Chapter One Civics and Ethics Conceptualizing Civics and Ethics

Civics and Ethical Education
CHAPTER ONE
CIVICS AND ETHICS
CONCEPTUALIZING CIVICS AND ETHICS
Introduction
Civics and Ethics are understood and analyzed in different
countries as per their socio-economic and political realities.
Given this, civics and ethics are separate fields of academic
study in the social sciences dealing with citizenship and
morality respectively. While civics is concerned with the
study of the legal and political rules governing the
relationship between the individual and the state, Ethics
deals with the moral rules and values governing an
individual’s behavior and his/her relations with other
individuals in a social group.
1.1 Definition of Civics and Ethics
Civics: the word civics comes from a Latin word “civis/
civitas” meaning citizen. Citizen, as commonly stated by
scholars, are legally recognized members of a given state.
Therefore, civics is an education for citizens concerning the
political, economic, cultural, and socio-economic affairs of
their country.
Civics education can also be stated as a way of empowering
citizens with the knowledge of their country’s political
system, their rights and duties and their contribution to the
wellbeing of their country. It is a way of empowering
citizens because it has mainly to do with the fundamental
principles for the organization of their country’s political
system by dealing with the constitution.
Ethics: ethics is commonly defined as the branch of
philosophy that studies what constitutes good and bad
AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 1|Page
human conduct, including related actions and values. In this

regard, ethics is an area of philosophy, which investigates
the principles of governing human actions in terms of their
goodness, badness, rightness, and wrongness. It is concerned
with discovering the principles that should govern human
conduct and with the investigation of normative issues
involving value judgments. Therefore, ethical education is a
way of identifying or distinguishing good codes of conduct
from bad codes of conduct, right actions from wrong actions
and acceptable behavior from unacceptable behavior. In this
regard, the objective of ethical education is to help citizens
develop good codes of conduct and behave accordingly in
their day-today activities.
1.2 Similarities and Differences of Civics and Ethics

Generally, civics studies the political and legal aspect of the
life of an individual citizen where as ethics concerns with the
study of the cultural aspect of his/her life. Although civics
and ethics are separate academic fields of study, they
however share certain commonalities. The followings are
some examples of the common features of civics
(citizenship) and ethics (morality).
1.2.1. Membership to a certain grouping
Membership to a certain grouping is the very essence of both
citizenship and morality. In the absence of the concept of
membership, both lose their fundamental meanings and
status as subject matters to be studied. In civics/citizenship,
membership implies the association of an individual citizen
to a political and legal community of the highest order(the
state) whereas in morality membership denotes the
association of an individual into a certain cultural

community tied up by common moral and value bonds,
whether there is government or not. Civics tends to focus on
the vertical and artificial relation of the individual while
ethics studies the horizontal and natural relations. Put
differently, citizenship needs some kind of political and legal
arrangement to determine who is a member of the state.
Similarly, morality is a value arrangement that describes and
prescribes the conditions for the individual member to be
accepted as a good element as judged and rated by the
society itself. However, under both conditions membership
to a certain grouping is an established common factor.
1.2.2. The Issue of Rights and Obligations

Human beings are social animals under inherent trend to live
together in a social gathering. But this social gathering is not
any accidental aggregation of individuals without some kind
of systematized organization and common orientation. There
are rather certain unavoidable rules and procedures with lists
of privileges and concomitant obligations attached to the
individual person as a condition of social attachment with
the vast social surrounding. For instance, Citizenship entails
a set of rights and obligations for individual members thus
the violation or respect of which results in some arrangement
of punishment or reward by the state.

Morality on its part is nothing but a list of values

standardizing acceptable and unacceptable behaviors and the
disposition of the individual by the cultural group.
Both underscore the fact that the individual person is

accountable to rights and obligations mostly set and
protected by social forces out of his/her control.
1.2.3. The Issue of Institutional Protection

Both citizenship and morality are founded on
institutionalized origin, development, operation, supervision
and protection within the community. An institution here
signifies a sociological establishment and organization of
people formed strictly with a degree of executive right to
exercise coercive power on the individual in the name of the
community. It bases itself on certain sets of rules and
procedures accepted by the majority of the people in the
community and practices hierarchical structures to apply its
control over the behavior of the individual. Based on
majority approval, the institution obtains and maintains its
legitimacy to rule over the behaviors of the individual
member of the group. With the major differences in the
authority of the institution, it is commonly responsible to
protect civic and moral rights and obligations by applying
formal and informal supervisory mechanisms over the
individual. While the state through the government and all
agencies under its control formally regulate citizenship,
institutions such as the church, family, neighborhood and
others inspect morality and ethical standards informally.
This institutional protection of citizenship and morality helps
make relations and actions of individual within a community

predictable and subject to proportional rewards and
punishments.
1.2.4. The Issue of Interactive Duality

Although citizenship differs from morality in that it is,
official, predominantly rational formally regulated in its
operation, both categories of social formulations have a
strong tendency to reinforce each other in application which
leads to some sort of interactive duality. In other words, the
list of rights and duties in citizenship are officially
communicated, documented, and guarded by full time public
institutions in the name of the well being of the state and its
people. Morality on the other hand, lists recommended
prescriptions of good behavior and denounces evil/bad
actions as per acceptable standards set by the community but
it lacks formality and regularity. Despite this duality,
however, both citizenship and morality reinforce each other
as the political community of citizens is at the same time the
cultural community of human beings.
Most legal rules, restrictions and controls over the behaviors

of the citizen get their origin from the moral traditions and
thoughts of the community. For instance, homicide is as
seriously punishable crime by the law of citizenship as it is
unacceptable and denounced by the moral rule of cultural
community. This implies that most legal-political rules are
justifiably adopted moral standards which are applied to
govern individual behavior within a political community.

1.2.5. The relative nature of the fields

Both citizenship and morality bear a degree of relativity. The
following factors, among others, supply the reason for their
relative nature.
i) The relative nature of existing philosophy/outlook of
the government
Based on sources of legitimacy for rulers and in the context
of citizenship and morality governments’ outlooks could be
generally classified as authoritarian or democratic .Given
this, the conduct of governments makes citizenship to be a
relative politico-legal concept and practice i.e. some states
are excessively authoritarian thus in their politico-legal
arrangements, they give individuals the status of subjects –
people who have obligations to be performed without rights
to be exercised. Besides, under such government systems,
personal and group beliefs, religions, cultures, values and
attitudes of rulers become equated with national values and
moral standards with a wide coverage on the media and the
national education system. At present, this outlook of
governments is under pressure from global standards of
behavior and norms and hence is in transformation towards
democracy though exceptions are always there. This in turn
gave rise to a relatively modern citizenship and human moral
standards of political rules. The same trend of relativity also
applies to the conceptualization and practice of morality.

ii) The relative nature of levels of Civic and Moral

Awareness of the citizens at large
Citizens’ level of awareness about fundamental civic and
moral values also shapes the relative nature of citizenship
and morality. This gives us the relative nature of the two
concepts not among different societies but among citizens
within the same society and state. In the strict sense,
citizenship and morality are meaningless without some kind
of bottom up participation by citizens on state‘s affairs; its
policies and rule philosophy. This participation also depends
on how far civic awareness is there among the people on
political processes and ethical aspects of citizen-state
relations. Civic awareness is probably the most relative issue
in the study of civics and ethics, for there are always
background factors that affect it. For example, citizens’
awareness level is affected, among others, by the following
notable factors:
a) Level of Income
In the analysis of why there is difference in the level of
awareness among citizens regarding their politico-legal
relations with the state and moral ties with their people, it is
widely believed that their level of income really matters, i.e.,
wealth/ income places citizens of the same state at different
positions in their access within the state, government policies
and the rest of the society.
Accordingly, the upper class society which consists of few
citizens commanding the largest concentration of wealth and
thus are stable/ comfortable in their life styles due to their
privileged economic positions in the society tend to be
conservative in their political and moral dispositions with a
strong need to see only little or no change of the statuesque

in the political, moral, legal and social setting. They heavily
need a great degree of national stability and political
predictability in order to maintain their unchallenged
advantages. They also tend to be remarkably nationalistic
with maximum loyalty to the state and the constitution as
they guarantee them peace and protection for their property
and wealth. These citizens are close to politics and
government with keen interest areas of government policy
that would greatly affect their civic and moral positions
within the state. The most important issues of interest for
them are policies of taxation, inflation, labor, environment
and foreign relations in general.
The Middle class society which includes section of the
society that economically stand next to the upper income
group on the other hand is highly dynamic and with the best
opportunity to uninterrupted rise of income as it works hard
tends to be vibrant, participatory and active social group for
it consists of probably young, professional, ambitious and
liberal section of the society. It was this social group that
successfully led the bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe
that transformed society into a capitalist socio-economic and
political community. The political efficiency and
determination of this group comes from its very middle
position between the richest upper income group, which
seeks it to effect policy changes to its advantages. It equally
tends to master the support of the lower income group which
is believed to understand more about the life conditions
across the ordinary and helpless people.

Finally, the Lower class society which constitutes the

largest section of society, with little opportunities, whose
annual income is extremely low, tends to be scarcely
interested at what is going on within the national and
regional governments. People within this category are hardly
tuned to the media nor do they seek to access almost all
information sources though they generally tend to be law
abiding citizens. The lower income group gets alerted
occasionally by particular domestic and foreign political
developments and unusual events that captivate their interest
and, negatively or positively, influence their hopes for better
life. Politics is too complex, elusive, and unmanageable for
them hence they want to free of it and strongly feel to reject
elections as meaningless to change conditions by the vote of
poor people. Generally, low income groups are extremely
marginalized from the main stream of politics and moral
debates worrying little about rights and the nature of their
relation with the state.
b) Civic Culture
Civic culture is generally defined as a trend (of behaviors,
attitudes and orientations) among citizens to be concerned
with political processes and being efficacious in the political
climate. Based on this definition, residents of a given state
usually demonstrate participatory, passive/subject or
parochial civic culture and each affects the level of
awareness they develop.
For instance, participant citizens are those with good
general knowledge and understanding about policies and
government activities and thus are assertive on civic
participations. This in turn implies that in states with a
proportional size of participant citizens, politics has been

found to be stable, civilized and predictable though dynamic.
In contrast, subjects (citizens with passive civic culture) are

those with inconsistent interest in politics may be because
they feel their private conditions are too good to be
concerned about politics(say join national elections) or they
have largely poor general knowledge and understanding
about national politics.
The worst case is, however, that of parochial civic culture in

which we have citizens with neither the knowledge about
political developments at national level nor the interest to
participate at any level and agenda of discussion. They
strongly believe that they have no power to change or affect
things even at local levels but simply observe political
developments only that are local and close to them. In other
words, Parochials are largely self-marginalized from politics
unusually due to their day-to-day concern to win their daily
bread which they feel has no relations with what the radio or
the television may say. They lack all the means to divert
their attentions to politics and may go to the extent of having
no information about who rules the country or wins in a
hotly contested national election. They virtually have no
record of visiting the polling station at all.
The general lesson to be derived from the above is thus the

stability of the state and its socio-economic developments
are largely dependent upon how reasonably it maintains the
balance among these three gradations of civic cultures.
AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 10 | P a g e
Moreover, a society dominated by a majority of Parochials is

more likely to face even dangers of national disintegration
and fragmentation.
1.3. Purposes (Goals and Objectives) Of Civics and
Ethics
The main objective of teaching civics and ethics is to
produce good citizens with the necessary wisdom that help
them actively participate in the affairs of their country so
that they would contribute their best for the development of
their country. To this effect, civics and ethics as a subject
incorporates in its content: civic knowledge, civic skills and
civic virtue.
Civic knowledge refers to basic concepts and principles
about government and politics.
Civic skills refer to the intellectual and participatory ability
of citizens. Intellectual ability refers to the ability of
individuals to understand, explain, and evaluate the political
and socio-economic situation where they live in. generally,
civic skill implies the capability of individuals to apply their
knowledge into practice. Civic skill also implies the
participatory ability of citizens to monitor and influence
public policies and decisions.
Civic virtue refers to dispositions and commitment of
citizens that are essential for the maintenance and
development of democratic government. Among the
elements of civic virtue are civility in speech, open-
mindedness, self-discipline, generosity and respect for the
worth and dignity of people individually and in groups.
In accordance with their contents, civics and ethics, as fields
of study, are taught to promote participation, develop self-
awareness, self-governance, empower citizens with their

rights and duties, introduce citizens with the type, structure,
form, function and distribution of power within their
country’s government.
Objectives of civic and ethics will vary from political system
to political system. In the case of current Ethiopia, for
instance, civics and ethics is taught to:
I. Enable the young know and exercise basic democratic
values that will make them efficient and responsible citizens.
II. Ensure participation of the young in their local and
communal affairs based on enlightened self-interest and out
of personal concern
III. Understand, maintain, and develop appropriate
dispositions towards issues that have relevance to group
interest as a precondition for sustaining individual security
and interest.
IV. Prevent government from exercising unconstitutional
practices
V. Protect violations of citizens’ rights
VI. Equip students with appropriate knowledge and skills in
order to exercise all-round participation and to monitor
social activities in their communities.
VII. Promote values that are believed to serve as foundations
to the democratic system envisaged and to the prosperity the
country destined to bring
VIII. Help students stand with their full commitment to
ensure that the country’s constitution is respected and
enforced to the benefit of maintaining individual rights and
security.

IX. Create capacity that help citizens understand government

priorities, the nature of the law, political and economic
problems in their communities and on international political
directions
X. Promote socially approved cultural elements
Generally, civics and ethics as a subject in Ethiopia is given
to cultivate good citizens who participate actively in the
country’s democratic process.
The goals and objectives of civic and ethical education can
be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Building civic competence
Civic competence is the capability of citizens to participate
effectively in the political as well as social systems to
influence decisions adopted by the government of their
country.
The level of civic competence would substantially be
affected by the level of literacy and democratic development.
The higher level of literacy and democratic development, the
higher level of civic competence whereas the lower level of
literacy and democratic development, the lower level of civic
competence. Therefore, in accordance with the level of
literacy and democratic development, civic competence
would vary from society to society.
Common features of civic competence
Competent citizens are characterized (among others) by the
following qualities:
I. They follow up-to-date information through the
mass media
II. They concern with public issues and seek for their
solutions
III. Actively participate in the political, cultural, and

socio-economic affairs of their country
IV. They take part in civic and political organizations
(interest groups, political parties, and non-governmental
organizations etc).
Based on these qualities, citizens could influence the
decision and policy making of their government. In this
regard, competent citizens have the ability to force their
government to adopt favorable policies to improve the well-
being of the public.
2. promoting the culture of civic responsibility
Responsibility is the commitment or devotion of citizens to
perform their obligation. In this regard, citizenship of an
individual reflects his or her rights and responsibilities of
participation in different sectors.
Common features of civic responsibility

Responsible citizens are characterized (among others) by the
following qualities
I. They protect public property
II. They respect laws and abide by them
III. They respect others’ rights
IV. They pay taxes properly
V. They are ready to defend their country
VI. They control he government to function within the
limits of the constitution
VII. They follow up public policies and contribute to
improve the quality of government functions etc
Generally, the ultimate goals of teaching civics and ethics
are aimed at maintaining and promoting the healthy
conditions of the body politic through active participation of

citizens.
Body politic refers to the overall social structures,
institutions (governmental and non-governmental), norms,
values and the possible interactions of the people in a
definite territory. Therefore, teaching civics and ethics is
necessary to keep the balance of a social system.
1.4.Origin and Historical Development of Civic and
Ethical Education
Historical evidences show that civics and ethics education is
as old as the history of humankind. It was begun to be
offered starting since antiquity in different forms and names
in different parts of the world.
Among others, civic education was given in the ancient
Greek city-states like Athens and Sparta, as political
philosophy, economic philosophy and the like.
Greek was the origin of many political thinkers, among
others, Plato (427- 347 B.C) was the founder of the first
college. He was also the first systematic political thinker. He
raised the fundamental questions of human personality,
human organization, justice, political order, etc.
One of the main and most revolutionary assumptions of ‘the
Republic’ (Plato’s famous work) is that, the right kind of
government and politics can be the legitimate object of
rigorous scientific thinking rather than the inevitable product
of muddling through fear and faith, laziness and
improvisation. He strongly argued that political and social
issues could be clarified by rational argument rather than
force and dogma. This key element of political outlook and

temperament got its acceptance even from the anti-

Platonists.
The ideas of Plato imply the vision and mission of the
current civic and ethical education. However, Plato’s civic
and ethical education was distinct from the current civic and
ethical education regardless of its contribution to the modern
civic education.
Above all, Plato denied the idea that civic education is
necessary for all citizens. As historical evidences show,
the ancient Greek societies were divided into male,
female, slaves, etc. In this regard, female citizens and
slaves were not allowed to learn civic education. They
were marginalized from political participation of their
nation. Particularly, Plato did not consider them, as they are
capable enough to think and acquire necessary
knowledge and skills. He believed that, only free male
citizens are capable enough to acquire necessary knowledge
and skills as well as rational thinking. Thus, the ancient
Plato’s civic education lacks universal suffrage.
Currently, both developed (industrialized) and developing
countries offer some form of civic and ethical education to
their citizens to make them:
 Well informed
 Skilled and competent
 Duty minded and hard workers
 Self controlled and independent
 Accept differences
 Able to reject prejudice and discrimination
 Exercise rights and respect others’ rights etc.

1.5. The development of civics and ethics education in

Ethiopia
Proper civics and ethics education in Ethiopia did not take
place until the adoption of the new constitution in 1931. As
an integral part of modernization, the integration of civic
education in Ethiopia introduced with the promulgation of
the first written constitution in 1931 and the revised
constitution of 1955. The very objective was for the
implementation of a constitution that was designed by the
monarch to impose its will upon the people. Hence, Civics
was served as an instrument of the feudal constitution
where students were expected to accept the political
legitimacy of the Emperor and his dynasty. Moreover,
civic education assumed to play predominant role to
inculcate the traditional legitimacy of the throne
(“received from God” /divine right to rule) in the mind of
the young generation. During the Haileslassie government,
civic and ethical education was related to the religious code
of conduct. It was the religious dogmatism served as a
source of civic and ethical education to shape the moral and
ethical values of the Ethiopian society. Religion and state
were not separated until the down fall of the monarchical
government through the 1974 Ethiopian revolution.
After the collapse of the monarchical system in 1974, the

Dergue abolished moral education of the imperial regime
and replaced it with political education. In the place of
moral education, with the objective of shaping and molding
the young generation along the ideology of Marxism –
Leninism, political education was offered in schools. In
other words, political education was integrated into the

country’s educational curriculum to reflect the Marxist –
Leninist philosophy like:-
 Dialectics
 Historical materialism
 Political economy and philosophy of
capitalism
 Socialism etc.
In this regard, political education as a discipline was

conducted to enhance fundamentals of Marxism – Leninism.
The Dergue regime believed that political education was
fundamental to further class struggle corresponding to
objectives of the revolution such as - enhancing
revolutionary consciousness, socialist morality, socialist
personality etc. Thus, socialist principles became the
guidelines in offering civic education to serve the interest
of the broad masses.
Generally, civic and ethical education in both the Imperial
and Dergue regimes did not take place in its practical sense.
Instead, in place of civics and ethics education, moral and
political education was offered for different purposes during
the Haileslassie and the Dergue regimes respectively. Moral
education and political education were mainly offered not
for generating democratic citizens; rather they used and
served as machineries for political indoctrination in the
monarchical and the Dergue governments respectively.
Social transformation and political emancipation were made
impossible. Moral and political educations were serving as
the guardians of the statuesque by fostering values that
encourage control and domination among citizens of the

country.
But following the demise of the military regime,
integration of civic and ethical education into the
curriculum was made to ensure and sustain democracy,
to promote political and cultural values, and people-
centered institutional arrangements as well. The idea of
liberty, democracy, and constitutionalism has risen to
prominence in Ethiopia.
It has been recognized that schools must teach citizens the
theory and practices of constitutional democracy in order to
develop free society and democratic government. In this
regard, since 1991, Ethiopia began to identify social values
that will create the spirit of democratic citizenship for
political engagement within the mainstream of national
politics to reverse political apathy and withdrawal.
Accordingly, a new curriculum is introduced with the aim of
promoting democratic values and democratic culture by
helping citizens to properly understand public policy and
their contribution for the development of the Ethiopian state.
To this effect, civic and ethical education is expected to
liberate citizens from the fear of performing new roles and
setting new agendas for social wellbeing and progress at the
national, regional, and local levels. Moreover, the new
curriculum is designed to help citizens develop the ability of
participation in the affairs of their country.
It is generally accepted that civic and ethical education
contents and values must be skill oriented. Hence civic and
ethical education aims to produce active, informed,
competent, and responsible citizens. Therefore, integration
of civic and ethical education into the curriculum reflects the

desire to make the youth well behaved and democratic
citizens. Unlike the previous curriculum that was established
to serve and promote the ruling party’s official ideology and
political indoctrination, civic and ethical education currently
serves as an instrument to uphold the FDRE constitutional
principle.
1.6. The Sources (Foundations) and Interdisciplinary
Nature of Civic and Ethics
Civic and Ethical Education is an interdisciplinary or

multidisciplinary subject that borrows its contents from
different fields of studies.
Generally, there are two main sources of civic and ethical
education. These are:
1. Subject (disciplinary) Sources:
All the social sciences deal with the study of various
aspects of human life and activities. These fields of studies
lend certain contents to civics and ethical education.
Political Science
Political science is an academic discipline which focuses on
government and politics. It specifically deals with areas
such as power, authority, legitimacy, the process of
decision-making, distribution of political power, political
ideologies, political culture, political interaction among
interest groups and political parties, institutions of
politics and functions of the political system. In political
science, we are mainly concerned with the study of man’s
political behavior in association with other men and women
as members of a common society. Political science provides
citizens with knowledge of various political theories,

necessary skills for political participation, and different
methods on how to analyze political issues, policies, laws,
governmental activities and the ability to identify the
nature of their government. Hence, there is a more
correlation between civics and ethical education and political
science.
International Relations: is the study of relations between
two or more than two entities at the international level. It
refers to all activities of the state that are concerned with
its external affairs. International relations contribute to
civic and ethical education by helping citizens to be
familiarized with various global issues such as terrorism,
HIV/AIDS, poverty, rapid population growth,
environment, the way the international system operates,
major international organizations and their functions,
foreign policy of the state, and actors in the international
system vis-à-vis state’s national interests.
Philosophy: is a universal science, which deals with the
ultimate causes of all things in a rational and critical
manner. It deals with all aspects of reality such as the
nature of knowledge, society, politics, and moral values.
Philosophy tries to answer questions such as:
What is the ultimate source of reality? This is studied
under metaphysics (theory of being).
What is good, what is evil and how good is attained, and
evil is avoided? This is dealt under ethics.
What is truth and source of knowledge? This is studied
under epistemology.

What is being human and where is the place of human

being in the universe? This is studied by political
philosophy. Hence, philosophy contributes to civics and
ethical education by providing knowledge on various areas
that are necessary to cultivate good citizens.
History: the subject matter of history has strong bearing on
civics and ethical education. We cannot make progress at
present unless we have an idea of the past. History deals
with the study of the past whereas civics is the study of
contemporary facts. Hence, civics draws on the funds of
history to get knowledge of the past attempts of people in
solving the different civic problems. In this regard, history
contributes to civics and ethical education by enabling
the current generation to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of past political, economic and social
experiences, insight how the present life has come into
being and forecast about the future.
Law: is defined as a rule of conduct or procedure
recognized by a community as binding or enforceable by
authority. It can also be defined as an act passed by a
legislature or a similar body. The body or system of rules
recognized by a community that is enforceable by
established process. Moreover, law is also stated as the
branch of knowledge or study concerned with the rules
of a community and their enforcement or, it is a general
rule or principle that is thought to be true or held to be
binding.
Generally, law is coercive or permissive that allows or
prohibits individuals to do something. Hence, it

contributes to civic and ethical education by enabling

citizens to know their rights and duties properly.
Sociology: is the study of various social relations of
humankind. It deals with the development of human as a
social being. It also studies the economic, religious, moral
and political developments of a society. Sociology plays a
greater role in achieving the objectives of civic and ethical
education by helping citizens to be familiarized with how
societies interact each other, and grasp how society is
organized, how diversity is accommodated, and good
governance, accountability, and morality are realized.
Economics: is a field of study that concerns with
production, distribution and exchange of the wealth. It
studies about economic activities, policies in an attempt to
solve economic problems by proposing alternative options
and mechanisms. The knowledge of economics helps civics
to a great extent. Economics inspires human beings to
perform certain acts of human welfare. Knowledge of civics
is quite useful in dealing with laborers and consumers in a
reasonable and judicious manner. If economic relations are
not properly established it becomes very difficult to
establish proper social and civic relations. Thus, we find
that economic development forms the basis of various
developments- social, cultural, moral, religious etc, which
are also the subject matters of civics and ethical
education.
Geography: is the study of the natural problems of the

world. Therefore, it is correlated to civics education. With
the help of the knowledge of geography, we can have an idea
about the culture and the way of living of the people of a

country. Civics can take advantage of this knowledge. To
understand the different political set ups in different
countries, we have to understand the differences in
geographical factors in those countries. As one source of
civics education, geography also makes an effort to improve
human welfare. Hence, geography and civics education are
interrelated fields of studies, which have common concerns
to be achieved.
2. Documentary Sources:
This category of sources includes international
agreements, constitutions (written and unwritten)
decisions and enactments of legal bodies, historical
resources, photographs, films, etc.
a. International enactments: These are group of
documents that refer to the decisions of the United Nations
including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR), which was adopted in 1948, the Convention on
the Right of Child, the Convention on All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (1979), and the
Convention on Refugee and Stateless Person (1951).
b. Constitution: is the supreme law of the land. It can
be written or unwritten that specifies the political
structure, power distribution, functions of government
and the rights and duties of citizens.
c. Decisions and enactments of legally recognized
bodies: the executive, legislative and judiciary branches
of the government. These bodies would enact and pass
decisions to be implemented such as decrees,
proclamations, and declarations.
Chapter two
Ethics
2.1. Definition
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a
branch of philosophy that addresses questions
about morality—that is, concepts such as good
and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice,
justice, etc. The field of ethics (or moral
philosophy) involves systematizing, defending,
and recommending concepts of right and wrong
behavior. Originally it is derived from the
Latin word Ethos which refers to customs and
norms of society that has to be respected by
every individual. These ideals of the ethos
demand immediate and unquestionable obedience
because they are respected values of society.
Ethics, however, is not guided by values that
are not rationally justified. Thus, Ethics is
not about unquestionable obedience, rather it
is a matter of basing ethical values in
rational arguments. Here based on the focus of
analysis and issue of concern; we have
metaethics, applied ethics and normative
ethics as the three major orientations and
approaches in ethics.
2.2. Approaches of Ethics
2.2.1. Meta-ethics
The term “meta” means after or beyond, and,
consequently, the notion of meta-ethics
involves a removed, or bird’s eye view of the
entire project of ethics. We may define meta-
ethics as the study of the origin and meaning
of ethical concepts. When compared to
normative ethics and applied ethics, the field
of meta-ethics is the least precisely defined
area of moral philosophy. It covers issues
from moral semantics to moral epistemology.
Two issues, though, are prominent: (1)
metaphysical issues concerning whether
morality exists independently of humans, and
(2) psychological issues concerning the
underlying mental basis of our moral judgments
and conduct.
2.2.1.1. Metaphysical Issues: Objectivism and
Relativism
Metaphysics is the study of the kinds of
things that exist in the universe. Some things
in the universe are made of physical stuff,
such as rocks; and perhaps other things are
nonphysical in nature, such as thoughts,
spirits, and gods. The metaphysical component
of meta-ethics involves discovering
specifically whether moral values are eternal
truths that exist in a spirit-like realm, or
simply human conventions. There are two
general directions that discussions of this
topic take, one other-worldly and one this-

worldly.
Objectivism (Universalism)
Proponents of the other-worldly view typically
hold that moral values are objective in the
sense that they exist in a spirit-like realm
beyond subjective human conventions. They also
hold that they are absolute, or eternal, in
that they never change, and also that they are
universal insofar as they apply to all
rational creatures around the world and
throughout time. The most dramatic example of
this view is Plato, who was inspired by the
field of mathematics. When we look at numbers
and mathematical relations, such as 1+1=2,
they seem to be timeless concepts that never
change, and apply everywhere in the universe.
Humans do not invent numbers, and humans
cannot alter them. Plato explained the eternal
character of mathematics by stating that they
are abstract entities that exist in a spirit-
like realm. He noted that moral values also
are absolute truths and thus are also
abstract, spirit-like entities. In this sense,
for Plato, moral values are spiritual objects.
Medieval philosophers commonly grouped all
moral principles together under the heading of
“eternal law” which were also frequently
seen as spirit-like objects. 17th century
British philosopher Samuel Clarke described
them as spirit-like relationships rather than
spirit-like objects. In either case, though,

