molecules

Review
The New Challenge of Green Cosmetics: Natural Food
Ingredients for Cosmetic Formulations
Irene Dini * and Sonia Laneri

Departemt of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +89-81-678537

Abstract: Nowadays, much attention is paid to issues such as ecology and sustainability. Many
consumers choose “green cosmetics”, which are environmentally friendly creams, makeup, and
beauty products, hoping that they are not harmful to health and reduce pollution. Moreover, the
repeated mini-lock downs during the COVID-19 pandemic have fueled the awareness that body
beauty is linked to well-being, both external and internal. As a result, consumer preferences for
makeup have declined, while those for skincare products have increased. Nutricosmetics, which
combines the benefits derived from food supplementation with the advantages of cosmetic treatments
to improve the beauty of our body, respond to the new market demands. Food chemistry and
cosmetic chemistry come together to promote both inside and outside well-being. A nutricosmetic
optimizes the intake of nutritional microelements to meet the needs of the skin and skin appendages,
improving their conditions and delaying aging, thus helping to protect the skin from the aging action
of environmental factors. Numerous studies in the literature show a significant correlation between
the adequate intake of these supplements, improved skin quality (both aesthetic and histological),



and the acceleration of wound-healing. This review revised the main foods and bioactive molecules


used in nutricosmetic formulations, their cosmetic effects, and the analytical techniques that allow
Citation: Dini, I.; Laneri, S. The New
the dosage of the active ingredients in the food.
Challenge of Green Cosmetics:
Natural Food Ingredients for
Keywords: phytochemical analyses; food analyses; spices; condiments; seasonings; nutricosmetic
Cosmetic Formulations. Molecules
2021, 26, 3921. https://doi.org/
10.3390/molecules26133921

Academic Editor: Toshio Morikawa 1. Introduction

In 2020, the beauty and skincare sector had to reinvent itself to respond quickly to
Received: 25 May 2021 the new needs and requests of an unpredictable and attentive market. The most sig-
Accepted: 25 June 2021 nificant challenge was (and is) to find a point balance between the “natural” and the
Published: 26 June 2021 “cosmetic product’s chemistry”. Some certainties emerge regarding trends and related
sectors in this fluid context, showing positive signs of recovery. The future keywords
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral of the cosmetics sector are “sustainability” (18.9% in 2020 compared to 13.2% in 2018,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in based on the answers of the interviewed sample), “natural/organic” (10.9%), “care” (7.8%),
published maps and institutional affil- “ethics” (7.5%), “e-commerce” (7.1%), “social beauty” (7.0%), “personalization” (6.7%), and
iations.
“safety” (6.3%) [1]. A cosmetic can be considered “green” if its formulation contains active
ingredients derived from plants, such as minerals and plants, and not analogous active
ingredients chemically reproduced in the laboratory. It is better if it is produced in an
eco-sustainable way through processing methods that respect nature and plants according
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. to organic crops. It is advisable to cultivate these cosmetics at zero km or on land near
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the production laboratories or travel with sustainable means of transport to reduce the
This article is an open access article environmental impact. Not all green products are the same. It is necessary to distinguish
distributed under the terms and between natural ingredients, natural origin, and organic ingredients. Natural ingredients
conditions of the Creative Commons
are chemical substances that are unprocessed or processed by mechanical, manual, nat-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
urally derived solvent, or gravitational means, dissolution in water, heating to remove
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
water, extracted from the air by any means. Naturally derived ingredients are substances
4.0/).

Molecules 2021, 26, 3921. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26133921 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules

Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 2 of 28

from the vegetable, mineral, or animal kingdom, chemically processed, or combined with
other ingredients, excluding petroleum and fossil fuel-derived ingredients, ingredients
derived from a plant feedstock, and bio-manufactured using saponification, fermentation,
condensation, or esterification to enhance performance or make the ingredient sustainable.
According to the USDA National Organic Program (NOP) guidelines, organic ingredients
are substances obtained by mechanical, physical, or biologically based farming methods to
the fullest extent possible [2]. Well, chaos reigns over natural cosmetics in the USA and
Europe, because currently there is still no official regulation that has a precise definition on
how to apply the words “organic” and “natural” to cosmetic products. The United States
Department of Agriculture regulates “organic”. The National Organic Program (NOP),
a part of USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service, certified organic products. Therefore,
only cosmetics that contain or are made up of agricultural ingredients and can meet the
USDA/NOP organic production may be certified under the NOP regulations [2]. Four
categories can be applied to certified organic products, including certified organic cos-
metics: 100 percent organic (they are produced with 100% ingredients certified organic);
organic (they can contain up to a maximum of 5% of non-organic products, excluding water
and salt); “made with” (they are produced with least 70% ingredients certified organic,
excluding water and salt); and specific organic ingredients (they contain a combination of
organic and non-organic substances) [3]. In Europe, this market is regulated by the ISO
(International Organization for Standardization) issued ISO 16128 (November 2016) [4],
a new set of guidelines for any product on the European market that claims to be natu-
ral/organic, the E.U. Regulations EC 1223/2009 [5] and EU 655/2013 [6], which requires
that every declaration on a label must be supported by adequate and verifiable evidence.
In recent years, new trends have been created in the field of green cosmetics: nutri-
cosmetics, a food supplement to use for hair, skin, and nails to obtain beauty from within.
Nutricosmetic products, or so-called “beauty supplements”, result from the scientific work
of three research areas: food, pharmaceuticals, and personal care. They are soft or hard
gels, capsules, tablets, syrups, gummies, or sachets containing a concentrated source of
hyaluronic acid, minerals, vitamins, or botanical extracts, able to improve personal care [7].
There is no specific regulatory framework addressing nutricosmetics at the EU and USA
levels. However, the rules on food supplements govern beauty supplements [7]. In this
work, the food matrix of cosmetic relevance, bioactive molecules usable in cosmetic for-
mulations, eco-friendly technology to produce bioactive cosmetic ingredients, and the
analytical techniques helpful in purifying and dosing the active ingredients in vegetable
and animal matrices, are revised. We aim to shed light on the nutricosmetic market waiting
for a specific regulation for green cosmetics to help consumers make informed choices.

