatedly rebuilt and repaired, leaving example is the extensive installation for the influence of Christianity on the urban
visible phases dating up to the nineteenth processing of agricultural products found landscape and the functioning of the city
century (figs. 171–72).25 The at the site of Koutoumatsa (5th–7th are felt quite late.43 At least until the fourth
documentation of the Proto-Byzantine centuries) (fig. 172:30).31 Important Proto- century the ancient religion survives
phase of these fortifications is problematic. Byzantine settlements also developed in symbiotically with Christianity.44 Only in
However, the space was certainly utilized, the two harbors, Kenchreai32 and the sixth century are the symbols of the
as is evidenced by the Early Christian Lechaion33 (fig. 172:31–33). new religion erected in the city, namely the
basilica (fig. 172:2), the large, two-aisled, The Roman way of life in the city large Early Christian basilicas. They
vaulted, brick-built cistern,26 and dozens of survived until the sixth century, as became the new landmarks as well as
architectural members and movable finds evidenced by the construction of baths (fig. centers for public life, at a time when the
of the same period. All of these presuppose 172:14, 19).34 In general, the Proto- forum ceased to be the city’s heart. All the
fortification works that would have Byzantine baths are smaller and have basilicas known today are located outside
repaired the ancient enclosure wall. individual basins, adapting to new the city’s urban fabric. The Kraneion
Very few Proto-Byzantine houses have circumstances, as much to do with the Basilica, also known as the Basilica of the
been investigated in Corinth. Examples preference for personal bathing as with the Kenchreai Gate (first half of the 6th
include large villas, several of which have conservation of water.35 The small bath at century), was erected to the east45 (figs.
mosaic floors. Typical are the large houses Kraneion, comprised of an eight-conch 172:16, 173). It is a three-aisle, timber-roofed
of the fifth century, located above the caldarium with individual basins set in the basilica with transept, with rows of piers
South Basilica27 and at the edge of the corner niches, is indicative of the high separating the aisles. The complex
Panagia Field (fig. 172:9),28 with their quality of these buildings (fig. 172:14).36 comprises an atrium and a baptistery, and
apsidal triclinia.29 A house at the site In Proto-Byzantine Corinth the large it was also used as a funerary church,
Murat Aga (fig. 172:22), which is dated by northern Roman cemetery37 continued in indicated by the large number of burials,
ceramic evidence to the fifth–seventh use. Later during this period it was the tomb chambers attached to its long

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sides, as well as a triconch mausoleum on
the south. In the city’s large northern
cemetery a three-aisle funerary basilica was
erected as the martyrium of Saint KodratÔs
(6th century) (fig. 172:26).46 To the
Fig. 177 | Lead seal of Ioannes,
northwest of the city, at the site of basilikos protospatharios and judge
Skoutela, another three-aisle basilica of the of the Peloponnesos, from Zekio,
west of the forum quarter, Corinth,
same period was found (fig. 172:29).47 A 10th century. Corinth, 25th Ephorate of
fourth basilica had been built on the Byzantine Antiquities.
highest peak of Acrocorinth, on the
location of the sanctuary of Aphrodite (fig. to Constantinople. Its size, its quality of research, as the convincing indications for
172:2).48 construction, and its ties to the capital three undiscovered Early Christian
Indicative of the importance of the two make it very likely that the church was an churches in the center make perfectly
harbors of Proto-Byzantine Corinth, imperial gift meant to distinguish Corinth, clear.54 The first is located at Kraneion, in
Lechaion and Kenchreai, are the endowing the city with a landmark the northeastern section of the fortified
impressive basilicas erected there in the martyrium equal to the church of Hagios city (fig. 172:17). Strong piers appear to
sixth century. The Lechaion basilica, the Demetrios in Thessalonike.51 On the have marked a large central-plan domed
martyrium of Saint Leonides, founded southern mole of the harbor at Kenchreai building, which, according to D. Pallas,
next to the sea, dominated the harbor of there is a basilica which, according to D. was a martyrium of the sixth century.55
Lechaion with its colossal dimensions: its Pallas, originally had five aisles and was To the east of the forum, at a central spot
total length of 590 feet (180 m) makes it later transformed into a three-aisle inside the Proto-Byzantine fortifications,
one of the largest basilicas in the world structure.52 Two more basilicas are noted two sixth-century animal capitals were
(figs. 172:35, 174).49 The three-aisle, transept to the north of the harbor and to the recently found (figs. 172:13, 175). They
basilica has a narthex, baptisteries, and northeast of the Koutsongila ridge.53 clearly come from an important, unknown
atria. A timber-roofed elevated dome rose The quantity and quality of the Early Early Christian building, most likely a
above the bema. The floors are decorated Christian churches found around the church. To the west of the Roman odeon,
with opus sectile and marble slabs, the periphery of the administrative and on the road toward Sikyon, tombs and
walls with mosaics, while the rich religious center of Greece emphatically walls were uncovered that may provide
sculptural decoration,50 of exceptional underscore their absence from the city evidence for the existence of an Early
artistry and carved from Prokonnesian center itself. This phenomenon is due to Christian basilica beneath the modern
marble, betrays the building’s relationship none other than a gap in archaeological chapel of Hagia Paraskeve (fig. 172:10).56
As evidenced from the imported
pottery, Corinth in the fifth century had
commercial ties with all the large centers
of the Mediterranean. Beginning in the
late sixth century the presence of locally
produced pottery increases, while contacts
with the eastern Mediterranean57 continue.
Despite the Slavic raids at the end of the
sixth century, the city retained its urban
character into the seventh century, as
evidenced by the imported ceramics58 and
confirmed by the continual use of the
basilicas and houses.59

Corinth during the

Transitional
Period (7th century–843)
In the Transitional Period, the “Dark
Fig. 176 | Panel of the Transitional Period from the Kodratos Basilica, Northern Cemetery, Corinth. Corinth, 25th
Age” of tectonic changes that transformed
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities the social, economic, political, and cultural

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 landscape of Late Antiquity and created smaller church was built inside its apse Middle Byzantine Corinth
the medieval structure of the Byzantine (fig. 172:35).69 At this time a chapel was (843–1210)
Empire, cities dramatically shrank in size, founded at Lerna (fig. 172:24),70 and on the
as the drop in building activity reveals. hill of Apollo a church with a three-sided Corinth remained an important center
The spread of the Arab threat and the apse and marble inlays, perhaps a three- in the Middle Byzantine period, even after
Slavic invasions made commerce and aisle basilica, was erected (fig. 179:3).71 The the first half of the eleventh century, when
communication difficult, and as a result discovery of burials of the eighth century72 the theme of Peloponnesos was merged
there was a corresponding decrease in within this building, the proportions of its with that of Greece, with a common
monetary circulation.60 The progressive plan, the use of spolia in its construction, capital in Thebes. The city saw great
weakening of imperial authority in the and the form of the marble inlayed floor economic development that may be traced
Peloponnesos, which was plagued by connect this church with the Transitional through the centuries: in the ninth
demographic crisis and the subsequent Period, without excluding a later date.73 century there was an early remonetization
presence of the Slavs from the seventh Recent excavations undertaken by the of trade;83 in the tenth, with the
century, did not leave Constantinople 25th EBA have enriched the map of eradication of the Arab threat (mainly
indifferent. The state, in an attempt to Corinth during the Transitional Period after the reacquisition of Crete in 961),
regain control, reorganized the imperial with new locations of urban use: inside there was a corresponding growth in
administrative system, creating the theme the walls at the site of Kraneion (fig. commerce, and pottery was imported from
of Hellas, with its capital in Corinth, 172:18–19),74 north at Murat Aga (fig. Constantinople, the Adriatic, and the
between 687 and 695.61 In 732/33, under 172:22), and west at Zekio (fig. 172:11) and Aegean (fig. 178:1, 8); and finally, in the
the metropolitan of Corinth, who bore the Koutsoukomahalas (fig. 172:8). It is eleventh century an early “democratization”
title “archbishop of Greece,”62 Achaia expected that, in such a period of recession, in the consumption of high-quality glazed
passed ecclesiastically from Rome to the architectural remains would be limited, pottery for personal use occurred in
jurisdiction of the patriarch of since building activity was mainly Corinth—thirty to fifty years earlier than
Constantinople. In about the middle of the concerned with the hasty repair and reuse in other cities and the countryside (fig.
same century new metropolitan and of older structures. The continuous 178).84 Beginning in the ninth century the
episcopal sees were founded.63 Between inhabitation of the city during the city became a center for taxation and state
786 and 788 the theme of Peloponnesos Transitional Period is primarily control of trade, with the presence of
was established, detached from the theme documented through pottery, architectural imperial officials who contributed to its
of Greece, with its capital again at sculpture, and small finds such as coins, development and growth (figs. 177, 182).
Corinth.64 In 805, after the victory of buckles, and minor objects,75 as well as a Apart from its local craftsmanship, the
Nikephoros I over the Slavs, a plethora of graves. Connections between Peloponnesian town was also the central
metropolitan see was founded in Patras, Corinth and Constantinople are confirmed hub where local products were collected
and, subsequently the larger part of the by the imported White Ware.76 and traded, the main exports being silk,
Peloponnesos was removed from the The security provided by Acrocorinth pottery, and such agricultural products as
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Corinth.65 was duly exploited in the turbulent Dark oil, olives, wine, and raisins.85 Characteristic
The available archaeological evidence Ages, as the small finds indicate.77 products of the flourishing local ceramic
for Corinth, despite its crucial importance, Examples include two recent finds dating production are types of glazed wares such
is limited.66 This fragmentary picture is to the eighth century: a buckle of the as Slip-Painted, Fine Sgraffito, and
due in part to gaps in research, for, from Corinthian type78 and a lead seal of the Measles wares (figs. 178:2–7, 181:9).86
this period of “castralisation,” extensive consul John.79 The basilica continued to be Venetians also participated in the city’s
excavations have not been undertaken in used in the seventh century, while trade as early as the eleventh century.87
the city’s castles: the fortified city to the interventions to the enceinte cannot be The prosperity of the city with its two
east of the forum and Acrocorinth. ruled out. In any case, the passage by harbors88 was not diminished by the
In the seventh century large central Constantine Porphyrogennetos, “a general pillaging of the Normans under Roger II
sections of the Proto-Byzantine city, such resided . . . in the castle of Corinth” of Sicily in 1147, for in 1154 Roger’s
as the forum, were abandoned and became (…ÛÙÚ·ÙËÁ ò˜ ῾˘Ë῀ Ú¯ÂÓ …Â᾿Ó Î¿ÛÙÚῳ ∫ÔÚ›ÓıÔ˘), geographer Al-Idrīsī described Corinth as
cemeteries.67 Sporadically, burials also begin dating to 812, does not necessarily refer to “large and populous” and “first among the
to be made within the city walls, as at Acrocorinth, since the fortified lower city cities of the Peloponnesos”.89 Parallel with
Kraneion (fig. 172:19).68 The basilicas was also called a castle at that time.80 this economic growth, the city also saw a
survived or were rebuilt: the Kodratos Throughout the Transitional Period flowering of its intellectual life.90 It had
Basilica operated throughout the Kenchreai continued to be inhabited,81 while schools for small children since the tenth
Transitional Period (figs. 172:26, 176). At at Lechaion the settlement at Diavatiki century.91 This period of great prosperity
Lechaion, after the collapse of the basilica a survived, though smaller in extent.82 finally came to an end with the conquest