they exist in a sprit-like realm. A different
other-worldly approach to the metaphysical
status of morality is divine commands issuing
from God’s will. Sometimes called voluntarism
(or divine command theory), this view was
inspired by the notion of an all-powerful God
who is in control of everything. God simply
wills things, and they become reality. He
wills the physical world into existence, he
wills human life into existence and,
similarly, he wills all moral values into
existence. Proponents of this view, such as
medieval philosopher William of Ockham,
believe that God wills moral principles, such
as “murder is wrong,” and these exist in
God’s mind as commands. God informs humans of
these commands by implanting us with moral
intuitions or revealing these commands in
scripture.
Relativism (Subjectivism)
The second and more this-worldly approach to
the metaphysical status of morality follows in
the skeptical philosophical tradition, such as
that articulated by Greek philosopher Sextus
Empiricus, and denies the objective status of
moral values. Technically, skeptics did not
reject moral values themselves, but only
denied that values exist as spirit-like
objects, or as divine commands in the mind of
God. Moral values, they argued, are strictly
human inventions, a position that has since

been called moral relativism. There are two
distinct forms of moral relativism. The first
is individual relativism, which holds that
individual people create their own moral
standards. Friedrich Nietzsche, for example,
argued that the superhuman creates his or her
morality distinct from and in reaction to the
slave-like value system of the masses. The
second is cultural relativism which maintains
that morality is grounded in the approval of
one’s society – and not simply in the
preferences of individual people. This view
was advocated by Sextus, and in more recent
centuries by Michel Montaigne and William
Graham Sumner. In addition to espousing
skepticism and relativism, this-worldly
approaches to the metaphysical status of
morality deny the absolute and universal
nature of morality and hold instead that moral
values in fact change from society to society
throughout time and throughout the world. They
frequently attempt to defend their position by
citing examples of values that differ
dramatically from one culture to another, such
as attitudes about polygamy, homosexuality and
human sacrifice.
2.2.1.2. Psychological Issues in Meta-ethics
A second area of meta-ethics involves the
psychological basis of our moral judgments and
conduct, particularly understanding what
motivates us to be moral. We might explore

this subject by asking the simple question,
“Why be moral?” Even if I am aware of basic
moral standards, such as don’t kill and
don’t steal, this does not necessarily mean
that I will be psychologically compelled to
act on them. Some answers to the question
“Why be moral?” are to avoid punishment, to
gain praise, to attain happiness, to be
dignified, or to fit in with society.
i. Egoism and Altruism
One important area of moral psychology
concerns the inherent selfishness of humans.
17th century British philosopher Thomas Hobbes
held that many, if not all, of our actions are
prompted by selfish desires. Even if an action
seems selfless, such as donating to charity,
there are still selfish causes for this, such
as experiencing power over other people. This
view is called psychological egoism and
maintains that self-oriented interests
ultimately motivate all human actions. Closely
related to psychological egoism is a view
called psychological hedonism which is the
view that pleasure is the specific driving
force behind all of our actions. 18th century
British philosopher Joseph Butler agreed that
instinctive selfishness and pleasure prompt
much of our conduct. However, Butler argued
that we also have an inherent psychological
capacity to show benevolence to others. This
view is called psychological altruism and

maintains that at least some of our actions
are motivated by instinctive benevolence.
ii. Emotion and Reason
A second area of moral psychology involves a
dispute concerning the role of reason in
motivating moral actions. If, for example, I
make the statement “abortion is morally
wrong,” am I making a rational assessment or
only expressing my feelings? On the one side
of the dispute, 18th century British
philosopher David Hume argued that moral
assessments involve our emotions, and not our
reason. We can amass all the reasons we want,
but that alone will not constitute a moral
assessment. We need a distinctly emotional
reaction in order to make a moral
pronouncement. Reason might be of service in
giving us the relevant data, but, in Hume’s
words, “reason is, and ought to be, the slave
of the passions.” Inspired by Hume’s anti-
rationalist views, some 20th century
philosophers, most notably A.J. Ayer,
similarly denied that moral assessments are
factual descriptions. For example, although
the statement “it is good to donate to
charity” may on the surface look as though it
is a factual description about charity, it is
not. Instead, a moral utterance like this
involves two things. First, I (the speaker) I
am expressing my personal feelings of approval
about charitable donations and I am in essence

saying “Hooray for charity!” This is called
the emotive element insofar as I am expressing
my emotions about some specific behavior.
Second, I (the speaker) am trying to get you
to donate to charity and am essentially giving
the command, “Donate to charity!” This is
called the prescriptive element in the sense
that I am prescribing some specific behavior.
From Hume’s day forward, more rationally-
minded philosophers have opposed these emotive
theories of ethics and instead argued that
moral assessments are indeed acts of reason.
18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant
is a case in point. Although emotional factors
often do influence our conduct, he argued, we
should nevertheless resist that kind of sway.
Instead, true moral action is motivated only
by reason when it is free from emotions and
desires. A recent rationalist approach,
offered by Kurt Baier (1958), was proposed in
direct opposition to the emotivist and
prescriptivist theories of Ayer and others.
Baier focuses more broadly on the reasoning
and argumentation process that takes place
when making moral choices. All of our moral
choices are, or at least can be, backed by
some reason or justification. If I claim that
it is wrong to steal someone’s car, then I
should be able to justify my claim with some
kind of argument. For example, I could argue
that stealing Smith’s car is wrong since this

would upset her, violate her ownership rights,
or put the thief at risk of getting caught.
According to Baier, then, proper moral
decision making involves giving the best
reasons in support of one course of action
versus another.
iii. Male and Female Morality
A third area of moral psychology focuses on
whether there is a distinctly female approach
to ethics that is grounded in the
psychological differences between men and
women. Discussions of this issue focus on two
claims: (1) traditional morality is male-
centered, and (2) there is a unique female
perspective of the world which can be shaped
into a value theory. According to many
feminist philosophers, traditional morality is
male-centered since it is modeled after
practices that have been traditionally male-
dominated, such as acquiring property,
engaging in business contracts, and governing
societies. The rigid systems of rules required
for trade and government were then taken as
models for the creation of equally rigid
systems of moral rules, such as lists of
rights and duties. Women, by contrast, have
traditionally had a nurturing role by raising
children and overseeing domestic life. These
tasks require less rule following, and more
spontaneous and creative action. Using the
woman’s experience as a model for moral

theory, then, the basis of morality would be
spontaneously caring for others as would be
appropriate in each unique circumstance. On
this model, the agent becomes part of the
situation and acts caringly within that
context. This stands in contrast with male-
modeled morality where the agent is a
mechanical actor who performs his required
duty, but can remain distanced from and
unaffected by the situation. A care-based
approach to morality, as it is sometimes
called, is offered by feminist ethicists as
either a replacement for or a supplement to
traditional male-modeled moral systems.
2.2.2. Applied Ethics
Applied ethics is the branch of ethics which
consists of the analysis of specific,
controversial moral issues such as abortion,
animal rights, or euthanasia. In recent years
applied ethical issues have been subdivided
into convenient groups (Professional ethics)
such as medical ethics, business ethics,
environmental ethics, and sexual ethics.
Generally speaking, two features are necessary
for an issue to be considered an “applied
ethical issue.” First, the issue needs to be
controversial in the sense that there are
significant groups of people both for and
against the issue at hand. The issue of drive-
by shooting, for example, is not an applied
ethical issue, since everyone agrees that this

practice is grossly immoral. By contrast, the
issue of gun control would be an applied
ethical issue since there are significant
groups of people both for and against gun
control.
Issues in Applied Ethics

Development Ethics
The notion of development is as equally a
moral issue/concept as it is political, legal
and economic. Therefore, from the point of
view of the study of ethics/morality, there
are a number of development related
questions /issues that are worth of discussion
and analysis. For instance, one might
legitimately ask questions like;
In what direction and by what means should a
society 'develop'?
Who is morally responsible for beneficial
change?
What are the moral obligations, if any, of
rich societies to poor societies? Etc.
In fact, if someone is a development ethicist,
he /she might even go as far as asking the
following deeper and wider questions;
What should be counted as good or bad
development?
What controversial moral issues might emerge
in development policymaking and practice and
how should they be resolved?
How should the burdens and benefits of

development be distributed?
What are the most serious local, national and
international impediments to good development?
Etc.
At the heart of all the above questions is
therefore a moral concern to find out sources
for moral assessment of theories and practices
of development that exist today and thereby
prescribing a morally better way outs for
future development.
This being the case, studying development

ethics would be extremely crucial to identify
major areas of moral consensus and controversy
on practicing and defining development and
eventually develop shared general parameters
for ethically based development. As their
points of convergence, almost all ethical and
value dimensions of development must be
approached accordingly during analysis of
support and criticism. Although development is
multidisciplinary lacking precise definition
it can be viewed on its minimum understanding
as reducing human deprivation and misery
particularly in the material sense.
Third, a consensus exists also on the fact

that development planners should seek
strategies in which both human well-being and
a healthy environment jointly exist (i.e. the
issue of sustainable development). A recently

evolving area of agreement is that development
strategies must be contextually sensitive.
This is so because what constitutes the best
means of development depends on a society's
history and stage of social change as well as
on regional and global forces. For instance,
some might prefer state provisioning while
others market mechanisms. Neither could be
absolutely bad or good. Despite all the above
points of agreement, however, there are
several controversies and unsettled issues on
conceptualization and practice of development.
This controversy starts with scope of
development ethics itself.
Development ethics’ initial concern was

assessing the development ends and means of
poor societies (third world societies). The
question is should it now go beyond this,
there is no consensus. The same trend of
controversy exist on how to deal with kinds of
currently existing North--South (and South--
South) relations and their effects on economic
and political power gaps. Development ethics
theorists also divided the moral norms that
they seek to justify and apply into three
positions. Universalists, such as utilitarians
and Kantians, argue that development goals and
principles are valid for all societies.
Particularists, especially communitarians and

postmodern relativists, however argue that
universalism masks ethnocentrism and
(Northern) cultural imperialism. Instead,
Particularists support what can be called
procedural principle which asserts that each
nation or society should grow only on its own
traditions and decide its own development
ethic and path. The third approach in this
respect tries to avoid the extremism between
the first two positions stating that
development ethics should forge a cross-
cultural consensus in which a society's own
freedom to make development choices is one
among a plurality of fundamental norms and in
which these norms are of sufficient generality
so as not only to permit but also to require
sensitivity to societal differences. The above
debate in short was on issue of procedure of
development-how is it to be brought about? How
about on its contents? There is also an
ongoing debate about how development's
benefits, burdens and responsibilities should
be distributed within poor countries and
between rich and poor countries.
Utilitarians prescribe simple aggregation and

maximization of individual utilities.
Rawlsians advocate that income and wealth be
maximized for the least well-off (individuals
or nations). Libertarians contend that a
society should guarantee no form of equality

apart from equal freedom from the interference
of government and other people. Capability
ethicists defend governmental responsibility
to enable everyone to be able to advance to a
level of sufficiency.
Development ethicists also differ with respect

to whether (good) societal development should
have—as an ultimate goal—the promotion of
values other than the present and future human
good. Some development ethicists ascribe
intrinsic value, equal to or even superior to
the good of individual human beings, to human
communities of various kinds, for instance,
family, nation or cultural group. Others argue
that nonhuman individuals and species, as well
as ecological communities, have equal and even
superior value to human individuals. Those
committed to 'eco-development' or 'sustainable
development' do not yet agree on what should
be sustained as an end in itself and what
should be maintained as an indispensable or
merely helpful means. Nor do they agree on how
to surmount conflicts among intrinsic
values.In sum, It is the existence of all the
above complicated development oriented that
justifies studying development ethics via
interdisciplinary and cross-cultural dialogue
so that we all could deepen and widen the
current consensus and then apply ethical
wisdom to enhance human well-being and

international development.
Environmental Ethics
Environmental ethics is the discipline that
broadly studies the moral relationship of
human beings to the environment. There are
many ethical decisions that human beings make
with respect to the environment. For example:
-Should individuals continue clearing forests
for various consumption purposes?
-Should individuals continue making gasoline
powered vehicles?
-What environmental obligations do individuals
need to bear for future generations?
-Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the
extinction of other species for their n
convenience? Etc.
With a view to develop answers to the above
moral questions on environment, three general
ethical approaches have emerged over the last
20 years. The following technical terms can be
used to describe the approaches: Libertarian
Extension, Ecologic Extension and Conservation
Ethics. According to libertarian extension
approach, the value of liberty must be echoed
when we deal with environment (i.e., a
commitment to extend equal rights to all
members of a community).
The approach defined community as consist of

both non-humans and humans. In view of

ecologic extension approach, however, emphasis
must not be placed on human rights on the
recognition of the fundamental interdependence
of all biological entities. The point here is
that as planet is unified entity the human
race alone is of no particular significance in
the long run. Finally, supporters of
conservation ethics approach on the other hand
tend look at the worth of the environment in
terms of its utility or usefulness to humans
i.e., the approach argues for the preservation
of the environment as long as it has extrinsic
value to humans( it is instrumental to the
welfare of human beings). In other words,
conservation must be understood as a means to
an end and purely concerned with mankind and
intergenerational considerations. It is this
ethic that has been also widely pronounced at
the Kyoto environment summit of 1997 and the
three agreements reached in Rio in 1992. How
about in Copenhagen and the coming Cancun
conference? What are the main agendas? What
are the main arguments and counterargument,
etc.,
Principles of Environmental Ethics.

Now a day the issue of environment is not the
issues of a particular community only. The
problem of climate change is the problem of
the world. The ethical principles need to be
seen in light of addressing the global

environmental problems. The basic ones are the
following:
Duty for future generation: every economic
activity that is being taken in this
generation should not adversely affect the
future generation. As you know renewable and
non- renewable resources are getting depleted
due to the irresponsible acts of human beings.
It is the duty of human beings to save
resources for the future generation. It is the
moral compulsion of the existing generation to
care for the forth coming generation.
The duty to limit over consumption: As the
earth’s resources are finite, there should be
a limit in the production and consumption
pattern of resources. The consumption style of
lives in industrialized countries and
developing countries is not comparable. Data
indicates that the industrialized societies
that constituted ¼ of the global population
consume ¾ of the natural resources of the
planet earth.
The right to livable environment: every
human being has inherent right to live in an
environment which is free from pollution,
subjugation, exploitation. In this regard,
article 25 and 26 of the universal Declaration
of Human Rights/UDHRs/ proclaims that everyone
has the right to standard of living adequate
for the health and well-being of himself and
his family. In the similar vein Article 44 of

our constitution grants that all persons have
the right to clean and healthy environment.
The polluter pays principles:
This principle holds that those actors who
affect the environment need to pay the cost
and value in proportion to the damage. With
regard to climate change regimes, The UN
Framework Convention on climate change
accepted the principle of common and
differentiated responsibilities. It has been
recognized that the largest share of
historical and current global emissions of
green house gases has originated in developed
countries. The Framework convention also
accepted that the share of global emissions
originating in developing countries will grow
to meet their social and development needs.
Professional Ethics
Before directly proceeding to professional
ethics it is important to touch upon the
concept of profession. The concept profession,
though it may mean different things under
different contexts, can be generally defined
as a systematic way of acquiring and
continuous development of a balanced
combination of 1) Training (here to mean a
formal, rational, systematized and scheduled
activity to transfer knowledge from the
trainer and the environment to the trainee), 2
) Specialty/expertise ( here refers to a

situation in which the trainee ends up with
being an almost irreplaceable one/a referent
point in a specific field), and 3) Full time
activity and source of livelihood ( to mean
that the individual now becomes fully engaged
in the application of the knowledge so gained
on full time arrangement and that has to be
the major source of his/her income). This
definition in turn provides us with the
following distinguishing features of a
profession;
Technicality/specialty/particularity:
which refers to having a knowledge and skill
about parts of a whole regarding specific
procedures in the operations of things, the
specific rules governing operations and
relations that should be kept along the
general process;
Service delivery/relationality:
Any profession has the ultimate purpose of
rendering some sets of services for
individuals, groups or the state;
Decision making:
This feature follows from the above because
every service delivered to the people is
directly or indirectly a decision made by a
professional. Any professional decision is an
official response of the government to the

demand of a citizen who needs the service.
It may be a decision to give the service on

demand or it may be a rejection due to some
failure in the process or it may be a post-
phoning until some preconditions are met by
the service seeker; And Complementarities:
specialty and particularity cannot be the end
points of a profession in this dynamic and
interconnected world requiring vast knowledge
and skill in order to resolve a long list of
social problems widening ever and ever.
As such, there can never be an encyclopedic

type of profession which contains all needed
professional services by the people. This is
so because an average citizen may demand a
dozen of services at one time as a matter of
right. For example, a man who wants to build
his house may need service from a planner,
then an architect, then a consultant, then a
banker then a designer and so on. It is thus
becomes clear that all these services cannot
be fulfilled at one instant and location as
they are fragmented and naturally belong to
different professionals. This necessitates for
the Complementarily of all professions.
From all the above discussions about

profession and its salient features one can
safely argue that if someone doesn‘t possess

a combination of the above defined elements of
profession in their right balance and with the
stated distinguishing features then he/she is
better considered as having been engaged not
in profession but rather amateurism - a
condition in which someone might earn life by
engaging in activities where he/she has no
formal/regular training and clearly defined
area of expertise. Furthermore, it can be
generally argued that a good profession is a
whole time self-education once the fundamental
knowledge is gained from formal educational
institutions because these are areas of
beginnings for a more tiresome and difficult
development of personality by one‘s own
continued efforts.
Building on the definition of profession,

professional ethics can also be generally
defined as ethics that enables professionals
of different fields to distinguish what is
right from what is wrong using morality as
standard of evaluation and thus judge on their
actions and behaviors. It follows that
Professionals are expected to behave and act
in accordance with the codes of conduct each
profession demands. In other words,
professional ethics is concerned with the
moral issues that arise because of the
specialized knowledge that professionals
attain, and how the use of this knowledge

should be governed when providing a service to
the public. What this in turn implies is that
a meaningful discussion of professional ethics
is almost impossible in the absence of the
concept of professional responsibility
attached to it i.e., a professional carries
additional moral responsibilities to those
held by the population in general. This is
because professionals are capable of making
and acting on an informed decision in
situations that the general public cannot as
the latter have not received the relevant
training.
For example, a layman member of the public

could not be held responsible for failing to
act to save a car crash victim because he/she
could not give an emergency medical treatment.
This is because he/she does not have the
relevant knowledge. In contrast, a fully
trained doctor with the correct equipment and
thus capable of making the correct diagnosis
and carrying out the procedure did wrong if
he/she stood by and failed to help in this
situation. On the other side, this additional
knowledge comes to the professional with
authority and power i.e., the clients places
trust in the professional on the assumption
that the service provided will be of benefit
to them though it is also quite possible for
the professional to use this authority to

exploit the client. An example here can be the
case with a medical professional who
undertakes unnecessary treatment on his
patients in order to gain more money. It is
likely that the patient will not have
sufficient knowledge to question what is being
done, and so will undergo and pay for the
treatment. It is a situation like this that
makes the study of professional ethics-
professional responsibilities nexus
justifiable and valuable. As in all areas of
human life, there are values of good and bad
in the professional world too. A professional
is first and for most never an angel simply
because he/she is of a specialty of the most
desired type. A professional is a human being
as anyone with all human strengths and
weaknesses though with a strong tendency to
modify them through rational thinking which
the training he/she supplied. Secondly, a
professional is a citizen with a set of
specified rights and obligations shared with
all other citizens regardless of educational
standing and income level.
This brings additional duty to the

professional to be integrated into his mission
and goal as a professional. Thirdly, a
professional is a member of one of the
cultural groups of the society with he/she
shares commonality in language, religion,

culture, and psychological make-up and thus it
is natural for him/her to develop a tendency
to have some kind of bondage i.e., he/ or she
feels what other members of his/her cultural
group feel and strongly tempted to respond
somehow to pressures from the groupings.
Fourthly, a professional is a citizen with an
exceptional knowledge and capacity which is
not shared with all citizens and cultural
groups. Therefore, a professional is over
stretched by a long list of national and
international socio-economic, cultural and
political factors.
For example, since all professionals are

either male or female in their sex they are
encountered with varied experiences everyday
simply because there is a difference in sex.
Similarly, a professional might be born in to
low income families, urban business or state
servant family or from a farmer which has a
great bearing on his/her psychological setup.
Because of all the above settings, a
professional is then probably the most
vulnerable citizen to morality and moral rules
due to the especial multiple roles he/she is
expected to play among the society. Therefore,
an in-depth study and understanding of
professional ethics and the universal as well
as profession specific principles within the

field becomes imperative.
Some Selected Fundamental Codes / Principles

of Professional Ethics
Although different professions may have
different codes of ethics (example, the
Hippocrates oath in the case of Medicine
profession) by which respective
professionals’ actions and behaviors are
judged as right or wrong, there are also
common codes of ethics applicable across
professions. The following are therefore some
of the fundamental codes of ethics universally
applicable to all professions:
Punctuality: a state of being strictly

observant a regular time. It is a belief on
the idea that a worker must always be on time
both to come to his/her workplace and stay in
his/her office/workplace throughout the
working hours.
Honesty and Integrity: refers to the art of

telling the truth. Employers/ institutions
expect their workers to be honest. Thus, when
someone is employed somewhere for a certain
job of a given profession, he/she has already
entered into agreement to his time, knowledge
and skill to an institution and hence his/her
time, skill and knowledge do not solely belong
to him/her but also the institution. So, there

is a need to be honest on how to use these
resources.
Confidentiality: a desired tendency of a

professional to keep some information that
should be kept secret. For example, in the
case of medical profession this would entail
that a nurse/doctor has to keep secret all the
information regarding patients.
Impartiality (Non–Partiality): an ethical

condition in which a professional is expected
to treat all clients equally during service
delivery without any discrimination based on
differences such as sex, ethnic background,
religious belief, political position etc.
Fairness
Civil servants and public officials should
make decisions and act in a fair and equitable
manner, without bias or prejudice, taking into
account only the merits of the matter, and
respecting the rights of affected citizens.
Responsiveness
As agents and employees of the elected
government, civil servants and public
officials are required to serve the legitimate
interests and needs of the government and the
people. To do so, they are required to become
ready to give reasonable answers to the

demands of the public.
Efficiency and Effectiveness

Civil servants and public officials are
required to effectively and efficiently manage
public resources.
2.2.3. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics involves arriving at moral
standards that regulate right and wrong
conduct. In a sense, it is a search for an
ideal litmus test of proper behavior. The
Golden Rule is a classic example of a
normative principle: We should do to others
what we would want others to do to us. Since I
do not want my neighbor to steal my car, then
it is wrong for me to steal her car. Since I
would want people to feed me if I was
starving, then I should help feed starving
people. Using this same reasoning, I can
theoretically determine whether any possible
action is right or wrong. So, based on the
Golden Rule, it would also be wrong for me to
lie to, harass, victimize, assault, or kill
others. The Golden Rule is an example of a
normative theory that establishes a single
principle against which we judge all actions.
Other normative theories focus on a set of
foundational principles, or a set of good
character traits.
The key assumption in normative ethics is that

there is only one ultimate criterion of moral
conduct, whether it is a single rule or a set
of principles. Three strategies will be noted
here: (1) virtue theories, (2) duty theories,
and (3) consequentiality theories.
2.3 Major Ethical Theories

2.3.1. Virtue Ethics Theories
Many philosophers believe that morality
consists of following precisely defined rules
of conduct, such as “don’t kill,” or
“don’t steal.” Presumably, I must learn
these rules, and then make sure each of my
actions live up to the rules. Virtue ethics,
however, places less emphasis on learning
rules, and instead stresses the importance of
developing good habits of character, such as
benevolence. Once I’ve acquired benevolence,
for example, I will then habitually act in a
benevolent manner. Historically, virtue theory
is one of the oldest normative traditions in
Western philosophy, having its roots in
ancient Greek civilization. Plato emphasized
four virtues in particular, which were later
called cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage,
temperance and justice. Other important
virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-
respect, good temper, and sincerity. In
addition to advocating good habits of
character, virtue theorists hold that we

should avoid acquiring bad character traits,
or vices, such as cowardice, insensibility,
injustice, and vanity. Virtue theory
emphasizes moral education since virtuous
character traits are developed in one’s
youth. Adults, therefore, are responsible for
instilling virtues in the young.
Aristotle argued that virtues are good habits

that we acquire, which regulate our emotions.
For example, in response to my natural
feelings of fear, I should develop the virtue
of courage which allows me to be firm when
facing danger. Analyzing 11 specific virtues,
Aristotle argued that most virtues fall at a
mean between more extreme character traits.
With courage, for example, if I do not have
enough courage, I develop the disposition of
cowardice, which is a vice. If I have too much
courage I develop the disposition of rashness
which is also a vice. According to Aristotle,
it is not an easy task to find the perfect
mean between extreme character traits. In
fact, we need assistance from our reason to do
this. After Aristotle, medieval theologians
supplemented Greek lists of virtues with three
Christian ones, or theological virtues: faith,
hope, and charity. Interest in virtue theory
continued through the middle ages and declined
in the 19th century with the rise of
alternative moral theories below. In the mid

20th century virtue theory received special
attention from philosophers who believed that
more recent approaches ethical theories were
misguided for focusing too heavily on rules
and actions, rather than on virtuous character
traits. Alasdaire MacIntyre (1984) defended
the central role of virtues in moral theory
and argued that virtues are grounded in and
emerge from within social traditions.
2.3.2. Duty (Deontology) Theories
Many of us feel that there are clear
obligations we have as human beings, such as
to care for our children, and to not commit
murder. Duty theories base morality on
specific, foundational principles of
obligation. These theories are sometimes
called deontological, from the Greek word
deon, or duty, in view of the foundational
nature of our duty or obligation. They are
also sometimes called nonconsequentialist
since these principles are obligatory,
irrespective of the consequences that might
follow from our actions. For example, it is
wrong to not care for our children even if it
results in some great benefit, such as
financial savings. There are four central duty
theories.
2.3.2.1. Major Duty Theories