2. Plant Cell Culture Technology

The growth in consumers’ interest in natural products determined the use of extracts
from aromatic, herbal, and medicinal plants as active ingredients in cosmeceuticals and nu-
tricosmetics formulations. They contain biologically active molecules (e.g., phenolic acids,
polyphenols, triterpenes, stilbenes, flavonoids, steroids, steroidal saponins, carotenoids,
sterols, fatty acids, sugars, polysaccharides, peptides, etc.) [8], whose profile and level
depending on the pedoclimatic condition and agriculture practice [9,10]. Bioactive extracts
are also obtained by algae, mushrooms, by-products of plant origins [11–14], and plant cell
culture technology [15,16]. The latter is a natural and suitable technology used to make hair
care, makeup, skincare, and supplement ingredients. The explant is the vegetable tissue
used to start a cell culture. The cells on the surface of the explant grow in volume, divide,
dedifferentiate, and form a mass called calluses. In vitro, the callus could be sustained for
unlimited time using the correct growth medium. In a liquid medium, cells constitute a
rapidly growing suspended culture of individual cells or small groups of cells [17]. Plant
cell culture consent to produce high-value ingredients (primary and secondary metabolites)
under controlled conditions. They have the advantage of maturing into a whole plant via
embryogenesis, reproducing by using bioreactors independently on management prac-
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 3 of 28

tices and soil and climate conditions, producing high level of phytochemicals since some
biomass in a short period are yield [18], and supplying contamination-free biomass [19].
The cosmetic extracts from plant cell cultures meet the safety requirements of the mar-
ket since they are free of pathogens, pollutants, and agrochemical residues, which often
contaminate plant extracts, and rarely contain toxic compound and potential allergens
from plants synthesizing them to defend themselves against the attack of pathogens and
pests [20].

3. Natural Antiaging
Natural antiaging ingredients include barrier repair, moisturizing, anti-inflammatory,
skin lightening, and sunblock agent.

3.1. Moisturizing Agents

The skin moisturizing agents can be emollients, occlusives, and humectants.
Emollients cover the skin with a protective film to hydrate and soothe it. They
contribute to decreasing flaky skin and roughness. Foods used as emollients include butter
and oils such as the butter of shea, cocoa, cupuacu, mango, kombo, and murumuru butter;
and the oil of almond, avocado, argan, borage, olive, babassu, broccoli, rapeseed, chia seed,
castor bean, coconut, primrose, palm, passion fruit, pomegranate, raspberry, safflower, and
sunflower.
Occlusives form an epidermal barrier to stop trans-epidermal water loss and regulate
keratinocyte proliferation [21]. Foods used as occlusive moisturizing agents are oils and
waxes such as olive, jojoba, and coconut oils; and the wax of candelilla and bees [22]. The
oils of coconut and castor have both functions as emollients and occlusives.
Humectants are water-loving moisturizing agents that draw moisture from the dermis
to the stratum corneum and binding water vapor from the environment [23]. Honey,
hyaluronic acid, sorbitol, glycerine, and glycerol are examples of humectants’ moisturizing
agents [24].

3.2. Barrier Repair Agents

The skin barrier stops transepidermal water loss and defends against pathogens [25].
Barrier repair agents are the essential fatty acids, phenolic compounds, tocopherols, phos-
pholipids, cholesterol, and ceramide. The ratio of the essential fatty acids is a critical point
to benefit barrier repair. Higher levels of linoleic acid to oleic acid have better skin-barrier
potential [26]. It enhances the permeability of the skin barrier [26,27], being an integral
component of the lipid matrix of the stratum corneum [28]. Oleic acid, disrupting the
skin barrier, acts as permeability enhancers for the other bioactive molecules present in
plant oils [29]. The antioxidant compounds (tocopherols and phenolics) modulate skin
barrier homeostasis, wound healing, and inflammation [30,31]. Phospholipids act as chem-
ical permeability enhancers [32]. They show anti-inflammatory effects by controlling the
covalently bound, ω-hydroxy ceramides and inhibiting thymic stromal lymphopoietin
and chemokine [33]. Cholesterol and ceramides are other important lipid classes in the
stratum corneum [34]. Cholesterol in the plasma membrane can be an essential factor for
the magnitude of the oxygen gradient observed across the cell membrane [35]. Twelve
ceramide subclasses are identified in the stratum corneum [36]. Ceramide influences firm
and plump skin. Topical application of a ceramide cream decreases IL-31 and damages the
skin barrier’s physical and function [37]. Some natural oils contain fatty acids that play
critical roles in maintaining the skin barrier. Flaxseed oil, walnut oil, and chia oil contain
omega-3s and grapeseed oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, blackcurrant seed oil, evening
primrose oil, and borage oil hold omega-6s [34].