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 1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

Fig. 178 | Middle and Late Byzantine glazed

pottery from Corinth. 1: Polychrome Ware;
2: Fine Sgraffito Ware (unfinished); 3-4: Fine
Sgraffito Ware; 5: Slip-Painted Ware – Dark on
Light Ware (unfinished); 6: Slip-Painted Ware –
Dark on Light Ware; 7: Slip-Painted Ware – Light
on Dark; 8: Lustre Ware; 9: Measles Ware;
10: Champlevé Ware; 11-14: Italian Proto-maiolica 9 10 11
Ware. Corinth, Archaeological Museum and 25th
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities.

of Corinth by the lord of Nauplion, Leo

Sgouros, in 1203.
In Middle Byzantine Corinth basic 12 13
protection continued to be provided by the
Proto-Byzantine fortification, as confirmed
by the relevant information from the
Chronicle of the Morea (fig. 172).92 Niketas the eleventh centuries. Such a dearth of
Choniates calls the city an “emporion,”93 a buildings, in combination with the
term commonly used for extra muros urban contrasting wealth of numismatic evidence,
sectors where commercial transactions take makes it likely that an open-air market-fair
place. The term, which indirectly indicates (emporopanygeris) operated in the area.94
14
the intense commercial activity taking The urban fabric began to expand over
place in Corinth, perhaps refers to the the forum beginning in the end of the
quarter that developed in the Roman eleventh century (fig. 179). It does not
forum, or possibly to the entire lower city appear to follow an urban plan, but rather the Lechaion Road was still in use, and its
to distinguish it from the citadel of to have expanded dynamically, taking over Western Shops were reused (fig. 179:6).95
Acrocorinth. The area extending over the the space gradually and incorporating the The wide road, the marketplace, was
Roman forum in the lower city has been ruins of the ancient buildings. The forum flanked by shops with rarely more than
precisely the focus of intense archaeological quarter survived until the fourteenth one or two rooms (fig. 179:11–12).96 Along
investigation heretofore. Since it was used century. Its layout was dominated by a the market streets light wooden
as a cemetery from the sixth to the eighth central road on the east–west axis, with colonnaded stoas were arrayed in front of
centuries, very few building remains are smaller perpendicular alleys leading off the shops (fig. 179:12).
preserved from the ninth to the middle of among the buildings. Toward the north A typical example is a twelfth-century

| 201 |
 Fig. 179 | Corinth, the forum quarter (11th–14th c.). Ground plan. Based on: ASCSA plans (R. Scranton, H. Robinson, C. K. Williams II, J. Herbst, and P. Riavez). Recomposition: 25th
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities (D. Athanasoulis and G. Kousoulos).
1, 15, 18, 24: baths; 2, 16: houses; 3: Church on the hill; 4: Archaic Temple of Apollo; 5: Lechaion Street; 6: shops on Lechaion Street; 7: Peirene Fountain; 8: church in Peirene;
9: building with wall paintings; 10: Hagios Ioannes Monastery; 11-12, 20: Central commercial streets with colonnaded stoas; 13: Bema church; 14: tower-like chapel; 17: church
in the Frankish core; 19: building complex with inn; 21: building complex with courtyard, workshops and passageway on the road; 22: large Byzantine building; 23: house with
central courtyard.

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Fig. 180 | Zekio, west of the forum quarter, Corinth, Proto-Byzantine building complex in use until the Middle Byzantine Period.

complex with four shops/workshops. At Middle Road, in which, in the largest Although preserved to a height only just
their rear, a common hall facilitated room, a vault resting on columns above the foundations, the quality of its
intercommunication, while they backed supported the floor of the upper story (fig. construction is apparent from the pseudo-
onto an enclosed central courtyard (fig. 179:16).100 Some houses have an elongated cloisonné masonry into which large stone
179:21). On the façade, the upper floor, arrangement, such as the house with three blocks are inserted, forming T’s or crosses.104
supported by pilasters and a colonnade, rooms situated to the east of the bath on It is an important secular building which
overhung the street.97 Inside the buildings Lechaion Road (fig. 179:2).101 The larger either had a public function or was the
ceramic, copper,98 and goldsmiths’ houses developed around an enclosed residence of some archon.
workshops, production spaces, ceramic courtyard, such as the complex excavated Noteworthy is the so-called tower to
kilns, crafts installations, and wine and at the southernmost edge of the quarter the west of the Bema Church, built with
olive presses have been identified, as well (fig. 179:2).102 In general, the plan of the cloisonné masonry and clusters of bricks
as residential spaces.99 The western section quarter makes it clear that the urban forming Greek letters in the vertical joints
of the excavated Middle Byzantine city fabric, aside from the shops open onto the (fig. 179:14).105 It is a small, elongated
was later covered by a neighborhood of the street, was organized into large cells with building oriented east–west and with deep
Frankish Period (13th–beginning of the an enclosed courtyard at their core. foundations, indicating that it probably had
14th century) (fig. 179:17, 19–20). A large long building in the two stories above the ground floor. It
Buildings with securely residential use southwestern cluster stands out among the possibly housed a vaulted funerary (?)
are relatively limited, since the excavated structures in the forum quarter.103 It is part chapel, which consisted of narthex and
section of the city had primarily a of a larger complex developed around a naos, the long sides of which were bordered
commercial and industrial character. central courtyard (fig. 179:22). Its strong by deep blind arches. Two buttresses
Residences are typically two-story, such as walls and deep foundations indicate that it protruding from the middle of the eastern
the house at the western edge of the had two stories above the ground floor. side perhaps supported a projecting apse.

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 Fig. 181 | Acrocorinth, Middle Byzantine gate complex of the innermost line of fortifications.

From the interior, fragments of wall within the area enclosed by the Proto- (fig. 181). The gate in the central curtain
paintings and mosaics were collected. The Byzantine wall (fig. 172). Potential wall took the form of a vaulted passage
function of the upper stories remains confirmation of this may be found in secured by wooden door shutters and a
undetermined. Assuming its connection to recent discoveries, where dense construction portcullis. The impressive blind horseshoe
the Bema Church, it should not be of Middle Byzantine date has been revealed arch covered by a pediment and forming a
excluded that it was a bell tower. intra muros at the sites of Arapomahalas compressed porch, decorates the façade and
The four Byzantine baths in the forum (fig. 172:12) and Kraneion (fig. 172:14–15).107 accentuates the monumental character of
quarter confirm the importance of personal In any case, the city extended far beyond the official gate.110 In the masonry, apart
hygiene in Byzantium (fig. 179:1, 15, 18, the fortified section and the forum quarter: from columns and other spolia of mainly
24).106 The bath on the eastern side of to the west as far as the sites Proto-Byzantine date, cut porous stone
Lechaion Road is impressive for its size. Koutsoukomahalas (fig. 172:7-8) and Zekio blocks are used with bricks placed
The majority of the buildings of the quarter (fig. 172:11) and also to the north as far as primarily in the horizontal joints.
are constructions without particular Murat Aga (fig. 172:22), even if it was not The size and quality of the Middle
architectural design or ambitious intentions, a cohesive fabric on the periphery. A Byzantine Acrocorinth fortifications make
products of the anonymous architectural characteristic indication of the city’s extent it one of the most important building
tradition. Their walls are built with rubble is a large Middle Byzantine installation projects of the empire in Southern Greece.
masonry, include fragments of bricks and (10th–11th century) at the site of Zekio, The strong and expensive fortification
roof tiles, and are bonded together by clay installed in the remains of a Proto- works, in stark contrast to the old walls of
mortar. In general, building material from Byzantine villa (figs. 172:11, 180).108 the city, lead to the conclusion that
ancient buildings was recycled, while At this time Acrocorinth had strong Acrocorinth had now gained a prominent
standing ruins were functionally fortifications (figs. 171–72).109 The castle role in Corinth and was systematically
incorporated into the new structures. occupied the flat peak of the steep hill. The settled, while it also possibly served as the
The urban fabric extending in all enceinte developed along the brow of the seat of the administration. The remains of
directions outside the forum quarter cliff, incorporating older phases, to cover a buildings, the use of the fountain of Upper
remains unexplored. The center of Middle total length of nearly 1.9 miles (3 km). On Peirene,111 the pottery, and the plethora of
Byzantine Corinth, where the monumental the western side, where the main entrance various architectural members indicate
buildings would likely have been located, was located, a second wall was added to that there were residential quarters and
such as the cathedral, episcopate, public reinforce the defenses. The interior curtain churches in the citadel.
buildings, and noblemen’s houses, perhaps wall was strengthened at intervals with The measure of the fragmentary image
ought to be sought farther to the east, large, rectangular towers with arrow slits we have of Corinth, the capital of the

| 204 |
 Fig. 182 | Templon architrave with inscription of Petros, strategos (?) of the Peloponnesos, from the forum quarter of Corinth, first half of the 9th century.
Corinth, Archaeological Museum.

Peloponnesos, can be documented in the aisles and a narthex were added (fig. ruined church of Hagia Paraskeve is a
few churches found to date. In the forum 179:13). Its western façade had an reconstruction of an important, as yet
quarter four Middle Byzantine churches interesting monumental arrangement, with unknown, Middle Byzantine church, built
have been discovered. The church on the a staircase leading up to the main entrance with careful cloisonné masonry (fig.
hill of Apollo has a recognizable twelfth- and buttresses on either side. The 172:10).116 The Kodratos Basilica was also
century phase, most likely as a single-nave anonymous church, which belongs to a still in use in the Middle Byzantine
church (fig. 179:3).112 In the Peirene complex with numerous annexes, served period,117 while a particularly ambitious
Fountain a single-nave, barrel-vaulted the religious needs of the neighborhood, medieval phase of the Kraneion Basilica,
church with a three-sided apse and the and was possibly the katholikon of a converted into a domed church,118 shows
back room of the fountain as a narthex monastery. An earlier Byzantine church the dynamism of the city’s architectural
was constructed in the tenth–eleventh also seems to have existed at the site of the activity.
century (fig. 179:7–8).113 At the same time, later katholikon of the Crusader Monastery In Lechaion, within the ruins of the
at the site of the Roman bema114 a single- of Hagios Ioannes (fig. 179:10).115 Leonides Basilica, three churches were
nave church was founded, and later side Farther to the west, at Zekio, the old successively constructed in the area of its

Fig. 183 | Steiri at Korphos, in Korinthia, church of the Dormition of the Virgin, 11th century. The east and south sides of the church.

