Inflation Theory Presentation

Introduction
Einstein’s Theory of Gravity

The Standard Big Bang Model
Inflation Theory
Shortcomings of the Big Bang Model
Inflationary Theory: Putting the Bang in Big

Bang
Julie Jacob Thomas, Nagashree S., Srinidhi Murali
Naxxatra Sciences
October 9, 2021
Julie Jacob Thomas, Nagashree S., Srinidhi Murali Inflationary Theory: Putting the Bang in Big Bang
Introduction
Inflation Theory
Outline
1 Introduction
2 Einstein’s Theory of Gravity
3 The Standard Big Bang Model
4 Inflation Theory
5 Shortcomings of the Big Bang Model
The Horizon Problem
Solution to the Horizon Problem
The Flatness Problem
Solution to the flatness problem
Introduction
Inflation Theory
Introduction I
Big bang theory is widely regarded as the best model to

explain the evolution of the universe
But it could not explain a few key characteristics observed:
Horizon problem
Flatness problem
Alan Guth proposed his Inflation Theory in 1981 to solve
these problems.
Inflation Theory offers a simple explanation to these problems,
considering a period of rapid expansion in the early universe.
Introduction
Inflation Theory
Introduction II
1915: Einstein came up with his general theory of relativity
Set of field equations that explains gravity, space-time
continuum and curvature of the universe
1922: Alexander Friedmann derived the Friedmann equations
by solving Einstein’s equations
1927: Georges Lemaı̂tre derived an expression relating redshift
(recession) of galaxies to their distance from the observers,
hinting at an expanding universe
1929: Edwin Hubble experimentally verified Lemaı̂tre’s
relation
Hubble-Lemaı̂tre Law: v = H0 D
H0 - Hubble’s constant, H0 = 74kms −1 Mpc −1 approx.
Introduction
Inflation Theory

Einstein’s field equation: Rµν − 12 Rgµν + Λgµν = 8πG
c4
Tµν
Friedmann equations:
2
kc 2 Λc 2 Λc 2
ȧ
a = 8πG ρ
3 − a2 + 3 ; a =
ä −4πG 3p
3 (ρ + c 2 ) + 3
where a = a(t) is the scale factor of the universe, G is the
gravitational constant, ρ is the energy density, Λ is the
cosmological constant, k is the spatial curvature, and p is the
pressure.
Putting k = 0 and Λ = 0 in Friedmann equation:
ȧ 2 8πG
H2 = = ρ
a 3
From this, we can conclude that if we put some energy
density in the universe, it cannot be static.
Introduction
Inflation Theory
The Standard Big Bang Model I
The size of the universe is proportional to the scale factor a(t)
Figure: The variation of scale factor with time
Introduction
Inflation Theory
The Standard Big Bang Model II
Figure: Representation of scale factor of expansion
Introduction
Inflation Theory
The Standard Big Bang Model III

At the beginning, the scale factor was extremely small, so any
two distant points in the present universe must have been
close to each other.
Hence, the universe must have been in a hot, dense state with
temperatures of > 1026 K
Initially it consisted of elementary particles moving around
rapidly due to the high temperature, and the photons couldn’t
travel long distances due to collisions with them.
As the universe expanded and cooled down, electrons
combined with protons and neutrons to form atoms.
The light was then able to travel long distances without any
collisions, which we now detect as the CMB radiation.
Introduction
Inflation Theory
Inflation Theory I
Inflation theory talks about a period of rapid exponential

expansion of the infant universe, expanding it by a factor of at
least 1026 within t = 10−36 s and t = 10−32 s of its existence,
also known as the ’inflationary epoch’ - all this happening
before the hot big bang phase.
From the Friedmann equation, for ä to be positive,
ρ + 3p < 0 =⇒ p < − 31 ρ, which shows that a negative
pressure component must be present in order to inflate the
universe.
This negative pressure is the characteristic of something
known as the inflaton field, and this is said to have brought
about the inflation.
Introduction
Inflation Theory
Inflation Theory II
Following are the conditions to be satisfied for inflation

A negative pressure substance should fill the universe at the
inflationary epoch and this period should be transient in nature
It should decay immediately after this phase, making the
universe transit from exponential acceleration to the normal
decelerated expansion predicted by the big bang model
The decay must provide energy for the formation of elementary
particles - a process called reheating. This should be followed
by the experimentally verified plasma phase predicted by the
big bang model.
Introduction
Inflation Theory
Figure: Evolution of the universe
Introduction
Inflation Theory
The inflaton field:
Figure: Representation of inflaton field
Introduction
Inflation Theory
The inflaton field has a pressure p given by