3.3. Skin Lightening Agents

Skin lightening agents decrease the concentration of melanin (skin’s pigment). The
skin tone is lighter when there is less melanin. Skin whitening agents act as inhibitors of the
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 4 of 28

tyrosinase (a key enzyme in melanogenesis) and/or melanosome transfer (pigment gran-

ules in the melanocytes, contained in the basal layer of skin epidermis) [38,39] or increasing
the epidermal turnover and the effect of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actives [40].
Ethnic differences, chronic inflammation, hormonal changes, and UV exposure are exam-
ples of conditions that can determine hypo- or hyper-pigmentation [41]. The commonly
used active ingredients include citrus extracts, kojic acid, licorice extract, white mulberry ex-
tract, bearberry extract, Indian gooseberry, vitamin C, vitamin B3, hydroquinone, retinoids,
resveratrol, and alpha- and beta-hydroxy acids [42].

3.4. Anti-Inflammatory Ingredients

Exogenous stimuli sometimes can determine wound, skin aging, inflammatory der-
matoses, or skin carcinogenesis. Damages of the skin barrier determine the inflammatory
response, which provides tissue repair and infection control. Initially, the keratinocytes and
the innate immune cells (e.g., leukocytes, dendritic cells, and mast cells) are activated [43],
and successively make cytokines (e.g., IL-1α, IL-6, and TNF-α) that draw the immune cells
to the injury site. Finally, ROS, elastases, and proteinases are produced [43]. Thus, inflam-
mation is involved in acne’s pathogenesis and determines pain, swelling, and redness in
the skin. Licorice root, turmeric, oats, chamomile, and nuts are some food plants with
anti-inflammatory activity [44,45].

3.5. Sunblock Ingredients

UV radiation is divided into three main categories: UV-A (320–400 nm), UV-B
(280–320 nm), and UV-C (100–280 nm), based on the wavelength. Elevated exposure
to UV radiation can cause edema, erythema, hyperpigmentation, photoaging, immune
suppression, and skin cancer based on the intensity and range of UV radiation [46,47].
Continuous exposure to UV radiation can cause pigmentation, lesions, sunburn, dark spots,
degradation of collagen fibers, wrinkles photoaging, and cancer [48,49]. UV-A photons
cause damage to fibroblasts and keratinocytes [50]. In the skin, cellular chromophores ab-
sorb them, and reactive oxygen species (e.g., superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl
radicals) are made [51]. Oxidative stress can cause DNA damage [52]. UV-B is known as
burning rays and is considered the most active constituent of solar radiation. It can induce
direct and indirect adverse effects on DNA and proteins [53], inducing immunosuppression
and skin cancer [54]. The most dangerous UV wavelengths are UV-C. Fortunately, these
radiations are absorbed by the atmosphere before they reach our skin [55]. They are potent
mutagens and can trigger cancer and immune-mediated disease [56]. Aloe vera, green tea,
coconut oil, grape seeds, and ginger contain phytochemicals that prevent photoaging and
skin cancer [24].

4. Skin Antioxidant Systems

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are atoms or molecules whose last electronic layer
contains unpaired electrons and molecules of excited oxygen. These agents are highly reac-
tive and have short lives, as they react in the medium in which they are made. Molecular
oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and singlet oxygen are not free radicals but start oxidative
reactions and make free radicals. Together, these species are defined as ROS. The human
metabolism produces them and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) [57]. The free radicals
react with other radicals, indirect iron-sulfur proteins, and transition metals (e.g., iron and
copper), inducing hydroxyl formation. Hydrogen peroxide is not very reactive but can
pass through membranes and react with transition metals to make the hydroxyl radical
(Fenton reaction) [58]. The hydroxyl radical produces some harmful effects on the body,
and the extremely short half-life makes it challenging to capture in vivo. It may attack
other molecules to capture hydrogen and react with compounds by adding or transferring
its electrons [59]. Lipids, proteins, and DNA are the molecules most subjected to oxidative
damage. The oxidation of amino acids determines protein fragmentation, aggregation, and
proteolytic digestion (no repair mechanisms for these changes). When ROS attack enzymes,
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 5 of 28