The first is that championed by 17th century

German philosopher Samuel Pufendorf, who
classified dozens of duties under three
headings: duties to God, duties to oneself,
and duties to others. Concerning our duties
towards God, he argued that there are two
kinds:a theoretical duty to know the existence
and nature of God, and a practical duty to
both inwardly and outwardly worship God.
Concerning our duties towards oneself, these
are also of two sorts:duties of the soul,
which involve developing one’s skills and
talents, andduties of the body, which involve
not harming our bodies, as we might through
gluttony or drunkenness, and not killing
oneself.Concerning our duties towards others,
Pufendorf divides these between absolute
duties, which are universally binding on
people, and conditional duties, which are the
result of contracts between people. Absolute
duties are of three sorts: avoid wronging
others,treat people as equals, andpromote the
good of others. Conditional duties involve
various types of agreements, the principal one
of which is the duty is to keep one’s
promises.
A second duty-based approach to ethics is

rights theory. Most generally, a “right” is
a justified claim against another person’s
behavior – such as my right to not be harmed
by you. Rights and duties are related in such

a way that the rights of one person implies
the duties of another person. For example, if
I have a right to payment of $10 by Smith,
then Smith has a duty to pay me $10. This is
called the correlativity of rights and duties.
The most influential early account of rights
theory is that of 17th century British
philosopher John Locke, who argued that the
laws of nature mandate that we should not harm
anyone’s life, health, liberty or
possessions. For Locke, these are our natural
rights, given to us by God. Following Locke,
the United States Declaration of Independence
authored by Thomas Jefferson recognizes three
foundational rights: life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness. Jefferson and others
rights theorists maintained that we deduce
other more specific rights from these,
including the rights of property, movement,
speech, and religious expression. There are
four features traditionally associated with
moral rights. First, rights are natural
insofar as they are not invented or created by
governments. Second, they are universal
insofar as they do not change from country to
country. Third, they are equal in the sense
that rights are the same for all people,
irrespective of gender, race, or handicap.
Fourth, they are inalienable which means that
I cannot hand over my rights to another
person, such as by selling myself into

slavery.
A third duty-based theory is that by Kant,
which emphasizes a single principle of duty.
Influenced by Pufendorf, Kant agreed that we
have moral duties to oneself and others, such
as developing one’s talents, and keeping our
promises to others. However, Kant argued that
there is a more foundational principle of duty
that encompasses our particular duties. It is
a single, self-evident principle of reason
that he calls the “categorical imperative.”
A categorical imperative, he argued, is
fundamentally different from hypothetical
imperatives that hinge on some personal desire
that we have, for example, “If you want to
get a good job, then you ought to go to
college.” By contrast, a categorical
imperative simply mandates an action,
irrespective of one’s personal desires, such
as “You ought to do X.” Kant gives at least
four versions of the categorical imperative,
but one is especially direct: Treat people as
an end, and never as a means to an end. That
is, we should always treat people with
dignity, and never use them as mere
instruments.
For Kant, we treat people as an end whenever

our actions toward someone reflect the
inherent value of that person. Donating to
charity, for example, is morally correct since

this acknowledges the inherent value of the
recipient. By contrast, we treat someone as a
means to an end whenever we treat that person
as a tool to achieve something else. It is
wrong, for example, to steal my neighbor’s
car since I would be treating her as a means
to my own happiness. The categorical
imperative also regulates the morality of
actions that affect us individually. Suicide,
for example, would be wrong since I would be
treating my life as a means to the alleviation
of my misery. Kant believes that the morality
of all actions can be determined by appealing
to this single principle of duty.
A fourth and more recent duty-based theory is

that by British philosopher W.D. Ross, which
emphasizes prima facie duties. Like his 17th
and 18th century counterparts, Ross argues
that our duties are “part of the fundamental
nature of the universe.” However, Ross’s
list of duties is much shorter, which he
believes reflects our actual moral
convictions:
Fidelity: the duty to keep promises
Reparation: the duty to compensate others when
we harm them
Gratitude: the duty to thank those who help us
Justice: the duty to recognize merit
Beneficence: the duty to improve the

conditions of others
Self-improvement: the duty to improve our
virtue and intelligence
Nonmaleficence: the duty to not injure others
Ross recognizes that situations will arise

when we must choose between two conflicting
duties. In a classic example, suppose I borrow
my neighbor’s gun and promise to return it
when he asks for it. One day, in a fit of
rage, my neighbor pounds on my door and asks
for the gun so that he can take vengeance on
someone. On the one hand, the duty of fidelity
obligates me to return the gun; on the other
hand, the duty of nonmaleficence obligates me
to avoid injuring others and thus not return
the gun. According to Ross, I will intuitively
know which of these duties is my actual duty,
and which is my apparent or prima facie duty.
In this case, my duty of nonmaleficence
emerges as my actual duty and I should not
return the gun.
2.3.3. Consequentialist/Teleological Theories
It is common for us to determine our moral
responsibility by weighing the consequences of
our actions. According to consequentialism,
correct moral conduct is determined solely by
a cost-benefit analysis of an action’s
consequences:
Consequentialism:An action is morally right if

the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable.Consequentialist
normative principles require that we first
tally both the good and bad consequences of an
action. Second, we then determine whether the
total good consequences outweigh the total bad
consequences. If the good consequences are
greater, then the action is morally proper. If
the bad consequences are greater, then the
action is morally improper. Consequentialist
theories are sometimes called teleological
theories, from the Greek word telos, or end,
since the end result of the action is the sole
determining factor of its morality.
Consequentialist theories became popular in
the 18th century by philosophers who wanted a
quick way to morally assess an action by
appealing to experience, rather than by
appealing to gut intuitions or long lists of
questionable duties.
In fact, the most attractive feature of

consequentialism is that it appeals to
publicly observable consequences of actions.
Most versions of consequentialism are more
precisely formulated than the general
principle above. In particular, competing
consequentialist theories specify which
consequences for affected groups of people are
relevant. Three subdivisions of

consequentialism emerge:
Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if
favorable than unfavorable only to the agent
performing the action.
Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right
if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable to everyone except
the agent.
Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if
favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
All three of these theories focus on the

consequences of actions for different groups
of people. But, like all normative theories,
the above three theories are rivals of each
other. They also yield different conclusions.
Consider the following example. A woman was
traveling through a developing country when
she witnessed a car in front of her run off
the road and roll over several times. She
asked the hired driver to pull over to assist,
but, to her surprise, the driver accelerated
nervously past the scene. A few miles down the
road the driver explained that in his country
if someone assists an accident victim, then
the police often hold the assisting person
responsible for the accident itself. If the
victim dies, then the assisting person could
be held responsible for the death. The driver

continued explaining that road accident
victims are therefore usually left unattended
and often die from exposure to the country’s
harsh desert conditions. On the principle of
ethicaegoism, the woman in this illustration
would only be concerned with the consequences
of her attempted assistance as she would be
affected. Clearly, the decision to drive on
would be the morally proper choice.
On the principle of ethical altruism, she

would be concerned only with the consequences
of her action as others are affected,
particularly the accident victim. Tallying
only those consequences reveals that assisting
the victim would be the morally correct
choice, irrespective of the negative
consequences that result for her. On the
principle of utilitarianism, she must consider
the consequences for both herself and the
victim. The outcome here is less clear, and
the woman would need to precisely calculate
the overall benefit versus disadvantage of her
action.
i. Types of Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham presented one of the earliest
fully developed systems of utilitarianism. Two
features of his theory are noteworthy. First,
Bentham proposed that we tally the
consequences of each action we perform and

thereby determine on a case by case basis
whether an action is morally right or wrong.
This aspect of Bentham’s theory is known as
act-utilitiarianism. Second, Bentham also
proposed that we tally the pleasure and pain
which results from our actions. For Bentham,
pleasure and pain are the only consequences
that matter in determining whether our conduct
is moral. This aspect of Bentham’s theory is
known as hedonistic utilitarianism. Critics
point out limitations in both of these
aspects.
First, according to act-utilitarianism, it

would be morally wrong to waste time on
leisure activities such as watching
television, since our time could be spent in
ways that produced a greater social benefit,
such as charity work. But prohibiting leisure
activities doesn’t seem reasonable. More
significantly, according to act-
utilitarianism, specific acts of torture or
slavery would be morally permissible if the
social benefit of these actions outweighed the
disadvantages. A revised version of
utilitarianism called rule-utilitarianism
addresses these problems. According to rule-
utilitarianism, a behavioral code or rule is
morally right if the consequences of adopting
that rule are more favorable than unfavorable

to everyone.
Unlike act utilitarianism, which weighs the

consequences of each particular action, rule-
utilitarianism offers a litmus test only for
the morality of moral rules, such as
“stealing is wrong.” Adopting a rule against
theft clearly has more favorable consequences
than unfavorable consequences for everyone.
The same is true for moral rules against lying
or murdering. Rule-utilitarianism, then,
offers a three-tiered method for judging
conduct. A particular action, such as stealing
my neighbor’s car, is judged wrong since it
violates a moral rule against theft. In turn,
the rule against theft is morally binding
because adopting this rule produces favorable
consequences for everyone. John Stuart Mill’s
version of utilitarianism is rule-oriented.
Second, according to hedonistic

utilitarianism, pleasurable consequences are
the only factors that matter, morally
speaking. This, though, seems too restrictive
since it ignores other morally significant
consequences that are not necessarily pleasing
or painful. For example, acts which foster
loyalty and friendship are valued, yet they
are not always pleasing. In response to this
problem, G.E. Moore proposed ideal
utilitarianism, which involves tallying any

consequence that we intuitively recognize as
good or bad (and not simply as pleasurable or
painful). Also, R.M. Hare proposed preference
utilitarianism, which involves tallying any
consequence that fulfills our preferences.
ii. Egoism
The word “Egoism’ comes from Greek word
‘ego’, ‘I’ and therefore, literally, ‘I-
ism’. The central concern of egoism is the
‘self’ as the beginning and of all
consideration.Generally, in egoism, self-
interest is the nucleus or central for every
ethical action or decision. In other words,
what is right and wrong is to be decided on
the basis of the interest of every egoist
individual. On the basis of the above two
views, egoism can be taken two forms, the
psychological egoism and the ethical egoism
.
1. Psychological Egoism
The psychological Egoism is motivated out of
self-interests and aims at self-satisfaction.
It is also doctrine about human nature,
claiming that everyone by nature motivated
primarily his or her own interests. The main
moral argument of the psychological egoism
indicated in the table below.

The psychological egoism theory criticized

from the moral points view as it is discussed
below. For psychological egoism, one may
derive self-satisfaction and rightfulness.
But, the core question in relation to this
view is that “How are we known what motivates
people?” we cannot just assume that people
are acting for the sake of self-satisfaction.
For example, people themselves are not always
the best judge of what motivates them. It is
true that we commonly hear or say to
ourselves, I don’t know why I did that”It is
difficult to prove theory of psychological
egoism. Even if it were shown that we often
act for the sake of our interests, this is not
enough to prove that psychological egoism is
true.It is true that we are selfish (a
psychological egoism claim). But, it is
difficult to conclude that we should be
selfish.
2. Ethical Egoism
Ethical egoism maintains that each of us
should look at only at the consequences that
affect us. If views that each person ought to

perform those actions that contribute most to
his or her own self-interest.
Ethical egoism is a normative theory. It is a theory about what ought to do,
how we ought to act as with psychological egoism.
According to psychological egoism, people always seeks one’s own advantage or self
interest, or always does what he thinks will give him the greatest balance of good over
evil. This means also that “self-love’ is the only basic “principle” in human nature. The
‘ego-satisfaction” is the final aim of all activity or that” the pleasure principle”. Self
love is the basic ethical principle
Chapter Three
Understanding Society, State and Government
3.1. Definition, Attributes and Theories of State
Definition of State
The term state has not been defined precisely.
Hence, there is no universally accepted definition of
state. However, for our purpose State is defined as:
“A political association that establishes

sovereign jurisdiction within a defined
territorial borders and exercises authority
through a set of institutions over all
members of society [its people].
(Anonymous)
From this definition, it can be deducted that the state is a
collection of institutions, a territorial unit, has ultimate
authority and has its own defined population.
The following definition of state can also be
mentioned alternatively:
 The institution through which the dynamics of
politics are organized and formalized
 A network of structured relationships, which
consists of citizens with their rights and duties,
institutions and jurisdictions, principles and
powers.
 A political entity with certain observable
characteristics
 The highest form of human organization
 An organized political community of people
occupying a definite territory, and possessing
internal and external sovereignty
 An abstract entity, which consists of
sovereignty, population, defined territory,
government and recognition.
Different philosophers conceive the state in different

ways.
E.g. Thomas Hobbes defined the state as a

sovereign authority capable of ensuring the life,
liberty and property of the people.
J. Lock defined the state as a community endowed
with supreme power having its instrument in a
government with limited authority for effective
protection of natural rights of human beings.
Aristotle- a beneficent institution of human beings
to achieve good life.
Karl Marx- an instrument of exploitation of the
ruling class. Hence, the abolition of the state is
essential to achieve perfect freedom of human
beings.
Attributes (Elements) of State
The State consists of at least four fundamental elements
(attributes) namely population, territory, government and
recognized sovereignty. A nation or a state ceases to exist
if any one of these elements stops to exist, especially for
long-period of time.
Population – refers to a group of people residing in a
definite territory who are claiming membership to the
state.
Nowadays, as many as approximately 6.2 billion people

live curved up in about two hundred states with a lot of
political, sociological, economic, cultural and socio-
historical variations characterizing them. The following
are some of these characteristic features:
Homogeneity: is one feature distinguishing nations and it
denotes peoples’ similarity or sameness in cultural-
psychological identity i.e., they speak the same language,

follow similar way of life, share one and adjacent territory
and similar psychological make-up. Example; Germany,
Iceland in Europe, Somalia and Swaziland in Africa,
Korea and Japan in Asia are few examples of a relatively
homogeneous states in the world today.
Heterogeneity: refers to variation in cultural identity
among the populations of states in language, culture and
traditions. Examples of heterogeneous states include,
among others, Ethiopia (with about 85 ethnic groups),
Nigeria (with some 250 ethnic groups) and India (with
about 800 languages).
Socio-economic diversity: is another feature of
populations in a given state with developed nations
having a majority of urban, industrial and literate
populations while fast developing states are transforming
from majority peasant and rural, uneducated and labor
based population to that of urban and literate one.
Government
Government in this context broadly refers to group of
people who exercise political power. Moreover,
government is defined as a body of people with their
institutions to make, implement and interpret the law.
Government can also be defined as a machinery of
administration through which the state realizes its
existence.
All states by definition have governments of some kind
that exercises sovereign power on their behalf. But there

have been a lot of differences among the governments of

the world due to different reasons.
For instance, the issue of Legitimacy is a reason for

governments to differ from one state to another.
Legitimacy is popular acceptance of a governing regime
or system of governance. It is a need not restricted to
liberal democratic regimes, but considered a basic
condition of rule because without at least a minimal
amount of legitimacy, governing regimes would face
deadlock or collapse. In this regard, different
governments follow different mechanisms to achieve
legitimacy to rule over the people. Certain democratic
governments have been trying to achieve it through
democratic election while others have been trying to
achieve it through economic transformation.
Governments also differ on the issue of Authority (a real

capacity of a government to exercise its legitimate or
formal political power to rule the people effectively) i.e.,
while some states have such required authority others lack
it due to political inefficiency resulted from lack of either
allegiance or obedience.
Another area of difference between sates is the

form/system of their governments (how the government
is organized and how it makes divisions of power among
its different branches and institutions) i.e., while some
states organize through constitutional mechanisms other
states do it through force or some traditions. Similarly
while some states adopt Presidential system of

government in which ultimate authority lies under a
strong president directly elected to serve both as the head
of state and head of government other states adopt
Parliamentary system in which the parliament is the most
powerful organ with the ultimate decision making power.
The parliament exercises its executive authority through a
strong prime minister who is head of the government
usually supported by a president with little or only
ceremonial power and acts as head of the state.
Territory
Refers to part of the earth’s surface that marked off the
areas occupied by a population of other states. These
territorial divisions among the present states of the world
are extremely irregular due to irregular political
evolutions in creating the state. In general, there can be no
state without a territory of its own though its boundaries
might be clearly or ill-defined.
Sovereignty- the right of a country to exist. Or the
power of the state to rule over its territory. Moreover, it
can be also understood as the national control over the
country’s territory.
Recognition- approval of the legal personality of the
state by other states in the international system.
3.2. Origin of the state

There are different theories advocated about the origin of
the state. Some of them are the following:
a)The Devine Right Theory

This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state. It

argues that God established the state. This notion
prevailed in the ancient time when the rulers themselves
were regarded as descendants of God.
b)The Social Contract Theory
This theory maintains that the state is an artificial
creation based on the agreement or consent of people.
The argument of this theory is based on popular
sovereignty. Therefore, according to the social contract
theorists, the state is established by the consent of the
people for the purpose of securing their rights and their
property.
c) The Force Theory
According to this theory, the state is the result of evil. It
is created or emerged as a result of war and conflict. War
of conquest resulted in the occupation of more territories
and lead to the rise of the state. Therefore, the state is
created through a process of conquest and coercion of the
weak by the strong.
d)The Natural Theory- this theory maintains the idea
that the state was created when humankind was
created. According to Aristotle, Man is inseparable
from the state. Aristotle further indicated that man by
nature is a political and social animal that fulfill
himself through the state.
e) The Marxist Theory- this theory indicates that the state
is the result of the division of society into social classes
with sharp and polarized economic interests. Hence,
according to the Marxist theorists, the state is the result

of class antagonism or the conflict between the rich

and the poor.
State versus the nation

The terms state and nation are commonly used as
synonymous terms. But they are different and
convey varied meanings. That is nation and state
have more precise meanings for political scientists.
A nation is a large group of people who bound
together; and recognize a similarity among
themselves, because of a common culture, language,
ethnicity etc. A state on the other hand is a political
unit that has ultimate sovereignty.
A nation is a cultural and especially linguistic
grouping of people who feel that they belong
together. A state is a political unit with sovereignty.
One reason state and nation tend to commingle in
common use is that leaders of states have almost
universally tried to link the two to harness the
emotional attachment of people to their notion and
use that attachment to build support for the most
abstract, legal entity- the state.
Relations and difference between the state and
society
If society is ready for integration, the state is as well
placed to provide it as are associations based upon
kinship, economic and religion. Or possibly, it is
even better placed because of its original or primary
function. All human beings want protection. So, all
of us depend on the association which provides it,
the state. Moreover, the state controls the force

which ensures the protection.
Society is a broad grouping of people who live in
common environment and have common traditions,
institutions, activities and interests. It is the total
mode of human life. The state is the highest political
organization which manifests society by creating
different structures and organizations to facilitate
political, social, economic and cultural life of the
society
Difference between the state and society
Society came into existence earlier than the state.
The state is part of the large social system. Society
is vast and complex concept, whereas the state is
relatively specific entity.
Society involves multiplicity of functions, whereas
the state makes and enforces laws, frames policies;
ensure legal order to secure peace and stability of
the society.
The state possesses sovereignty and it can coerce
others through the use of force, whereas society
does not have such kind of coercive force to compel
others.
3.3. State structure

Based on the way power is distributed and exercised,
states can be classified into unitary states, federal states
and probably confederal states.
The Unitary State Structure
Definition-
 The unitary state structure is a political structure

where the national government entirely controls the
sub-national units.
 A political structure in which the central
government is the only source of authority within
the state
 A political structure in which the central
government is legally supreme over the local
governments.
 A political structure where sovereignty and law
making activities are indivisible
A unitary system accords its component areas little
or no autonomy; most governance is done from the
capital city. In this regard, unitary governments have
significant control over local authorities. Local
governments are agents of the central government.
They are established for the purpose of
implementing the laws and policies framed by the
central government.
Features of a unitary state structure

 Supremacy of central legislature- in unitary
state structure, the central legislature
(parliament) is absolutely supreme in making
laws whereas the local units are obliged to
implement the laws, rules, regulations and
policies.
 Absence of subsidiary law-making sovereign
bodies- the national government is the only
responsible body for making laws.
 Local governments can be created or abolished

by the central government- the existence of local
governments is determined by the will and
interest of the central government
 Local governments are weak- they do not have
any power to make their own laws, policies,
rules and regulations, financial power to
implement laws and policies.
Rationale (reasons) for opting unitary state
structure
 Homogeneous society- society which has similar
language, ethnicity, culture, history, etc. In such
societies, it is possible to have uniform laws, rules,
regulations and policies.
 Small territory- if a country has small and
manageable territory, it is easy for the central
government to control the peripheries. Majority of
states in the world are unitary states.
Although unitary states have common features, they
differ from one another in terms of the degree of
centralization of power and authority. Hence, based on
their interaction with the local governments, unitary
states are classified into two categories:
A. centralized (concentrated) unitary state
structure
It is characterized by the absence of the devolution of
power. Local governments have not administrative
(political) power to make decisions on matters relating
to socio- economic and political affairs. Or, local
governments are highly regulated by the central
government and are established for the purpose of

implementing policies and programs framed by the
central government.
B. Decentralized unitary state structure
This type of unitary state structure involves the
delegation of power to the local units. In this type of
state structure, there is certain delegation of power and
responsibilities to the local units. But such kind of
power delegation is not constitutionally supported and
guaranteed.
In decentralized unitary states, like the Scandinavian
and the UK, the central government grants decision-
making autonomy, including some legislative powers to
local governments (units).
E.g. China gives regional autonomy to Tibet. In Britain,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are autonomous
regions.
Merits of a unitary state structure
 It is an effective and efficient political structure,
i.e. the central government can take any step
and decision to meet the situation.
 It is a flexible political structure. The central
government can easily amend its structure and
organization according to the requirement of the
situation
 It promotes uniformity in administration and
legislation.
 It is less expensive because there is no
duplication in the fields of legislation,
administration and adjudication.
 It avoids conflicts of jurisdiction among

different levels of government.
 Power organization in unitarism is relatively
simple
 Conflict of jurisdiction is easily avoidable or
manageable
 Services/functions duplication is comparatively
rare because powers and functions are centralized
at the center /national government.
Disadvantages of unitary state structure

 Suitable for autocratic governments. Because,
all powers are concentrated in the central
government.
 It discourages the initiatives of local
governments, because the system is
characterized by top-down approach in the
process of administration.
 It may lack adequate knowledge of the local
situation.
 The central government is burdened with all
activities at the national as well as local levels.
 It is not suitable to apply in territorially large
states.
The Federal State Structure

Definition
 Federalism refers to a spatial or territorial
division of power between two or more levels
of government in a given political system.
 A state in which two levels of government rule

the same land and people. Each level has at
least one area of action in which it is
autonomous.
 There is constitutional guarantee of the
autonomy of each government in its own
sphere.
 Federalism is a political organization in which
the activities of government are divided
between regional governments and a central
government in such a way that each kind of
government has some activities on which it
makes final decisions.
Federalism can be achieved through two ways:

“Coming together” federation- appear when
sovereign states decide to form a federation
voluntarily due to various reasons such as security
purposes, governmental efficiency and so on.
“Holding together” federation- mostly emerge after
consensual parliamentary decisions to maintain a
unitary state by establishing a multi- ethnic federal
system largely to avoid or settle ethnic, regional and
other type of group conflicts.
There are many forms of federalism, but the bottom
line is that fundamentally all involve self-rule and
shared-rule.
Basic features of a federal state structure

i. The existence of dual governments – federal

and regional governments, with their own
separate constitutions.
ii.Absence of unilateral re-centralization of powers
and authority by the central/federal government at
its will.
iii. Absence of unilateral amendment of the
federal constitution or some of its provisions by
either government level. That is to say that the
consent or agreement of the sub-
national/regional governments is needed in the
amendment process.
iv. Supremacy of federal constitution – regional
constitutions are expected to be subordinated to
the federal constitution. They are also expected
to be framed in relation to the principles that are
stipulated in the federal constitution. The
federal constitution is the ultimate supreme
constitution that all laws that are framed in the
country are required to uphold it.
v. Supremacy of the federal government- key
activities are the responsibilities of the federal
government. Military (defense), foreign policy
monetary issues, declaring and lifting up state
emergency are some of the key activities of the
federal government.
vi. Recognized power of regional states – regional
states in the federal government are
autonomous bodies. The federal government
cannot shape (dictate) them as it wishes.
vii.The existence of written constitution- all federal

states have written constitutions that specify the
powers and authorities of the central government
and its constituent units. E.g. the Ethiopian
constitution clearly specifies the functions of the
federal government (Art- 51) and the functions of
regional government (Art 52). In this regard, there
are powers that are exclusively given to the
federal government such as conducting foreign
relations, organizing and controlling the defense
forces, and printing and circulating money; and
powers and responsibilities that are exclusively
given to the constituent units such as
a. Provision and management of education,
health and labor affairs;
b. Promotion and management of transport and
communication sectors
c. Realizing internal security
d. Agriculture, industry, trade and tourism
e. Managing local finance (raising and
spending).
There are also Residual Powers, which are not
expressly/explicitly given to any level of government. In
some federal states, they are given to the central
government while in others to the regional units. In
Ethiopia, such powers are given to regional governments.
Merits and demerits of federalism

Merits
 Suitable to apply in territorially vast states and
diverse society
 Maintains a balance between the centrifugal
and centripetal forces within the system
 Grants self-government and self-determination
for people to decide on their affairs
 Federal orders may increase the opportunities for
citizens’ participation in public decision–making,
through deliberation and offices in both sub-units
and central bodies
 Local and regional governments are usually
closer to the people and sensitive to their needs.
This ensures that the government responds not
merely to the overall interests of the society, but
also to the specific needs of particular
communities. In this regard, federalism facilitates
efficient preference maximization more generally
and specifically in the area of economic/ fiscal
management.
 Local decisions prevent decision-making from
becoming overloaded in the central government
and, thus, federalism may also minimize
inefficiency and bureaucratic chaos.
 Federalism tends to combine national unity and
local autonomy and the rights of self-government
and thus maintains balance between centrifugal
and centripetal forces in a sate.
Demerits

 Creates unnecessary complexity and confusion

since there is duplication of legislation,
administration, taxation, adjudication, etc
 It is very expensive
 The division of power between the central and
federal government may lead to conflicts of
jurisdiction between national and local officials
and thus a sort of 'No Man's Land" in which
neither authority may take decisive action.
Con-federal state structure
Con-federations are voluntary associations of
independent states to achieve their common interests
without affecting the internal affairs of member states.
Confederations establish for military and economic
purposes. For example, the USA in its early years.
3.4. An Overview of State Structure in Ethiopia

PRE-1991state structure in Ethiopia
Pre-1991 Ethiopia was a unitary state. Political
power was concentrated at the center. Specifically,
during the Imperial and the Derg regimes, local
governments (kiflehagers) were established to
implement laws and policies which were formulated
by the central government. Hence, local
governments did not have constitutionally
recognized power or authority to make laws and
policies. Policy and law making activities were
monopolized by the central government.
POST-1991 state structure in Ethiopia

In May 1991, the Derg regime was ousted by the

EPRDF, which in the aftermath formed a coalition
for a transitional government on the basis of a
Transitional Charter adopted in July 1991. This
charter proclaimed the equal rights and self-
determination of peoples as the governing principle
and affirmed the rights of nations, nationalities, and
peoples to self-determination. Art-2 (b) of this
charter guaranteed each nation, nationality, and
peoples the right to administer its own affairs within
its own defined territory and effectively participate
in the central government on the basis of freedom,
fair and proper representation.
National regional self-governments were established
by proclamation 7/1991. Art-3 of this proclamation
identified 14 regions for the establishment of
regional states.
The 1994/95 FDRE constitution once again fully
expressed the sovereignty of the ethnically defined
regional states. Art-8 of the constitution states that
all sovereign power resides in the nations,
nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia. Art-46 also
affirms that the FDRE is constituted by states. It
also stipulates that sates shall be delimited on the
basis of the settlement patterns, language, identity
and consent of the people concerned. The
constitution established 9 regional states and two
city administrations.
The current Ethiopian state structure is generally
characterized by
 Decentralization of power and responsibilities

between the federal government and regional
governments.
 The existence of federal as well as regional
legislative, executive and judiciary organs to
run their affairs.
 Self-rule and shared-rule
3.5. UNDERSTANDING GOVERNMENT

Definition
Government is one of the most essential components
of the state.
 It is a machinery of administration through
which the state performs its activities.
 A body of people along with their institutions
that make, interpret and enforce laws.
 A formal social institution which operates at
the national level to maintain public order and
facilitate collective action
 A political organization which is empowered
to establish laws and regulate interrelationship
of the people
 It is the agency of the state and society
 A combination of institutions and officials
who hold power on behalf of the state to make
laws and public policies
 An institutional process which maintains order
in the state
Division of Governments
Aristotelian division of governments
Monarchy: - it is one-man rule. Such governments

exist in two forms.
Traditional monarchy: - The king or the queen has
a ceremonial position by hereditary line.
Constitutional monarchy :- The king or the queen
maintain his/her head of the state, in indispensable
figure in all great official occasion and symbol of
national unity and authority of the state but lacking
real power.
Dictatorship: - refers to the absolute rule of a single
person who occupies his position by means of force.
This is directly or indirectly the outcome of
militarism. The president or the prime minister
seizes personal power by destroying opposition
parties and building authoritarian one party system.
Aristocracy: - it is rule by the few. It may be drawn
by birth or hereditary social grouping set apart from
the rest of the society by religion, economic status,
prestige, and even language. Aristocracy and
oligarchy are used interchangeably.
For a long time, aristocracy took as natural form of
government. Thinkers from Aristotle in ancient time
maintained that nature has made only few persons
talented and good.
Aristocracy as a form government has now
disappeared from the face of the earth.
Democracy: - In this form of government the people
are powerful. Sovereign authority is vested with the
people. The government implies the rule of the
people, by he people for the people; rule of the
many in which the governing body reflects large

fraction of the entire population.
Republic- a form of government where power is
seized based on election.
Montesquieu’s classification
1. Republican
2. Monarchical
3. Despotic- a form of government where a ruler
exercises total personal power over the people
Rousseau’s classification
1. Autocratic- a form of government where an
individual exercises unrestricted authority
2. Aristocratic
3. Democratic
Relations and differences between the state and

government
Relationships- commonly, the state and government
appear synonymously. This is because of the fact
that the government speaks on behalf of the state.
The government is an important machine through
which the state realizes its existence. Hence, the
government is part of the state.
Difference
 The state is an inclusive entity that
encompasses the four attributes whereas the
government is part of it.
 The state comprises the entire population
whereas the government constitutes relatively
small population or few people who are

performing office activities
 The state is permanent whereas the
government is temporary
 The state is an abstract entity but the
government is tangible
Uniqueness of the government
The government is different from other social
institutions in that:
1. It has comprehensive authority- rules made
by any social organization other than the
governments are intended to apply to members of
that organization. But the rules of the government
are intended to apply to all members of the society
within a state. Government authority is a recognized
power to make binding decisions within the state.
2. Legitimate monopoly of using force- all
social organizations impose sanction on rule
breakers. But government differs from other
organizations in that it is authorized to impose
sanctions that are prohibited to be imposed by other
organizations. It will punish law breakers through
imprisonment and taking their lives. The ability of
the government to impose these sanctions indicates
the existence of legitimacy on the government.
The purposes of government

 Organizes, mobilizes and taking responsibility
for the well-being of the society
 Manages resources of the society
 Defines the interest values of the society

 Protects the state from external attack
 Safeguards the life, freedom, liberty and
property of the society
 Realizes or ensures peaceful life in society
 Self preservation from external threats
 Distribution and regulation of resources
 Preventing and resolving conflicts within the
state
 Provision of goods and services that cannot be
provided by the private sector
 Organizing and mobilizing the society for
developmental activities
 Maintaining peace and order in society etc.
3.6. Structure of the Modern Government

Modern governments constitute three main branches
to perform their functions: the legislative, executive,
and judiciary organs. Each organ has its own powers
and responsibilities.
The Legislative (Law-Making) Organ
It is the supreme law-making organ of the
government. It has different names: Parliament,
Assembly, Congress, etc.
The legislative organ may differ from state to state
depending on the number of houses. Some
legislative organs of government are bicameral and
others are unicameral, having two houses and a
single house respectively.