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 bema and apse. Of these, the second has
been dated to the eleventh century.119 The
retrofitting of the basilica of Kenchreai
into a single-nave church120 has also been
placed in the Middle Byzantine period.
Aside from the aforementioned
churches, many more are mentioned in the
written sources: the cathedral of Christ the
Savior,121 the church of Hagioi Theodoroi,
where the palladia, the icons of the
protectors of the city, the homonymous
saints Teron (fig. 184) and Stratelates, were
kept;122 the churches of the Virgin and the
bishop Photios on Acrocorinth, aside from
the Middle Byzantine successor of the
Early Christian basilica on its peak.123
Although known from written sources,
the Latin monastery of Hagios Nikolaos,
founded in Byzantine Corinth many
decades before the city’s conquest by the
Crusaders, remains unidentified.124
The hundreds of Middle Byzantine
sculptures from Corinth and Acrocorinth,
most of which are architectural members,
bear witness to the presence of local
workshops,125 while they also betray the
existence of other as yet unknown
churches. At least twenty Middle
Byzantine altar-screen architraves come
from the lower city, half of them from the
tenth and eleventh centuries, and
presuppose an analogous number of
churches (fig. 182). A somewhat
conflicting deduction can be made from
the evidence from Acrocorinth: fourteen
architraves have been found, half of which
date to the twelfth century, hypothetically Fig. 184 | Saint Theodore Teron, whose icon was the palladium of Corinth, with the donor Dionysios
indicating that there was a large settlement Kalozoes in prayer. Wall painting, 13th century. Malagari near Perachora, church of Hagios Nikolaos.

in the castle, which gradually grew to the

detriment of the lower city.
The oldest surviving church in greater relationship to Constantinople, the city powerful local archon, Leo Sgouros of
Corinthia is the Dormition of the Virgin must have played a pivotal role in the arts Nauplion. After the fall of Constantinople
at Steiri, near Korphos (first half of the and architecture of Southern Greece in in 1204, the Crusaders, led by Boniface of
11th century). It belongs to the cross-in- general and the Peloponnesos in particular, Montferrat, King of Thessalonike, and
square type with a compressed western but in fact this cannot be assessed. Geoffrey I Villehardouin, nephew of the
arm, and perhaps offers a glimpse into homonymous historian of the Conquest of
Corinthian church architecture (fig. 183).126 Constantinople and future head of the
To the huge gap in our knowledge of Crusader and Late Byzantine Principality of Achaia, captured the lower
official architecture from Corinth, the Corinth (1210-1458) city and laid siege to Acrocorinth, which,
complete lack of works of paintings may under Leo Sgouros, resisted until 1209.128
be added.127 In fact, aside from pottery and At the beginning of the thirteenth For a more efficient offensive, the Franks
sculpture we know little of the Corinthian century, with the empire unraveling, built the siege fort at Penteskouphi on a
artistic production. Given its privileged Corinth came under the control of a hill to the west (fig. 172).129

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 In the newly founded Crusader with a three-sided apse, most likely the absence of a powerful state, the diachronic
principality of Achaia, Corinth remained katholikon of a monastery founded in the advantage of Corinth, its strategic location
an important urban production and Frankish core of the city, may be ascribed for the control of the Peloponnesos,
commercial center, and was placed under to this group (fig. 179:17).141 became the root cause of its decay. The
the direct command of the prince. The seat The absence of Late Byzantine city gradually shrank to the more secure
of the Latin archbishop was established in monumental painting from Corinth itself Acrocorinth,143 forfeiting its productiveness
Corinth,130 as was the mint of the Frankish is only partially compensated by the wall and its function as a commercial hub.
rulers, where it remained until the middle paintings preserved in its periphery.142 The Acrocorinth was systematically settled
of the thirteenth century. Beginning in the frescos of Hagios Nikolaos at Malagari during thirteenth century, as evidenced by
middle of the same century a large quantity near Perachora are perhaps the most the Italian glazed pottery,144 and important
of imported Italian pottery is noticeable, noteworthy examples of thirteenth-century buildings were also erected; the find of a
mainly from Apulia and Veneto,131 monumental painting (fig. 184). Gothic capital confirms this. The
increasing after the Treaty of Viterbo The city’s decline in the fourteenth fortifications were reinforced, notably with
(1267) (fig. 178:11–14). Notable as well is century is associated with the progressive the construction of a tower on the
the extensive use of glass vessels, some of weakening of the principality from the southwestern peak.145 At the beginning of
which were local products.132 second decade of the century with the the fifteenth century a third defensive wall
Building activity confirms that after a advent of the Byzantines, the earthquake was added on the hill’s western slope.146
short decline in the first half of the of 1320, the plague of 1348, as well as the The walls of Acrocorinth and
thirteenth century the city once again pillaging by the Catalans in 1312 and later reinforcements made to the Hexamilion
flourished.133 In the forum quarter older the frequent raids by the Turks. After the Wall by the Emperor Manuel II
buildings were renovated and new ones middle of the century Corinth was Palaiologos (1415) and by John
were built, especially at its western edge (fig. commanded by the Florentine Acciajuoli Kantakouzenos, commander of Corinth
179).134 There another commercial street family. In 1395 the Greeks recaptured the (1443), were not sufficient to stop the
was created, with colonnaded stoas as well city under the leadership of Theodore Turks. The castle surrendered to the
as a building complex with an enclosed Palaiologos, despotes of Mistra. Ottomans in 1458, marking the end of
courtyard (figs. 179:19–20).135 However, In this period of insecurity and in the medieval Corinth.
excavations in the city’s periphery indicate
that the urban fabric was clearly diminished
in size, as compared with that of the
previous century (fig. 172).136
As was the case with the previous
period, the stock of preserved monuments
from Crusader Corinth is very meager. In
the forum quarter the katholikon of the
monastery of Hagios Ioannes Theologos
was erected as a three-aisle basilica (fig.
179:10),137 while additions were made to the
nave of the Kraneion Basilica (fig. 173).138
Nevertheless, Corinth did produce notable
architecture; indeed, it constituted a distinct
idiom that developed in the region of
Corinthia and the Argolid during the
thirteenth century. Undoubtedly, the most
prominent example of this local
architecture is the church built by the
famous intellectual and Latin archbishop of
Corinth, William of Moerbeke, in his fee
located in the plain of the Argolid (fig.
195).139 A large number of churches around
Corinth also belong to this group, such as
the church of the Transfiguration at
Tarsina (fig. 185).140 In the city itself a
small two-column cross-in-square church Fig. 185 | Tarsina, near Corinth, church of the Transfiguration, 13th century. The east and south sides of the church.