our body inactivates their functions. When ROS attack polyunsaturated fatty acids (lipid
peroxidation), they determine changes in membrane fluidity, constitution, selectivity, and
transepidermal water loss, resulting in skin dryness. Additionally, the lipid peroxidation
process enhances the expression of cyclooxygenase, phospholipases, and the production
of prostaglandins, which cause epithelial inflammation [60,61]. When ROS oxidizes low-
density lipoprotein (LDL), the ox-LDLs release tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and
nitric oxide, determining atherosclerosis [62]. When ROSs attack the nucleic acids, they
determine mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and aging. Our body intervenes to repair the
nucleic acids by complex mechanisms rarely [63–65]. Some hydroxyl radicals, peroxyl,
superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and oxygen singlet are made in the skin [58]. Therefore,
they can be used as indicators to assess the degree of inflammation. When the skin is
exposed to free radicals, it reduces the production of ROS by suppressing the enzyme
activity, which indirectly generates oxygen metabolites, increases the production of DNA
repair enzymes, makes the molecules able to help the physical protection of the skin (by
enhancing the stability of the membrane), and interferes with biological targets of ROS [66].
Skin cells are protected from free radicals by antioxidants such as vitamins (e.g., E, C,
and A), carotenoids, ubiquinone, uric acid, hormones (e.g., estradiol and estrogen), lipoic
acid, and enzymes (e.g., catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione) [67]. Antioxidant
molecules prevent free radicals (ROS) from oxidizing or reduce the formation or quench
the formed ROS [67]. Vitamin C, alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E and derivatives), glutathione,
ubiquinone are examples of primary antioxidant molecules (or free radical scavenging
antioxidants). The primary antioxidant molecules decrease oxidation via chain-terminating
reactions by transferring a proton to the free radical species [68]. Lipoic acid and N-acetyl
cysteine are examples of secondary antioxidants. They reduce primary antioxidants by
acting as a cofactor for several enzyme systems. Additionally, metal-chelating agents are
considered secondary antioxidants because they neutralize transition metals’ production
of free radicals in the skin. Often, secondary antioxidants are used in combination with
primary antioxidants to protect primary antioxidants from degradation [69]. The glu-
tathione hormone (GSH) reductase, GSH peroxidases, glutathione S-transferases (GSTs)
are examples of antioxidant enzyme systems that directly neutralize ROS with the help of
metal cofactors (e.g., Cu, Zn, Mn, and Se) [70]. The antioxidants found in the skin show a
gradient in the human epidermis (elevated levels in the basal layers and low levels in the
upper layers). The antioxidant molecules’ concentration and enzymes are decreased by
intrinsic (age) and extrinsic factors (atmospheric components). Sunlight (in particular solar
ultraviolet radiation UVA and UVB) causes ROS generation in the skin. UVB radiations
enhance the production of O2 − by activating NADPH oxidase and the reaction of the
respiratory chain [71,72], improving the expression of nitric oxide synthase, the production
of highly reactive anion peroxynitrite, of the melanin by melanocytes, and the expression
of metalloproteinases (enzymes able to degrade collagen) [70]. UVA radiations produce
1 O by photosensitizing internal chromophores (e.g., porphyrin and riboflavin), and glyca-
2
tion products [73], and activating NADPH oxidase [74]. UVB radiations induce erythema
(improving prostaglandin E2 synthesis) [75], skin roughness (oxidizing the lipids) [76],
enhance the production of the carbonylated proteins in the stratum corneum (SCCP),
and stimulate sebum secretion [77]. Therefore, it is clear that it is worth replenishing
antioxidants through topical application or dietary supplements to protect the skin [78,79].

5. Methods for Determining the Antioxidant Activity of a Natural Extract

Chemical-based and cellular-based assays can evaluate the antioxidant potential of
a natural extract. Chemical-based methods measure single electron transfer (SET assay)
or hydrogen transfer (HAT assay) (e.g., ORAC, TRAP). SET methods can scavenge free
radicals (e.g., DPPH) or reduce metal ions (e.g., FRAP, CUPRAC) [80–82]. It is necessary
to use both methods (SET and HAT) for the correct evaluation of the total antioxidant
activity [83–85] since, in a natural extract, there may be more than one class of molecules
capable of carrying out this activity.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 6 of 28

5.1. Methods Used to Determine the Antioxidant Potential

5.1.1. Spectroscopic Methods
Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) Test
The TEAC is a free radicals scavenging method. It evaluates the ability to scavenge
the ABTS radical [86]. It is possible to use two different oxidizing agents to obtain the
goals: metmyoglobin-H2 O2 or potassium persulfate. Both agents oxidize the ABTS, mak-
ing ABTS•+ (colored), then the addition of antioxidants causes a loss of the green color
spectrophotometrically evaluable (λ 734 nm) [78,85]. This method detects the antioxidant
potential of lipophilic and hydrophilic extracts and is not affected by ionic strength [85].
Briefly, K2 S2 O8 (3 mM) react for 16 h with ABTS dissolved in distilled water (8 mM) in
the dark at room temperature. Then, the ABTS•+ solution is diluted in phosphate buffer
solution (pH 7.4) and NaCl (in PBS 150 mM). The absorbance of 1.5 at 730 nm is read.
Reaction kinetics are performed by taking readings every 15 min over a 2 h period. The
reaction time is determined (generally 30 min.). Standards (100 µm) and samples (100 µm)
are reacted with ABTS•+ (2900 µm) for the reaction time previously determined [85]. The
antioxidant potential was expressed as Trolox equivalents [85].

2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Test

The DPPH detects the ability of a compound to transfer one electron [79]. The an-
tioxidants reduce DPPH radical to DPPH-H [79]. The decrease of the absorbance value at
λ 515 nm (DPPH absorbance) indicates the antioxidant potential. This test overestimates
antioxidants with many phenol groups as flavonols [86]. Briefly, samples (20 µL) are
added to 3 mL of DPPH solution (6 × 10−5 mol/L), and the spectrophotometric analysis
is performed. The absorbance is read at λ 517 nm every 5 min until the steady state. The
calibration curve is made using 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid
(Trolox). The results were expressed as mmol Trolox equivalent (TE) kg−1 FW [87].