Bicameral parliaments are introduced to provide

check and balance within the legislature. For
example, the USA has a bicameral legislature (the
House of Representatives + the Senate). The two
houses check each other in their activities. Federal
states are basically characterized by the existence of
bicameral parliament.
Countries with bicameral parliament:
Canada, USA (1st house=the House of People’s
Representatives, 2nd house=the Senate
Ethiopia (1st house=the House of Peoples’
Representatives, 2nd house=the House of Federation
Britain (1st house=the House of Commons, 2nd
house= the House of Lords
Australia, India, etc.
Members of the 1st house are directly elected by the
public whereas members of the second house could
be nominated by a concerned body.
Unicameral parliament is common in unitary states.
It is adopted to avoid duplication of activities and
services, and to have a clear responsibility of one
body.
Countries with unicameral parliament
China, Bulgaria, Denmark, Kenya, Algeria, Costa
Rica, Finland, Tanzania etc
Powers and functions of the legislative organ of
government
Legislative branch of the government provides a
link between the people and the government, and

perform very complex functions. Some of the

functions are the following:
1. Law-making (legislation) - law-making is
the primary function of the legislative organ of the
government. It is responsible to draft, amend
(modify) and ratify (endorse) public laws, policies
and decisions. The laws endorsed by the legislative
organ are expected to be binding laws. Law is made
by the legislature based on majority vote.
Policy proposals and draft laws can be emanated
from the executive and any member of the
parliament for deliberation and approval by the
parliament.
Procedures (steps) of law-making in Ethiopia

1st step (initiation of the draft proposal) - the draft
proposal can be emanated from the political
executive and any member of the parliament
2nd step (discussion stage) - the draft law will be
presented for discussion and will be debated and
commented
3rd step (ratification stage) - the draft law will be
approved if it gains two-third majority vote in the
parliament.
4th step (signature by the President of the republic)-
the draft law is to be signed by the President within
15 days.
5th step (publication stage) - after it is signed by the
President it is expected to be publicized by the
Negarit Gazeta.
2. Control over administration

Legislative branch of the government is responsible
to oversight and control the administrative functions
of the government. In parliamentary systems, the
executive is accountable to the legislative branch of
the government. The prime minister and the
ministers, collectively and individually are
accountable to the parliament. The parliament
evaluates and censures the works of the executive.
Depending upon the investigation and evaluation
results, the parliament will punish or reward the
executive (leaders of the government departments).
3. Amending the constitution
The legislative organ of the government has the
power and responsibility to amend (modify) the
constitution.
4. Elect and depose the executive (the Prime
Minister)
5. Financial function
Endorse decisions on the government budget
proposed by the executive organ of the government.
It has also the power to revise the budget proposed
by the executive. It also determines the nature and
amount of taxes and appropriations.
6. Investigative function
Digging up and collect information through the
establishment of different standing committees and
commission of inquiries.
The Executive Organ of Government

In many countries, the term government connotes

only the executive branch. But this is wrong,
because it excludes the two branches. The executive
organ of the government is responsible for the daily
administrative and management of the state
bureaucracy. Or, it is responsible for the
implementation of laws and policies of the state. It
also controls and oversees the overall functions and
agencies which are concerned with the
implementation of policies and laws of the state.
The executive organ of the government is very a
complex organ that consists of the head of state and
government, ministers and other enforcing bodies of
the government. It is commonly divided into two:
A. The chief executive that refers to an individual
or group of individuals who are at the apex of the
state or political apparatus.
B. The executive- a broad term which refers to all
officials and organizational machinery that is
below the chief executive.
In parliamentary systems, the political executive
consists of elected officials and ministers appointed
by the parliament. Members of the executive in
parliamentary systems are accountable to the
parliament. But in presidential systems the political
executive is not accountable to the parliament.
Powers and functions of the executive organ of
government
Basically, the main function of the executive organ
of the government is implementation of laws and
policies made by the legislative organ of the

government.
A. Provision of national policies- the executive
organ gives general direction for the national
policies. It also controls and implements these
policies after endorsed by the parliament
B. supervises or oversees the implementation of
the national policies
For effective implementation of national policies,
the executive organ of the government organizes
and mobilizes the public so that citizens can actively
participate in the process of policy implementation.
C. controlling the military (defense forces) - the
executive organ of government is responsible to
keep the law and order from violation, and maintain
peace and stability of the state. To do so, it has a
control over the mechanisms of coercion: the
military and the police.
In most states, the prime minister or the president is
the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The
executive controls and mobilizes the mechanisms of
coercion to ensure peace and stability of the state.
D. conducting foreign relations
Foreign policy formulation and implementation are
the responsibilities of the executive. Foreign policy
involves complex issues relating to national interest
and national security. It needs quality of leadership
to deal with problems properly.
E. providing leadership- usually, the executive
organ of government provides leadership roles.
Leadership can be classified into two: ceremonial

and effective.
Leadership in parliamentarian systems
Effective leadership- in parliamentarian systems,
effective leadership responsibilities are given to the
prime minister (head of government). As the head of
government, the prime minister performs various
functions such as
 Commanding the national army
 Nominate ministers
 Supervise foreign policy implementation and
follow up the implementation of national policies
Nominal leadership- in parliamentarian systems,

the head of state is the president. He/she is a
ceremonial figure. He/she can be elected, as the case
in Ethiopia and come from hereditary line (as in
Britain).
Some of the ceremonial duties of the president are:
 Serving as the symbol of national unity
 Representing the state in ceremonial conferences
and national holidays
 Receiving guests and awarding prizes
Leadership in the presidential systems

Real and nominal powers in presidential systems are
given to the president. That is the president serves as
the head of state and government.
Powers and functions of the president

 Appointing ministers and other officials but

subject to ratification by the legislature
 Formulating national policies
 Declare state emergency
 Take necessary steps for the implementation of
laws and maintenance of order
 Serves as the final source of all executive
decisions
 Makes decisions relating to foreign policy
 Receiving guests and signing treaties
The office of the head of state and the office of the
head of government are merged or fused in the
office of the president.
F. makes decisions in crisis situation
The power and responsibility to take decisions in
crisis is given to the executive organ of the
government. It is expected to take swift and decisive
action when the state faces with crisis either
domestically or externally emanated problems. To
do so, the executive organ of the government has the
authority to declare state emergency when the
country is faced with serious problems such as
natural disasters, civil disorder, terrorist threats,
communicable disease etc.
E.g. the authority to declare state emergency in
Ethiopia is given to the prime minister.
Generally, decision-making matters relating to a
situation of crisis are the responsibilities of the
executive organ of the government.
The Judiciary Organ of Government
It is an organ which is primarily concerned with the

interpretation of laws. It is empowered to decide
legal disputes and adjudicating on the meaning of
laws (interpret laws).
Basically, the judiciary organ is responsible to
interpret laws, including the constitution and other
laws of the country. But the case of Ethiopia is
different in that the power and responsibility to
interpret the constitution is given to the House of
Federation.
The judiciary is expected to become free from any
influence to perform its activities effectively. The
judges are also expected to become free from any
influence and are to be accountable to their
conscience and the law.
According to the Ethiopian constitution, judges
cannot be removed until their time of retirement.
But, they can be removed from their power
(position) when
 They violate disciplinary rules
 No longer perform their activities due to illness
The major powers and functions of the judiciary
branch of government are:
A. Adjudication- administers justice through court
systems. Courts hear and decide cases such as civil,
criminal and constitutional disputes. They have also
the responsibility to resolve disputes between or
among citizens, government organs, institutions, etc.
B. Formation of case laws- all laws are not made
by the legislative organ. Sometimes the judiciary
and even the executive organs are also engaged in

formulating laws when the legislative delegates law-
making power to these organs. Hence, case law can
be enacted by the judiciary organ of the government.
C. Protection of the constitution- the judiciary is
responsible to ensure that all laws within the country
are formulated based on the constitution. It ensures
the conformity of all laws to the provisions of the
constitution.
D. Judicial review- an important function of the
judiciary is reviewing the acts and decisions of the
legislative and executive organs, whether these acts
and decisions have constitutional validity or not. If
the actions and decisions are found to be invalid or
unconstitutional, this organ declares that these
actions and decisions are null and void.
3.7. Systems of Government

There are two systems of government: Parliamentarian
and Presidential, and probably a third one hybrid
system.
A. Parliamentarian System of Government
Modern parliamentarianism was only created when
monarchs lost effective power over governments. A
democratic parliamentarianism is required to emerge
from, and be responsible to an elected parliament. That
is the executive organ of government is accountable to
the legislative organ of government. For example, in
Ethiopia the prime minister and the council of ministers
AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 100 |

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collectively and separately are accountable to the House

of Peoples’ Representatives.
Democratic parliamentarianism requires universal
suffrage. When a government or the executive loses
confidence of the parliament, there is always the
possibility of new election. Moreover, if a prime
minister loses confidence in the parliament he/she can
be deposed by the parliament through the motion of the
vote of no confidence. In this regard, if a political party
wishes to change its leader within life time of a
parliament, then there are likely to be means by which
this can be accomplished. This is not so clearly the case
in presidential systems, where presidential
impeachment is possible but generally requires
evidence of wrongdoing rather than mere unpopularity
or policy failure. E.g. Mrs. Thatcher was removed as a
prime minister in 1990 by the British conservative party
in parliament because of policy failure, although there
was no suggestion of wrongdoing.
The role of political parties is crucial in parliamentarian
systems. For stable government to be possible, the
executive or the government must be able to control the
legislature (parliament). If it cannot do so, then either
the government changes or the parliament is dissolved
and new election will be held. Hence, political parties
have to act in a disciplined way in order to allow the
system to work. They have to act as key intermediaries
between the ordinary voter and the government.
In parliamentarian systems, the electorate vote for
parties, parties are represented in the legislature, and the
Page
legislature selects the executive. If the electoral system

is based upon proportional representation there is a
chance for the existence of several parities in the
parliament. If no party has a majority seats, two or more
parties will form a coalition government. In pure
parliamentarian systems, the prime minister is also a
member of the legislative body as is the rest of his/her
cabinet. There may be some provision for non-
parliamentarians to join the cabinet, but this is
relatively rare. Parliamentarian systems do rely mainly
on strong and disciplined political parties as a means of
connecting voters to government.
In parliamentary systems, the head of state (figurehead
monarch or weak president) is distinct office different
from the head of government (prime minister or
chancellor). In this system, the prime minister is the
important figure. He/she is the chief executive and
commander in-chief of the armed forces. Hence, he/she
holds the real executive power. Term office for the
prime minister is not fixed. It depends upon the will of
the political party that holds political power or majority
seats in the parliament.
Advantages of parliamentarian systems:

 A prime minister can be removed without
great upheaval. He/she can be forced out of
office if he/she becomes excessively
unpopular or loses the support of
parliamentary colleagues.

Page
 Either a vote of no confidence within the

legislature or successful challenge from within
the ruling party can bring about a change of
prime minister.
 Avoids dual legislation. In parliamentary
systems, voters choose a single
legislature/executive body, namely,
parliament. In presidential systems, however,
voters have to choose twice, once to elect the
president and once to elect the congress. Thus,
if president and congress disagree, they can
both claim a democratic mandate.
 It creates harmony between the executive and
legislative branches of the government,
because majority of the members of the
parliament are members of the political party
that holds state power.
 The executive branch of the government is
accountable to the parliament; hence, there is
less possibility of the tendency towards
dictatorship
 Necessarily the party that secures majority
seats organizes a government.
Demerits of parliamentarian systems:

 Violates the principle of separation of power
 It will result in unstable government when there is
no party that secures majority seats in the
parliament

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 There will be a tendency to ignore the interest of

the public in order to keep the interest of a political
party.
B. Presidential System of Government

Presidential systems are systems where the president is
not just a figurehead but also a functioning head of
government. Presidential democracies most clearly
show the separation of power between the executive
and legislative branches. In presidential systems, the
president is more or less directly elected by the people,
in the US, of course, the quaint Electoral College
mediates between the people and the actual election.
The president is vested with considerable powers, and
cannot easily be ousted by the legislative body.
Presidents in presidential systems are not responsible to
legislatures. The close connection between the
legislative and executive is broken. Presidents are
elected on their own and choose cabinet ministers or
department secretaries from outside the ranks of the
legislative body.
Common features of presidential systems
1. Separation of power and responsibilities among
the branches of the government. The doctrine of
separation of power implies the absence of
overlapping powers and authorities. Moreover, it
refers to the idea that each government organ has its
own responsibilities that are to be performed without
the interference of the other.

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It also implies the idea that no individual shall be a

member of two or more organs of the government.
Each organ of the government checks the activities of
other organs. Each organ of the government is also
constitutionally independent and accomplishes its
duties freely.
1. The president is the head of state and government.
He/she is the commander-in-chief of the national
defense forces. Office of head of state and the
office the head government are merged in the
office of the president.
2. The president has veto power over the draft bills
presented by the legislative body of the
government. He/she has parallel power with the
legislature.
3. Impeachment process. The president can be
impeached if he/she is found guilty of wrong
doings or crimes.
4. Term office for the president is fixed in
presidential systems but not for prime ministers in
parliamentarian systems
Advantages of presidential systems
 The fate of the executive does not depend upon the
legislative. Hence, it ensures stability of the
executive organ.
 It provides a better room for check and balance.
 It minimizes the abuse of power on the organs of
the government.
Demerits of presidential systems

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 Since the president is not accountable to the

legislative, this system may lead to autocratic or
dictatorship.
 There is a possibility of confrontation between the
president and the legislative. This can be happened
when one political party won the office of the
president and other party won majority of the seats
in the legislature.
 The president may not influence the legislative to
make laws meet the conditions of crisis.
C. Hybrid (mixed) system
Hybrid system refers to the combination of both
parliamentary and presidential systems. It is also
termed as semi-presidential system. In this system,
the people (electorate) elect the legislative members
and the president. Then, the president will elect the
prime minister. The president has important power
such as controlling the defense forces, matters
relating to foreign affairs. France is the best example
of the hybrid systems.
3.3.7. Important Concepts

Authority- institutionalized power that is
recognized by the people or the governed. It is
recognized power that is seized through democratic
election. In short authority is legitimized power.

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According to Max Weber, there are three sources of

authority:
1. Traditional authority- legitimate power
conferred by custom and accepted practice. E.g the
king/queen is accepted as a ruler of a nation simply
by virtue of inheriting the crown.
2. Legal/rational authority- recognized power
that is granted/given based on the constitution.
3. Charismatic authority- power that is acquired
based on the leader’s exceptional appeal to his/her
followers. E.g Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther
King, etc.
Power- refers to the ability of someone to influence

others do something. Or it is the ability to exercise
one’s will over others.
Legitimacy- an attribute of the government in
which the governed/people/ to comply with
willingly to the government’s authority. Legitimacy
is associated with popular acceptance of governing
of governing regime and it is a basic condition for
rule. It is a basic attribute for stable governance. The
term legitimacy differs from legality. It is a
willingness to comply with the system of rule
regardless of how a ruling regime is popular and
respected. Legitimacy can be checked through
democratic election.

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Chapter 4
Constitution and Constitutionalism
4.1. Definition of Constitution and constitutionalism
Constitution consists of fundamental laws of a country. It
includes basic rules, regulations, values, beliefs,
traditions, norms, customs, standards and aspirations that
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channel internal affairs of a country and give direction to

country’s foreign relation. It is a document containing
essential principles on distribution of governmental
powers as well as rights and responsibilities of citizens. It
indicates economic, political and social policies of a given
country. Constitution is also defined as the body of
doctrines and practices that form the fundamental
organizing principles of a political system. In this regard,
constitution is understood as the highest law of the land
that prevails over all other laws of a country.
Yet constitution is different from specific laws, because it
is the highest law of a given country. It is brief and
general outline.
Constitutionalism means government by constitution or
practice of government regulated by a
constitution.It is concept which implies constitutional pro
visions full realization or implementation. It is a culture in
which government officer’s act in accordance with the
rule of law. Constitutionalism is the way that public
authority is to be exercised, implemented, or applied
according to the law. Hence, constitutionalism is more
than having a constitution. In short, it implies the proper
implementation or practice of the principles, which are
included in the constitution. It also refers to the
prevalence of the rule of the law where the government
and public officials are held accountable to the people and
responsible for their decisions and actions.
4.2. Purposes and Functions of Constitution

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A. Serves as a framework for government: constitution
is a plan for organizing composition and structures of a
government. It establishes foundation for government.
B. Grants powers to government: constitution provides
authority to government to accomplish its tasks and to
make different decisions.
C. Constitution limits government powers: constitution
determines what public authorities must do and must not
do. It restricts extent or degree of officials’ power.
Government authorities should not do whatever they wish
to do but according to their constitution. The working of
government officials in the spirit of constitution ensures
the rule of law.
D. Constitution as the supreme law of a country:
constitution is the source of all specific laws with regard
to different affairs in a country. All other laws are derived
from the constitution. When detail laws are made in a
country constant reference should be made to the
constitution. All laws in the country must conform to the
constitution. Likewise, any law that contradicts with the
constitution will not be valid as a law in the country.
Thus, constitution serves as a binding instrument of all
other laws in a country.
Generally, the very purpose and functions of constitution
are closely linked with the ever-increasing demand to
limit the absolute powers of governors, and guaranteeing
the rights of the governed.
4.3. Classification of constitutions

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Constitutions in different political systems differ from one

another in terms of their principles on the distribution of
political power, on the structural separation of authority
among branches of the government, and on the
limitations, they set on government authority. Moreover,
constitutions of various countries differ from each other in
their form, content, and patterns of political arrangements.
These differences may have been caused due to the
difference in historical backgrounds, social traditions, and
political practices. In some cases, constitutions tend to be
products of compromises and consensus of the different
social and political forces of a society. In other cases,
power holders in government with the aim of securing
their desired political and socio-economic interests draw
constitutions. Generally, constitutions of different
countries are not only differing in their forms and
appearances, but they may also differ in terms of their
contents of the underlying principles and procedures.
4.3.1. Written Vs Unwritten constitution of state
In terms of their forms, constitutions are classified into
written and unwritten constitutions.
a. Written constitution: - is one that exists in a single
document containing the basic principles and rules
specifying the rights and duties of citizens and the
composition and powers of institutions of the government.
In this document, all political structures and institutions of
the state are organized in accordance with the principles
stated in the single written document. The majority of the
constitutions in the world are written constitutions. For
example, India, Nigeria, Ethiopian, Kenya, France,
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Germany, United States of America, and the like have

written constitutions. A written constitution has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages:-
 It is full of clarity and definiteness because the
provisions are written in detail.
 It is readily available to citizens to enable the
monitor the behavior of their government and prevent the
emergence of dictatorship. Moreover, as it is easily
available to citizens it helps them easily know their rights
and duties
 It has the quality of stability and the ability to help
citizens develop a sense of confidence and satisfaction.
Since the people know of the nature of the constitutional
provisions, they feel a sense of satisfaction and
confidence for being their rights are accorded with a legal
protection of the constitution.
Disadvantages:-
 It creates a situation of rigidity; it is difficult to
change it easily and quickly as per the requirements of the
time. Or, it is not easily adaptable to new changes.
 Implementation of the constitution usually involves
interpretation. In some instances, interpretation leads to
disputes between branches of the government
b. Un written constitution:- is a document based on
common traditions, and usages of the country. It is meant
that the fundamental principles and powers of the
government are not written down in any single legal
document. In other words, there is no single written
document that specifies the rights and duties of citizens
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and the composition of powers of institutions of the

government. Instead, principles exist in a number of
documents, customs and conventions. In short, unwritten
constitution is a collection of documents, rules,
regulations, declarations and traditional practices that
serve as governing principles. These elements were
passed by either a parliament or other competent
government bodies at different times, without compiling
into a single document.
Unwritten constitution is used in Great Britain, New
Zealand, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Israel and the like. Great
Britain’s constitution is a typical example of unwritten
constitution. Like that of written constitution, unwritten
constitution has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages :-
 It has a quality of elasticity and adaptability.
 It is so dynamic that it prevents the chance of popular
uprising, because the government will easily amend it
based on the demands of the public.
 It is resilient with the result that it can absorb and
recover from shocks that may destroy written constitution.
Disadvantages:-
 It is not stable and could easily be abused by
politicians who are irresponsible to the interests of the
public.
 It leads to a state of confusion, because it is not easily
available to citizens.
 It is not suitable in democratic political systems,
because in democratic political systems the government is
required to make citizens know their rights and duties.
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4.3.2. Rigid Vs Flexible constitution of state

A constitution is the supreme law of the land and
considered as a permanent legal instrument. However, it
needs modification in order to cope with changing
internal and external circumstances. Modification takes
place either by writing a new provision (s) into the
constitution or by modifying the exiting provision(s) of
the constitution. Such a process is called amendment.
Accordingly, writers on constitutional matters have
traditionally divided constitutions into rigid and flexible
constitutions depending on the complexity of the
requirements (procedures) for amendment.
a. Rigid constitution: - is the one that provides a series of
procedural requirements for amendment. In this case
special procedures need to be followed to amend such
constitution, and therefore, difficult to amend.
b. Flexible constitution: - is a constitution that adapts
easily to changing circumstances. It has simpler
requirements (procedures) for amendment. Therefore, it is
easily amendable constitution.
4.3.3. Federal Vs Unitary constitution of state
One major function of a constitution is the definition of the
political structure of the state. Accordingly, some
constitutions design federal state structure and they are
named as federal constitutions, and others design unitary
state structures and they are named as unitary constitutions.
In this regard, Constitutions may concentrate power at center
or distribute it among the different (horizontal and vertical)
branches and levels of the government. When a constitution
determines that there must be sub-national levels (dual
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polity) of government such as regions in Ethiopia, states in

the United States of America, Leander in Germany, is said to
be a federal constitution.
On the other hand, in unitary constitutions, all state powers
are concentrated in the hand of the central government. The
central government can establish or abolish the lower levels
of government, determine their form, composition, and local
governments do not have constitutional guarantee for their
existence.
4.3.4. Contents and Validity of Constitution of state
Constitutions differ from one another on how they are

framed and introduced. But most of them contain certain
basic statements about the institutions and functions of the
government. The most important objective of constitutions is
to distinguish the distribution of power among the branches
of the government: the power to make laws, to enforce laws
and to interpret laws.
Constitutions could be made in a number of ways. One way
of making constitution is through a body called constituent
(constitutional convention) whose members are
representatives delegated by the people, that may draft,
discus, improve and ratify a constitution as the law of the
country. It also involves members of political parties or civic
organizations. Such a broad participation in the process
could help to incorporate public interest in the constitution to
be formulated.
The other way of making constitutions is via rulers who
could unilaterally draft and introduce constitutions without
involving the public. Autocratic, monarchic, and dictatorial
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rulers usually make constitutions based on their own wishes

and interests. Such constitutions are imposed on the people
without having their consent and, hence, are always
challenged. Ultimately, they collapse since the broad
members of the society do not support them.
Majority of states have framed their constitutions by
incorporating legal protections to the rights of their citizens.
However, the mere fact of a written guarantee should not be
assumed to mean that such rights really exist and protected.
The guarantee lies on objectively. A constitution to be
worthy, must contains essential contents and principles such
as:
 Stability both in form and procedure,
 Adaptability to the social, economic, technological,
and other changes that are important to the life of state and
the society,
 Accountability of those in power or political
officials
 Representation of the governed within the
government,
 Transparency in the process of administration
 The division of power among various organs of the
government etc.
4.5. Origins and Development of Constitution and
Constitutionalism
The historical evolution of constitution can be traced back to
earlier stages of civilization. The ideas of constitution as
political phenomena extend further into previous historical
periods. In the history of human societies, the emergence of
constitutional government is related to the desire to limit the
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absolute powers of rulers over those who are ruled. Different

political experiences of governance, political rights, roles
and relations of state and society developed through time. In
this regard, many cultures influenced and shaped the
development of constitutional thinking. Thoughts and
actions of different cultures of societies since ancient times
have contributed for the appearance of the modern concept
of constitution and the development of constitutional
practices.
Hammurabi’s Law: Hammurabi (r. 1792-1750) was
ancient Amorite Babylonian king. His legal traditions were
not concerned with issues of freedom and rights of the
citizens. Instead attention was given to maintain forceful
orders. Rules were aimed at consolidating the authorities of
rulers who claimed justifications that their laws originated
from supernatural forces or divine being. Subjects who did
not obey the law would be seriously punished. Any criticism
against the law was unacceptable. Thus, Hammurabi’s law
established a highly authoritarian rule. Modern sense of
constitutionalism was not known. There was no limit on
authority of government. The relationship between
government and people was not b
based on equality. Thus, Hammurabi’s Law introduced a leg
al system of governance or legality but not the idea of
constitution and democratic practices.
Hebrews Theocratic Constitutionalism: Hebrew were the
first to practice constitutionalism emphasized on limiting
rulers’ absolute power by divine law. Subjects claimed that
they lived under divine guidance and rulers on earth were
considered as God’s agents. Thus, rulers were expected to
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have moral obligation to their subjects. When rulers became

unjust in practicing law, prophets claiming spiritual
authority arose to advice, warn and resist them. This is
considered as the first legitimate opposition against
established authority. However, Jewish understanding of
justice was based on religious thinking, not on free will of
the governed. Hence, contemporary ideas of political rights
did not exist.
Greeks Constitutional Democracy: Greeks were the first to
exercise democratic governance during 5th and 4th century.
They developed a fully constitutional political civilization.
The constitutional ideal of the Greeks included popular
participation of all citizens in decision making through direct
democracy. There was no possibility for political power to
be held in the hands of the few. It also involved sharing of
power and state functions. Moreover, that system also
included mechanisms of limiting the powers of office
holders. The office holders were usually selected by the
vote. In some offices that required qualification and
knowledge, the office holders were designated by election.
All active citizens had access to the public offices. When
public officials tend to abuse power, condemnation and
exclusion from social acceptance were exercised. The office
terms were also short. Therefore, political power was
rationally shared. Officials and citizens also made
observance to the rule of law. Nevertheless, the
constitutional democracy of the Greeks was not absolutely
perfect. The assembly of citizens was without any
constitutional limitations. That is, the kind of democracy
exercised was excessive. As a result of this, the Greek
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political system was unstable and full of internal

disharmony.
Romans Republican Constitutionalism: Romans
introduced a republican system of governance from 600 BC
to about 100 BC. Republican constitutionalism was not
completely left at the mercy of all citizens and not
completely controlled by absolute monarchy. Romans
exercised distribution of powers among different assemblies
which were meant to be complex devices of checks and
balances on each other’s powers. Officials were elected by
assemblies of citizens and for a term of a year at a time.
Thus, republicanism was a form of constitutional supremacy
of legitimate officials and bodies for limited purposes and
periods. The Romans also established a system of civil and
criminal law, which is the source for the legal codes of many
modern nations. Republicanism emphasized the operation of
an elaborate legal system and institutional means of limiting
power. Anyhow, the influence of citizens in governance
process was limited although it was conducted on legally or
popularly acceptable ways. Eventually, the Roman republic
degenerated and resulted in absolutist rule.
Magna Carta: in its modern sense, constitution emerged in
7th century England. In 13th century England King John used
to rule his people unfairly or selfishly. The abuses of his
power were asking unusual tax rates and depriving of
established privileges. As the result, those who suffered
decided for an armed confrontation. However, in 1215 AD
John agreed to sign a great charter of liberties called Magna
Carta which put restriction upon king’s power. Magna Carta
has served as cornerstone for modern systems particularly
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English parliamentary, USA’s presidential and French

hybrid systems.
4.6. Overview of Constitutional experiences in Ethiopia.
4.6.1 Traditional Constitutional experiences in Ethiopia
The modern Ethiopian Empire, which was created in the

last quarter of the 19th century, did not posses written
constitution until 1931. But this does not mean the various
nations and nationalities of Ethiopia did not have customs
and social norms that regulated their day-to-day life. The
different ethnic entities in the country had their own
customary laws and highly developed cultural norms,
which governed their society. For example, the Christian
kingdom in north Ethiopia, the Abyssinian core, had for
centuries lived according to Fithta Negest (legislation of
the king).It is the most highly respected legal document
in Ethiopia which even in modern times continued to be
cited by judges. It is interesting to note that the Fitha
Negest has two parts: the first is based mainly on the Holy
Scriptures and the ecclesiastical canons of the Egyptian
Coptic Church and the second-secular part- is described
as the canons of the kings. Fitha Negest continued to
serve until it was replaced by the 1931 Haileslassie
constitution. In addition to the Fitha Negest, there were
also other traditional documents such as the Kibre Negest,
and the Sirate Mengist, which contributed a lot to the
development of a constitution in Ethiopia. Sirate Mengist
has provided administrative and protocol directives since
19th c.
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These documents, as bodies of doctrines, set out the laws

through which the society was governed. In this regard,
until the early 1930s, the rule of the Ethiopian Emperors
was based on traditional and customary political and legal
premises. Generally, the traditional constitutional
experience was characterized by the dominance of myth
and legends. The myths and legends that provide
legitimacy were the myths of the Solomonic Dynasty
based on the Kibre Negest. The Kibre Negest emphasizes
on the“divine right rule”. It states that the Ethiopian
monarchs derived their power to rule from God and
therefore they were not accountable to any secular power.
The myths and legends provided virtually no opportunity
for the Ethiopian peoples to participate in political affairs
and to influence the decision–making process of their
nation. The people were merely considered to be subjects
of the kings.
The existence of different traditional documents like the
Fitha Negest tell us that before 1931, there was no
fundamental and all-embracing document stated as the
Ethiopian constitution. There were rules growing out of
the history of the nation that operated to secure
harmonious action between and among the distinct
entities that makeup the polity.
4.6.2 Modern constitutional experiences in Ethiopia
In its modern history, Ethiopia has experienced three
constitutions: the monarchial constitution (1931 later
revised in 1955, the 1987 PDRE, and the 1995 FDRE
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constitutions). These constitutions have reflected their

own values and political objectives as per the nature of
the successive Ethiopian governments.
4.6. 2.1 the 1931 written constitution
In the literature of the Ethiopian legal systems, the 1931
constitution has been given wider attention. There are
many reasons for this, but the most important being
1. It was the first written modern constitution
2. It furnished the formal basis for government and
consolidation of the imperial power.
3. It illustrated both the theoretical and practical
problems of integrating traditional political system with
Emperor Haileslassie’s policies of modernization and
centralization
4. It emphasized the reputation of Haileslassie as a
reformer and modernizer both at home and abroad.
The constitution was introduced in order to achieve
Ethiopia’s diplomatic recognition abroad and to
strengthen Haileslassie’s authority at home. The 1931
constitution was not a reform measure in response to
popular demands from Ethiopian citizens. There was little
or no attention to guaranteeing political freedoms and
fundamental human rights to Ethiopians. Rather than
creating a limited monarchy, the constitution gave all
sovereign power to the emperor. The people were
considered as mere ‘subjects’, and not as ‘citizens’ with
political and civil rights.
Generally, the 1931 constitution was formulated to attain
the following two basic purposes that would advance the
Emperor’s authority and political control.
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At the first place, the constitution was intended to give