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 1 22 47
I express my thanks to the Director of Excavations of Earlier dating is proposed by Carpenter and Bon Pallas 1979, 105; Pallas 1990, 776–77; Avramea
the ASCSA at Corinth, Dr. G. Sanders, for our fruitful (1936, 127), who argue for a fourth-century date, and 1997, 165, no. 3; Sanders 2005b, 440.
48
discussions, to J. Herbst for the drawings, to Dr. E. by Gregory (1979), who suggests that it belongs to Blegen et al. 1930, 3–5, 21–25, 28–30; Bon 1936,
Manolessou for her contribution on matters of the beginning of the fifth century, after the raid by 130, 261; Pallas 1990, 791–93; Avramea 1997, 166,
Corinthian sculpture, and to Dr. E. Tzavella on pottery Alaric. See also Avramea 1997, 61–62. T. Gregory no. 4. A sixth century date, or even a date within the
matters. (1979, 274–77) argues that the Proto-Byzantine wall Proto-Byzantine period, has been questioned: Rothaus
2
See, for example, Niketas Choniates, Historia 1975, 74: contained the larger part of the Roman city including 2000, 98–99; Brown 2008, 159.
49
“Acrocorinth was the acropolis of the ancient city of the forum and the area around the theater. The basilica was excavated by D. Pallas: Pallas 1977,
23
Corinth, while now it serves as the fortress. . . . Inside Gregory 1979, 278–79. 165–71; Pallas 1979, 95–105; Pallas 1990, 769–76,
24
numerous wells with drinkable and clear water can be Gregory 1993, with earlier bibliography; Avramea with earlier bibliography. Avramea 1997, 166, no. 5;
found as well as the Peirene fountain mentioned in 1997, 60–66. Sanders 2004, 175; Sanders 2005b, 437–40; Slane
one of the rhapsodies of Homer” (Ἔστι δὲ ὁ 25
Bon 1936; Blegen et al. 1930; Andrews 2006, 135–45; and Sanders 2005, 291–92.
Ἀκροκόρινθος τῆς μὲν πάλαι πόλεως Κορίνθου Bon 1969, 476, 674. 50
Pallas 1959a; Sodini 1977, 424–26.
ἀκρόπολις, νυνὶ δὲ φρούριον ὀχυρόν […] Ἔνδοθεν 26
Bon 1936, 257–59. 51
According to A. Brown (2008, 165), the Leonides
δέ εἰσι ποτίμου καὶ διαυγοῦς ὕδατος οὐκ ὀλίγα 27
Broneer 1935, fig. 1; Scranton 1957, Pl. 31.2, plan VI, Basilica was Corinth’s cathedral.
φρεάτια καὶ ἡ Πειρήνη κρήνη, ἧς ἐν ῥαψῳδίᾳ VII (9-11-¡); Slane and Sanders 2005, 292, with earlier 52
Pallas 1987a; Pallas 1990, 785–87, with earlier
Ὅμηρος μέμνηται.). bibliography. bibliography.
3 28 53
For the excavations of the ASCSA at Corinth, see Cf. Sanders 2005b, 425–26; Slane and Sanders 2005, Rife et al. 2007, 152.
54
Sanders 2005a, 16–20, and for the results, the 246. The ruined Temple of Apollo was never used by
29
multivolume Corinth series. For the Proto-Byzantine houses, see Saradi 2006, 168, Christians.
4 55
Scranton 1957; Morgan 1942. For the subject in with relevant bibliography. Pallas 1990, 764; Brown 2008, 149–50; Athanasoulis
30
general, see Kourelis 2007, 394–410, with relevant It has been dated to the tenth century: Scranton et al. 2010, 172–73, with previous bibliography. The
bibliography. More recently, C. K. Williams ππ and G. D. 1957, 39–41. In the literature it is known as building is part of a large complex: Georgopoulou-
R. Sanders have continued to excavate, revealing new Carpenter’s Folly, because it was reconstructed by Verra et al. 2004, 607–8; Sanders 2004, 173, 175–76;
aspects of medieval Corinth. Rhys Carpenter to serve as the Byzantine museum of Sanders 2005b, 440.
5 56
Sanders 2002, 647. Corinth: Kourelis 2007, 402–3. Robinson 1967.
6 31 57
Sanders and Whitbread 1990. Manolessou and Andrianou 2013. Slane and Sanders 2005, especially 289–90.
7 32 58
In addition, the diolkos, the ancient stone-paved See Scranton et al. 1978; Kordosis 1981, 217–24; Slane and Sanders 2005, 293–94. For a scholarly
corridor for overland transport of ships, together with Avramea and Kyrkou 1988, 42–43; Pallas 1990, overemphasis on the importance of natural disasters
the two small harbors at its ends, facilitated the 766–69; Avramea 1997, 167, no. 7; Rife et al. 2007, and invasions in the evolution of Proto-Byzantine
movement of both commercial and military vessels, 144, 152–53, 172–75. Corinth, see Slane and Sanders 2005, 243–44.
33 59
increasing the importance of Corinth as a commercial For Lechaion, the harbor, the nymphaeum, and the For a bath that was converted into a house (end of
and military crossroads; see Raepsaet 1993. settlement, see Philadelpheus 1918; Kordosis 1981, the 6th century) and demolished during the seventh
8
For Corinth’s geographical position, see Sanders 241–42; Theodoulou 2002, 83–99; Avramea and century: Sanders 1999a, 462–63.
60
2005a, 11–15, with relevant bibliography. Kyrkou 1988, 44–45; Pallas 1990, 749, 765–66; Sanders 2003, 387, 390.
9 61
Following the catastrophic earthquake of 1858 the city Rothaus 1995; Avramea 1997, 166–67, nos. 5–6, with Avramea 1997, 36–37.
62
was moved farther to the northeast to a cove of the earlier bibliography; Brown 2008, 162–65; Theocharis Ibid., 37–38.
63
Gulf of Corinth (see Sanders 2010). This move saved 2012. Kountoura-Galake 1996, 69.
the remains of ancient and medieval Corinth from 34
See baths to the west of the odeon, Panagia Field (6th 64
Živkovic΄ 1999; Kountoura-Galake 1996, 66–69.
65
complete annihilation by the dense modern rebuilding, century: Sanders 1999a; Sanders 2005b, 426–28; Slane For an interpretation of the division of the
given that the existing village of Palaia (or Ancient) and Sanders 2005, 246) and in the South Stoa (5th Peloponnesos and the boundaries of the eastern and
Corinth clearly has more modest residential century: Biers 2003, 309). The bath at Kraneion is larger: western parts, see Anagnostakis et al. 2002, 65–81.
development. see fig. 172:19. Athanasoulis et al. 2010, 173–74. For the ecclesiastical organization of the period, see
10 35
For a summary review of the sequence of historic For the evolution of baths in the Proto-Byzantine also Yannopoulos 1993, 390; Konti 2000, 38.
66
periods during antiquity in the area of the forum, see period, see Athanasoulis 1998. The mention in the so-called Chronicle of Monemvasia
36
Sanders 2005a, 20–24. Athanasoulis et al. 2010, 175; Athanasoulis 2012, of the removal of Corinthians to the island of Aigina
11
For a short overview of medieval Corinth, see Kordosis 139–40. due to the Slavic invasions is not reliable; on the
37
2010. On Corinthian Early Christian cemeteries in general, subject, see Avramea 1997, 73–74 and passim;
12
For Corinth in the Late Antique period, see Brown see Ivison 1996. Lampropoulou et al. 2001, 195–203, with relevant
38
2008. For the city during the years 200–400, see See the extensive cemeteries to the south of the bibliography.
67
Robinson 2011, 265–69. For the Proto–Byzantine Kodratos Basilica (fig. 172:25: Meleti 2013; Lampropoulou et al. 2001, 197; Sanders 2002, 648–49,
monuments, see Pallas 1990. Athanasoulis et al. 2010, 177–78; Athanasoulis 2012, with previous bibliography; Sanders 2003, 395–96;
13
The Western Shops were reconstructed, the area of 139), as well as that outside of the Proto-Byzantine Sanders 2004, 173–75; Slane and Sanders 2005, 292;
the South Stoa was redesigned, buildings were walls at Kraneion: fig. 172:20–21, 28. Athanasoulis et Robinson 2011, 293–95.
68
erected in the Peribolos of Apollo, and the central al. 2010, 175–76. Georgopoulou-Verra et al. 2004, 607–8; Athanasoulis
39
shops were replaced by a monumental staircase: Slane Roebuck 1951, 160–172; Pallas 1990, 788; Rothaus et al. 2010, 174.
69
and Sanders 2005, 292, with earlier bibliography. 2000, 47–52; Sanders 2004, 173–74; Slane and Pallas 1958, 126–29; Pallas 1990, 749–53;
14
Robinson 2011, 251–84. Sanders 2005, 290–91; Sanders 2005b, 430–37, with Lampropoulou et al. 2001, 198; Vanderheyde 2008,
15
See, for example, the public statuary in the city of the earlier bibliography. 343–45. It appears that the baptisteries of the
40
fourth–fifth centuries; Brown 2012, and for the Georgopoulou-Verra et al. 1997, 340, Pl. 141 Á–‰; basilicas of Kraneion and Lechaion functioned as
assemblage of sculptures of the period, Athanasoulis Athanasoulis et al. 2010, 177; Slane 2008, with earlier churches.
70
and Manolessou 2013, note 5. bibliography. Roebuck 1951, 169; Pallas 1990, 778; Sanders 2004,
16 41
Saradi 2006, 239–42. Slane and Sanders 2005, 292. 173–74; Sanders 2005b, 434.
17 42 71
Gregory 1979, 264ff.; Athanasoulis and Manolessou Robinson 2011, 291–92. Robinson 1976a, 221–23; Robinson 1976b, 256–60;
43
2008. In the area of Kraneion, the wall was revealed For the ecclesiastical organization, see Avramea 1997, Pallas 1979, 108–9; Pallas 1990, 788.
72
in two locations; see Georgopoulou-Verra et al. 2000, 37–38. Avramea 1997, 89, 91.
44 73
369–70; Athanasoulis et al. 2010, 175–76. Rothaus 2000, 32–38; Sanders 2005b, 441–42. Sanders 2003, 397 n. 55.
18 45 74
Sanders 2003, 395–96; Slane and Sanders 2005, 293. See Shelley 1943, 66–89; Pallas 1979, 101–5; Pallas A luxurious Proto-Byzantine building at Kraneion (fig.
19
Slane and Sanders 2005, 293. For the Justinian 1990, 778–85, with earlier bibliography; Snively 1984; 172:18–19) continued to be used during the eighth
fortification works, see Gregory 1979, 272–74; Avramea 1997, 165; Sanders 2005b, 440. and ninth centuries, as evidenced by the presence of
46
Gregory 1993, 13–14, 80–83, 144–45, and passim. Stikas 1965; Pallas 1979, 105–8; Pallas 1990, 777–79; characteristic pottery of this period: late survivals of
20
Cf. Avramea1997, 66. Sanders 2005b, 440; Brown 2008, 143–45, with the Late Roman amphora 2, cooking pots with short
21
Gregory 1979, 267–68, 272–74. earlier bibliography. outturned rim of clay characterized by gold mica, and