The Ferric-Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Test

The FRAP assay measures antioxidants’ ability to reduce a ferric tripyridyltriazine
(Fe3+ -TPTZ) to the ferrous (Fe2+ -TPTZ). The antioxidant’s power is positively related to
absorbance absorption at λ 593 nm. [87]. FRAP cannot detect proteins and thiols which
have radical-quenching abilities. This test work at pH 3.6 [79]. Briefly, a solution of TPTZ
(10 mmol/L) is added in HCl (40 mmol/L), ferric chloride (12 mmol/L), and sodium
acetate buffer (300 mmol/L, pH 3.6) at a ratio of 1:1:10. Samples and standard antioxidant
solutions (both 1 mmol/L) are added to the FRAP solution (3 mL). They must react for
90 min at 37 ◦ C before taking the spectrophotometric reading at λ 593 nm [87].

The Cupric-Reducing Antioxidant Capacity (CUPRAC) Test

The CUPRAC assay measures antioxidants’ ability to reduce Cu(II)-neocuproine (Nc)
at λ 450 nm after 30 min. [88]. This test works at pH 7, detects the antioxidant potential of
both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants [88], and determines the reducing power of
thiol-type antioxidants [89]. Briefly, sample (0.1 mL;) is mixed with distilled water (1 mL)
copper chloride (0.4262 g dissolved in H2 O and diluted to 250 mL with additional water),
neocuproine (7.5 × 10−3 M), and ammonium acetate buffer solution (19.27 g in water and
diluting to 250 mL; pH 7) at 1:1:1 to obtain total reaction mixture of 4.1 mL. They must react
30 min at room temperature before taking the spectrophotometric reading at λ 450 nm.
Results were expressed as µM Trolox equivalents [89].

5.1.2. In Vitro Cellular Methods

The Dichlorofluorecin (DCFH) Test
The DCFH test assay measures antioxidants’ ability to prevent the oxidation of dichloroflu-
orecin into dichlorofluorescein (DCF) by 2,2’-azobis (2-amidinopropane) (ABAP)-generated
peroxyl radicals in human hepatocarcinoma cells (HepG2 cells). Antioxidant power is neg-
atively related to cellular fluorescence growth (λexc = 485 nm, λem = 538 nm) [90]. Briefly,
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 7 of 28

myelomonocytic cells (HL-60, 1 × 106 cells/mL) are suspended in Roswell Park Memorial
Institute (RPMI 1640) medium with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and antibiotics in 5% CO2 :
95% air at 37 ◦ C. The cell suspension (125 µL) is added to the plates, treated for 30 min with
the test material, and stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA,100 ng/mL)
30 min. Then, the cells are added to molecular probes (5 µg/mL DCFH-DA) and incubated
for 15 min. DCFH-DA is a nonfluorescent probe that diffuses into cells. The levels of DCF
are measured using a fluorescence measurement system [90].

Determination of the Lipid Peroxide Levels

The detection of lipid peroxidation can evaluate in skin keratinocytes cells (HaCaT
cells). Epinephrine is used to induce lipid peroxidation. Antioxidant ability is negatively
related to cellular fluorescence growth (λexc = 510 nm, λem = 580 nm) [16]. Briefly, HaCaT
(1.8 × 104 ) are seeded in 96-well plates and then incubated for 24 h with samples or beta-
blocker (ICI-118,551). Successively, the cells are washed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)
and then incubated for 30 min with the lipid peroxidation sensor (dyeC11-Bodipy) at 37 ◦ C.
Finally, epinephrine (50 µM) is used to make lipid peroxidation. The levels of peroxidized
lipids are measured using a fluorescence measurement system [16].

Determination of the Carbonylated Protein Levels in Cells

The carbonylated protein levels can be evaluated in a spontaneously transformed
aneuploid immortal keratinocyte cell line from adult human skin (HaCaT cells) via enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a specific antibody against 2,4-dinitrophenol
(DNP). Epinephrine is used to induce protein carbonylation. The ability of antioxi-
dants is negatively related to the growth in cellular fluorescence [16]. Briefly, HaCaT
(1.5 × 104 ) cells were put in 96-well plates and incubated for 24 h with the samples or
ICI-118,551 and epinephrine (50 µM). Successively, the cells were washed in PBS and fixed
in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA). Then, cells were washed with PBS and 0.05% Polyethylene
glycol sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20) and incubated for 1 h with 2,4-Dinitrophenyl-
hydrazine (DNPH; 5 mM) in 2 N HCl at room temperature. The carbonylated products
were detected using a specific antibody against DNP (sc69697) by using the ELISA method.
The skin punches were incubated for 24 h with the sample and epinephrine (56 nM). Suc-
cessively, the punches were fixed for 6 h with PFA, washed in PBS, incubated in sucrose
(15% and 30%), fixed in optimal cutting temperature (OCT) medium, frozen, and stored
−80 ◦ C. Cryosections (10 µm) were incubated with DNPH (5 mM) in 2N HCl for 1 h at
room temperature, washed in PBS/EtOH (1:1), and PBS/Tween 20. The slides were incu-
bated for 30 min in BSA, washed with PBS/Tween 20, incubated with antibody anti-DNP
(1:50 dilution), and then mixed with the conjugated antibody Alexa Fluor 488. The signals
were measured using fluorescent microscopy [16].

6. In Vitro Methods for Determining Antioxidant Bioaccessibility

Bioaccessibility shows the concentration of antioxidants potentially available for ab-
sorption after each step of digestion. It is an essential condition to know bioavailability [91].
Some in vitro tests show the antioxidant levels available for physiological functions.