Ethiopia the image of ‘modernity’ in the international
community because Ethiopia was considered as
‘uncivilized’ state in the eye of western colonial powers.
Secondly, in the domestic affairs, the 1931 constitution
aimed at providing a legal framework for subordination of
the powerful traditional nobility to the Emperor. Thus, the
constitution served the interests of the Emperor. It was
mainly designed to affirm the absolute power of the
Emperor in the political life of the country, rather than
guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of Ethiopian
citizens. Evidently, the 1931 constitution can be referred
to as the charter of the absolute power of the monarchy.
Nevertheless, the 1931 is considered as an instrument of
modernization in that it introduced some the modern
institutions such as:
a. parliamentary system :- The core contribution of the
1931 constitution was the creation of the parliament. The
parliament consisted of two chambers (Houses), namely,
the senate or upper house (Yehig Mewesegna Meker Bet)
and the chamber of Deputies ( Yehig Memria Meker Bet).
In this regard, the parliament in its structure was bi-
cameral (having two houses). Those elected to the two
houses (chambers) were only noblemen and princes and
their term of office was not limited. However, the
constitution did not provide powers and functions to the
parliament. It was was a weak institution to decide on
matters relating o laws laws. Power to make laws was
vested with the Emperor and the parliament was nominal

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(superficial), which mainly assigned to approve the

legislation of the Emperor.
b. Annual budget system: The second major
contribution of the 1931 constitution was the introduction
of the idea of providing fixed annual budget for
government. However, the assignment of budget as
indicated in the constitution had not been properly
implemented.
c. The Ministerial system: The constitution provided the
institutional framework for the ministerial system.
However, the executive branch of government was
heavily centralized in the hand of the Emperor.
Individually and collectively, the ministers were
completely subordinated to the Emperor.
d. The judiciary: The fourth major contribution of the
constitution of 1931 was the introduction of two separate
systems of courts. These were:
 The regular courts that dealt with civil and criminal
cases
 The administrative tribunals which concerned witjh
civil cases that affect the government
At the top of the court system was the Emperor’s chilot
(Yenigus chilot or zufan chilot) where the Emperor
reviewed cases, and can change any judicial decision.
In all aspects, whatever the constitution is innovative it
was more of paper value. Thus, the 1931 constitution was
undemocratic in its nature. The main objective of the
1931 constitution was to justify the centralized and
absolute authority of Emperor Haileslassie over all
internal and external affairs of the country.
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4.6.2.2 The Revised constitution of 1955
After nearly 25-year experiment of written constitution

Ethiopia entered in to the second phase of its
constitutional development. The second written
constitution of Ethiopia was a Revised Constitution. It
was promulgated on 4 November 1955. The 1955
constitution was similar to that of the 1931. But, the
political principles and objectives of the 1955 constitution
were much more clear in pronouncing the powers and
functions of the Imperial government. It also included
some provisions bearing advanced democratic ideas
compared to the previous written constitution. It should
be noted that the historical and political process of the
Ethiopian state and society influenced the contents and
issues addressed in the revised constitution.
Like the constitution of 1931, however, the revised
constitution did not involve popular process for
ratification. Indeed it was “gift” from the Emperor to his
subjects on the occasion of celebrating his twenty –five
years in power, i.e. silver jubilee.
In terms of enhancing popular sovereignty, the principles
and manners of implementing the revised constitution
made little or no progress.
There were major historical and political processes that
forced the revised constitution to come into being. One of
the essential prerequisites for constitutional revision was
the act of federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia in 1952.
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Eritrea that had been under Italian colonial rule for

decades, and latter under the British protectorate, was
federated with Ethiopia following the decision made by
United Nations (UN) General Assembly.
Under the supervision of the United Nations, the Eritrean
constitution of 1952 was drafted providing a separate
system of government for Eritrea under the sovereignty of
Ethiopian crown. The federation of Eritrea, therefore,
created abnormal political situation. Firstly, the federal
act was not strictly federal in its nature; Ethiopia
remained a unitary state with absolute rule of an Emperor,
while Eritrea obtained an entirely different government.
In other words, there emerged two separate governments,
based on entirely different principles i.e. elected
government in Eritrea and an absolute monarch in
Ethiopia. Thus, both were exercising different powers
over the same territory.
Secondly, in its nature, the Eritrean constitution implied a
more liberal government that incorporated some element
of democratic society as a result of their Colonial
tradition. There were quasi-political, quasi –religious
groups in Eritrea, while, in Ethiopia, political grouping
outside the royal crown was a personal offence to the
emperor, hence illegal. Thus the Emperor saw it necessary
to settle this political anomaly by granting the revised
constitution of 1955.
Therefore, one can clearly observe that the origins of the

revised constitution were related mainly with the
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historical factors of the time rather than being simply

adapted from foreign constitutions as in the case of the
1931 constitution. As far as the content and issues
addressed are concerned, the revised constitution
maintained some of the basic principles of the 1931
constitution. However, it incorporated some new
concepts, and it was much more elaborated than its
predecessor. It has 131 articles divided in to eight
chapters. The first two chapters, comprising nearly one
third of the articles, were concerned with defining the
power and authority of the Emperor and privileges of the
imperial family. Only one chapter was reserved to deal
with some rights and more duties of the people. Its
undemocratic character can simply be inferred from the
Emphasis given to the Authority of the Emperor. It further
developed the centralizing and “modernizing” themes of
the 1931 constitution.
The Revised Constitution more strongly established the

Absolute power of the monarch. It declares the
“inviolability of the emperor’s dignity”. He could appoint
and dismiss government officials in all branches of
government as he wished. The emperor also had the
power to dissolve the parliament. Any law could not come
in to effect unless he approved it. Moreover, his power
also extended to the extent of determining the
administrative affairs of the church itself. In short, the
1955 revised constitution made the powers and authority
of the Emperor absolute and complete in the Ethiopian

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state and society. It consolidated the executive, legislative

and judicial power of Emperor Haile Sillassie.
In contrast, little or no significance was attached to the
need to guarantee political and human rights of the
Ethiopian people. The constitution expressed intention of
protecting individual rights in terms of property, life and
private affairs.
By far the most striking change was the provision for the
election of the then appointed members of the Chamber of
Deputies by the people and this body was also made to
have the power, at least in textual sense, to question the
ministers with the view to hold the government
accountable. Meanwhile the veto power of the Emperor is
still there.
4.6.2.3 The 1987 the People’s Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia (PDRE) Constitution
The1974 Ethiopian revolution resulted in the deposition

of Emperor Haile Sillassie from power.
Nevertheless, the military Junta that formed a military
council known as the “Derg” controlled political power.
The Derg emerged to be the military government in
Ethiopia.
The military regime suspended the 1955-revised
constitution and began to rule the country by series of
decrees and proclamations. Constitutional process of
government was foiled. In order to deepen its power, the
Derg established its single party, the Workers’ Party of
Ethiopia (WPE) in 1987. This was transition from a no
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party system to the one party system in Ethiopia.

Nevertheless, this didn’t give rise to democratic order.
In 1987, the ‘Derg’ constitution was issued justifying its

rule. It introduced the first republic whereby abolishing
the system of monarchy in Ethiopia. It differed from the
previous constitutions in some ways. The constitutional
commission via a program of public “consultation”
drafted it and it was later on ratified in the name of broad
popular participation.
In principle, some of the provisions of the “Derg”

constitution included “democratic” elements. Sovereignty
lies on the workers of Ethiopia and exercised through the
National Shengo, Local Shengos they establish by
election, and referendum. Candidates to the National
Shengo were nominated by organs of the Workers' Party
of Ethiopia, mass organizations, military units and other
bodies. The terms of the Shengo would be five years. The
national “Shengo” was by name the supreme organ of the
state. It was responsible to establish the subordinate
organs of the state and elect the president and other state
leading officials. However, in practice, actual powers of
the “Shengo” were artificial or superficial. The military
regime, which claimed to be socialist, centralized all
political powers under the leadership of one party system.
In effect, the 1987 constitution apparently attempted to
present the military dictatorship as popular civilian
government.

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The Council of Ministers was the highest executive and

administrative organ of the PDRE and was accountable to
the Shengo and between the sessions of the Shengo it was
accountable to the Council of the State and the President.
The Judiciary branch consisted of the Supreme Court,

Courts of Administrative and Autonomous Units and
other courts established by law. President, vice president
and judges of the Supreme Court were nominated by the
president and approved by the Shengo for five years term.
Other judges were to be elected and recalled by the
Shengos in the respective levels.
Generally, the constitution of the military regime and the

two constitutions of the imperial regime of Haileslassie
served only to legitimize the political powers of the
central governments. The Ethiopian political system the
two governments seriously lacked the process of
constitutionalism. In other words, although there were
written constitutions, they were invariably failed to ensure
the prevalence of the rule of the law.
4.6.2.4. The 1991 Transitional Charter
The ethnic based liberation movements came together

immediately at a conference and drafted and approved an
interim constitution or otherwise known as the
Transitional Charter. The Charter is a very brief document
with only 20 articles. The aspirations stipulated in its
preamble include the guarantee of freedom, equal rights,
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and self-determination of all peoples; ensuring peace and

stability by bringing an end to all hostilities, redressing
regional prejudices and safeguarding rights of citizens
through democratically elected, accountable government,
and rebuilding the country and restructuring the state.
Interestingly the Charter, despite its briefness, puts a high
premium on human rights. This is manifested in its direct
reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) in its Art(1) which states that based on UDHR
individual human rights are respected fully and without
any limitation what so ever. In accordance with the
aspiration of the Charter Art(2) give recognition to the
right of “Nations, Nationalities and Peoples to self-
determination” there by guarantying their right to a)
preserve their identity, culture, history and language; b)
self-administration with fair and proper representation at
the center; and c) independence when the above
mentioned rights are “denied, abridged or abrogated.”
Thus, the Charter, in contrast to Ethiopia’s legal and
political tradition, gave an explicit recognition to the
rights of “Nations, Nationalities and Peoples,” and also
recognized their right to secession. This strong assertion
to the rights of “Nations, Nationalities and Peoples”
demonstrated the commitment of the new regime towards
group rights and decentralization.
The process of decentralization initiated by the Charter
was further elaborated by National/Regional Self-
Government Establishment Proclamation No.7/1992.
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Accordingly, 14 National/Regional self-governments,

whose boarders were determined, based on settlement
structure of nations, nationalities and peoples were
established. Hence during this period one can say that
some degree of federalism has been introduced even
though federalism had to wait until 1995 to appear in the
Ethiopia’s constitutional public speaking.
In general, the Transitional Charter was a breakthrough in

many ways, for example as we have seen it, established
devolved administrative units on the basis of ethnic and
linguistic criteria. On the basis of the Charter, fourteen
regional governments were created; Addis Ababa and
Diredawa were given autonomy on the basis of political
and population considerations. Each regional government
shall have executive, legislative and judicial power in
respect to all matters with in their geographic territory,
except such matters as defense, foreign affairs,
citizenship, declaration of state of emergency, national
economic policy and so forth. In any case,
decentralization was one breakthrough and the basis of
the political program of the Transitional Government of
Ethiopia.
Secondly, the charter granted self-determination up to

secession to all Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of
Ethiopia. Article 2 stated that each Nation, Nationality
and People have the right to preserve its identity and have
respected, promote its culture and history. Also
recognized was the right to administer its own defined
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territory and effectively participate in the central

government on the basis of freedom, fair and proper
representation.
Thirdly, the charter allowed the creation of several centers

of power and authority. Indeed, different associations,
especially political parties were flourished following the
promulgation of the Charter. Thus, political pluralism is
another departure of the charter from the Ethiopian
constitutional tradition.
4.6.2.5. The 1995 Constitution of FDRE

The 1995 FDRE constitution is different from that of the
Imperial and the Derg constitutions. It made an important
departure in the history of constitutional development in
the country in terms of its basic philosophy, content, and
organization of government. The constitution strongly
affirms and expresses that nations, nationalities and
people of Ethiopia are source of sovereignty. It explicitly
states the rights and duties of the federal government as
well as the prerogatives of the regional states. It also
states that political power shall be held through free, fair
and periodic elections.
It entitles the Ethiopian citizens to exercise their human,
democratic, political and socio- economic rights and
freedoms. It defines the rights of nations, nationalities,
and peoples of Ethiopia to exercise their self-
determination, including the right to secession (art.39).
Besides, the constitution recognizes and affirms
fundamental human rights and freedoms in conformity
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with the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human

Rights (UDHR) and other international human right
instruments. The constitution established a federal state
structure with nine member states (National Regional
States) that exercise legislative, executive, and judicial
powers in their own jurisdictions.
It also established a parliamentary system with three
branches of the government: legislative, executive, and
judicial powers performing different functions. It is a bi-
cameral parliament (House of Peoples’ Representatives
and the House of the Federation). The parliament has the
power of legislation on matters relating to the federal
government. The constitution gives provided the House of
the Federation with the power to interpret the constitution.
This makes Ethiopia unique in that the power to interpret
a law (the constitution) is given to a government body
other than the judiciary branch. Council of Constitutional
Inquiry (CCI) is given the power to investigate
constitutional disputes assisting House of Federation.
An executive organ led by a Prime Minister whose office

is accountable for the House of Peoples Representatives
(HPR) is set up. The executive branch includes the
President, Prime Minister, Council of State, and Council
of Ministers. The president is elected by both legislative
chambers for a six-year term. The leader of the largest
party in the lower chamber becomes Prime Minister, who
submits cabinet ministers for the chamber’s approval. All
ministers serve for the duration of the legislative session.

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Executive power is in the hands of the Prime Minister,

who is also the commander in chief of the armed forces.
Similarly an independent judiciary with the supreme

federal judicial authority vested in the Federal Supreme
Court is established. Likewise, states have the State
Council (with legislative power), State administration
(highest organ of state executive) and a judicial power
vested in courts. The judicial branch is composed of
federal and state courts. The Federal Supreme Court is the
highest court and exercises jurisdiction over all federal
matters. The president and vice president of the Federal
Supreme Court are recommended by the Prime Minister
and approved by the lower chamber of the legislature.
4.6.2.5.1 Stages in the ratification of the FDRE

Constitution
1. Drafting Stage
- Drafting stage was the first stage of the
formulation of the 1995 FDRE Constitution.
- A special body known as Constituent
assembly carried out the drafting task.
- Experts with a good deal of experiences
from other countries were invited to such seminars
and workshops that have helped immensely in
sharing experiences.
2. Discussions and Development Stage
This stage involved extensive public discussions on the
draft of the constitution. This can be termed as popular
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discussion and ratification of the constitution. These

extensive discussions on the draft gave citizens of
Ethiopia the opportunity to:
-Know the tentative provisions that would be parts of the
final constitution;
-Amend or improve the provisions before they enforced
into action, and
-Participate in the formulation of their own constitution.
3. The Ratification Stage
-This stage is also known as adoption or endorsement
-Constitutional Assembly- a special body constituted
body of elected representatives of the Nations,
Nationalities, and peoples of Ethiopia- accomplished a
historical task of ratifying or endorsing the draft of the
constitution.
-In the constitutional Assembly, 538 elected citizens
participated.
-The Constitutional Assembly thoroughly and
conspicuously discussed on the draft of the constitution
for 3 weeks. Each provision or article of the Draft was
passed by Vote.
Finally the signatures of the Constitutional Assembly
endorsed it on December 8, 1994, and came in to force on
21st day of August, 1995.
Objectives of the 1995 FDRE Constitution

The preamble, which is an introduction to the main body
of the constitution, determines the objectives and

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principles, which the nations, nationalities, and peoples of

Ethiopia share in common.
1. Building a political Community based on
the popular will or agreement that is the destiny of all
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia;
2. To have the rule of law as the foundation
of the political community built based on popular will;
3. Ensuring lasting peace, democracy and
development that would characterize building a
prosperous country; and
4. Maintaining and consolidating the
effectiveness and successful unity based on diversity
through guaranteeing and securing the right of
Nations, Nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia to self –
determination, including up to secession.
Fundamental Principles of the FDRE Constitution
 Sovereignty of the people: It indicates that power is

vested in the hands of the people. As stated in Article 8
“All sovereign power resides in the nations, nationalities
and peoples of Ethiopia.” Hence, citizens are legally
recognized as they are the ultimate sources of political
power.
 Supremacy of the constitution according to Article
9 (1) of the constitution “the constitution is supreme law
of the land…..Any law that contradict with the
constitution has no legal effect”.
 Separation of state and Religion (secularism). In
the long history of Ethiopia, state and religion were
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inseparable entities. However, to day, according to article

11 of the FDRE constitution, state and religion are
separate and there is no state religion. Religion shall not
interfere in state affairs and like-wise state shall not
interfere in religious affairs.
 Respect for Human and Democratic Rights…
human and democratic rights current Ethiopia have legal
protections and stated in Articles 14-44 of the FDRE
constitution.
 Accountability of the government … This principle
is given recognition in Article 12 (1) and (2) of the FDRE
constitution. It denotes that the government should be
responsible for its functions. The conduct of government
affairs shall be transparent and any public official or an
elected representative is accountable for any failure in
his/her duties.
Furthermore, the following are the salient features of the
FDRE constitution:
 Recognition of the diversities
 The introduction of a federal political system
 Provisions of basic rights and freedoms
 Unity on the bases of equality
 Sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ethiopia etc
All in all, the Ethiopian constitutional order, as is
expressed mainly in its principles and partly in the
preamble and the aspiration provisions of the policy
objectives, is one in which popular sovereignty,
constitutionalism, human rights, secularism, and
transparency and accountability of government become
visible large.
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Understanding Citizenship
Meaning and definition of citizenship
Etymologically, the word citizen is derived from a Latin
word “Civis” means city resident. The origin of the term
is associated with ancient Greek city states whose full
members were known as citizens. Citizen is legally
recognized member of a state. Citizenship is legal status
or official identification of individual to be integrated in
to a state. It is a contractual relationship between state and
citizens. The word national is often used as another word
for citizen. In some cases, however, national means a
person who owes loyalty to a country but lacks full
membership in it.
Citizenship involves both rights and responsibilities.

Citizens are guaranteed such privileges as the right to
vote, the right of freedom speech, and freedom of
religion. Citizens are also expected to obey laws, serve on
juries, help their communities, and perform other duties.
Citizenship is also understood as a mode of identification.
It serves as a way of identifying nationals found in
territorially defined countries.
Ways of Acquiring and Loosing Citizenship
(Emphasis on Ethiopia)
Modes of acquiring citizenship
Nations have various laws that govern the granting of
citizenship people become citizens in two ways.
1. By Birth, and
2. By Law (naturalization)
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Citizenship by Birth
A. Jus Sanguinis: this is Latin phrase which means right of
blood whereby a child acquires citizenship of his/her
parents. What matters is the lineage, descent or blood
relationship, not the place of birth.
i. Jus Sanguinis Materni means blood line of mother, e.g.
followed by Israel
ii. Jus Sanguinis Paterni means blood line of father, e.g.
followed by Bulgaria.
*Ethiopian follows legal parents’ blood principle (father
or mother or both) for historical make up.
B. Jus Soli: this is also a Latin phrase which denotes soil
right whereby a child attains citizenship from a birth
state. However, children of diplomatic missionaries and
representatives of international organizations may not
claim this citizenship in line with international
conventions such as 1930 Hague Convention on Conflict
of Nationality Laws, 1961 Vienna Conventions on
Diplomatic Protocols and 1963 Vienna Consular Protocols
of United Nations. Most European & North American
(Anglo-Saxon) countries adhere to Jus soli with hope that
it will facilitate intermingling of nations.
Citizenship by Law (Naturalization)
A. Citizenship by Registration
i. Marriage: according to this principle, if a woman
marries a man of another state, she can have her
husband’s citizenship. If marriage takes place without
legal procedures, married woman/man can claim
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citizenship of her/his husband/wife. This is considered as

defacto or Apparent Nationality.
ii. Legitimation this is citizenship whereby an
illegitimate child gets citizenship of his/her care taker.
iii. Option: a multi-citizenship person chooses
citizenship of one selected state.
iv. Acquisition of Domicile: this is through permanent
residence in a certain country.
v. Appointment as Government Official: is acquired by
serving as a worker in a defined state.
vi. Grant on Application: this is acquired based on
specific rules and principles.
B. Citizenship by Political Case or Process

i. By Force –occupied state individuals are forced to
acquire conquering state citizenship.
ii. By Voluntary Process (Cession ): due to willful
merger of one state with another state, people of state
which decided to join another state will get citizenship of
that state. People of Louisiana decided to join USA
in1803 from France. Saar valley voted through plebiscites
to join Germany in 1934-35.
C. Citizenship by Re-integration/Restoration: this is a
system whereby a person who had lost citizenship of a
state due to certain reasons can get back citizenship on
fulfilling conditions laid down.
D. Citizenship by Option: this takes place due to
voluntary partitions or exchange of territories. In such
cases, residents are given the option to choose the
citizenship of one of the two states.
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E. Citizenship by Legislation: a state can grant honorary

citizenship to prominent figures.
F. Citizenship by Special Case/Functional Nationality:
this is a possibility whereby citizenship is given without
undergoing all legal procedures. .
*When a person has citizenship status of two countries at
a time, it is known as dual citizenship. One can be
acquired by birth place (Jus soli) and the other by blood
line (Jus Sanguinis) or through naturalization.
Mode of Loosing Citizenship
I. Renunciation (Expatriation): this happens either
when a person gives up previous citizenship because of
being naturalized in another country or harassment and
state ideologies personal dislikes.
II. Deprivation: this takes place when a person commits
serious crimes against the state such as exposing the
secrets of his own country to alien forces, siding enemy
forces in times of war and Carrying out diplomatic,
economic, political and military intelligence for another
state within own state.
III. Substitution: this happens if naturalization
substitutes original citizenship or state is conquered by
another state and conquered territory citizenship replaced
by conqueror citizenship.
IV. Lapse: this takes place as result of long and
continuous stay outside one’s own state. E.g. If an Indian
stays outside his country for more than seven years, he
will lose Indian citizenship.
*Statelessness is lack of citizenship or a person is not a
citizen/national of any country. This happens if:
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-the homeland of a person denies him/her citizenship

as punishment, e.g. by expatriating.
-a person renounces citizenship of his/her country but
does not acquire another citizenship.
-a child is born from alien parents without being citizen of
a country that does not recognize jus soli.
-the laws of some countries pertaining to marriage do
not give citizenship right.
-a person’s homeland has been destroyed by another
country.
Modes of Acquiring and Loosing Citizenship in

the Ethiopian Context
As the case in other states, there are some modes of
attaining and loosing Ethiopian citizenship.
For the first time Citizenship law in Ethiopia was adopted
in 1930. Prior to this law, the issue of citizenship was
regulated by custom and tradition. There was no formal law
based on which individuals identify themselves with the
state. However, based on the traditional practices the status
of individuals was more of subjects than citizens.
Citizenship was conferred to individuals from various
nationalities and peoples due to their integration into the
Ethiopian state.

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As mentioned above, the first citizenship law in Ethiopia

was adopted on July 22, 1930 and amended on October 5,
1932.
The 1930 Ethiopian Citizenship Law
This law was based on the general principle of
Jus Sanguinis. Unlike jus soli, which awards
citizenship by birthplace irrespective of
parents’ nationality, the principle of Jus
sanguinis gives a child the nationality of
his/her parents. Based on the principle of Jus
sanguinis, the law stipulates that any person,
born in Ethiopia or abroad, if his/her
father/mother is an Ethiopian is an Ethiopian
citizen.
Modes of attaining Ethiopian citizenship
The 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia reaffirmed the principle

of Jus Sanguinis. The FDRE constitution regulates
citizenship in general terms and the details of mode of
acquiring and losing of citizenship is regulated by the
Ethiopian Nationality No by Pro.No.378/2003.
Generally, there are two modes of acquiring Ethiopian
citizenship: by descent and by law.
1. By Blood (descent):- according to the nationality
proclamation (proc.No. 378/2003), any person is
recognized as an Ethiopian national by descent where
both or either of his parent is an Ethiopian. In other
words, if a child is born to an Ethiopian mother or father,
he/she is an Ethiopian regardless of his/her birthplace.
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2. By law (naturalization):- the particulars of Ethiopian

nationality law are legislated in the Ethiopian nationality
proclamation No. 378/2003. In this proclamation the
requirements for naturalization in Ethiopia are clearly
indicated. Naturalization is a process of granting
citizenship status or nationality by those who are not
originally nationals of a state. Following are the ways by
which a person can become a naturalized citizen of
Ethiopia.
A. Marriage: - A foreigner who is married to an
Ethiopian national may acquire Ethiopian nationality
(refer to the annexed Ethiopian Nationality
proclamation of 2003, article 6). Naturalization
through marriage has an international acceptance.
Besides, status of citizenship cannot be obliterated
even if the partners get divorced.
B. Legitimation (Cases of Adoption): - This is
citizenship by recognition. An illegitimate child has
the right to get his biological or caretaker
father/mother citizenship after legitimation. Such
process is usually attributed to a father /mother of
multiple citizenship. And child adopted by Ethiopian
national may acquire Ethiopian nationality by law
(refer the annexed Ethiopia Nationality proclamation
of 2003, article 7).
C. Grant on Application: - Depending on their rules,
different countries adopt requirements to grant
citizenship by application. According to the Ethiopian
Nationality proclamation of 2003 article 5, the
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following are the requirements (Refer to the annexed

Ethiopian Nationality proclamation of 2003, article 5).
- One who is majority or legal age, that is, eighteen.
- One who lived in Ethiopia for a total of at least
four years.
- One who is able to communicate in any of the
languages of the nations and nationalities of the country.
- Not dependant (self-reliant), that is, he/she
must have sufficient and lawful source of income to
maintain himself and his family.
- a person of good character
-has no record of criminal conviction
-able to show that he/she has been released from
his/her previous nationality or the possibility of
obtaining such a release upon the acquisition of
Ethiopian nationality or that he/she is a stateless
person.
D. Reintegration (Restoration): A person who has lost
his/her citizenship due to some reasons may get it back if
he/she fulfills some conditions as laid down by the laws
of the state. According to the Ethiopian Nationality
proclamation article 22, a person who was an Ethiopian
national and who has acquired foreign nationality by law
shall be readmitted to Ethiopian nationality if he/she:
A. Returns to domicile in
Ethiopia;
B. Renounces his foreign
nationality; and
C. Applies to the security,
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Immigration and Refugee Affairs Authority.

E. Citizenship by special case:
Citizenship can be given to an individual or collectives
without undergoing all the legal procedures related to
acquisition of citizenship.
As to the Ethiopian Nationality proclamation article 8, a
foreigner who has made an outstanding contribution in the
interest of Ethiopia may be conferred with Ethiopian
Nationality by law irrespective of the conditions stated
under sub-articles (2) and (3) of Article 5 of the
proclamation. That is, he/she is not required to live in
Ethiopia for a total of four years and may lack the ability
to communicate in any of the languages of the country.
Mode of Loosing Citizenship
1. Renunciation (Expatriation)
The United Nations universal Declaration on Human
Rights of 1948, Article 15(2) provides the right to the
individual to renounce his/her citizenship and seek the
citizenship of some other state according to his/her
choice.
Ethiopia also recognizes the right of its citizens to
expatriate and renounce their Ethiopian citizenship status
(Refer the annexed Ethiopian Nationality proclamation
article 19).
The personal decision of a person to renounce or give up
his/her citizenship emanates when the state harasses the
person and when the person dislikes the policies or
politics or ideologies pursued by the state or for other
reasons like better economic standing.
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2. Deprivation A citizen of a state may be deprived of

his/her citizenship, if he/she is guilty of committing
certain serious crimes against the state. Such as:
 To make access national secrets to alien country.
 Serving in another country’s armed forces or
government
 Trying to overthrow the government by force.
But according to the Ethiopian Nationality proclamation
of 2003, article 17; no Ethiopian may be deprived of his
nationality by the decision of any government authority
unless he/she loses his/her Ethiopian nationality under
article 19 or 20 of the proclamation.
3. Substitution
According to the Ethiopian Nationality proclamation
article 20, Ethiopian nationality can be lost upon
acquisition of other nationality.
4. Lapse
Citizenship may be lost, if the person stays outside of
his/her country for a long and continuous period. The
principle of lapse has no application according to the
Ethiopian Nationality Law.
Chapter 5
Democracy and Good Governance Ethiopia
5.1. Understanding Democracy

In our contemporary world, democracy as a way of life is the
most advocated system of government. It is conceived as the
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institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in

which individuals acquire the power to decide based on
competitive struggle for the people’s vote. In this case,
competition for political leadership is the distinctive feature
of democracy. Democracy as a way of life concerns with
social justice, civil and political rights, gender equality etc in
the process of interactions between citizens themselves and
between the government and citizens. In this regard,
democracy implies the existence of ethical values in an
enabling environment such as freedom, human rights,
organized dialogues, and the exercise of citizenship.
Etymologically the term democracy derived from classical
Greek democratia, which means rule by the people. It is
formed from the two roots demos ( by the people) and kratos
(rule). Hence, the word democracy literally means rule by
the people.
Democracy is a complex and illusive concept. There is no

universally agreed definition of democracy among
politicians and researchers. Hence, different people define
democracy in different ways.
For example, Shumpeter, defined democracy as
 A system for arriving at political decisions in which
individuals acquire the power to decide by means of
competitive struggle for the people’s vote.
Przeworski also defined democracy as
 A regime in which governmental offices are filled as a
consequence of contested election.