| 208 |
 105
jugs glazed in spots with colorless transparent glaze, Scranton 1957, 68–70. depicting full-length figures, a decoration which has
106
chafing dishes, Otranto-type amphorae, and Sanders 1999a, 473. 1. The western bath, to the not yet been satisfactorily interpreted, nor can it be
Constantinopolitan White Ware (plain and glazed) west of the Frankish complex (about 1100: Williams convincingly connected to an ecclesiastical building:
date from the eighth to eleventh centuries and were et al. 1997, 37–41); 2. The southern bath, southwest Scranton (1957, 46) considers them as belonging to a
found in significant quantities. of the Bema Church (Scranton 1957, 70–71); 3. The chapel of a public building (“governor’s palace”) (fig.
75
For detailed reports on the relevant finds and northern bath: in the northernmost excavated 179:9).
128
bibliography, see Lampropoulou et al. 2001, 196–203. section of Lechaion Road over its eastern colonnade Kordosis 1985–86, 76–83, 113–23.
129
See also Avramea 1997, 73–74, 89, and passim; (12th century: Scranton 1957, 78–79); 4. The bath Ibid., 113–16; Bon 1936, 134–36, 217, 265–67; Bon
Sanders 2004, 173–75. For the sculptures, above the stylobate of the South Basilica (Ottoman, 1969, 477.
130
Vanderheyde 2008. For the coins, Sanders 2002, 649 according to Scranton 1957, 93, with coins of John For Crusader Corinth, see Bon 1969, 473–81 and
(Pl. 1). Tzimiskes built into its walls, probably of the tenth– passim; Williams 2003.
76 131
Sanders 2000; Sanders 2003, 390. eleventh centuries: Sanders 1999a, 473). The large For example: Williams 2003, 428–30; Sanders 1987;
77
For the finds of older excavations (coins, clasps, dimensions of two of them (2 and 3) are unusual for Stillwell MacKay 2003; Sanders 2002, 651–52.
132
architectural sculpture, and pottery), see Middle Byzantine baths; see Bouras 1982. Williams 2003, 430–31.
107 133
Lampropoulou et al. 2001, 199, with relevant Athanasoulis et al. 2010, 175; Athanasoulis and Ibid., 424–26.
134
bibliography. Manolessou 2013. See Scranton 1957, 84–87; Sanders 2002, 652 n. 20;
78 108
Cf. Avramea 1997, 91; Poulou-Papadimitriou 2002, A tenth-century lead seal belonging to John, Basilikos Williams 2003, with earlier bibliography.
135
131-132; Poulou-Papadimitriou 2005, 698–99. Protospatharios and Judge of the Peloponnesos, was The complex (Williams 2003, 426–28) has been
79
See the respective seals of consuls from Corinth: found in this house (an identical seal was published identified as an inn or hospital associated with the
Davidson 1952, 312, 318, no. 2692. in Davidson 1952, 312, 321, no. 2726). adjacent monastery (Sanders 2002, 653), but also as
80 109
Constantine Porphyrogennetos, De Administrando For Acrocorinth, see Bon 1936, especially 128–33, the hospital of Hosios Sampson mentioned in the
Imperio 1967, 228–29, ch. 49. 173–261, 272–75; Andrews 2006, 135–45. sources; Papanikolaou 2009.
81 110 136
Lampropoulou et al. 2001, 202–3, with the relevant For this architectural element, see Coumbaraki- See for example Athanasoulis et al. 2010.
137
bibliography. Panselinou 1976, 43–45. Scranton 1957, 61–66, 86–87, 93–95; Pallas 1990,
82 111
Athanasoulis and Manolessou 2013, with the relevant Blegen et al. 1930, 31–68. Cf. passages in Niketas 796–98; Williams and Zervos 1992, 164–71; Bouras
bibliography. Choniates, Historia 1975, n. 2. and Bouras 2002, 192–93; Sanders 2003, 397.
83 112 138
Metcalf 1973; Sanders 2002, 649–50. Williams 1973, 138; Robinson 1976a, 223; Robinson See above notes 45, 117.
84 139
Sanders 2002, 650–51. For the evolution of Middle 1976b, 258–60; Pallas 1990, 788; Sanders 2003, 397 Coulson 2002; Bouras 2001, 250–51; Bouras and
Byzantine glazed pottery in Corinth, see Sanders n. 55. Bouras 2002, 331–32.
113 140
2003, 390–95, with previous bibliography. For Scranton 1957, 38–39, 126; Robinson 2011, 295–98 These churches follow the Middle Byzantine tradition
numismatic circulation in the eleventh and twelfth (Pl. C, 6, 18, fig. 50, 167–68). According to D. Pallas of the Helladic School assimilating techniques and
centuries, see Penna 2002. (1990, 800), it may be identified as the church of construction practices of the Frankish builders. Cf.
85
In 1173 Benjamin of Tudela in Spain mentions that Christ the Savior. indicatively Bouras 2001 and for the churches of
114
300 Jews lived in Corinth, occupied in the production Scranton 1957, 42–46, 54–55, 71–73, 87, 126; Pallas Sophiko, Kappas and Fousteris 2006. The group
of silk and other industrial and commercial activities: 1990, 795–96; Bouras and Bouras 2002, 191–92. includes several churches, such as the katholikon of
115
Kordosis 1981, 236–37. Williams and Zervos 1992, 167. the Old Phaneromene Monastery at Chiliomodi, the
86 116
For the Middle Byzantine pottery of Corinth, see Previously in this location the remains of an Early Panagia Rachiotissa at Phlious, Taxiarchai of Ancient
Sanders 1999b, 160; Sanders 2000; Sanders 2003, 394. Christian basilica and graves of the twelfth– Nemea, etc.
87 141
For commercial activity, see Gerolymatou 2008, 161–67, thirteenth centuries had been investigated: see note Williams and Zervos 1991, 24–31; Williams and
with relevant bibliography. 56, above. Zervos 1992, 135–37; Sanders 2002, 653.
88 117 142
Medieval settlements were developed in both Pallas 1990, 795; Vanderheyde 2008, 343–45, 352; For example, wall paintings of this period are
Lechaion (Kordosis 1981, 254–58, 290) and Kenchreai Brown 2008, 144–45. There was also an adjacent preserved in the churches: Transfiguration at Tarsina,
(Rife et al. 2007, 153; Kordosis 1981, 214–24). healing spring. the Hermitage of Hosios Patapios (Manolessou and
89 118
Sanders 2002, 651. Shelley 1943, 66–89; Pallas 1990, 779–85; Bouras Siomkos 2012), Hypapante (Kappas and Fousteris
90
Kordosis 1981, 234–35. and Bouras 2002, 194–95, with earlier bibliography; 2006, 62) and Hagia Triada in Sophiko.
91 143
Bouras 2012b, 4. Vanderheyde 2008, 346, 352. Relevant information comes from the travelers
92
Chronicle of the Morea 1940, lines 1459–62. “Τὸ 119
Pallas 1958, 126–29. Ludholf Sudheim (middle of the fourteenth century)
κάστρον γὰρ τῆς Κόρινθος κεῖται ἀπάνω εἰς ὄρος / 120
Pallas 1987a, 308–9. and Niccolò da Martoni (1395) and from John
βουνὶν ὑπάρχει θεόκτιστον καὶ ποῖος νὰ τὸ 121
It is possible that there were also churches of Hagios Eugenikos (middle of the fifteenth century) and of
ἐγκωμιάσει; / ἡ χώρα γὰρ εὑρίσκετον κάτωθεν εἰς τὸν Georgios and Hagios Prokopios: Pallas 1990, 798– the historians of the Fall of Constantinople: Kordosis
κάμπον / μὲ πύργους γὰρ καὶ μὲ τειχέα καλὰ 801. The church of Christ the Savior is associated 2010, 163–64.
περικλεισμένη”): see also l. 1481. with the presence of Saint Nikon in the city: Sullivan 144
Recent excavations of the 25th Ephorate of Byzantine
93
Niketas Choniates, ∏istoria 1975, 75. 1987, 102. Antiquities at Acrocorinth brought to light a
94 122
Sanders 2003, 397. The icon of Teron was taken by Emperor Manuel significant quantity of imported Italian pottery dating
95
Scranton 1957, 37, 54. Komnenos to his palace in Constantinople, and the from the second half of the thirteenth century.
96 145
Ibid., 52–60, 123–24, 133–36. To the north of the icon of Saint Theodore Stratelates was stolen by the Bon 1936, 248–52. Its actual form is due to Ottoman
central street and on the entire hill of the Archaic Norman king Roger during his raid of 1147. A little reconstruction.
146
temple the Byzantine phases were removed in the while later the emperor returned the icon to Corinth; Kordosis 1981, 122, n. 290.
nineteenth century without being drawn, and on the ∞vramea 1991, 29–32 (Cf. fig. 184).
123
plan (fig. 179) they are only marked with color. Blegen et al. 1930, 23–24; Athanasoulis and Velenis
97
Robinson and Weinberg 1960, 227–33; Williams and 2013.
124
Fisher 1975, 4–5; Sanders 2002, 653. Kordosis 1981, 372–73.
98 125
Robinson and Weinberg 1960, 230–31. Indicatively: Scranton 1957, 103–22; Volanakis 1982–
99
Sanders 2002; Sanders 2003. 84, 104–12; Bouras and Bouras 2002, 193–94;
100
Scranton 1957, 66–67, 128–31, especially 129; Vanderheyde 2008. The unfinished sculptures
Bouras 1982–83, 6. confirm the existence of local workshops.
101 126
Scranton 1957, 129. This variant is found in southern Greece and
102
Robinson 1964, 100; Bouras 1982–83, 6–8. especially in the southern Peloponnesos. There is a
103
Its dimensions are more than 23 x 10 m. See second church of the same type near Corinth, the
Robinson and Weinberg 1960, 228–30; Robinson church of Hagios Andreas in Loutraki (12th century).
1962, 96–103; Williams 1977, 29–33. For this type, see Athanasoulis 2006, 230–34.
104 127
See Bouras and Bouras 2002, 462–63, with the In the Roman Northwest Shops, to the north of the
earlier bibliography. central Byzantine street, wall paintings are preserved

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 Bibliography–Abbreviations

∞∞∞. ∞Ú¯·ÈÔÏÔÁÈο ∞Ó¿ÏÂÎÙ· ÂÍ ∞ıËÓÒÓ. Stockholm, 1974. Anagnostakis and Brother Ioustinos 1985. ∂ÊÔÚ›· μ˘˙·ÓÙÈÓÒÓ ∞Ú¯·ÈÔًوÓ.” In
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ÙÔ˘ ∞Á. ¢ËÌËÙÚ›Ô˘ ∞ÎÚÔÎÔÚ›ÓıÔ˘ Î·È Ù· ÂÓ George Gemistos Plethon, the Last of the ∞˘ÁÔ‡ÛÙÔ˘ ÛÙË ¡ÈÎfiÔÏË: ª›· ÚÒÙË
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Vroom 2003. J. Vroom. After antiquity. ∞Á›Ô˘ °ÂˆÚÁ›Ô˘ Ù˘ £ÂÛÛ·ÏÔӛ΢.” ∞∂ Vie et institutions, edited and enlarged by
Ceramics and society in the Aegean from the (1938): 32–53. Ch. Maltézou. 2 vols. London, 1975.