1
pφ = (φ̇)2 − V (φ)
2
We know that we need pressure to be negative for inflation,
hence
1
pφ = (φ̇)2 − V (φ) < 0 =⇒ (φ̇)2 < V (φ)
2
Hence, for inflation to take place, the velocity squared must
be lesser than the value of the potential.
The inflaton field graph tells us that inflation takes place as
long as the field rolls slowly according to the above condition,
until φend . Beyond this point, the velocity increases drastically
and in turn stops inflation.
Once inflation stops, the expansion slows down to the
predicted value in the big bang model, and the field decays;
this decay gives out energy to form all the elementary particles
Juliethat we have
Jacob Thomas, today.
Nagashree S., Srinidhi Murali Inflationary Theory: Putting the Bang in Big Bang
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Horizon Problem

Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Horizon Problem I
Inability of the big bang model to explain the homogeneity of

the universe
Figure: Large scale structure of the universe
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Horizon Problem II
Z t
cdt
DHorizon = a(t)r (t) = a(t)
0 a(t)
where DHorizon - maximum physical distance upto which a light
ray that started at the big bang (t = 0) can reach at time t.
Calculated to be about 2◦ in terms of angular size
Any two points in the CMB separated by distance DHorizon or
angular separation greater than 2◦ lie outside each other’s
horizon and are causally disconnected.
CMB radiation is almost perfectly homogeneous and isotropic.
This is only possible if all parts of the sky have been causally
connected long enough for it to reach thermal equilibrium.
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The light signal that started its journey when the universe was
375,000 years old.
It started out as visible light, its wavelength now stretched to
the microwave range due to the expansion of the universe.
It is a black body radiation (electromagnetic) which is
completely uniform throughout the sky in all directions
Has a measured temperature of 2.725K which is uniform
throughout, with an accuracy up to 4 decimal places - shows
that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic
Studying the CMB, we could infer that the big bang model
was a plausible explanation of the evolution of the universe.
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Figure: The cosmic microwave background
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Figure: The horizon problem illustrated
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Figure: Spacetime diagram without inflation
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The physical distance to the source of the CMB radiation

detected uniformly across the sky at the time of emission is
Z to
cdt
DCMB (te ) = a(te )
te a(t)
where te - time at which the cosmic microwave radiations
were emitted and to - time at which it is observed.
Thus, physical distance between two diametrically opposite
points in the sky at the time of emission will be
Dsep (te ) = 2DCMB (te )
The physical size of the horizon at the time of emission is
Z te
cdt
DHorizon (te ) = a(te ) = 3ct
0 a(t)
(for matter-dominated universe, a(t) ∝ t ( 2/3)

Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
To check whether the two points in the sky emitting cosmic

microwave radiation are causally connected, we look at the
ratio of Dsep (te ) to DHorizon (te ).
If the ratio is greater than 1, the two points lie outside of each
other’s horizon.
For matter-dominated era of the universe (a(t) ∝ t 2/3 ), this
ratio is found to be around 80, i.e. the separation between the
two points is 80 times its horizon at the time of emission.
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the horizon problem I
Figure: Spacetime diagram with Inflation
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the horizon problem II
During the inflationary epoch, the energy density of the

universe is constant and remains unchanged by the expansion
of space.
From Friedman equations we have
ȧ 2 8πG
H2 = = ρ
a 3
p
Solving it, we get a(t) = Ce Ht where H = 8πρG /3.
The scale factor increases exponentially, leading to an
exponentially rapid expansion of the universe.
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the horizon problem III
Using this, we can calculate how much the universe expanded

during the inflationary period
tend
ce Htend
Z
cdt
Dend (tend ) = a(tend ) =
tbegin a(t) H
Inflation theory predicts that the inflation lasted for at least

10−32 s which corresponds to 100 e-foldings. Applying this to
the above equation,
ce 100
Dend (tend ) = ≈ 1019 cm
H
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the horizon problem IV
The radius of the present observable universecan be calculated

to be 3ct = 1028 cm and at the end of the inflationary epoch,
a(t) was 1027 times smaller than its present value. Hence, the
physical size of the universe at the end of the inflationary
epoch was about 10cm. This is well within the size of the
horizon calculated
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Flatness problem I
The flatness problem deals with the fact that the universe is
globally flat, which is quite puzzling as it has an extremely low
probability of occurrence.
When physicists observed the curvature of the universe, it
suggested a very fine tuned specific value of density of energy
and matter in the early universe, equal to the critical density
ρc .
This critical density is the threshold value of the energy
density in the universe above which it would be closed
(positive curvature), and below which it would be open
(negative curvature).
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Flatness problem II