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According to Abraham Lincoln, democracy is also defined

as the government of the people, by the people and for the
people. Accordingly, democracy is a system of government
and also a society where liberty, justice, and respect of
human rights prevail. It is also a way of life in a society in
which individuals are entitled to equality of participation in
societal matters.
5.1.1 Forms of Democracy

There are two basic forms of democracy, direct democracy
and representative democracy.
1. Direct (Pure) Democracy is a political system
where all citizens can participate in making public decisions
personally, without relying on intermediaries or
representative officials. Direct democracy is obviously
practical only with relatively small numbers of people – in a
community organization, where members can meet in a
single room to discuss issues and arrive at decisions by
consensus or majority vote. Modern society, with its large
size and complexity, offers few opportunities for direct
democracy.
2. Representative (Indirect) democracy: - Today, the most
common form of democracy is representative democracy,
which involves the selection of government officials by the
people being represented. In representative democracy,
citizens elect their representatives to make political
decisions, formulate laws, and administer programs on their
behalf. It can be true representative democracy if and only if
the representatives are elected through a democratic election.

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5.1.2. Principles and values of democracy
Whether a given political system is democratic or

undemocratic it could be measured in terms of the major
principles of democracy and their practice. In this case, the
mere inclusion of the major democratic principles in a
constitution does not necessarily make a given government
or state democratic. It is the level of implementation or
practice of these principles that makes a government
democratic or undemocratic.
There are a number of principles and values of democracy.
Some of them are the following:
1. popular sovereignty
Popular sovereignty refers to the idea that the supreme or
ultimate power of the state is vested in the people. In other
words, people are the source of power or legitimate authority
to govern or hold political power. This is realized through
democratically elected representatives that make decisions
and supervise the policies for their implementation on behalf
of them.
2. Free, fair and periodic election
Election is the most significant way through which people
can participate in decisions that would affect their lives and
hold representatives responsible for their decisions and
actions. That is, election serves as a means for people to
choose their representatives to legislative or executive
offices.
It would be a mistake to equate democracy with regular
elections. Or, election should not be for the sake of election.
It is required to fulfill certain criteria. It must be free from
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threats, intimidation, harassment etc. it is also required to

become fair that allows equal opportunity to all adults who
rich the age of suffrage to elect and be elected without any
discrimination based on their differences in religion, sex,
color, ethnic background etc. moreover, election must also
be periodic that is to be conducted in accordance with a time
table stated in the constitution.
3. Majority rule and minority rights
Basically, democracy is the rule of the majority. The
government is required to act based on the decision of the
majority. But the government is also required to respect the
rights of the minority. The minority has also the duty to be
governed by the majority. In modern societies, people have
different interests that have resulted in difference in view
points on a particular issue. When a certain portion of the
population makes a certain decision, other sections of the
society may oppose that decision. Therefore, a compromised
solution to this problem is the rule of the majority and
respect for the rights of the minority.
4. Multi-party system
Multi-party system refers to the existence of two or more
than two political parties competing to hold political power
through democratic election.
Political parties are coalitions of individuals seeking to
control the government by contesting elections and winning
offices. Parties tend to link the people and the government
by providing some organization and information. Parties
exist and compete in elections in democratic political
systems. Therefore, the existence of political parties is
crucial to make meaningful political practices, because, they
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provide voters with policy and program choices of

developmental activities.
Generally, political parties are necessary for a democratic
political system, among other things, in performing the
following functions:
 Reflect and advocate the political, social, and economic
interests of the public
 Provide political education
 Present alternative policies and programs for
development
 Control and exercise political power and provide voters
with alternative candidates for competition in election.
5. human and democratic rights
Democratic political systems are characterized by the
recognition of human and democratic rights in which
individuals, groups, children, and women have certain basic
rights, which have to be protected and promoted by the
government.
6. The rule of law
This is a political situation where: both the government and
the governed are subjected to the law, both public officials
and ordinary people abide by and behave in accordance with
the law, officials’ power is given and limited by the law, and
transfer of power is also peaceful which is conducted based
on legal principles that are constituted in the law.
7. Equality before the law
Equality can be stated as a state of being when individuals
are treated impartially without their differences in terms of
color, sex, political attitude, religion etc. In this case, the
concept of equality denotes that citizens are provided with
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equal rights, privileges, and entitled with equal protection of

the law and entrusted with equal duties or responsibilities.
8. Accountability and Transparency
Accountability refers to the idea that elected public officials
must be responsible to the electorate for their decisions and
actions.
Transparency refers to a state of being when the decisions
and actions of a government are clear and open to the public.
Or, it is a situation where people have the rights and
opportunities to know how government policies and
decisions are made. In this case, the government is required
to create the situation for citizens to have access to the mass
media and information. However, the government is not
required to make all of its decisions and actions open to the
public like issues relating to the military and national secrets
because.
5.2. Approaches of Understanding Democracy
There are two views of understanding democracy:

substantive and procedural views. In this lesson you will
assess each of them in relation with some of the theories
of democracy, like liberal democracy, economic
democracy, social democracy, and developmental
democracy.
1. Substantive Views of Democracy

The substantive view concentrates on what a government
actually does, that is, the policies it makes should fulfill
democratic ideals. A substantive theorist would not
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recognize a decision that violated those ideals as

"democratic" even if it were made in response to majority
wishes.
Substantive democracy is a form of democracy in which the

outcome of elections is representative of the people. In other
words, substantive democracy is a form of democracy that
functions in the interest of the governed. Though a country
may allow all citizens of age to vote; this characteristic does
not necessarily qualify it as a substantive democracy. This
type of democracy can also be referred to as a functional
democracy.
2. Procedural Views of Democracy
The procedural view stresses the form and process of

government, or how the government governs. Procedural
democracy emphasizes the principles of universal
participation, political equality, and majority rule. The
procedural view of democracy also insists on the principle of
responsiveness, that the government should follow the
general thrust of public opinion. In other words, the
procedural view of democracy sets forth principles that
describe how government should make decisions and
address three distinct questions:
 Who should participate in decision-making?
 How much should each participant's vote count?
 How many votes are needed to reach decisions?

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This type of democracy is characterized by voters choosing

to elect representatives in free elections. Procedural
democracy assumes that the electoral process is at the core
of the authority placed in elected officials and ensures that
all procedures of elections are duly complied with. It could
be described as a democracy in which only the basic
structures and institutions are in place. Commonly, the
previously elected representatives use electoral procedures to
maintain themselves in power against the common wish of
the people, thus awkward the establishment of a full-fledged
democracy.
Theories of democracy
There are four major theories of democracy. These are
Liberal democracy, Socialist democracy,
Social democracy and Developmental democracy.
Liberal Concept of Democracy

Liberal democracy advocates the principle of private
enterprise and the guarantee of basic civil and political
rights such as freedom of speech, religion, the right to
elect and to be elected, etc. The state intervenes in order
to protect an individual and sections of society from the
evils of free private enterprise, and to promote greater
social efficiency. Liberal democrats, however, have
emphasized individual freedom over economic activities
and decision making and demanded that the state shall not
lose sight of this in the search for social justice. Liberal
democrats accept inequality or privilege so as to
safeguard individual freedom.
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In nutshell, liberal democracy is a system of government

in which the people govern themselves, criticize leaders
of their government and choose new ones in an election.
A basic belief of liberal democracy is that people of
different interests and backgrounds have different
political opinions. Democratic government rests on public
opinions since in such a system there is a freedom of
expression. Liberal democracy aims at the just and
rational organization of authority in human society under
the guise of the system of capitalism.
Economic Democracy /Socialist Democracy/
Economic democracy is the transfer of economic decision

making power from the few to the many. Capitalist
democracy according to economic democracy advocates,
does not guarantee universal rights to decent food,
housing, employment, child-care, education, or health
care. There are no rights guaranteeing control over the
fruits of one's labor and control over the work process
itself. This is because of the fact that these rights
contradict the unequal distribution of wealth and power
and the desire to get rich. Formal liberal democracy helps
to legitimize corporate capitalism. True democracy,
however cannot exist without economic democracy and
economic democracy cannot exist under the principles of
capitalism. Here, to speak of economic democracy is to
advocate democracy for the 'poor' as well as the rich. As
such, economic democracy is the transfer of economic
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decision making from the few to the many. In this case,

the assumption is that when workers and the poor control
production, democratic choices to work, employment,
income, technology, and the like can be extended.
 According to this democracy, true

democracy cannot exist without economic
democracy and economic democracy
cannot exist under the principles of
capitalism.
Social Democracy
Social democracy is the result of two factors. These are:

the changing nature of national economies, and the
changing nature of economic relations among society.
Social democracy is sometimes called social equality,
which aims to give all citizens equal rights under the law.
All laws apply equally to all citizens regardless of their
wealth, race, and religion, ideological out look, sex, and
the like. The goal of social democracy is to bring about
equality and classless society through reform within the
guise of capitalism. In this case, it recognizes that
individual background, abilities, efforts and so on
determine his/ her way of life. And hence this is to ensure
everyone an opportunity to make full use of his/her
abilities. In other words, social democracy calls for social
justice and economic empowerment of the subaltern
classes. To this effect, it concerned with the provision,
among others, provision of social security service,

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housing, free education, health and medical cares, and the

like.
The goal of social democracy is to bring

about equality and classless society
through reform within the guise of
capitalism.
Developmental Democracy
Another model, the developmental democracy, views
human beings as capable of civic virtue. Supporters say
that through involvement in government and community
affairs, persons can gain an understanding of the public
good and what it requires. Good citizens aware of and
participate in government and civic affairs through voting,
expression of their opinions to representatives, and
sometimes even public service. Involvement in
democracy is both a way of educating people and
increasing their ability to better themselves. Through the
exercise of judgment on political issues, citizens can
better exercise judgment in other areas of their lives. The
Developmental model utilizes indirect representation
simply because of the impracticality of direct involvement
such as that of the participatory democracy. Political and
social equality exist in a developmental democracy which
advocates that people can achieve civic virtue and become
conscious through active participation in democracy.
5.3. Actors in Democratization Process
Modern democracy has procreated the system of political
parties, organized interest groups and an independent media
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as indispensable factor for its operation among others. The

fact behind is that the representative system arrange the
mobilization of political participation by enjoying upon the
members of politically active people to take the mass, as
much as possible in confidence either for the sake of
demonstrating their faith or to justify the very legitimacy of
their leadership and authority. Building up of democracy is
not an overnight program; as process it needs not only time
but different actors must also involve to build democracy
and democratic culture. The following are the major actors.
1. Political Parties
In a political regime characterized by representative
democracy, political parties are vectors of democracy. They
are essential to the functioning and durability of democracy
since they are not only the instruments through which
power is attained by means of free, fair and transparent
elections but also the setting for working out practical ideas
and proposals which may constitute alternative programs to
the government. They also constitute the means through
which individuals may influence public affairs, express their
discontent or support governmental action.
Open competition between political parties in the
framework of elections is one of the indispensable
characteristics of representative democracies. Open
competitions between parties contend for the management
of a country's affairs is a socially and politically divisive
factor and the stakes are generally high for those involved in
this competition. It is therefore important and this is one of
the conditions for democracy's survival.
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Party Systems
Party systems refer to the number of parties and pattern of
relationships among the parties within a nation. Taking into
account the number of dominant or existing political parties
within a state, party systems are classified in to four major
categories.
1. One party system
2. Two party system
3. Dominant party system
4. Multi party system
One Party System

One party system is, most of the time, ideological in its
outlook and authoritarian in its structure. In this system, it is
usually not allowed other parties to exist and function. As
such, the party and its ideology are the main determinants of
governmental policy, style, and the very existence of the
media and interest groups and the like. In this case, the party
requires that important government officials are members of
the party or of satellite groups and expects their behavior to
conform to the policies and ideology of the state or the ruling
party.
Two Party Systems
Two party systems are characterized by a regular alternation
in office between two major dominant parties. In two party
systems, although minor parties exist, two major parties
dominate government power. It is argued that the system
provides the people with a choice of policies and leaders
while at the same time guaranteeing governmental stability.
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The devices of the electoral arrangement in such a system

assure a majority for one party or the other, thus enabling
that one will have the power to carry out its election
promises. United States of America and Britain are examples
of this system.
Dominant party system
Dominant party system is competitive in the sense that a
number of parties compete for power in regular popular
elections, but is dominated by a single major party that
consequently enjoys prolonged periods in power. Dominant
party system is characterized by weak and ineffective
oppositions.
Multi Party Systems
Multiparty systems are systems in which we have at least
three or more major parties. In multiparty system, one party
rarely wins enough seats in the legislature to form
government. Consequently, several parties combine forces to
obtain a majority and form a coalition government to direct
the nation’s affaires. Coalition government established by
multiple party systems is often fragile and unstable.
Example: Israel
Like political parties, Non-governmental associations and

organizations are valuable vectors of democracy. They
differ from political parties only in their final goal, but they
all contribute to consciousness raising, defense of the
legitimate interests of groups of individuals and the
protection of individual and collective rights and freedoms.
The efficacy of the work of civil society depends on the
extent to which such associations are autonomous or
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institutionalized. When they have relatively formal links to

the State or political parties, they lose some of their
autonomy and thus their ability to intervene in all freedom
in the management and conduct of public affairs and in the
working of institutions according to arrangements deriving
from their governing principle of special interests. NGOs,
while being associations, have more pronounced concerns
in the area of the protection of human rights and
humanitarian law. Such concerns urge them to intervene in
the political field even if they claim to have nothing to do
with politics. It is nevertheless true that the growth of
professional associations and national NGOs is making a
strong contribution to the consolidation of civil society in
these countries.
3. Interest Groups
Interest groups, as associations on the basis of the free will
of individuals, play a prominent role in the process of
democratization. Here, we will deal with the nature of
interest groups, their difference with political parties, various
types of interest groups and methods they employ to
influence government.
Consistent with the freedom of association granted to
citizens in democracies, democratic states are characterized
by the emergence and operation of several kinds of interest
groups. Interest groups are organizations or groups of
people, which are autonomous from government or political
parties with the objective of influencing government. In
democracies we find several interest groups who are
attempting to promote and influence the policies of

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government. In fact interest groups are regarded as essential

transmission belts between people and government.
4. Public Opinion
Public opinion is of a crucial importance for democracy.
Are you wondering why? Public opinion is made up with
citizens or specific groups that reflect on their community
and express their criticisms, their proposals or their
agreement to influence the construction of political will. It
is not possible to talk about only one, but of several public
opinions because in a plural society, there are always
several stands.
Public opinion is then a tool to control the politicians that
lead the country. On the one hand, this is important for the
opposition as the latter is only potentially active in front of
the government through this public opinion
5. Mass Media
Freedom of the media is essential in a democracy. The
mass media refers institution and to the methods of
communication, which can reach large number of people at
the same time. It includes newspapers, television, radio,
books, posters, magazines, and cinema etc. Media plays a
role in the political training of citizens and democratic
culture by informing them of the scope of public policies,
the management and conduct of affairs by those responsible
at both the State and grass-roots level, by providing and
offering the members of the community the means of
communicating with each other. But if the media is to
perform those functions, it must be free and independent; it
must have sufficient material and human resources to deal
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with all the important problems of society. The importance

of the mass media in a country is not dependent on the
number of newspapers or private radio and television
stations but on the quality of the information provided to the
public.
5.4. Principles of Democratic Election
Democratic elections are free when citizens have the

right to choose from several candidates or parties that
can run for the election without any restriction. They
must also be free to decide whether they want to use
their right to vote or to abstain from doing so, if they
prefer.
Democratic elections are free when

citizens have the right to choose from
several candidates or parties that can run
for the election without any restriction.
Democratic elections are equitable when each citizen
who can use his/her right to vote has at his/her disposal a
vote and when neither his/her origin nor his/her sex,
language, incomes or possessions, job or social
stratus/class, training, religion or political convictions
have an influence of whatever kind on the assessment of
the value of his/her vote.
In democratic elections, there must be no way of

knowing for which political party or for which particular
candidate a citizen has voted. They are then secrete,
when each citizen can put his ballot in an envelope,
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without having been either watched over or influenced,

in the secrecy of the polling booth, and when he/she is
also able, in the same way, to put his/her envelope inside
the ballot box afterwards.
In democratic elections, there must be no

way of knowing for which political party
or for which particular candidate a citizen
has voted.
Democratic elections are, therefore, public and
transparent. Which means on the one hand, that each
citizen has the right to attend the counting of the votes
when the ballot box is opened; this also means on the
other hand, that it is possible to completely follow the
whole process of the passage of the constituents’ votes:
starting from the ballots inserted into the ballot box till
the final counting undertaken to establish the calculation
that will eventually share out.
In addition to the requirements mentioned above, it is

also important to institute elections on regular basis.
Everybody, in that case, has the possibility to know the
date of the coming elections, and to get ready for that
ahead of time. It is a way to make sure that the current
government is defined within a time frame and that its
people have the right to remove it from office. The
electorate should represent the whole population, which
is to mean that apart from the underage population, no
group should be excluded.

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In addition, the electorate’s votes should be final,

meaning that the election results should be enforced
effectively, which implies that they must be accepted as
legitimate.
Regarding election process, there are in fact two separate

systems: the absolute majority votes and the
proportional ones. Both have crucial importance, given
the fact that they influence not only the political
structure but also the formation process of the political
will. To settle the choice on which polling system to
adopt, one has to take into account not only the political
traditions and historical situations but also social
conditions, because those, eventually, may authorize
solely one of the two possibilities.
Several parameters may be subject to some variations:

the internal regulations of the party, the relations between
the parties, as well as the relations between the
government and the Parliament, according to the
enforcement of either the absolute majority election
system or the proportional one. An election loses its
primary function if it is manipulated through the choice
of a polling system; it will then have negative impact on
the so-called “elected” organs which will then lose their
legitimacy.
In the absolute majority system, the polling area is

divided into as many constituencies as necessary,
depending on the number of seats to be assigned (at the
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Parliament, for example). Those candidates or lists of

candidates that can gather the majority of votes from
their constituents will be assigned the seats to be filled.
In the proportional system, the Parliament seats are

assigned according to the percentage obtained by the
political parties over the total number of votes from the
whole constituency. The assignment of seats (at the
Parliament, for example) thus reflects, much more than
what happens in the absolute majority system, the
effective choice of the population. The candidates are
elected through the lists in their constituency.
Most importantly, elections are usually coordinated and

carried out by an electoral commissions or boards.
These commissions shall be independent and neutral of
any political loyalty or affiliation for undertaking the
election properly and in a democratic manner. In addition
to an independent and neutral electoral board, a
democratic election also requires an independent judiciary
organ. Those individuals or parties who disagree with the
final decision of the electoral commission submit their
complaints to courts for final decision.
An electoral process of a given state is not only about the
simple translation of votes in to seats but also must
addresses, at least the following issue:
 The number of people and the constituency a
candidate represents. And representation takes
three forms: geographical representation- where
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each part of the country is adequately reflected in

national political organization; descriptive
representation – where the national government
represents the population in a way that all sectors
of the people (the poor, men and women equally,
different religions and cultures) have a voice in
government; and functional representation – a
system whereby no significant parts of the
population are disenfranchised but the system
takes into account the preferences of most people.
 The number of representatives that a constituency
would have, and
 The electoral system
1. In principle an electoral commission or

boards shall be independent and neutral of
any political loyalty. Think of our electoral
board, and how do you know whether it is
neutral or not loyal to any political party?
2. Find the present electoral code of conduct
signed by different political parties and
evaluate each article with the principles of
democratic election?
5.5. Democracy and Good Governance

Introduction
Like many other social science terms governance in

general and good governance in particular is different
thing for different individual. However, classically
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governance nowadays occupies a central stage in the

development discourse. To be sure if you talk about
good governance in one way or the other, there should
be democracy. This is because democracy and good
governance share many values and principles. Thus, in
this lesson you will learn the concept of good governance
and its relation with democracy.
5.5.1 The Concept of Good Governance

What do you understand when we say good
governance?
Given that the term "governance" means different
things to different people, it is useful, therefore, to
clarify, at the very outset, the sense in which it
understands the word. Among the many definitions of
"governance" that exist, the one that appears the most
appropriate is the exercise of economic, political and
administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs
at all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes and
institutions, through which citizens and groups
articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights,
meet their obligations and mediate their differences.
Good governance is the exercise of

economic, political and administrative
authority to manage a country’s affairs at
all levels.
Good governance is, among other things, participatory,
transparent and accountable, effective and equitable,
and it promotes the rule of law. It ensures that political,
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social and economic priorities are based on broad

consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest
and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making
over the allocation of development resources.
The role of the state is viewed as that of creating a

stable political and legal environment conducive to
sustained development, while civil society institutions
and organizations are viewed as a means of facilitating
political and social interaction and mobilizing groups
to participate in economic, social and political
activities.
Governance is the manner in which power is exercised

in the management of a country’s economic and social
resources for development. On this meaning, the
concept of governance is concerned directly with the
management of the development process, involving
both the public and the private sectors. It encompasses
the functioning and capability of the public sector, as
well as the rules and institutions that create the
framework for the conduct of both public and private
business, including accountability for economic and
financial performance, and regulatory frameworks
relating to companies, corporations, and partnerships.
In broad terms, then, governance is about the
institutional environment in which citizens interact
among themselves and with government
agencies/officials.

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In broad terms, governance is about the

institutional environment in which
citizens interact among themselves and
with government agencies/officials.
Since governance is the process of decision-making and
the process by which decisions are implemented, an
analysis of governance focuses on the formal and
informal actors involved in decision-making and
implementing the decisions made and the formal and
informal structures that have been set in place to arrive
at and implement the decision. Government is one of
the actors in governance. Other actors involved in
governance vary depending on the country context.
Governance nowadays occupies a central stage in the

development discourse but is also considered as the
crucial element to be incorporated in the development
strategy. However, apart from the universal acceptance
of its importance, differences prevail in respect of
theoretical formulations, policy prescriptions and
conceptualization of the issue itself. Moreover,
governance is not only about the ‘organs’ or actors.
More importantly, it is about the quality of governance,
which expresses itself through elements and
dimensions.
The most important principles of good governance that

can be drawn from the fundamental values of democracy
are: participation, efficiency, efficacy, sense of

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responsibility, the act of reporting, adaptation capacity,

transparency, rule of law and participation.
Good governance is not only based on the State or its
leaders, but also on all the actors and all the groups of
actors that take part in the democratization and
development of the country. The main actors of the
system of good governance is then composed of, apart
from the (central) State, the regional decentralized
bodies, the political parties, the civil society and the
private sector as well as the citizens.
Generally, in a good governance system:

 The roles are clearly defined, well distinguished
and balanced among different actors and groups of
actors, in the law texts as well as in practice
 The interests of the different actor groups are
articulated in decision making
 Leaders are characterized in the exercise of their
power by a democratic behavior and a democratic
type of leadership, like taking into consideration of
the fundamental values of democracy, the respect of
contrary opinions of others, taking into
consideration of laws and rules in force, tolerance,
capacity and good frame of mind for dialogue,
discussions, non-violence
 In front of this, citizens and groups of actors are
encouraged to express themselves, to take part in the
processes of decision making and to control the
exercise of power by the leaders in place
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 Between the two camps (the State authorities and

the other groups of actors), the controlling
mechanisms always function well and in a
transparent way; the channels of information and
communication are fluid and efficient
 There are informal and formal participation
structures that function well for consultations,
dialogues and negotiations, in which all citizens and
social groups, man and woman, young and old,
minorities or majorities can and have the right to
participate freely and without any fear
The Relationship of Democracy and Good Governance
Democracy is fairly vague and encompassing term. It is

often used as an elastic synonym for good government,
stretching to include whatever is desirable in a state. Of
course, democracy is a system of government based on
the consent of the people and one in which the mandate
to rule is subject to periodic renewal. Modern democratic
governance also entails citizen representation.
The relationship between democracy and good

governance is fairly straightforward. Democratic
governance and good governance share similar values
and institutions. Indeed, governance focuses on the
administrative and technical aspects of the exercise of
public authority; democracy focuses on the political
aspects of governance.

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 Democratic governance and good

governance share similar values and
In institutions. this
case,
democratic governance fosters transparency,
accountability, the rule of law, respect for human rights,
and civic participation – all of which are not only
necessary for securing economic productivity, equitable
distribution and state legitimacy but also denote the
existence of good governance. Accordingly, you will see
the key elements of good governance, highlighting their
links with democracy.
An enabling legal and regulatory framework: An

enabling legal and regulatory framework is one in which
laws and regulations are clear, transparent, and applied
uniformly, and in a timely manner, by an objective and
independent judiciary. Where legal systems are weak and
the application of law is uncertain and/or enforcement is
arbitrary, they tend to distort economic transactions,
foster rent-seeking activities, and discourage private
capital flows, all of which undermine democratic system
and good governance.
What activities are considered as rent-seeking?