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 Glossary

Acropolis (pl. -eis): citadel. Blind arch: an arch infilled in a wall and Corinthian capital: capital decorated with Drum: any of the cylindrical blocks
Agora: open-air marketplace. thus without an opening. superimposed rows of carved foliage forming the shaft of a column; also, a
Akathistos Hymn (Gr., “not seated Bulwark: a forward defensive position, a and volutes at the corners. cylindrical or polygonal structure
hymn”): a hymn sung in praise of the projection from the outline of the Crepidoma: the platform on which a supporting a dome.
Virgin by a standing congregation. fortification. building is erected in ancient Greek
Ambo: pulpit. Burial ad sanctos: burial inside or beside a architecture. Ekphrasis (pl. -eis) (Gr., “description”): a
Ambulatory: a covered passage running church, near the tombs of saints, or in Cross vault: a vault formed by two literary description, usually of a work of
around the main body of a church. other holy sites in the belief that this intersecting barrel vaults; also known as art, a city, garden, festival, etc.
Amphora (pl. -ae): a large ceramic vessel would guarantee protection of the soul. a groin vault. Emporion: a place where trade is
with a round or cylindrical body, a Buttress: an external projecting support Cross-in-square domed church: the conducted, more specifically a trading
narrow neck, and two handles from the built against a wall. dominant type of Byzantine church from district outside the walls of a city.
shoulder to the mouth, used by the the ninth century onward, its quadratic Enceinte: the main defensive enclosure of
ancient Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines Caldarium: the hottest room of a Roman nave (naos) divided into nine bays by a fortification.
for storing and transporting liquids, bath complex. four columns or piers that support the Enkainion: a cavity beneath the altar in
especially oil and wine. Calotte: a low hemispherical vault. dome above the central bay. the sanctuary of a church in which holy
Ampulla (pl. -ae): a small round flask of Cardo (pl. -ines): a north-south street in a Cruciform church: a church with a cross- relics are placed.
clay, lead, or silver used by pilgrims for Roman city. shaped ground plan. The central bay is Enkomion: a speech written in praise of a
storing and transporting oil, water, Catechumen: in the Early Church a covered by a dome. person’s attributes or accomplishments.
earth, etc. from sacred sites. convert to Christianity receiving Cryptoporticus: an underground or semi- Entablature: the horizontal band of
Architrave: a lintel supported by a series instruction in preparation for baptism. subterranean covered corridor or masonry supported by columns or piers.
of columns or piers. Cella: the central, enclosed space of an passageway. Eparch: the civil governor of a city.
Archon: a generic term for any powerful ancient Greek temple that housed the Curia (Lat.): city council. Epiphany: manifestation of God.
official; governor. cult statue of the deity. Curtain wall: the defensive linear wall Episcopeio(n): bishop’s palace.
Archontoromaioi: a class of peasants in Centrally planned church: a church plan between two towers of the Episkepsis: a fiscal division of a theme.
Venetian-ruled Crete who were which tends to be centralized; that is, fortification. Epistyle: the beam of the Byzantine
exempted from statute labor, unlike the to be symmetrical about a central point, templon screen.
rest of the rural population, and were as is a circle, a square, a polygon, or a Damnatio memoriae: a posthumous Esonarthex, exonarthex: see narthex.
frequently involved in revolts against Greek cross with its four equal arms. punishment entailing obliteration of the Estrade: a slightly raised platform for
the Venetian authorities. Christogram: any of various condemned’s memory through supporting a superstructure, as for a
Arcosolium (pl. -ia): an arched recess monogrammatic abbreviations of the destruction of his images, erasure of his throne.
usually for a tomb, carved out of or name Christ. name from inscriptions, and Extra muros (Lat.): outside a city’s walls.
built in front of a wall. Chrysobull (Gr., “golden seal”): an cancellation of his legal acts.
Ashlar: building stone cut into well- imperial document sealed by a gold Decumanus: an east-west street in a Follis: the largest denomination of copper
finished square or rectangular blocks. bulla with the emperor’s label or Roman city. coinage, initially worth 40 nummi.
Athonite type of church: an important monogram. Defensor civitatis (Lat., “defender of the Forum (pl. -a): the central building
variation on the cross-in-square church. Circuit wall: defensive enclosure, enceinte. city”): an official of the Late Roman and complex in a Roman city incorporating
The rectangular bays to the north and Civitas libera (Lat., “free city”): in the Early Byzantine empires. His primary administrative and commercial
south of the naos are widened with the Hellenistic and Roman Imperial age a function was to defend the citizens structures.
semicircular apses, giving the church the self-governing city, supervised by the against the abuses of state
appearance of a triconch structure. king or emperor through his appointed functionaries. He also had judicial Greek-cross domed octagon: domed
Atrium: open courtyard. officials. authority in minor cases. building with a square plan and an
Augusta: empress. Clerestory: upper part of a church wall, Dentil course: a decorative band of octagonal support system for the dome.
raised above the aisle roofs and pierced brickwork, usually framing the openings Groin vault: see cross vault.
Bagdati: light construction consisting of a with a row of windows. of a church.
timber frame coated with wattle and an Cloisonné masonry: a decorative masonry Despotes (pl. -ai) (Gr., “master, lord”): Hagiographical texts: writings devoted to
elastic type of plaster composed of lime, technique in which small stone blocks epithet of the Byzantine emperor; also the lives and miracles of saints.
sand, and goat hair, often used for the are framed by bricks placed vertically honorary court title of officials Hippodamian system: a type of city
walls of upper floors in Post-Byzantine and horizontally in single, double, or subordinate only to the emperor. planning based on a grid of right angles
and Ottoman architecture. triple courses. Diakonikon: in a Byzantine church the and the distinction between public and
Barrel vault: a half-cylindrical vault. Colonia (Lat.): colony. space south of the sanctuary where private sectors and named after its
Basilica: an early form of church structure Colonnade: a row of columns. sacred vessels were kept; sacristy. original inventor, Hippodamus of
featuring a nave and several aisles Concealed brick technique: an all-brick Diocese: a mid-level administrative Miletus, an architect, mathematician,
divided by rows of columns or piers, construction method in which every division of the Early Christian empire, and philosopher of the 5th century B.C.
modeled on the Roman basilica forensis, alternate brick course is recessed from including several provinces and Homiletic texts (from “homily,” Gr.
which served as a law court and the wall plane and covered by mortar; subordinated to a praetorian prefecture. “sermon”): ecclesiastical rhetorical texts
commercial exchange building. also known as “recessed brick” Dodekaorton (Gr., “twelve feasts”): the for instruction and edification,
Basilikos: imperial. technique. twelve great feasts of the Orthodox commonly as part of a liturgical service.
Basket capital: capital with convex sides Conch: a semicircular niche surmounted liturgical cycle. Hyperpyron (pl. -a): a standard gold coin
and decorated with a wicker design, by a half-dome. Domestikos ton Scholon tes of 4.55g but only 20.5 carats issued by
imitating a basket. Corbel: a projecting stone or brick on the Anatoles: head of the army of the Alexios I in 1092 and continued by his
Bema: the sanctuary of an Orthodox church. face of a wall serving as a support. eastern provinces. successors.

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Hypocaust: a system of radiant heating in establishment subordinate to a larger of the Virgin Mary commonly used in chief of the notaries of the Imperial
baths of the Roman world employing independent monastery. the Greek Orthodox Church. Treasury.
sub-floor channels for the circulation of Mistra type of church: a composite Pantokrator (Gr., “All-ruler”): an Protospatharios (Gr., “first sword-
hot air. architectural type found in the cities of iconographic type depicting Christ, bearer”): a title used for high military
Hypogeum: a subterranean tomb Mistra and Leontari. It combines the bearded, frontal, holding a book in his commanders, also conferred on other
chamber for private use. basilica plan on the ground floor with left hand and his right raised in a imperial dignitaries and officers.
Hypostyle: a building in which the roof is the cross-in-square domed plan at the gesture of blessing. Provincia (Lat., “province”): the primary
supported by rows of columns. gallery level. Parabemata: the rooms next to the administrative unit in the Roman
bema. Empire.
Imperial insignia: characteristic imperial Naos (Gr., “temple,” “church”): the main Parakoimomenos (Gr., “sleeping at the Pseudo-kufic decoration: decorative
emblems, such as the crown, the body of a Byzantine church. side [of the emperor]”): the guardian of patterns imitating Arabic Kufic script
scepter, the exclusive right to use the Narthex: the entrance room of a church. the imperial private chambers, the that became popular in Byzantine art
color purple, etc. When a second narthex is added in highest office conferred on eunuchs. from the tenth century.
Impost block: a stone block shaped like front of the first, the outer one is called Pastophoria: the rooms commonly
an inverted, truncated pyramid, placed an exonarthex in contrast to the inner, flanking the apse of a Byzantine church Rampart: a broad-topped defensive wall
between the capital of a column and or esonarthex. and serving as the diakonikon and of a castle.
the arch or vault it supports. Novel (Lat. novella [constitutio], lit. “new prothesis. Recessed brick technique: see concealed
Impost capital: a purely Byzantine type of [decree]“): imperial edict. Patrikios: honorary court title. brick technique.
capital created by merging the function Nummus (pl. -i): the smallest copper coin, Pax Romana (Lat., “Roman Peace”): the Rib vault: a vault whose surface is divided
of the impost block with the Corinthian 1/40 of the follis, which served as the long period of relative peace throughout into webs by a framework of diagonal
capital. base of the accounting system. the Roman Empire lasting from the reign arched ribs, typical of Gothic
Intra muros (Lat.): inside a city’s walls. Nymphaeum: a monumental fountain of Augustus (27 B.C.–14 A.D.) to that of architecture.
Isopsephy: the practice of adding up the dedicated to the nymphs. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–80). Rinceaux: a scroll-like pattern of floral or
numerical values of the letters in a word Pendentives: triangular segments of a plant design.
to form a single number with a cryptic Octagon: a domed building with an sphere forming the base on which a Royal door: the main entrance to the
meaning. octagonal ground plan. dome is placed, either directly or raised church.
Oculus (Lat., “eye”): a circular wall opening. on a drum. Rubble masonry: a construction method
Kandidatos: a Byzantine title, connected Odeon: an ancient Greek or Roman Peristyle: a columned porch or open employing irregular, roughly carved
with subaltern offices both in the army building used for performances of music colonnade surrounding a courtyard. stones and mortar.
and in the civil service. and poetry. Phiale: the fountain in the atrium of a
Kastron (pl. -a): fortress or citadel. Since Oikoumene (Gr., “the inhabited [earth]”): church. Sarcophagus: a large, above-ground
fortifications became the main external in antiquity and Byzantium the earth as Pilaster: a pier with rectangular section, stone container for human remains.
sign of Byzantine cities, the term came a whole; also the inhabited or civilized partly embedded in a wall. Scriptorium: a workshop for the
to designate the city as a whole. world, an area identical with the Portcullis: a strong heavy grating of iron production of manuscripts.
Katholikon: the principal church in a Empire. or wood suspended at the entrance to a Solidus: the standard Byzantine gold coin,
monastic complex, usually dedicated to Omphalion: a marble decorative element, castle and lowered to block passage. weighing 24 carats or 4.55g.
the monastery’s patron saint. usually circular, in the floor of a church. Praefurnium: the furnace for the Spatharios (Gr., “sword-bearer”):
Kephale (Gr., “head, chief”): a term of Opisthodomos: a small enclosed section hypocaust in Roman baths. originally an office denoting a
colloquial origin denoting the highest at the rear of an ancient Greek temple Praetorian prefect: originally the bodyguard; later a title of honor of little
functionary of provincial administration sometimes used as a sacristy. commander of the emperor’s significance.
during the Late Byzantine period. Opisthonaos: the inner portico at the rear bodyguard. From the fourth century on Sperone (pl. -i) (Ital.): projecting part of
Keystone: the central stone at the apex of an ancient Greek temple. an important regional civil functionary the fortification.
of an arch. Opus emplectum mixtum: a construction responsible for a praetorian prefecture. Spolia: remains of older buildings taken
Kommerkiarios: a state fiscal official. method in which the infill between the Praetorian prefecture (Lat.: Praefectura over for reuse.
two wall faces is consolidated with praetorio): the largest administrative Stavropegic Monastery: a monastery in
Lite: a narthex in a monastic church porous stones. division of the Early Christian empire. whose foundation is placed a cross sent
named after the homonymous type of Opus isodomum: an extremely regular Prokonnesian marble: a famous marble by the ecumenical patriarch of
service officiated in the particular construction method employing stones from Prokonnesos, the largest island in Constantinople, to whom it is directly
space. of uniform length and height set so the Sea of Marmara. subordinated.
that each vertical joint is centered over Pronaos: the inner portico in front of the Sticheron: a church hymn sung on various
Magistros: a Byzantine dignitary of high the block beneath. cella of an ancient Greek temple. feasts.
rank. Opus sectile (Lat., “cut work”): inlay, Propylon: a columned, monumental Stoa: a long, narrow rectangular building
Martyrion (pl. -ia): a shrine built over the usually of marble slabs and sometimes entryway. with colonnades on both short sides
grave of a martyr or on a site connected mother-of-pearl and/or glass, cut into Proskynetarion (pl. -ia): a cult image and along one long side; also a
with the life of Christ. shapes following geometric or figural displayed either on a church’s walls or freestanding colonnade or portico.
Megas protosynkellos: the adviser and designs and covering walls or floors. within a templon. Strategos (pl. -oi) (Gr., “general”):
fellow boarder of the patriarch during Prothesis: the space north of the military commander. In the eighth
the Late Byzantine period. Palaestra: an ancient Greek or Roman sanctuary containing the preparation century or possibly earlier the term
Mese (Hodos) (Gr., “middle road”): the open-air courtyard for the training of table for the bread and wine offered for came to designate the military governor
central road of a Byzantine city. wrestlers and other athletes. Eucharistic consecration. of a theme with local financial and
Metochion (pl. -ia): a monastic Panagia (Gr., “All-Holy”): the designation Protonotarios of the royal sakellion: judicial authority.