6.1. Gastric Digestion Simulation

The gastric digestion reproduction is found, including artificial saliva and pepsin,
into samples at pH 2 (gastric pH). Briefly, samples are incubated at 37 ◦ C for 2 h with
artificial saliva (6 mL), pepsin (14,800 U; 0.5 g), HCl (0.1 N), and blended in an orbital
shaker at 55 rpm [91]. The acidification of the samples prevents the denaturation of pepsin
that occurs at pH ≥ 5 [91].

6.2. Intestinal Digestion Simulation

The intestinal digestion is obtained, including bile salts and pancreatin at pH 5.5–6,
and the pH at 6.5 value is readjusted [91]. Briefly, the sample pH is adjusted to 6.5 with
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 8 of 28

NaHCO3 (1 N) and successively mixed with pancreatin (8 mg/mL; 1:1; v/v), bile salts
(50 mg/mL), and 20 mL water. Successively, the solution is incubated for 2 h at 37 ◦ C
and blended in an orbital shaker at 55 rpm. Finally, the solution (30 mL) is centrifuged
(4000× g rpm at 4 ◦ C) for 1 h. The supernatant (bio-accessible fraction) was collected and
monitored using spectrophotometric methods [91].

7. In Vivo Method to Evaluate the Oxidative Damage in the Skin

Vertuani and colleagues proposed an in vivo protocol to evaluate oxidative skin
damages [92]. In this model, methyl nicotinate (M.N.) is used to enhance the prostaglandins
and cyclooxygenase synthesis (an inflammatory process), and antioxidant potential is
evaluated by measuring:
• Transepidermal water loss to determine the barrier function of the stratum corneum,
by Tewameter TM 210 (Courage-khazaka, Cologne, Germany);
• The skin color of the sites before and after the irritation by using a reflectance meters
Chromameter (CR-300 Minolta);
• The cutaneous microcirculation by using a Laser Doppler Perfusion Imager (PIM1.0
Lisca Development AB, Sweden);
• The color analysis of derma by DermAnalyzer® , a new software program, developed
by Manfredini and colleagues, using the CIE L*a*b* color-space parameters (the color
space specified by the French Commission Internationale de l’éclairage, hence its CIE
initialism) [92].
Briefly, the study is conducted on two homogenous healthy groups of volunteers, one
treated with the product to be tested, the other with placebo. The measures are performed
before stress, acute stress, and after the recovery time. The measures are performed in a
closed room (temperature = 20 ± 2 ◦ C; relative humidity = 40 ± 5%) at the same time of
day after a stationing time of about 30 min. The probes are calibrated before the measures.
Then, they are applied to the skin for 30 s to obtain the measures. Tewameter probe
measures the water evaporation rate (g/h/m2 ). Chromameter measures color quality with
CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*C*h color spaces in numbers to communicate colors precisely. Laser
Doppler Perfusion Image measures microcirculation using a laser beam to scan tissue and
a photodiode to detect the reflected light. The processed signal generates an image that
shows the perfusion in the tissue [92].

8. Phytochemicals and Vitamins with Antioxidant Potential

The secondary metabolism of plants makes molecules (phytochemicals) that can
defend plants from the attack of atmospheric agents, microbes, and pests. Some of these
(e.g., phenolic acid, polyphenols, cysteine sulphoxides, carotenoids) can react with free
radicals to form stable chemical species in humans and animals [93]. Phytochemicals
have a wide range of biological effects (e.g., photoprotective, antiaging, anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial, antiviral, and anticancer effects) beneficial for our wellbeing [93]. Some
vitamins (e.g., E, C, and A) have antioxidant potential and skincare abilities. Vitamin C
regulates collagen synthesis. Vitamin E is active in neutralizing the free radicals and
softening the skin [94]. Vitamin A controls the production of new skin cells and increases
collagen production, minimizing burns, scars, and stretch marks [95].

8.1. Analytical Procedure for the Quantification of Antioxidants in Food Extract

Several analytical methods have been proposed in the literature to determine the
single antioxidant compounds in natural extracts. However, many tests, although used
routinely, lack a robust validation procedure. It would be necessary to validate analytical
methods to allow correct dosage and data traceability, waiting for stringent legislation on
the use of active ingredients of natural origin in cosmetics [96]. The analytical procedures
for quantifying antioxidants involve two basic steps: extraction from the organic matrix
and quantification.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 9 of 28

8.1.1. Phenolics
The plant phenols have a benzene ring with a hydroxyl group attached and some
substituents (e.g., ester and glycosides). Some plant phenols have more than one hydroxyl
group. The phenol classification is carried out based on the number of phenolic rings and
the number and type of substituents present on the phenolic rings [97]. Examples of simple
phenols are phenolic acids (e.g., gallic and ferulic acids). Examples of polyphenols are
stilbenes (e.g., resveratrol), chalcones, and flavonoids. Flavonoids are further divided into
flavonols, flavanols, flavones, flavanones, flavanonols, isoflavones, and anthocyanins [98].
Phenols have skin-healing and protective effects [99]. Theaflavins prevent Herpes Simplex
type I (HSV-1) and protect against UV-induced photoaging and photo immunosuppres-
sion [100]. Anthocyanins reduce skin damage due to solar radiation [101], decreasing
UVA-stimulated ROS formation, lipid peroxidation [102], and modulating NF-kB- and
MAPK-dependent pathways responsible for the inflammatory response [103]. The pheno-
lic compounds isolated from Malus dounteri A. Chev. have anti-elastase and anti-MMP-1
activity in human skin fibroblast cells [104]. The aldehyde polycondensates of (β)-catechin
have anti-elastase and anti-collagenase activities [105]. The pistachio nuts’ polyphenol
decreases UVB-induced skin erythema. Oral consumption of polyphenols decreases skin
roughness and improves skin hydration and elasticity. The combination therapy of topical
application and oral intake enhances the results [106].