Transparency: Transparency refers to openness in the
process of governance – in the election process, policy
and decision making, implementation and evaluation, at
all levels of government (central and local) and in all
branches of government (executive, legislature and
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judiciary). It is broadly defined as public knowledge of

the policies and actions of government, existing
regulations and laws and how they may be accessed. It
requires making the public account verifiable and official
behavior amenable to analysis.
Transparency refers to openness in the

process of governance.
Transparency helps to counteract the well-known and
universal tendency for public agencies and officials to
impose, violate and bend the rules. Transparency has
profound socio-political and economic consequences for
our societies. It has fostered citizen doubts, distrust,
apathy and lack of interest in participation among the
society. Without information about rights, entitlements
and responsibilities, the relationships between rulers and
the ruled as well as between providers of public services
and the consumer public have become degraded and
contradictory. Lack of transparency is largely responsible
for the tendency for the public to believe in wild and
fantastic rumors, especially where public officials are
involved. Today, there is widespread recognition of the
importance of transparency to good governance.
Can you think of ways in which government

demonstrate its transparency?
Accountability: Accountability refers to the ability to
determine who in government is responsible for a
decision or action and the ability to ensure that officials
are answerable for their actions. Accountability is also
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defined as holding responsible elected or appointed

officials and organizations charged with a public
mandate to account for specific actions, activities or
decisions to the public from which they derive their
authority. In a narrow sense, accountability focuses on
the ability to account for the allocation, use, and control
of public assets in accordance with legally accepted
standards. In a broader sense, it is also concerned with
the establishment and enforcement of rules of corporate
governance, avoidance of conflict of interest, and careful
as well as competent discharge of public trust.
Accountability focuses on the ability to

account for the allocation, use, and control
of public assets in accordance with legally
accepted standards.
Accountability is essential for affirming the obligation of
rulers to the ruled, public officials to the public, and
government to taxpayers. It is therefore crucial for
inducing governmental effectiveness and responsiveness,
and generating legitimacy. Accountable governance
requires the creation and sustenance of a variety of cross
cutting institutions and processes: free, fair and regularly
scheduled elections; an independent media; independent
judiciary; independent election authority; independent
audit body, independent ombudsman and other
independent constitutional commissions.
For these agencies of vertical and horizontal

accountability to be effective, the processes of appointing
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and removing the officials in these institutions must be

insulated from politics and political regimes, and they
must have operational as well as financial independence.
In addition, to ensure good governance citizens must be
empowered to demand responsiveness and accountability
from governmental and public agencies.
An Anti-Corruption environment: Corruption of course

is a universal problem, with complex causes. Its net
effect is commonly regarded as negative for all societies,
especially for developing countries. It leads to economic
inefficiencies; bends development; slow down long-term
foreign and domestic investments; misallocates talents to
rent seeking and away from productive activities; induces
wrong sectoral priorities and technological choices. It
also undermines state effectiveness in the delivery of
services, and the protection of the vulnerable and the
environment. Corruption promotes economic decay and
social and political instability, changes the ability of the
state to foster rule of law, and eventually crash trust and
undermines legitimacy. These costs mean that democracy
and good governance requires mounting a frontal attack
on corruption.
Corruption leads to economic

inefficiencies; bends development; slow
down long-term foreign and domestic
investments; misallocates talents to rent
seeking and away from productive
activities; induces wrong sectoral priorities
and technological
AASTU, Interdisciplinary choices.
Directorate, Social Science Division 178 |
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Indeed, corruption is highly rewarding for those who

engage in it. Therefore, to possibly avoid corruption it
requires the establishment of effective mechanisms of
discovery and punishment. To ensure democracy and
good governance we must build institutions for
preventing, detecting and punishing corruption instead of
relying on individual morality. And because of its
complex and multi-faceted nature, combating systemic
corruption requires partnership and collaboration among
public agencies, private sector and civil society,
including the media. Maximum effectiveness is possible
only when the existing laws and regulations are
supportive and transparent.
In this case, democratic societies try to prevent any

elected official or group of people from misusing or
abusing their power. Various methods have been used in
different countries to protect against these abuses.
Frequently, the government is structured to limit the
powers of the branches of government. This is supported
by an independent and impartial court and agencies with
power to act against any illegal action by an elected
official or branch of government; to allow for citizen
participation; and to check the government abuse of
power.
1. Some argued that it is possible to minimize

corruption thorough awareness creation
program, but some others disagree with
this idea. They said that when we create
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such awareness in one way or the other we

are showing how to misuse and abuse their
power? What is your position? Argue for
or against.
Active participation: one of the most basic indicators of

democracy and good governance is citizen participation
in government. Participation is not only their right, but it
is their duty. Citizen participation may take many forms
including running for election, voting in elections,
becoming informed, debating issues, attending
community or civic meetings, being members of private
voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even
protesting. Such participation builds a better democracy
and good governance.
Active citizen’s participation gives meaning to civil

society empowerment, which is vital to making
governments and private sectors responsive; and of
course, governmental responsiveness in turn fosters trust
and legitimacy. It is also crucial for engaging the
energies and securing the commitment of citizens for the
development of democratic culture and for fostering
equity in the distribution of both benefits and burdens.
Particularly, in our country that has diverse societies
widespread civic participation is absolutely essential for
generating social capital and societal unity. It helps to
foster mutual trust between citizens and our
governments, the state and the private sector, and among
the different social and political groupings. As we
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mentioned earlier, participation does not necessarily have

to be direct. Democracy and good governance is best
served in modern societies through active representative
democracy with strong elements of consultativeness and
a little bit of direct democracy.
5.6. Fundamental Freedoms and Rights
Introduction
Fundamental freedom and fundamental rights are much

more than a mere component of democracy. It represents
sine qua non requirements for the well performing of a
democratic system. The development and evolution of
human rights are only possible when humans live in a
democracy, given the fact that it is only within this
system that the population itself can draw up the laws
that will rule and publicly control the three powers: the
legislative power (power to propose and vote for laws),
the executive power (power to enforce laws) and the
judiciary power (power to make and to promulgate
laws). In this lesson you will see your fundamental
freedom and rights.
HUMAN RIGHTS
What are Human rights?
Human rights are those basic freedoms and rights that
belong to every individual or people purely by virtue of
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their being human beings. To be free from fear,

deprivation and to have the opportunity to achieve all that
we deserve and are capable of is a basic human aspiration.
Because of this, human rights hence constitute sometimes
called natural rights.
Human rights can also be defined as those basic standards

without which people cannot live in dignity as human
beings. Human rights are the foundation of freedom,
justice and peace, the existence of which allows the
individual and the community to fully develop. Human
rights are thus universal, inalienable, indivisible and
interrelated.
Human rights are universal that shall be enjoyed by all
human beings regardless of their sex, age, race, class,
language, national origin, or political beliefs. We are all
born free and equal, in dignity and rights. Human rights are
also called universal because their core ideas are common
to all major religions, faiths, moral codes and cross-
national and cultural boundaries. Another reason for their
being universal is that they belong not only to individuals
but also to communities. For example, a community of
tribal people has the right to speak its own language and
preserve its way of life, provided these do not violate the
human rights of their individuals or groups.
Human rights are inalienable that cannot be taken away;
no one has the right to legitimately deprive another person
of these rights for any reason. A citizen has the rights and
moreover, the obligation to insist that the state provides for
their protection and unlimited use. People have human
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rights even when the laws of their countries do not

recognize them, or when they violate them. For example,
when slavery was practiced, slaves still had human rights
even though these rights were being violated.
Human rights are indivisible & interrelated. This means
that all the rights together form a set that cannot be divided
into smaller groups of rights. To live in dignity, all human
beings are entailed to freedom, security and decent
standards of living concurrently. Though they are called
by different names and sometimes separated into different
categories, every right depends on another for its
fulfillment. No right can really be put into practice without
other rights. For example, the right to education is
classified as a social right but it would not be possible for
all people to get that right if there was no right to equality,
or if there was no court to uphold that right. Without this,
only some people would get to school while others could
be left out.
Human rights are also recognized as birthrights, which
all human beings are born with. They do not have to be
bought, earned or inherited; they belong to all people
simply because they are human. They are rights people
acquire naturally, by merely being born as human beings.
Human rights are inherent to each individual.
Human rights are both abstract and practical. They hold
up the inspiring vision of a free, just and peaceful world
and set minimum standards for how both individuals and
institutions should treat people. They also empower people

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to take action and to demand and defend their rights and

the rights of others.
Today, human rights standards (values) are becoming the
basis for defining the relationships between and among
people, between individuals and governments, between
institutions and the people. Some aspects of cultures are
changing to accommodate human rights values. Concepts
of justice, respect, responsibility, cooperation, and the
concern for fellow human beings are some examples of
cultural and human rights issues. When we say that each
person has human rights, we are also saying that each
person has responsibilities to respect the human rights of
others.
Categories of human rights
Though human rights are indivisible and interrelated, they
are often put into different categories for better
understanding of the characteristics and significance of
each right in relation with others. There are various
classifications of human rights; but commonly human
rights are classified into three broad categories:
Civil and political rights (first generation rights, also
called liberty rights):- these are liberty – oriented rights
that include; the rights to life, liberty and security of the
individual; freedom from torture and slavery; political
participation; freedom of opinion, expression, thought,
conscience and religion; freedom of association and
assembly.
Economic and Social Right (second generation rights, also
called equality rights):- these are security –oriented rights
that concern the production, development, and
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management of material for the necessities of life. Rights

that give people social and economic security include the
rights to work, education, a reasonable standard of living,
food, shelter and heath care.
Environmental, Cultural and Development rights (third
generation rights) – these include the right to live in an
environment that is clean and protected from destruction,
and rights to cultural, political and economic development.
These rights are sometimes also called solidarity or
development rights, as they focus on peace, more equitable
socio-economic order, solidarity and a sustainable
environment.
A Brief history of Human Rights

The basis of human rights: - such as respect for human life
and human dignity- is a value as old as humanity that can
be found in most religions and philosophies. The concept
of human rights, which is an ethical concept, has
developed throughout history as a result of negative
conditions that befell the humanity, such as the World War
II. The emergence of this concept as an ethical value,
which embodies human dignity, can be traced in history of
all world religions, as the basis, which guides human
relations among individuals, communities and groups. This
value is developed because it is related to fundamental
human needs. Indeed, the development of human rights has
its roots in the human needs and struggle for freedom and
equality everywhere in the world.
The belief that everyone, by virtue of her or his humanity,
is entitled to certain rights and freedoms is fairly new. Its
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roots, however, lie in earlier tradition and documents of

many cultures. Throughout much of history, people
acquired rights and responsibilities through their
membership in a group – a family, nation, religion, class,
community, or state. Though human rights were codified in
the twentieth century, human rights values are rooted in
religious teachings, traditional values, and wisdom
literature of most cultures. Most societies have traditions,
whether in oral or written, that address questions of
people’s duties, rights and responsibilities. For example,
the Bible, the Koran, the Hindu Vedas, the Babylonian
code of Hammurabi, and the Analects of Confucius are
five of the oldest written sources, which served as sources
of standards of proper behavior (morally and socially
acceptable), as systems of justice and ways of ensuring the
health and well-being of their societies.
Many charters and bills asserting individual rights had also

been enacted long before the twentieth century. Some
example of such written documents (precursors to today’s
human rights documents) is the charter of Magna Carta
(1215), the English Bill of rights (1689), the French
Declaration on the rights of man and citizen (1789), and
the US constitution and Bill of rights (1791).
The contemporary idea of human rights, however,
emerged stronger after and necessitated by the horrible
experiences of the World War II. The extermination by
Nazi Germany of over six million Jews, Sinti and Romani
(Gypsies), homosexuals and persons with disabilities
horrified the world. After the war, trials Nazi officials from
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the defeated countries were held in Nuremberg and Tokyo,

which resulted in their punishment for committing war
crimes, crimes against peace and crimes against humanity.
Subsequently, Governments committed themselves to
establishing the United Nations, with the primary goal of
promoting international peace and preventing conflict.
There was a common desire then to ensure that never again
would anyone be unjustly denied life, freedom, food,
shelter and nationality. The global call for human rights
standards to protect citizens from abuses by their
governments, standards against which nations could be
held accountable for the treatment of those living within
their borders eventually led to the emergence of the United
Nations Charter.
Adopted by 50 of the 51 original member countries on 26
June 1945 and entered in to force on 24 October 1945 in
San Francisco (U.S.A), the United Nations charter is an
initial document that forms and establishes the
international organization called the United Nations, and
setting forth its goals, functions and responsibilities. The
charter states that one of the aims of the UN is to achieve
international co-operation in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian
character and in promoting and encouraging respect for
human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without
distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
The goals of the UN stated in Article 1 of the charter are of
a general nature. For those goals to be achieved, specific
human rights and freedoms needed to be defined first.
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Then laws and procedures had to be drawn up that would

promote and protect those rights and freedoms. For these
purposes, the UN commission on Human Rights was
established and charged with creating an international Bill
of human rights. The international Bill of human rights
consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR), The International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR), and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was
adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations,
which consisted of 56 member countries including
Ethiopia, on December 10, 1948. The UDHR, the first
international human rights instrument, serves to define the
basic human rights and freedoms to which all individuals
are entitled. It is the most widely accepted statement of
human rights in the world, a statement of principles to base
a new world order so that all the death, destruction and
sufferings that took place in the two world wars would
never happen again. The core idea of the UDHR is the
inherent value of every human being.
The UDHR sets out a list of basic rights for everyone in the
world whatever is his/her race, color, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, class or other status. It states that governments have
promised to uphold certain rights, not only for their own
citizens, but also for people in other countries. In other

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words, national borders are not barriers to help others

achieve their rights.
A declaration is not a legally binding document. For the
rights defined in a declaration to have full legal force, they
must be written into documents called conventions (also
referred to as treaties or covenants), which set international
norms and standards. A treaty is an agreement by states to
be bound by particular rules and could be designated as a
covenant, charter, protocol, convention, accord or
agreement. Treaties are legally binding on those parties to
the treaty or on those who ratified them. When a
government signs a convention, it becomes legally bound
to uphold the standards incorporated in the convention.
The UDHR which is generally considered as a common
standard of achievement for all people and all nations has
substantially influenced the modern world. Its principles
have been incorporated into the constitutions of most of the
more than 185 nations now in the UN. With the goal of
establishing mechanisms for enforcing the UDHER, the
UN Commission on Human Rights drafted two treaties in
1966; the international covenant on Civil and political
rights (ICCPR), and the international covenant on
Economic, social and cultural rights (ICESCR), which
were ratified by over 130 nations as of 1997. For political
and procedural reasons, the rights stated in the UDHR were
divided and codified into these two separate covenants,
each addressing different categories of rights. Together
with the UDHR, they are commonly referred to as the
international Bill of Human Rights.

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The International Covenant on Civil and political

Rights
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR) reiterates some of the rights specified in the
UDHR. It articulates the specific, liberty-oriented rights
that a state may not take from its citizens, such as freedom
of expression, freedom of religion, freedom of movement,
and the rights to life and liberty. These include the rights to
self determination, being free from discrimination, equality
of men and women in the enjoyment of civil and political
rights, and the rights to equality before the law.
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR) addresses those provisions in
the UDHR that define an individual’s rights to basic
necessities, such as food, housing, education and health
care, which a state should provide for its citizens in so far
as it is able. Some of these include: - the inherent dignity
of the human person, equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family being the foundation of
freedom, justice and peace in the world, the right to self
determination, the right to use and dispose of natural
wealth and resources, men and women being equally
entitled to the enjoyment of all economic, social and
cultural rights.
Both of the two covenants (ICCPR and ICESCR)
emphasize the extension of rights to all persons and
prohibit discrimination. These and other treaties are
binding laws in those countries, including Ethiopia, that
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have ratified them. These countries have agreed to abide by

the provisions, to change national laws to conform to the
conventions, and to report on their progress in doing so.
Even during war and conflicts, states are required to
observe all international humanitarian laws and the
minimum standards set in the International Bill of Human
rights in other treaties.
Subsequent Human Rights Documents
In addition to the covenants in the international Bill of
Human rights, the United Nations has adopted more than
20 principal treaties further elaborating human rights.
These include conventions to prevent and prohibit specific
abuses like torture and genocide and to protect especially
vulnerable populations, such as refugees (Convention
Relating to the status of Refugees 1951), women
(Convention on the Elimination of All forms of
Discrimination against women 1979), and children
(Convention on the rights of the Child 1989).
In Europe, the Americas, and Africa, regional documents
for the protection and promotion of human rights extend
the international Bill of human rights. For example,
African states enacted their own character, the African
charter on Human and People’s rights (1981), and Muslim
states have created the Cairo Declaration on Human rights
in Islam (1990). The dramatic changes in Eastern Europe,
Africa, and Latin America since 1989 have powerfully
demonstrated a surge in demand for respect of human
rights.
The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights

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The African charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights

contains most of the rights in the UDHR, and ICCPR. It
also includes the rights to equality of all peoples and the
duites of individuals, such as respect for the family and
individuals, protecting the family and the country. Almost
all of the rights provided in the UDHR are also enumerated
in constitutions of many African countries, such as
Ethiopia, South Africa, and Uganda.
Despite the ratification of most international and regional
treaties, the state of human rights protection is bad in most
African countries.. Violations of rights to liberty, security
and freedom are rampant. The rights to property, the right
to speedy and fair trial, the right to privacy, the right to free
expression, the right to work, the right to education and
health services are often violated. Some prisoners are
tortured or ill treated; discrimination and domestic violence
also prevail. The major categories of causes for the
violation of rights and abuses include:- poverty, bad
governance, monopoly of power by certain a groups, ethnic
and religious diversity, misunderstandings, ignorance of
rights and responsibilities, corruption, and mal-distribution
of resources (political and administrative positions, land,
money).
Some of the conditions often considered as constituting
violation of human rights by the African states are the
following:-
 Failing to take steps stated in the constitution and or
(required) in international and regional instruments.
 Failing to remove obstacles to the fulfillment of
rights.
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 Willfully failing to meet generally accepted

international minimum standards for the treatment of
people.
 Applying limitations to the rights recognized in
various human rights documents.
 Deliberately retarding or halting the progressive
realization of the rights.
 The government itself committing various violations
of rights.
 Failing to protect the right of others from violation by
community members, organizations, employers or others.
The task of promoting and protecting human rights and
thereby preventing human rights violations in Africa, like
anywhere else, is a formidable challenge. Generally
speaking, education is considered as the basic and crucial
tool for the promotion and protection of human rights and
fundamental freedoms. Hence, Education must be directed
toward the strengthening of the respect for human rights;
the full development of human personality and the sense of
its dignity; the promotion of understanding; tolerance,
gender equality, and friendship among all nations,
indigenous people, racial, ethnic, and religious groups the
enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free
society.
Some Reflections on the Universality/Relativity of

Human rights
Some debates exist regarding the universality or relativity
of the international human rights standards and the
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instruments ratified by most countries of the world. With

the growing concerns for human rights in the international
community and the development of international law in the
field, many people have regarded that human rights are
universal in nature and the same for all people regardless
of their race, language, culture or country of origin.
However, in recent decades especially among the Asian
countries such as China and Singapore, it has been argued
that human rights are relative rather than universal, and
that the traditional concept of human rights which places
emphasis on political and civil rights must be adapted to
such emerging concepts as the right to development. These
scholars argue that the human rights standards are based on
western (American and European) cultures, rather than on
universal values, and thus are not fully applicable to
countries in other continents, such as Africa and Asia.
The controversy over the universality and relativity of
human rights seems to have developed into a contention
between the west and the East. While many Western
nations support the former notion, many Asian countries
argue for the latter. However, neither of the two arguments
seems flawless and/or pointless.
The Universality of Human rights

Arguments for and by proponents of the universality of
human rights are mainly based on at least one major
premise; that human rights are inherent in human beings
and human values, and therefore are universal in nature.
Accordingly, the concept of human rights is made up of
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various intrinsic human values that are interrelated and

interdependent. These values need to be looked at in a
holistic manner so as to have a complete understanding of
their meaning and their intended end result—the well-
being of human society. A large number of advocates of
human rights regard economic equity, quality of
opportunity, democratic participation, and freedom of
person, sustaining and sustainable environment,
responsibility and accountability as forming the central
values of human rights. Thus, it is not surprising that these
values appear as a priority at the end of the twentieth
century.
Human rights are in principle based on the philosophy of
humanism. Humanism is a broad category of ethical
philosophy that affirms the dignity and worth of all people,
based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal
to universal human qualities- particularly rationality or the
ability to reasoning. Humanism entails a commitment to
the search for truth and morality through human means in
support of human interests and rights. Humanists endorse
universal morality based on the commonality of the human
condition, suggesting that solutions to human social and
cultural problems cannot be localized or limited to a
certain country or people.
The Relativity of Human Rights
Proponents of the relativity theory of human rights argue
that from the empirical study of human history, as well as
the contemporary world, human rights are relative as they
are not held and guaranteed in all places and at all times.
This is in line with modern western view that there are no
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absolutes, that everything is relative. It was argued that

human rights are relative because human beings are
constrained within limit of their own existence, which
could be in terms of culture, religion, economy, ethnicity,
class and so on. These values must be respected and it is
not permissible to impose universal values upon them. The
core human values will be universal in nature but their
development into practical principles for guidance of
individual and collective life would necessarily be culture
specific.
The Changing Concept
Though the theoretical conflicts between a universal and
relativist approach to human rights remain unresolved, the
former has become codified in international agreements,
and seems to have won wider support. The latest consensus
among the UN member states on the universality of human
rights values, within the context of cultural diversity, was
expressed in the 1993 Vienna Declaration on Human
rights. Article 5 of the Declaration states all human rights
are universal, indivisible, interdependent, and interrelated.
The international community must treat human rights
globally in a fair and equal manner, on the same footing
and with the same emphasis. While the significance of
national and regional particularities and various historical,
cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind,
it is the duty of states, regardless of their political,
economic and cultural systems,
5.7. The case in Ethiopia

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Introduction
The modern Ethiopian state emerged at the second half

of the 19th century with the ascension of Tewodros
(1855-1868). This marks the emergence of the country
out of two centuries of decline and endless quarrel
between provisional rulers. Tewodros initiated the
policies of modernization and centralization. Almost all
of his successors followed these policies, albeit with
different levels of enthusiasm and passion. In this lesson
we will give a particular emphasis on the case of
Ethiopia. In this manner, you will assess the
democratization process in successive regimes.
5.7.1 Democracy and Good Governance in Ethiopia
Emperor Haile Selassie dominated much of the 20 th

century history of the country. Since the beginning of the
1960s, the imperial government began to face opposition
from increasingly radicalized students who rallied behind
‘land to the tiller’, ‘the nationalities question’ and armed
insurgency in Eritrea. The 1970s saw many changes that
would shape the history and politics of contemporary
Ethiopia. In 1974, revolutionary upheavals shocked the
country. The imperial regime, whose structures failed to
handle the increasing demands for change coming from
the various corners of the country, was overthrown by a
popular revolution in September 1974. This meant the
end for the monarchy in Ethiopia. State power was

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assumed by a military committee which was inspired by

Marxism-Leninism.
The new rulers established a 'People's Democratic

Republic of Ethiopia'. Although the military committee
took some radical social measures, it did not offer
satisfactory solutions to the problems which had
accelerated the downfall of Haile Selassie. Moreover,
some of these problems were even reinforced by the
actions of the military. Therefore, from the beginning of
its time in power, the military regime had to deal with
the actions of armed resistance movements. After a long
civil war, the regime was finally defeated in May 1991.
The most striking reform undertaken by the new power

holders - the former resistance movements laid down the
transformation of the unitary state into a federal state.
Thus, the EPRDF that assumed power in May 1991 after

its protracted 17 year armed insurgency undertaken the
reconstruction of the Ethiopian state. The July 1991
Peace and Democracy Conference, convened by the
ERPDF brought together 25 political organizations. This
conference adopted a Transitional Charter that
incorporated the 1948 United Nations Declaration on
Human Rights (UDHR); promised multiparty democracy,
freedom of association and speech; and incorporated the
right of ethnic self-determination up to and including
secession.

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Ethiopia has embarked upon what it claims to be a novel

experiment in `ethnic federalism'. The ruling Ethiopian
Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front has asserted
that it is intent on forthrightly addressing the claims of
ethnic groups in the country of historic discrimination
and inequality, and to build a multi-ethnic democracy.
Throughout its modern history, Ethiopia has been

characterized by ethnic tensions. Until, 1991, however,
successive regimes either tried to suppress the unique
cultural identities of more than eighty distinct ethno-
linguistic groups and, at the same time, to assimilate
them into the dominant culture.
On coming to power, the EPRDF decided not to suppress

the national aspirations of Ethiopia's grieving ethnic
groups but, instead, to allow them the full expression of
their languages and cultures. Moreover, within less than
two years, it decided that the country would be
administratively and politically reorganized, creating
what are largely (though not exclusively) ethnically
based national/regional governments or states.
This approach was seen as the best way to demonstrate

that the regime was committed to social equity and
democracy. Democratic principles were eventually
enshrined in a well crafted national Constitution. In
addition to the institution of a constitution that was
intensely democratic, the TGE introduced public policies

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designed to devolve administrative authority from the

center to the states.
In such away, the EPRDF committed itself to build

multi-party democracy and economic reconstruction.
This was significant in that, until that time, Ethiopia had
never had pluralist democracy. Optimistically, therefore,
Ethiopians currently enjoy greater political freedoms than
at any point in their state’s long history. To appreciate
the present Ethiopian political development look at the
human rights enshrined in the FDRE constitution chapter
three thoroughly. Bellow you will see some of the
democratic rights and their scopes.
Freedom of Thought, Opinion and Expression

(ART.29):- This article contains seven sub articles, which
explain the main article in detail. This article gives
everyone to hold any kind of opinion without
interference. The exercise of these rights could be limited
for the sake of higher goods such as the well being of the
youth, and honor and reputation of individuals. In
addition any propaganda for war and public expressions
aimed at injuring human dignity is prohibited by the
constitution.
The Right to Assembly, Demonstration and Petition

(Art. 30):- Everyone has the right to assemble and
demonstrate together with others peacefully and unarmed
to present petition. Once again the enjoyment of these
rights is subject to legal restrictions. In the interest of
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public morality, peace and democratic rights, concerned

authorities could legally prescribe the time, place and
route of public meetings and demonstrations.
Freedom of Association (Art. 31):- Every person is

given with the right to form association for any cause or
purpose. Citizens of similar interest have the right to join
together and form an association. As a result, political
parties, pressure groups, professional associations,
economic, social or cultural groupings etc could be
established in accordance with this right of citizens.
Freedom of Movement (Art. 32):- Ethiopian citizens as

well as legal residents in Ethiopia have the right to freely
move in every corner of the country and to choose their
own area of residence. Citizens have also the right to
move even out of the country and come back at any point
of time.
The Rights of Women (Art. 35):-Traditionally,

irrespective of the immense contribution of women,
women were not equal with men. Women were
considered as men are subordinate simply to satisfy men's
wish and desire. Furthermore, in the eyes the law, women
were considered as second-class citizens, who could not
stand by themselves and as persons to be administered by
father', husbands or sons. By granting equal rights with
men, the constitution tried to redress some of these
irrational acts and believes at the level of marriage and
family. However, prejudices on women are not limited to
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marriage only. Irrational beliefs and wrongdoings on

women manifest themselves in every walk of life. The
rights of women as mentioned by the constitution are:
 Women have equal rights with men in the

enjoyment all the democratic and human rights.
 Taking in to account the historical legacy of
discrimination and inequality, women are entitled
with affirmative measures.
 Maternity leave with full pay before and after they
give birth,
 The right to possess, administer, control, use and
transfer private property. Particularly women are
given equal right with men for using, transferring
and administration of land.
 The right to full consultation in the formulation
and execution of national development policies,
particularly those policies affecting the lives of
women, and
 Women are also given with the right to education,
employment, promotion, and equal pay for equal
work with men etc.
The Right to Elect and be Elected (Art. 38):- Election

is a critical component of a democratic political system.
The sovereignty of people in a democracy is ensured
through the ballot box. Every Ethiopian citizen, with out
any discrimination, is given with the right to participate in
public affaires, and on the attainment of 18 years of age to
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elect and 21 years of age to be elected. There is also other

restriction in accordance with the law.
Right of Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (Art. 39):-

Nations, Nationalities and peoples according to the
constitution refers to the group of people who share
common language, culture, history etc. Nations,
Nationalities in Ethiopia are given Un-conditional right to
self-determination including the right to secession. Every
nation, nationality and people in Ethiopia is given the
right to speak, write and develop its own language and to
maintain and develop its culture. Furthermore, the right to
full measure of self-government and to establish
governmental organs in the territory they inhabit is
another right given to nations, nationalities and peoples of
Ethiopia.

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Chapter 6
International Relations
6.1. Meaning and Scope of International Relations
There is no single and clear cut definition to international

relations. Different scholars define it differently. Below
are some of the definitions given to International
Relations.
Hoffman : International Relations is “ a discipline
concerned with the factors and activity which
affect the external policies and power of the
basic units into which the world is divided.”
Frankel: “:- - - a discipline [which is] a combination of
studies of the foreign affairs of the various
countries and of international history. It also
includes the study of international society as a
whole and its institutions and processes.”
In simple terms, International Relations can be defined
as the study and practice of all forms of relations
among the world’s nations, particularly their
governments. These relations are not confined to politics,
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but they also include economic, social, cultural and other

forms of relations. Moreover, international relations also
refer to contacts besides relation among governments.
Hence it includes interactions between nongovernmental
groups like multinational corporations (companies that
operate in more than one country), individuals, and
international organizations such as the United Nations
(UN) or Red Cross.
Actors in the International System
Relations between states have various goals and results.

These diverse and complex relationships are influenced
by various elements which include economic, political,
and cultural and amongst others. These relations are
regulated by the primary participants in the international
system. These are:
 States
 Intergovernmental organizations
 Non-governmental organizations
 Individuals with influential personalities
States:
 The state is the central actor in IR.
 States whether large/small, democratic/totalitarian
interact among themselves for various reasons. It is
through the activities of states in the International
System that the world well functions and go orderly.

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 The diffusion of power among states is

asymmetrical and the way in which power is
distributed among them are key variable in
determining the structure of their relationship. In
IR the most powerful actors dominate in establishing
rules and regulations of the international system.
Non-state Actors
 IGOs are international institutions founded by
states for different purposes. They have states as
their members.
 They are organized to accomplish various goals
of economic and political nature. E.g IMF and
WB:- have economic goals, AU and Un:- are
founded for political reasons
 IGOs are growing rapidly both in terms of no
and activity. Through IGOs states can organize
activities that they cannot easily accomplish
alone.
Functions of IGOs
 To maintain international peace and security and
to that end to take effective collective measures for
the prevention and removal of threats to the world
peace
 To develop friendly relations among nations based
on respect for the principle of equal rights
 To achieve international co-operation in solving
international problems of an economic, social,

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cultural and humanitarian character and

encouraging respect for human rights.
NGOS
 Are organized interest groups that operate
privately or in combination with others to
promote their causes.
 They provide mechanisms for individuals to
become involved both at the local and global
level and have impact on it.
 They also either individually/collectively bring
pressure on governments and policy makers
at various levels.
Individuals
Individuals with influential personal have also actively

participated in the affairs of the world. Example: The
Catholic Pope, the late Mandela etc
Despite all the above mentioned actors of the international
system and their influences the principal concern of
International Relations is on the interactions between
states.
6.2. Theoretical Approaches to the study of

International Relations
International Relations and International Politics are

much related concepts. Hence, often times many use
them interchangeably. However, these concepts are not
identical. International Politics is a narrower concept
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and its basic concern is power politics. International

Relations is a wider concept because it includes the
totality of all forms of relations (economic, social,
cultural, etc.) apart from politics. Scholars have developed
several approaches to the study of international relations.
These approaches include: realism, neo-realism,
idealism/liberalism, neo-liberalism, and Marxism. In
the subsequent discussion you will briefly look at each
approach.
.
1. Realsim
Realism/Political realism is a classical school that

influences the idea of scholars for more than two
millennia. The works of Thucydides, Nicholo
Machiavelli to Hans Morgenthau are on the base of
realism principle. The basic principles of realism are;
 Realist considers human nature is basically selfish

and power seeking egoist/lust for power - The
argument arises from a statement of states’ decision
is highly influenced by individuals, because state
men are influential in an affair of states.
 Realism considers the struggle for power as the
central point of international relations. It tries to
describe politics rationally, not on the basis of
morality.
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 It argues that states are self-interested, power

seeking rational actors, which seek to maximize
their national interest, security and chance of
survival.
 It argues relation among states and world politics
is highly competitive. Realists believe that
cooperation b/n states is a way of maximizing
their security.
 They consider states as the most
important/dominant actors in the international
system.
 The organizing principle of international system is
anarchy and only the fittest can survive.
 It emphasizes that all nation states are motivated by
national interest of their states.
 Thus, power is the only means to get security and
promote national interest.
 The strategy of diplomacy according to realism
principle is secret diplomacy (closed diplomacy).
Therefore, primary interests of states in the
international system could be promoted if and only if
states could build power at least that make them
capable of defending their interest; most importantly
the security of the state. Others like international
norm, international law and international institution
have got nothing to do in the protection of a state’s
interest or security.
Central tenets of realism

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Power, national interest, security, anarchy,

statism/state –centric, secret diplomacy
2. Idealsim
Is a school most importantly advocated after the end of
First World War. It is basically established from the
critics against classical Realism. The basic ideas of this
school are;
 Idealism considers human nature as essentially

good and the goodness of human nature will help
to prevail a new world order marked by the
absence of war, inequality and tyranny.
 Idealist believes that man was innately unselfish
and generally sought the welfare of others as well
as himself. They believed in the principle of ‘peace
through law’.
 States relation have cooperative orientation by in
large than competitiveness.
 States motive in the international system should
be common interest and states do have at least
some certain common interest that they want to
promote.
 The international system is not anarchy, because
there were international norms that regulate
states interaction in the international system; later
on international principles, laws and international
organizations have developed to meet the growing
demand.