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 Stremma: a land measure equal to 1,000 Velum (pl. -a) (Lat.): curtain.
square meters. Vestibule: entrance hall.
Stylobate: a continuous base of stone, Vestitor: a courtier of modest rank.
raised above floor level, from which rise Villa rustica, villa suburbana: a luxurious
a building’s supports, whether columns rural or urban mansion in the Roman
or piers. and Early Byzantine empires.
Synaxarion: a specific collection of brief Votive image: an image presented to a
hagiographical texts. church as a pious offering in fulfilment
Synthronon: in Early Byzantine episcopal of a vow or promise made to God.
churches the bench or benches reserved
for the clergy. Ware: a type of pottery distinguished by
its function, style, or fabric.
Tabula Peutingeriana: a parchment roll
map of the twelfth or early thirteenth Zealots: members of a political group in
century considered to be a copy of a Thessalonike who revolted against the
fifth-century map. Now in Vienna, it is city’s governor and his aristocratic
named after its former owner, Konrad supporters and established self-
Peutinger (1465–1547), an Augsburg government from 1342 to 1349.
humanist.
Templon: a barrier erected between the
nave and sanctuary.
Tetraconch: a building featuring four
conchs.
Tetrapylon (Lat.: quadrifrons): a
monumental structure consisting of
four arches surrounding a square and
supporting a dome.
Theme (pl. -ata): a large administrative
unit of the Byzantine state during the
Middle Byzantine period administered
by a strategos who combined both
military and civil authority.
Theodosian capital: a composite
Corinthian capital with serrated
acanthus leaves common during the
reigns of the two emperors Theodosios I
(379–95) and Theodosios II (408–50)
though not exclusively limited to this
period.
Theotokos (Gr., “God-bearing”): Mother
of God, an epithet of the Virgin Mary.
Thermae: a large, monumental bath
complex for public or private use in the
Roman Empire.
Transept: a transverse section of a church
inserted between the nave and the
sanctuary. A tripartite transept consists
of a center bay continuing the nave
together with wings separated by
colonnades.
Transverse-vault church: a single- or
three-aisle church covered by
longitudinal and transverse barrel
vaulting.
Tribelon (pl. -a): triple-arched opening.
Triclinium (pl. -ia): dining room.
Triconch: a building featuring three
conchs.
Two-column cross-in-square domed
church: a simplified form of the cross-in-
square plan with only two western
columns or piers. Consequently the
dome rests on the two western supports
and on the sanctuary’s east walls.
Tzykanisterion (pl. -ia): a field for playing
the tzykanion, a popular game among
the Byzantine nobility, probably of
Persian origin. It was played by two
teams on horseback, equipped with
sticks with which they tried to push a
ball into the opposing team’s goal.

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Topographical index

Achaia: 16, 22, 181, 187, 196, 198, 200, Athos, Mount: 42, 64, 84, 87, 90–91, Danube River: 40, 77, 103 Harvard: 93
206–7, 211, 224 110, 270, 274 Datos: 94 Hebros River: 77
Acheloos River: 142 Attica: 26, 28, 36, 49, 173, 243, 266 Delphi: 52, 58 Hegumenitsa: 41, 274
Acre: 247 Avlon (mod. Vlore-): 121 Demetrias: 16, 22, 49, 52, 59, 64, 157, Helikon: 87
Acrocorinth: 51, 61, 192, 195–201, 204, 164, 166, 167 Hellas: 14–18, 21, 23–28, 184, 200, 211
206–9 Baghdad: 17 Diavatiki: 200 Hellespont: 22
Acrokerauneia Mountains: 142 Balkan Peninsula: 33, 58, 166, 171 Didymoteichon: 66, 272–73 Heraclae: 253
Acronauplia: 49, 67, 221, 223, Balkans: 26, 125, 166, 183, Dikili Tash: 94–95 Herakleion: 69, 252–55, 257–59, 262
Acropolis (at Athens): 15, 26, 51, 57–58, Barcelona: 64 Dion: 52–53, 57–58 Herakleioupolis: 253
61, 66, 169–73, 176–78, 187 Belbentos: 37–38 Distomo: 35, 37 Hermione: 57–58
Actium: 95, 140, 142, 147, 155 Bendenaki: 254 Dodekanese: 42, 251, 273 Hierax: 64
Adrianople: 22 Berat: 123 Drama: 37 Holy Land: 42, 121, 246, 249
Adriatic Sea: 33, 77, 121, 125, 200 Berroia: 54, 61–64, 66, 69, 104–13, 272 Drinos: 103, Hypate: 18, 271
Aggista: 37 Bertiskos mountain range: 33 Dyrrachion: 77, 120–22, 140,
Aegean islands: 15, 17, 42, 58, 62–63, Black Sea: 29, 85, 93 Ialyssos: 241
103, 246 Boeotia: 26, 35, 37, 175, 181, 183, 191 Echedoros River (mod. Gallikos): 37 Iberian Peninsula: 92
Aegean Sea: 16, 22, 42–43, 49, 159, Boutianoi: 39, 43 Edessa: 120 Ilissos River: 63, 170
165–66, 170, 189, 200, 215, 241, Bulgaria: 125, 166 Egypt: 243–44, 265 Illyricum: 17, 79, 101, 103, 142–43, 211
245–46, 273, Ekklesies: 39, 43 Inatos: 263
Africa: 85, 116, 215 Caesarea: 18, 22 Eleia: 39 Ioannina: 61, 64–66, 121, 271
Agathonesi: 42 Candia: 253, 259, 261, 263 Eleusis: 173 Iolkos: 166
Aigina: 27, 59 Caričin Grad: 113 Elis: 58 Ionian islands: 271–72
Aitolia: 140 Calabria: 17, 59 Elos: 22 Ionian See: 140, 146
Aitoloakarnania: 127 Camzigrad: 78 England: 246, 261 Ios: 22
Akarnania: 140 Carthage: 143 Epidauros: 53, 58 Ismenos River: 181, 183, 186, 191
Aketsi: 166 Celetron: 116 Epiros: 16–17, 41, 43, 49, 64–65, 69, Istanbul: 273
Alasarna: 43 Cells, Mount of: 35 85–86, 104–5, 111, 123, 126–27, Italy: 58, 125, 181, 183, 221
Albania: 121, 127 Central Greece: 15, 167 130–32, 137, 140, 142–43, 271, 274 Ithaka: 142
Alexandria: 57, 255, 265 Chiliomodi: 209, Erythrai: 189
Alika: 219, Chalkidike: 18, 36, 42 Euboea: 271 Jerusalem: 80, 186, 246
Ambrakia: 49, 126, 131–32 Chalkis: 64, 65, 173, 187, 271 Euchaita: 29 Jordan: 150
Ambrakian Gulf: 127–28, 140, 153–54 Chandax (mod. Herakleion): 255, 256, Europe: 63, 103, 116, 177, 246–47,
Ambrosson (mod. Distomo): 35 257–58 251, 265–66, 270, 272, 274–75 Kadmeia: 49, 62, 68, 181, 183–87, 189
Amnissos: 252 Chania: 273 Eurotas River: 39 Kalamata: 61, 274
Amphipolis: 49, 57–58, 274 Chonika: 220 Kalampaka: 63
Amphissa: 49 China: 261 Ferrara: 238 Kalyvia: 178
Ancient Nemea: 209 Chios: 57, 65, 66, 69, 71, 273 Florence: 238, 250 Kamariotes: 260–61
Ancona: 128, 143, 178 Chortiates, mount (anc. Kissos): 75 Fodele: 262 Kameiros: 241
Andalusia: 255 Christoupolis (mod. Kavala): 66 France: 250 Kamena Bourla: 40
Andravida: 65 Cilicia: 165 Ftelia: 154 Kaminia: 43
Antioch: 57, 165 Constantinople (mod. Istanbul): 16–20, FYROM: 40, 118–19 Kampoudi: 42
Apollonia: 77, 22–25, 27–28, 33, 42, 48, 60, 64, 69, Kampsa: 18–19
Apulia: 207, 75, 79, 84–87, 90, 93, 101, 103, 111, Galaxeidi: 64 Kardamaina (mod. Alasarna): 43
Arachthos River: 65, 126, 127, 131–32 114, 117, 119, 120–21, 124, 127, 130, Gallikos River: 37 Kardamyle: 270
Aragon: 177 137, 139, 143, 146, 166, 169, 173, Gaza: 57, 165 Karkara: 42
Arapomahalas: 198, 204 176, 181, 183, 189, 191, 199, 200, Genoa: 64 Karla, Lake: 33, 35
Areopagos: 58, 169, 174 206, 209, 211, 222, 224, 226–28, Geraki: 66, 67–68 Karteros: 259
Areopolis: 270 231–34, 237–39, 245–46, 256, Germany: 267 Karyoupolis: 66
Argolid: 37, 207 258–59, 261–62, 265–66, 268, 273 Gortyn: 40, 52, 54, 58, 252, 257 Kassandra Peninsula: 36
Argos: 16, 18, 19, 49, 51, 55–59, 61, 67, Corfu: 271 Greece: 18, 25, 31, 35, 37, 40–41, 43, Kastellia, hill of: 181
211, 213–23 Corinth: 16, 19, 22, 49, 54–59, 61–64, 45–46, 48–49, 51–53, 55, 57–58, 60, Kastellorizo: 274
Arkadia: 39 66, 67, 126, 137, 139, 143, 146, 166, 63–64, 66–69, 71, 96, 117, 126–27, Kastoria: 61–63, 110–11, 114–25, 272
Arta: 61, 65, 67–69, 73, 126–39, 271 173, 175, 178, 181, 189, 192, 195–209, 142–43, 169, 175–76, 178, 181, 183, Kastoria, Lake: 114, 116, 121
Asia: 23, 71, 116 211, 214, 217, 220–22, 253 186–87, 192, 196, 198–200, 204, Kastorion (mod. Thisbe): 185
Asia Minor: 16, 19, 26, 42, 48, 58, 71, 77, Corinthia (Korinthia): 37, 206–7 206, 209, 217, 221–22, 239, 265–66, Kastro: 254
85, 97, 111, 121, 215, 243, 246, 256 Crete: 17, 22, 29, 40, 52, 54, 58, 60, 65, 270–71, 273–75 Katerine: 33
Aspis: 49 69, 173, 200, 244, 252–63, 273 Gulf of Corinth: 183, 189, 195 Kavala: 66, 95
Athens: 15–19, 22, 25–29, 31, 35–36, 40, Cyclades: 17, 22 Kefalari: 213
49, 51, 53–63, 65–66, 68, 71, 73, 139, Cycladic islands (Cyclades): 42, 246, 273 Haliakmon River: 37, 114, 116 Kefissos Valey: 189
143, 169–79, 181, 183, 187, 189, Cyprus: 42, 165, 191, 238, 243, 247, 251 Halikarnassos: 75 Kenchreai: 195, 196, 198–200, 206,
190–92, 221, 26–67, 272 Halmyros: 64, 190 209, 213