Total Phenolics Extraction Method

Today, some methods are proposed to extract phenolics, among these: solid extraction
(SE), ultrasonic, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), molecularly imprinted polymers,
solid-phase extraction (SPE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), enzyme-assisted extrac-
tion (EAE), and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) [107]. The SPE methods are preferred
since they are easy to use and consume a short extraction time. Several types of station-
ary phases are employed (e.g., C8 cartridges, amino-phase cartridges, diol-bonded phase
cartridges, octadecyl C18, and octadecyl C18 end-capped) [108].

Total Phenolics Dosage Method: Folin–Ciocalteu Test

Folin–Ciocalteu is a colorimetric assay based on the reaction of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent
with the hydroxy groups of phenolics. Polyphenol levels are positively related to ab-
sorbance growth (λ 765 nm) [109].

8.1.2. Carotenoids
The principal carotenoids’ class of compounds are xanthophylls and carotenes. Carotenes
are strictly hydrophobic molecules. Instead, xanthophylls have polar groups in their struc-
tures. Then, there are strict hydrocarbon carotenoids (e.g., lycopene and β-carotene) that do
not have any substituent in their structures, some with epoxy groups (e.g., diadinoxanthin,
violaxanthin), others with acetyl groups (e.g., fucoxanthin, dinoxanthin), and finally some
with acetylene (e.g., diato-, allo-, diadino-, pyro-, croco-, hetero-, and monadoxanthin).
Carotenoids in the skin have an essential role in photoprotection against UV radiation since
they have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. Astaxanthin enhances superoxide
dismutase, catalases enzyme activities [110], and suppresses tyrosinase activity [111]. Its
oral use improves skin condition and decreases skin hyper-pigmentation and melanin syn-
thesis [112]. β-carotene prevents free radicals formation. It inhibits wrinkle formation and
skin sagging, decreasing metalloproteinase-9 activation and improving 5-α-hydroperoxide
synthesis, and protects from sunburn diseases [113]. The β-carotene has a skin photopro-
tection effect more homogenous when it is orally supplemented than topically applied
even if its protection factor varies in the two forms of application [104]. Orally consumed
beta-carotene has a sun protection factor (SPF) 4. Instead, the SPF of beta-carotene topically
applied is from 10 to 40 [114]. The supplements of lycopene decrease skin roughness [115];
of the xanthophylls, increases skin hydration [116]; of the lutein, protect skin from skin
damage and photoaging [116]. Oral and topical treatment with zeaxanthin and lutein
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 10 of 28

improves skin layer hydration and skin elasticity [117] and defends the skin against oxida-
tive damage and blue-light damages [118]. Lutein decreases lipid peroxidation in the cell
membrane and scavenges free radicals [114]. Lycopene enhances dull skin, decreases skin
roughness [119], has a sun-screening effect, and acts as a sunburn protection agent [120].

Carotenoids Extraction Methods

The solubility of carotenoids depends on their molecular structure (xanthophylls,
carotenes). Generally, tetrahydrofuran is considered the best solvent for solubilizing
carotenoids, but it is used with antioxidants (e.g., butylated hydroxytoluene -BHT) since
it forms peroxides. The xanthophylls (e.g., lutein) are soluble in alcohols and carotenes
(e.g., β-carotene) in hydrophobic solvents [121]. Some carotene-extraction methods employ
enzymes (used to break down the plant tissue in which carotenes are located), organic
solvents (e.g., hexane and ethyl acetate) since they are lipophilic compounds, and water-
miscible solvents (e.g., acetone and tetrahydrofuran) to complete the penetration in the
food matrix [122]. Sometimes, magnesium carbonate or calcium carbonate is added to
neutralize organic acid. The extractions must be repeated until the residue and filtrate
become colorless [121]. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with carbon dioxide (CO2 )
is an alternative to liquid–liquid extraction methods. The SFE is a low-cost, non-toxic,
and eco-compatible method since the extracts are chemical residue-free and require small
amounts of organic solvents. The extraction efficiency improves with temperature and
pressure [121]. Another option to extract carotenoids is the MSPD (Matrix solid-phase
dispersion). In this case, the sample is extracted using a bounded-phase solid support
material (e.g., C18) [121].

Carotenoids Quantification Method

The most used method to dosage the carotenoids is UV/Vis spectrophotometry. The
UV/Vis spectrum offers information about the carotenoid’ chromophore, which is absorbed
in the range (λ 400–500 nm) [121]. For example, the lycopene is quantified spectrophoto-
metrically at λ 502 nm and λ 455 nm [91].

8.1.3. Vitamins
The vitamins A, C, and E are used in skin aging and UV protection treatment [123].
Their esterified forms are preferred in topical formulations having more stability than free
forms [124]. Retinyl palmitate has a beneficial effect on dry and rough skin epithelization
and abnormal keratinization [125]. Vitamin C enhances skin hydration [126]. Tocopheryl ac-
etate has a free radical scavenger activity, decreases DNA damage, keratinocyte death [127],
skin roughness, and improves stratum corneum hydration [128]. A topical combination of
vitamins C and E maximizes photoprotection [129].