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 If states able to understand the means of getting

security and achieving interests is only through
fostering cooperation and developments of
international principles and organizations then
war could be averted
 Therefore, in order to achieve peace and security
and succeed in the pursuit of their goals the
development of international norm, international
law and international institutions are important.
The promotion of force or military power could
result for war and destruction but not peace and
prosperity. The later could be achieved only as the
result of cooperation through institutional
developments
 They argue that war could be prevented by the
form of international organizations, which could
act against military aggressors.
 Thus, Idealism presents a picture of international
system free from power politics, violence and
immorality.
 They advocate open diplomacy instead of secret
diplomacy
Central tenets of idealism
Common interest, Cooperation, interdependency,
collective security, international institutions, International
law and norms, open diplomacy
Commonality between the two classical theories is that of

human nature. However, on the contrary Classical
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Idealists believed that Human nature is good, cooperative

and harmonious
.
Neo-Realism:
 is an influential theory developed after the demise of
the role of League of Nations and of course, when
the Cold War politics getting its momentum since
the mid 1950s.
 Neo-Realism basically differs from Classical Realism
on the following basic ideas;
1. rejecting the foundation of Classical Realism-Neo-
Realists argue that concentrating for the motive of
states in the international relation on human nature is
to be reductionist. To this end foreign policy of states is
not only the impact and motive of individual states’
men, though it is difficult to absolutely ignore the roles of
individuals in the process. But the major factor that do
have decisive impact on the foreign policy and states
motive in the international interaction, according to this
theory is the power structure or power distribution
nature of the international system.
2. Moreover, they have advanced the idea of classical
theory by accepting the possibility of having international
cooperation most importantly among international
communities to promote common interests on some
aspects of international interaction other than security.
3. For security, according to this principle no one should
trust other than power.
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4. None the less, as their predecessors they do have a firm

believe that only states are the principal actors in the
international scene. Others might play very minor
roles. In their explanation states should have to aware
about the power structure to get security; because
establishing alliance is vital for two basic reasons;
1. For getting security to themselves
2. For keeping the power balance of the world
In the view of neo-realists, disequilibrium of world
power structure makes international conflict and crises
inevitable. Therefore, states should establish alliance
with hegemonic powers and maintain balance of
power. Here, it is important to define the concepts
Hegemonic powers and Balance of power.
Hegemonic powers: are powers that have an aggregate
influential powers of Military, political, Economic,
diplomatic and prestigious power. Such a state is
known as hegemonic power or pole of world power
structures. Other states will form alliance with
hegemonic power to get security.
Balance of power: is to form an alliance and compete
with power to keep the power equilibrium among
poles of the world. Taking this into consideration
scholars of the field have identified the following polar
power structures in the history of the world.
1. Uni-Polar structure: when there is one hegemonic
power in the world and others to be subordinated
virtually. Historically Roman Empire is a good
example.
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2. Bi-Polar Structure: when there are two hegemonic

powers in the world and others subordinated
virtually in their respective poles. Historically Cold
War is a good example of Bi-polar structure; and
USA for the west, USSR for the east blocks were
hegemonic powers.
3. Multi –polar structure: when there are more than
two hegemonic powers. Historically the period
before Second World War was a good example for
Multi-polar structure.
Neo-Liberalism: like neo-Realism, it start with rejecting
the classical liberal foundational idea that says, human
nature is the determination of states foreign policy to
interact in the international system. But according to
this principle, global challenges that require the
cooperation of states and communities of the world in
general are the major determinant factors such as,
proliferation of mass destructive weapons, natural
disasters, trans boundary diseases, international
terrorism, environmental crises and the like. These
challenges are the world problems in which a single state
cannot avert them alone. To this end, Neo-Liberalists
want to see international politics interconnected with
economics claiming that economic prosperity could
possible when states cooperate to foster international
trade and international economic relation. since, to
them no state is self sufficient; every state need
something from the other and peaceful interaction is
essential and peace could be achieve not through
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military power but with the development of

international norm, international institutions and
international law. Their discourse on political economic
view, neo liberal scholars are also seen as advocators of
economic interdependency. Finally, they underlined on
the need of international institutions to advocate and
advance international cooperation’s, to the
implementations and respect of international laws and
international norms and combating international
challenges.
3. Marxist view of International Relations

Marxists view of international relations is seen as an
extension of the struggle between the classes, with
wealthy countries exploiting poorer and weaker ones.
They mainly focus on imperialism i.e. the practice of
stronger nations to control or influence weaker ones.
They look at the unfair and exploitative aspects of
relationships between the world’s rich and poor states.
Marxists tend to see economic relationships as both the
cause of and potential solution to the problem of war.
Accordingly, Marxists tend to suggest that unless the
existing national and international system have been
affected/changed, it is impossible to achieve peace to
the world. To this end, their slogan for the new system
is “proletariat of the world unite” to assert
communism by overthrowing imperialism. This theory
has not been influential since the end of the Cold War

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6.3. Understanding the Basic Principles and Concepts

of International Relations and Foreign Policy
A) National Interest
National interest is a key concept in foreign policy and

international relations. It encompasses a set of particular
goals, commonly of short-term nature but it also includes
long term interests, which states are trying to realize at
a given time. National interest can be determined both
by internal and external factors. The internal factors
include: ideology of the state, personality and role of
leaders, the influence of political lobbies and parties,
customs and traditions of societies, etc. The external
factors include the roles of great powers and
international organizations, the nature of the country’s
relations with the neighboring states, etc. National
interest has two crucial purposes. Firstly, it provides
general policy direction towards the external
environment. Secondly, it serves as controlling
mechanism of choice in urgent situations. The
aforementioned purposes are usually help to maintain a
consistent foreign policy.
Categories of National Interest

National interest can be classified into the following
categories.
1. Primary Interests: are central or core interests of a

state such as preserving sovereignty and territorial
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integrity of the state. In genera it includes security

issues.
2. Secondary Interests: are crucial yet not vital as
primary interest. These include protecting citizens
who live abroad and maintaining the diplomatic
immunity.
3. Permanent Interests: are almost fixed and constant
interests which are not changing frequently kike
ensuring self- reliant economy and increasing the
prestige of a country.
4. Variable Interests: denote vital interests of a state
in times of certain conditions. Such interests can be
influenced by leaders, institutions, political parties,
etc,
5. General Interest: are common interests shared by
various states, like promoting trade, diplomatic
relations, etc.
B) Foreign Policy
Foreign policy refers to a course of action or set of
principles adopted by a nation’s government to define
its relations with other countries. A country’s foreign
policy also sets forth its positions on a wide range of
international issues. Foreign policy is taken as a
guiding document of a state of external affairs.
However, things might urge to skip from established
principles since the international system is highly
unpredictable. The foreign policy of a given state may
reflect broad national objectives or represent a
narrow and specific response to a particular situation.
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However, the basis of any state’s foreign policy is

national interest. Formulation of foreign policy starts
with identifying the state’s vital national interests.
Factors that Influence Foreign policy

A country’s foreign policy is influenced by many
variables. These factors can be broadly categorized in to:
internal and external factors.
The internal factors include
a)Geographic-strategic factors: these include
locations, natural resources, size, climate,
topography, soil, climate, etc.
b)Historical traditions: from its history a state
inherits a style and culture that influence its course
of action taken in its external relations.
c) National capacity: includes military power, level of
technology, economic development, population, etc.
d)Public opinion: refers to beliefs, views, and
attitudes of the people towards any political and
economic institutions.
The external factors include:
a) International organizations: Today various
governmental and nongovernmental organizations
play an important role in foreign policy. The success
of the state’s foreign policy depends on how much it
accommodates the main principles of world
organizations and international law.
b)World public opinion: can also exert strong pressure
over the states’ foreign policy

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c) Relations with friendly states: while formulating

foreign policy, policy makers usually take into
consideration the interests of friendly states.
d)The nature of neighboring states and major
power.
Apart from the aforementioned internal and external
factors policy makers have also their own role in
foreign policy. Their impression, attitude, personality,
etc, have their own role in shaping the nature of the
state’s foreign policy.
Instruments of Foreign Policy

A state can achieve its foreign policy goals in several
ways. These include:
 Diplomacy
 Economic instruments (today it is known as
economic diplomacy)
 Propaganda and subversion
 Terrorism
 War
Diplomacy: is a means of conducting negotiations

between nations. It refers to practices and institutions
by which nations conduct their relations with one
another. As Quincy Wright puts it “it is the art of
negotiation in order to achieve the maximum of group
objectives with a minimum cost within a system of
politics in which war is a possibility.”
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Economic Instruments: refer to economic capacity or

techniques used to realize foreign policy goals. They are
non-violent mechanisms which can be applied for good
or bad purposes. These instruments include: foreign aid,
loans and grants, sanctions, control of enemy assets,
etc.
Propaganda and Subversion: are indirect attempts in
changing the political conditions in the target nations
in which the leaders of these nations will be obliged to
accept the intended policies.
Terrorism: It is planned and systematic uses of violence

against civilians to realize political goals. Nowadays
this action is used by political groups and even by states
that are unable to achieve their objectives through
diplomacy and conventional military force.
War or use of force: When all non-violent ways of

achieving foreign policy objectives fail, states may
resort to use force. Though it is not a good choice, the
history of mankind is full of the history of wars.
6.4. Functions of Diplomacy

Diplomacy has several useful functions. These functions
focus on the diplomacy corps by an ambassador. Some of
the basic functions of diplomacy include the following:
1) Representing State Interests
Ambassadors act as the spokesperson for their
governments and serve as channels of communication
between the countries that send them and the host states.
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As a conduit of these channels of communications, the

first concern of ambassadors is always their own
government interests.
2) Symbolic Representation
Usually, the exchange of ambassadors between two
countries accomplishes their formal recognition of each
other. Not only the diplomat’s presence is important but
the diplomat’s conduct can be a significant living symbol.
The ambassador becomes the personification of his or her
own country. The diplomat’s skill, professionalism,
charm, and understanding of the host country’s customs
may have as much impact as the official communications
the diplomat transacts. The thoughtful diplomat can
promote a positive image by dutifully attending numerous
state functions of the host, making many speeches to
private groups, and taking part in civic activities such as
charities.
3) Obtaining Information
Every state that is wisely led pays attention to what
happening in its environment, such as the military
activities of neighbors or major global economic trends
that could affect its domestic economy. If a state’s
government is going to react intelligently to new
challenges or take advantage of an opportunity, it must
have information to formulate and conduct and
appropriate policy. States’ capabilities for obtaining
information vary considerably, but they can include spies’
activities, information from globally based news services,
and reports from other governments. Much of the
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information that leaders of states trust flows back to them

from around the world via the diplomatic corps of the
various states. Diplomats monitor situations on a long –
term basis so they can anticipate developments and give
timely warnings to their countries.
Most reports are periodic and routine; but they can still be
useful. For instance, the US has published its country
reports on Human Rights annually for many years. These
reports derive from information supplied by all U.S
embassies. These reports not only describe the human
rights conducts of almost every country in the world, but,
according to congressional law, also provide a basis for
distributing American foreign aid.
4) Promoting and protecting the interests of
Nationals
The Diplomatic corps of a given state will try to serve the
interests of fellow nationals in two ways: promoting the
general interests of nationals abroad and protecting
individual citizens while they are in other countries.
Diplomats are formally busy carrying on activities such as
seeking preferential tariffs, arranging flights for their
countries’ aircraft, and negotiating trade contracts that
will benefit companies from the home states. Diplomats
also aid individual nationals in foreign countries when the
latter suffer harm to their persons, lives, and property and
when they break the local laws.
5) Policy making by Diplomats
Traditionally, the diplomat is the official channel of
communications between the sending and host states. At
a minimum, the diplomat can pass on information and
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receive instructions, but the diplomat also can play a role

in policy making. Although modern communications and
travel have made possible more policy directives from the
home capitals, diplomats on the scene are still important
because of their personal impressions about leaders and
policy trends in host capitals. Diplomats at least set the
stage for decisions with a backlog of advice and reports.
The individual diplomat’s experience and wisdom may
lead to significant influence in the home capitals in some
cases.
In summary, diplomats are useful in several ways. Their
presence in a host’s capital signifies that the sending
country legally recognizes the government of the host
state, and ambassadors can present the interests and
concerns of their states to their hosts. Diplomats are also
able to help fallow nationals abroad who are in trouble
and to obtain a great deal of information about the host
states. In an age of modern communication ambassadors
are still important in the policy making hierarchy because
of impressions they derive from personal interaction with
their hosts’ leaders.
6.5. An Overview of Ethiopia’s Foreign Policy and

Relations

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Ethiopia’s foreign policy can be traced back to the earlier

period. Being one of the oldest states of the world Ethiopia
has maintained an old age relations with other countries of
the world since time immemorial. The relation had been
both peaceful and hostile. During the ancient and medieval
periods Ethiopia maintained relations with various
countries, particularly with Egypt, Meroe(Sudan), Palestine,
South Arabia, China, India, etc,.
In the modern period the country witnessed tense and

unprecedented relations with European countries. This
was partly the result of the general European colonial
interest in the continent. Nevertheless through out the
long history of the country there was no defined foreign
policy. The foreign policy of the country has begun to
assume a more or less defined form in the early 1960s,
while Ethiopia was championing the cause of African
independence and solidarity. However, this cannot be
confidently stated that the country had a clear foreign
policy based on objective assessment of its national
interests. The foreign policy of the Derg was also a one-
sided policy based on the alignment of the regime with
the socialist camp. The military regime’s hostile approach
toward the West was detrimental to the long national
objectives of the country. The Derg gained little in terms
of national benefits from its association with the USSR
and the Eastern camp. The EPRDF regime has clearly
formulated a definite foreign policy. This policy has been
a subject of intense national deliberation at various levels.
In contrast to the previous regimes the policy has not been
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based on the sole criteria of ideology. It attempts to

identify the long and short term national benefits of the
country and its role in the regional, continental, and
international levels. As a continuation of the past, the
country has also maintained being the champion of
African cause and solidarity.
6.6. Contemporary Global Issues

1. Globalization
The term globalization is a comprehensive term which
denotes the emergence of a global society in which
economic, political, environmental, and cultural events in
one part of the world quickly come to have significance for
people in other parts of the world. Globalization is the result
of advances in communication, transportation, and
information technologies. It describes the growing
economic, political, technological, and cultural linkages that
connect individuals, communities, businesses, and
governments around the world.
Although most people continue to live as citizens of a
single nation, they are culturally, materially, and
psychologically engaged with the lives of people in other
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countries as never before. Distant events often have an

immediate and significant impact, blurring the boundaries
of our personal worlds. Items common to our everyday
lives—such as the clothes we wear, the food we eat, and
the cars we drive—are the products of globalization.
Globalization has both negative and positive aspects.
Among the negative aspects are the rapid spread of
diseases, illicit drugs, crime, terrorism, and uncontrolled
migration. Among globalization’s benefits are a sharing
of basic knowledge, technology, investments, resources,
and ethical values.
Most experts attribute globalization to improvements in
communication, transportation, and information
technologies. Advances in communication and
information technologies have helped slash the cost of
processing business orders by well over 90 percent. Vast
amounts of information can be processed, shared, and
stored on a disk or a computer chip, and the cost is
continually declining. People can be almost anywhere and
remain in instant communication with their employers,
customers, or families 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, or
24/7 as it has come to be known. The Internet, the cell
phone, and the fax machine permit instantaneous
communication. The World Wide Web and computers
that store vast amounts of data allow instant access to
information exceeding that of any library.
Improvements in transportation are also part of
globalization. The world becomes smaller due to next-day
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delivery by jet airplane. Even slow, oceangoing vessels

have streamlined transportation and lowered costs due to
innovations such as containerized shipping.
Advances in information technologies have also lowered
business costs.
Not only do goods, money, and information move great
distances quickly, but also more people are moving great
distances as well. Migration, both legal and illegal, is a
major feature of this era of globalization. Remittances
(money sent home by workers to their home countries)
have become an important source of income for many
countries.
Very few people, groups, or governments oppose
globalization in its entirety. Instead, critics of
globalization believe aspects of the way globalization
operates should be changed. The debate over
globalization is about what the best rules are for
governing the global economy so that its advantages can
grow while its problems can be solved.
On one side of this debate are those who stress the
benefits of removing barriers to international trade and
investment, allowing capital to be allocated more
efficiently and giving consumers greater freedom of
choice. With free-market globalization, investment funds
can move unimpeded from where they are plentiful (the
rich countries) to where they are most needed (the
developing countries). Consumers can benefit from
cheaper products because reduced tariffs make goods
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produced at low cost from faraway places cheaper to buy.

Producers of goods gain by selling to a wider market.
More competition keeps sellers on their toes and allows
ideas and new technology to spread and benefit others.
On the other side of the debate are critics who see
neoliberal policies as producing greater poverty,
inequality, social conflict, cultural destruction, and
environmental damage. They say that the most developed
nations—the United States, Germany, and Japan—
succeeded not because of free trade but because of
protectionism and subsidies. They argue that the more
recently successful economies of South Korea, Taiwan,
and China all had strong state-led development strategies
that did not follow neoliberalism. These critics think that
government encouragement of “infant industries”—that
is, industries that are just beginning to develop—enable a
country to become internationally competitive.
Furthermore, those who criticize the Washington
Consensus suggest that the inflow and outflow of money
from speculative investors must be limited to prevent
bubbles. These bubbles are characterized by the rapid
inflow of foreign funds that bid up domestic stock
markets and property values. When the economy cannot
sustain such expectations, the bubbles burst as investors
panic and pull their money out of the country. These
bubbles have happened repeatedly as liberalization has
allowed speculation of this sort to get out of hand, such as
in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand in 1997 and since
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then in Argentina, Russia, and Turkey. According to

critics, a strong active government is needed to assure
stability and economic development.
Protests by what is called the anti-globalization
movement are seldom directed against globalization itself
but rather against abuses that harm the rights of workers
and the environment. The question raised by
nongovernmental organizations and protesters at WTO
and IMF gatherings is whether globalization will result in
a rise of living standards or a race to the bottom as
competition takes the form of lowering living standards
and undermining environmental regulation. One of the
key problems of the 21st century will be determining to
what extent markets should be regulated to promote fair
competition, honest dealings, and fair distribution of
public goods on a global scale.
2.Terrorism
Terrorism is commonly understood to refer to acts of
violence that target civilians in the pursuit of political or
ideological aims. Although the international community
has yet to adopt a comprehensive definition of terrorism,
in 1994, the General Assembly’s Declaration on Measures
to Eliminate International Terrorism, in its resolution
49/60, stated that terrorism includes “criminal acts
intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the
general public, a group of persons or particular persons
for political purposes” and that such acts “are in any
circumstances unjustifiable, whatever the considerations
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of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic,

religious or other nature that may be invoked to justify
them.” Terrorism has occurred throughout history for a
variety of reasons. Its causes can be historical, cultural,
political, social, psychological, economic, or religious—
or any combination of these. Some countries have proven
to be particularly susceptible to terrorism at certain times,
as Italy and West Germany were during the 1970s.
In general, democratic countries have provided more
fertile ground for terrorism because of the open nature of
their societies. In such societies citizens have fundamental
rights, civil liberties are legally protected, and
government control and constant surveillance of its
citizens and their activities is absent. By the same token,
repressive societies, in which the government closely
monitors citizens and restricts their speech and
movement, have often provided more difficult
environments for terrorists. But even police states have
not been immune to terrorism, despite limiting civil
liberties and forbidding free speech and rights of
assembly. Examples include Russia under tsarist rule and
the Communist-ruled Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
as well as the People's Republic of China, Myanmar, and
Laos.
In broad terms the causes that have commonly compelled
people to engage in terrorism are grievances borne of
political oppression, cultural domination, economic
exploitation, ethnic discrimination, and religious
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persecution. Perceived inequities in the distribution of

wealth and political power have led some terrorists to
attempt to overthrow democratically elected governments.
To achieve a fairer society, they would replace these
governments with socialist or communist regimes. Left-
wing terrorist groups of the 1960s and 1970s with such
aims included Germany’s Baader-Meinhof Gang, Italy’s
Red Brigades, and the Weather Underground in the
United States. Other terrorists have sought to fulfill some
mission that they believe to be divinely inspired or
millennialist (related to the end of the world). The
Japanese religious cult Aum Shinrikyo, responsible for a
nerve gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995 that killed
12 people, falls into this category. Still other terrorists
have embraced comparatively more defined and
comprehensible goals such as the re-establishment of a
national homeland (for example, Basque separatists in
Spain) or the unification of a divided nation (Irish
nationalists in Northern Ireland).
Finally, some terrorists are motivated by very specific
issues, such as opposition to legalized abortion or nuclear
energy, or the championing of environmental concerns
and animal rights. They hope to pressure both the public
and its representatives in government to enact legislation
directly reflecting their particular concern. Militant
animal rights activists, for example, have used violence
against scientists and laboratory technicians in their
campaign to halt medical experimentation involving
animals. Radical environmentalists have sabotaged
Page
logging operations and the construction of power grids to

protest the spoiling of natural wilderness areas. Extremists
who oppose legalized abortion in the United States have
attacked clinics and murdered doctors and other
employees in hopes of denying women the right to
abortion.
National governments have at times aided terrorists to
further their own foreign policy goals. So-called state-
sponsored terrorism, however, falls into a different
category altogether. State-sponsored terrorism is a form of
covert (secret) warfare, a means to wage war secretly
through the use of terrorist surrogates (stand-ins) as hired
guns. The U.S. Department of State designates countries
as state sponsors of terrorism if they actively assist or aid
terrorists, and also if they harbor past terrorists or refuse
to renounce terrorism as an instrument of policy.
State sponsorship has proven invaluable to some terrorist
organizations—by supplying arms, money, and a safe
haven, among other things. In doing so, it has transformed
ordinary groups, with otherwise limited capabilities, into
more powerful and menacing opponents. State
sponsorship can also place at terrorists’ disposal the
resources of an established country’s diplomatic, military,
and intelligence services. These services improve the
training of terrorists and facilitate planning and
operations. Finally, governments have paid terrorists
handsomely for their services. They thereby turn weak
and financially impoverished groups into formidable,
Page
well-endowed terrorist organizations with an ability to

attract recruits.
Impact of Terrorism
Although most terrorist groups have failed to achieve
their long-term, strategic aims through terrorism,
terrorism has on occasion brought about significant
political changes that might otherwise have been
impossible. Moreover, despite the claims of governments
to the contrary, terrorism has sometimes also proven
successful on a short-term, tactical level: winning the
release of prisoners, wresting political concessions from
otherwise resistant governments, or ensuring that causes
and grievances that might otherwise have been ignored or
neglected were addressed.
Terrorism was used by some nationalist movements in the
anticolonial era just after World War II, when British and
French empires in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East
dissolved. Countries as diverse as Israel, Cyprus, Kenya,
and Algeria owe their independence to these movements.
Evidence of terrorist success has come more recently in
the examples of Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness in
Northern Ireland and Yasir Arafat in the Middle East.
Adams, president of the political wing of the Irish
Republican Army (IRA) in Northern Ireland, and his
deputy McGuinness both won election to the British
Parliament in 1997. Arafat, as leader of the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO), won international
Page
recognition for the PLO. Through tactical victories and

political achievements, each of their organizations
demonstrated how a series of terrorist acts can propel to
world attention long-standing causes and grievances.
At the same time, for every terrorist success, there are the
countless failures. Most terrorist groups never achieve any
of their aims—either short-term or long-term. The life
span of most modern terrorist groups underscores this
failure. According to one estimate, the life expectancy of
at least 90 percent of terrorist organizations is less than a
year, and nearly half of the organizations that make it that
far cease to exist within a decade of their founding.
Terrorism is designed to threaten the personal safety of its
target audience. It can tear apart the social fabric of a
country by destroying business and cultural life and the
mutual trust upon which society is based. Uncertainty
about where and when the next terrorist attack will occur
generates a fear that terrorism experts call “vicarious
victimization.” A common response to this fear is the
refusal to visit shopping malls; attend sporting events; go
to the theater, movies, or concerts; or travel, either abroad
or within one’s own country.
The public's perception of personal risk, however, often
does not dovetail with the observable dimensions of the
terrorist threat. Even though the United States was the
country most frequently targeted by terrorists from 1968
to 2000, fewer than 1,000 Americans were killed by
terrorists, either in the United States or abroad, during that
Page
32-year period, according to figures tabulated by the U.S.

State Department and the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Although more than three times that number was killed on
September 11, 2001, the fact remains that the perception
of the terrorist threat far outweighs the likelihood of being
the victim of a terrorist attack. Nonetheless, terrorism’s
ability to engender so acute a sense of fear and unease is a
measure of its impact on our daily life.
3. Environmental Challenges
Though the environmental challenges on human life goes
back as long as the existence of man on earth, the
response towards the problem has cropped up of late only
in the decades of 20th century. Environmental problems
led to the world's first environmental conference in 1972
in Stockholm. The most significant product of the
conference was the creation of the UN Environmental
Program UNEP, which was to act as midwife to safeguard
the global environment. Some of the major global
strategies in dealing with these problems are contained in
the multilateral environmental agreements such as ozone
depletion, global warming and desertification. The big
progress is that states have come to a recognition that they
have to act more collaboratively at the international level
in order to search for effective solutions to environmental
problems.
It should be mentioned here that the development of a

sense of shared vulnerability to environmental threats on
the part of states and the catalytic and coordinative role of
Page
United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP),

however, has faced a number of debilitative responses
from the states. The shared vulnerability is due to the fact
that the problem brought about in view of sheer
neglection to the environment by the states-whether
belonging to the Northern hemisphere or the Southern
hemisphere-has a drastic impact on all states all over the
world. Hence all states are venerable today and thereby
creating a corresponding catalytic and coordinative role to
the principle programme-UNEP. This is due to the fact
that states respond to continuing environmental
challenges based upon their national interests.
Consequently, insufficient contributions by governments
to environmental fund, insufficient authority and
legitimacy of UNEP, collective disintegration and other
factors in general have sadly produced a desperate impact
on UNEP in addressing sufficiently the continuously
deteriorating global environment.

Page

Chapter One Civics and Ethics Conceptualizing Civics and Ethics

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Civics and Ethical Education

human conduct, including related actions and values. In this

1.2 Similarities and Differences of Civics and Ethics

association of an individual into a certain cultural

1.2.2. The Issue of Rights and Obligations

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 3|Page

Morality on its part is nothing but a list of values

Both underscore the fact that the individual person is

1.2.3. The Issue of Institutional Protection

make relations and actions of individual within a community

1.2.4. The Issue of Interactive Duality

Most legal rules, restrictions and controls over the behaviors

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 5|Page

1.2.5. The relative nature of the fields

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 6|Page

ii) The relative nature of levels of Civic and Moral

strong need to see only little or no change of the statuesque

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 8|Page

Finally, the Lower class society which constitutes the

proportional size of participant citizens, politics has been

In contrast, subjects (citizens with passive civic culture) are

The worst case is, however, that of parochial civic culture in

The general lesson to be derived from the above is thus the

Moreover, a society dominated by a majority of Parochials is

awareness, self-governance, empower citizens with their

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 12 | P a g e

IX. Create capacity that help citizens understand government

III. Actively participate in the political, cultural, and

Common features of civic responsibility

conditions of the body politic through active participation of

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 15 | P a g e

temperament got its acceptance even from the anti-

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 16 | P a g e

1.5. The development of civics and ethics education in

After the collapse of the monarchical system in 1974, the

other words, political education was integrated into the

In this regard, political education as a discipline was

encourage control and domination among citizens of the

of civic and ethical education into the curriculum reflects the

Civic and Ethical Education is an interdisciplinary or

citizens with knowledge of various political theories,

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 21 | P a g e

What is being human and where is the place of human

AASTU, Interdisciplinary Directorate, Social Science Division 22 | P a g e

contributes to civic and ethical education by enabling

Geography: is the study of the natural problems of the

about the culture and the way of living of the people of a

topic take, one other-worldly and one this-

spirit-like objects. In either case, though,

human inventions, a position that has since

motivates us to be moral. We might explore

view is called psychological altruism and

about charitable donations and I am in essence

that stealing Smith’s car is wrong since this

woman’s experience as a model for moral

ethical issue, since everyone agrees that this

Issues in Applied Ethics

How should the burdens and benefits of

This being the case, studying development