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 Kerdyllio, mountain: 33 Mendenitsa: 40 Pella: 104 Spain: 209
Kerkyra: 57–58, 64, 142, 271–72 Merbaka: 221–23 Peloponnesos:15–20, 22–27, 29, 35–36, Spercheios River: 26, 27
Kissabos: 35, 43 Mesogaia: 36, 173, 178 39–40, 42, 61, 68, 169, 176, 195, Steiri: 205
Kissamos: 263 Mesopotamia: 259 198–200, 205–7, 209, 211, 214, 217, Stobi: 113
Kitros: 33, 35, 36 Messene: 52, 55, 58, 72 221–22, 224, 226, 230, 232, 238–39, Strymon River: 17, 37
Knossos: 252–54 Messenia: 37, 234, 239, 274 270, 274 Strymonian Gulf: 33
Kokkinorache: 40 Meteora: 41 Peneios River: 41 Symbolon, mountain: 94
Komotine: 51 Methone: 20, 28, 64–65, 69 Penteskouphi: 206 Syracuse: 192
Kopraina: 127 Middle East: 85 Perachora: 207 Syria: 71, 165, 243, 247, 259, 261
Korinthia: 205 Mikrothebes: 166 Peranthe hill: 126, 129
Korče: 123 Miletos: 241 Peristera: 84 Tanagra: 191
Koritsa (Korče): 123 Mistra: 48, 64–69, 71, 113, 207, 224, Petrina: 64, 66 Tarsanas: 35
Korone: 20, 64–65 226–39, 270 Philippi: 37, 45, 51, 54, 57–58, 76–77, Tarsina: 207, 209
Koronesia: 126, 136 Moesia: 211 94–103, 113, 170, 274 Tartarus: 16, 28
Korphos: 205 Moglena: 61 Philippias: 137 Taygetos, mountain: 224
Kos: 42, 49, 52, 54 Monemvasia: 20, 22, 25, 59, 61–62, Phlious: 209 Tegea: 39
Kostaina: 43 65, 72, 179, 230, 270 Phraskia: 259 Tempe, vale of: 31, 33, 34, 43
Koutoumatsa: 198 Morava: 91 Phthiotic Thebes: 157, 166 Temenos: 256, 257
Koutsoukomahalas: 204 Morea: 64, 66, 233, 271 Phthiotis: 26, 271 Tempe, pass at: 33
Kozane: 37, 38 Mouchli: 66–68 Phygela: 256 Tenedos: 161, 165
Kraneion: 196, 198–200, 204–5, 207–8 Mygdonia: 33–34 Pindos Mountains: 142 Thasos: 49, 52, 58, 94, 101
Krenides: 94 Myzithras: 224 Platamon: 33, 66 Thebes: 19, 27, 29, 49, 61–63, 65–67, 72,
Kydonia: 254–55, 263 Plataniti: 220 173, 175, 180– 91, 200, 217, 274
Kyparissia: 49, 50 Naupaktos: 29, 49, 61–62, 64– 65, Plesioi: 135–36 Thermaic, Gulf: 75,
Kythera: 191, 270 68–69, 73, 130, 143, 184, 191 Poland: 261 Thermopylae: 26, 53
Kyzikos: 166 Nauplion: 59, 61, 64, 69, 201, 206, 221 Polyrrhenia: 263 Thessalia: 16
Naxos: 22, 273 Poros: 252 Thessalian Thebes: 51, 54–55, 57, 58,
Ladochori Plain: 41 Nea Anchialos: 157–58, 159, 163–67 Portugal: 261 156–67
Lakedaimon: 18, 20–24, 29, 35, 53, Nemea: 214, Prespes: 123 Thessalonike: 16–19, 21–22, 27, 31, 33,
61–63, 173, 224, 237 Neopatras: 27 Preveza: 143, 153 35, 37, 40, 43, 45, 51–69, 73, 75–93,
Lakedaimonia: 41 Neapolis (mod. Kavala): 95, 97 Prilep: 40 101–4, 110–11, 113, 117, 120, 123–24,
Lakonia: 41, 43, 230, 270 Nerezi: 119–20 Prizren: 90 146, 166–67, 170, 176, 179, 184, 192,
Langobardia: 84 New Rome (Constantinople): 49 Propontis: 166 199, 206, 227, 239, 255, 267–69, 275
Larissa: 16, 19, 22, 52, 61, 121, 159, Nicaea: 18, 25, 85–86, 104, 121, 157, Prophetes Elias, hill of: 213–14, 219 Thessaly: 16, 22, 26, 33, 35, 40–41, 64,
166, 274 187, 238, 247 Pydna: 33, 34, 51, 76 110–11, 123, 127, 157, 164, 166, 167
Larissa hill (at Argos): 49, 51, 61, 213, Nikomedia: 165, 166 Pylia: 274 Thisbe (Thisvi): 185
217, 219, 221–22 Nikopolis: 52–53, 58, 126, 134, 140, Pyrassos: 51, 157 Thisvi: 185
Larissa plain: 33 142–43, 145–54 Pyrgos: 273 Tholoi: 42
Lechaion: 54, 57, 62, 195–200, 205, Pyrgos (in western Peloponnesos): 274 Thyateira: 97
208–9 Ochrid: 87, 93, 110, 113, 118, 120, Torcello: 191
Leipsoi: 42–43 122–23, 125 Regium : 59 Thrace: 49, 65, 77, 169, 272–73
Leontari: 66 Old Epiros: 142, 143, 149, 153, 187 Rentina: 33, 66 Trebizond: 85
Lerma: 200 Oltina: 40 Rhodes, city of: 42, 52–53, 55, 65, 69, Trikala: 63, 69, 121
Leros: 42 Olympia: 39, 58 170, 241–42, 244–51, 273 Tripotamos River: 104–5, 113
Lesbos: 49 Olympos, mountain (in Thessaly): 15, Rhodes: 241, 243–47, 249–51 Troy: 22–23
Leukas: 142 22–23, 28, 29 Rogoi: 66 Tsikare: 31, 40–41
Leuktron: 39–40 Olympos, mountain (in Bithynia): 22, 28 Romania: 40 Tsoukalaria: 43
Lindos: 241 Olynthios River: 42 Rome: 29, 49, 79, 96, 101, 103, 140, 183 Tudela: 128, 186, 209
Liopyra: 43 Orbelos, mountain: 94 Romuliana (mod. Camzigrad): 78 Tyre: 167
Longanikos: 68 Orchomenos: 183 Turkey: 121
Louloudies: 35–36, 51 Ossa, mountain: 33 Salambrias: 41 Tuscany: 250
Louros River: 140 Otranto: 183 Salaora: 127
Loutraki: 209 Ouranoupolis: 274 Samarina: 234, 239 Valaora: 129
Lyons: 87, 121 Samothrace: 97 Vatican: 64
Lykabettus hill: 170 Padua: 181, 191 Santorine: 273 Vecchi Borgi: 259
Pagasetic Gulf: 121, 157, 164, 166 Saronic Gulf: 195 Veligoste: 66
Macedonia: 16, 37, 40, 49, 60, 65, 76, Palaiokastro: 37 Sebasteia: 86 Velika: 33
95, 97, 103–4, 110, 114, 117, 119, Palaiopolis: 58 Semantra: 42 Veneto: 207,
121, 123–24, 127, 157, 211, 268, Palermo: 186 Serbia: 65, 78, 91, 113 Venice: 64, 220–21, 229, 260–61
272, 274–75 Palestine: 150, 165, 243 Serdica (mod. Sofia): 78, 97, 143 Vermion, mountains: 104
Madrid: 18–20, 22, 27, 255 Paliouria: 35 Serres: 37, 57, 61–63, 66, 113, 272, 274 Viterbo: 207
Malagari: 207 Pangaion: 94 Servia: 61, 63–64, 66, 113 Voulgareli: 136
Mane: 270 Paphlagonia: 16 Sicily: 17, 20, 59, 85, 185, 200 Vlore-: 121
Mantzikert: 26 Paramythia: 69 Sifnos: 273
Margarona: 153 Paris: 93 Sikyon: 57, 199 Washington, D.C.: 111
Marmara, See of: 160, 165–66, 199 Paracandia: 258–61 Sinai: 263
Marmara (at Mistra): 227 Paros: 22, 53, 55 Skoutela: 199 Zakynthos: 272
Mastichari: 42–43, 54 Patmos: 42, 246–47 Sofia: 78 Zekio: 197, 198–200, 203–5
Mediterranean: 42, 43, 165, 195, 199, Patras:16, 19–21, 23–24, 26, 33, 51–53, Sophiko: 209
215, 244, 255, 257–59, 270 59, 61, 66, 200 Sozopolis, Bay of: 93
Megalopolis: 39, 58 Peiraeus: 173 Sparta: 21, 22, 35, 39, 40–41, 52–53,
Meliboia: 33, 35, 43 Pelagonia: 120–21, 187, 224 57–59, 224, 227, 230, 270

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Illustrations credits

Photographers
V. Georgiadis: 9.
K. Ignatiadis: 123, 130, 131.
N. Kasseris: 214, 217.
K. B. Liakopoulos: 128, 135.
P. Matsouka: 1, 11, 13, 16.
S. Mavrommatis: 126, 127.
I. Papadakis: 2.
V. Voutsas and E. Boubalou: 12, 15, 32–33, 37, 45, 50, 54,
57–76, 78, 80–81, 83–85, 91, 94, 95, 97–101, 103–5, 107,
109, 111, 113–17, 120–22, 129, 133–34, 137, 139–42,
146–48, 150, 155, 158, 166, 175–78, 180–86, 188–89,
192–95, 199–201, 203–11, 232.

Archives
1st EBA: 159, 161, 164–65, 168.
4th EBA: 31, 213, 215–20.
5th EBA: 27, 52–53, 196–98.
6th EBA: 8, 236.
7th EBA: 17, 20c, 21–22, 145.
8th EBA: 110, 112, 118.
9th EBA: 56.
10th EBA: 30.
11th EBA: 86a–b, 87–90, 92–93.
13th EBA: 225–29.
17th EBA: 25–26.
21st EBA: 43.
19th EBA: 18, 28–29.
23rd EBA: 24.
25th EBA: 36, 171, 173–74, 190.
26th EBA: 35, 49, 240.
9th EPCA: 162–63, 167, 170.
ASCSA, Gennadius Library, Athens: 44.
Athens Archaeological Society: 143–44.
Benaki Museum: 46, 230.
Biblioteca National, Madrid: 4, 6–7, 10, 14, 223.
Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens: 3, 48, 231, 233.
Directorate of Museums, Exhibitions and Educational
Programs-Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports: 237, 239.
“Melissa” Publishing House: 40.
Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessalonike: 234–35.
National Technical University, Athens–Courtesy of Prof.
A. Georgopoulos: 136.
Nikopolis Scientific Committee: 123, 125–28, 130–31, 135.
J. Albani: 154.
S. Chondrogiannis: 238.
E. Drakopoulou: 102, 106, 108.
S. Kalopissi-Verti: 119.
D. Pantermalis: 38.

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