But if the energy density is exactly equal to the critical
density, we have a flat universe, and this is precisely what was
observed.
The shape of the universe is dictated by the value of Ω which
is the ratio of observed density ρ to the critical density ρc .
If ρ ≈ ρc , Ω = ρ/ρc ≈ 1
We have three cases
Case 1: If Ω < 1: Open universe. The universe expands to
infinity; Ω −→ 0 =⇒ ρ −→ 0, hence no matter can exist.
Case 2: If Ω > 1: Closed universe. The universe would
collapse back on itself - The Big Crunch
Case 3: If Ω = 1: Flat universe. The universe would keep
expanding at a constant rate. Experimentally, Ω ≈ 1
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Flatness problem III
Figure: Types of curvature
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
The Flatness problem IV
Einstein’s theory states that any small deviation in the value

of Ω in the early universe would have been amplified by the
expansion, and now it would have been much lesser or greater
than 1.
For the current value of Ω, its value in the early universe
should have been 1, accurate to the 62nd decimal place! This
was insane, even by the standards of cosmology.
So how exactly did it attain such an accurate value in the
beginning? The big bang theory didn’t have an answer, and
we turned to Inflation theory.
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the flatness problem I
Unlike the big bang expansion that dilutes the energy density
in space with time, inflation keeps the energy density ρ of the
field constant throughout. So even if the value of Ω deviated
a bit, this exponential expansion would basically force it to get
close to 1.
This can be understood better by manipulating the Friedmann
equation. The mathematical reasoning of the above
arguments is as follows -
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the flatness problem II
8πG kc 2
Consider the Friedmann equation H 2 = 3 ρ − a2
3H 2
Putting k = 0, we get ρ = ρc = 8πG
Substituting this value in the Friedmann equation, we get
3kc 2
ρc a2 − ρa2 = −
8πG
Taking ρc out common and substituting for Ω, we get
3kc 2
(Ω−1 − 1)ρa2 = −
8πG
Introduction
The Horizon Problem
Inflation Theory
Solution to the flatness problem III
The RHS is a constant. The energy density ρ is a constant as

stated earler. The scale factor a is increasing rapidly due to
inflation, and hence the term in the brackets (Ω−1 − 1) must
decrease rapidly. Hence
(Ω−1 − 1) −→ 0 =⇒ Ω −→ 1
This shows that inflation directly results in a flat universe.

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Introduction

Einstein’s Theory of Gravity

Inflationary Theory: Putting the Bang in Big

Julie Jacob Thomas, Nagashree S., Srinidhi Murali

Big bang theory is widely regarded as the best model to

Einstein’s Theory of Gravity

The Standard Big Bang Model I

The size of the universe is proportional to the scale factor a(t)

Figure: The variation of scale factor with time

The Standard Big Bang Model II

Figure: Representation of scale factor of expansion

The Standard Big Bang Model III

Inflation theory talks about a period of rapid exponential

Following are the conditions to be satisfied for inflation

Figure: Evolution of the universe

The inflaton field:

Figure: Representation of inflaton field

The inflaton field has a pressure p given by

Shortcomings of the Big Bang Model

The Horizon Problem

The Horizon Problem I

Inability of the big bang model to explain the homogeneity of

Figure: Large scale structure of the universe

The Horizon Problem II

Figure: The cosmic microwave background

Figure: The horizon problem illustrated

Figure: Spacetime diagram without inflation

The physical distance to the source of the CMB radiation

(for matter-dominated universe, a(t) ∝ t ( 2/3)

To check whether the two points in the sky emitting cosmic

Solution to the horizon problem I

Figure: Spacetime diagram with Inflation

Solution to the horizon problem II

During the inflationary epoch, the energy density of the

Solution to the horizon problem III

Using this, we can calculate how much the universe expanded

Inflation theory predicts that the inflation lasted for at least

Solution to the horizon problem IV

The radius of the present observable universecan be calculated

The Flatness problem I

The Flatness problem II

The Flatness problem III

Figure: Types of curvature

The Flatness problem IV

Einstein’s theory states that any small deviation in the value

Solution to the flatness problem I

Solution to the flatness problem II

Solution to the flatness problem III

The RHS is a constant. The energy density ρ is a constant as

This shows that inflation directly results in a flat universe.

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