The AOAC Method for Dosage of Vitamin A (AOAC Official Method 970.64)
The AOAC method to dosage the vitamin A recommends an extraction with acetone-
hexane followed by filtration, a second extraction with water to remove acetone, and
chromatography of esane extract (by using activated MgO2 diatomaceous earth column as
stationary phase and acetone as mobile phase) combined with a colorimeter [130].

The Method for Dosage of Vitamin C

Vitamin C’ dosage method recommends an extraction with 3% mete-phosphoric
acid-acetic acid of the food matrix, followed by oxidation with Norit of ascorbic acid
into dehydroascorbic acid, and reaction with O-phenylenediamine to make a fluorescent
derivative which is isolated by an inverse chromatography (stationary phase: 10 µm-
µBondapak C18; mobile methanol: water/55:45) and detected fluorometrically [131].
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 11 of 28

The Method for Dosage of Vitamin E

Vitamin E’s dosage method recommends isolating α-tocopherol by extraction, fol-
lowed by saponification of lipid extract and TLC chromatography, and identification by the
colorimetrical procedure. To dosage a-tocopheryl acetate, the sample is extracted, natural
a-tocopherol is taken off by oxidative chromatography; then, the a-tocopheryl acetate is
saponified and identified colorimetrically [132].

8.1.4. S-Alk(en)yl-L-cysteine Sulfoxides (ACSOs)

ACSOs have antioxidant properties. They enhance the aspartate transaminase, ala-
nine transaminase, and lactate dehydrogenase activities and decrease thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances, glutathione levels, and glutathione S-transferase and glutathione per-
oxidase activities [133]. The ACSOs and their transformation products have antimicrobial
potential due to their antioxidant activity and inhibition of thioredoxin reductase, alcohol
dehydrogenase, trypsin, RNA, and DNA polymerases [134]. N-acetyl-l-cysteine, in keratin
molecules, can interact with disulfide bridges, causing nail swelling and softening and
facilitating drug permeation [135].

S-Alk(en)yl-L-cysteine Sulfoxides (ACSOs) Dosage Method

The ACSOs’s dosage method recommends isolating ACSOs by extraction with
methanol:chloroform: water/12:5:3 and keeping them overnight at −20 ◦ C. Successively,
the diastereomeric S-butyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide must be added as an internal standard and
must be separate the phases at room temperature by centrifugation at (12,000× g for 5 min).
Next, the upper phase must be concentrated on a rotatory evaporator at 30 ◦ C. Finally, the
extract must be resuspended in 0.03 M HCl, filtered through a 0.45-µm filter, and analyzed
by HPLC (stationary phase: C18 Hypersil ODS; mobile phase 0.03 M HCl; diode array
detector) [136].

8.1.5. Methylxanthines
Methylxanthines (caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine) are good antioxidants [137],
since there is a quenching effect on hydroxyl radicals’ production and oxidative DNA break-
age by hydroxyl radicals [138]. Caffeine improves UVR-mediated skin reactions in human
skin [139]. It is actives in subjects suffering from hair loss due to premature termination
of the hair-growth phase [140] and enhances lipolysis and fat oxidation in cellulite cos-
metic products [141]. Caffeine controls the lipolysis process regulating the catecholamine
secretion, which activates β-2 adrenergic receptors, the concentration of cyclic adeno-
sine monophosphate (cAMP) in cells that activates lipase [142], blocking α-adrenergic
receptors [143,144], and inhibiting the phosphodiesterase [145].

Total Methylxanthines Dosage Methods

Some methods are used to isolate methylxanthines, among these: SPE (solid-phase
extraction), LLE (liquid-liquid extraction), MAE (microwave-assisted extraction), UAE
(ultrasound-assisted extraction), SPME (solid-phase microextraction), and SFE (supercrit-
ical fluid extraction) [146–148]. Water is a suitable solvent for methylxanthines, but it
has low selectivity. Therefore, a second extraction involves dichloromethane or chloro-
form to complete the isolation. In SPE, supercritical carbon dioxide with water, methanol,
ethanol, or isopropanol is used as a solvent [147]. The most common method for analyzing
methylxanthines is RP-HPLC (reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography)
using a C18 column (stationary phase) and mass spectrometry detector [149]. Paradkar
and Irudayaraj (2006) described a method based on Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopic as fast (5–10 min), nondestructive, and reliable for the routine dosage of the
methylxanthines in foods. In this test, partial least square (PLS) and principal component
regression (PCR)2 were employed for dosage at two spectral regions (1500–1800 cm−1 and
2800–3000 cm−1 ) [150].
 methylxanthines is RP-HPLC (reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography)
using a C18 column (stationary phase) and mass spectrometry detector [149]. Paradkar
and Irudayaraj (2006) described a method based on Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopic as fast (5–10 min), nondestructive, and reliable for the routine dosage of the
methylxanthines in foods. In this test, partial least square (PLS) and principal component
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 12 of 28
regression (PCR)2 were employed for dosage at two spectral regions (1500–1800 cm−1 and
2800–3000 cm−1) [150].

9.
9.Foods
FoodsininCosmetic
CosmeticPreparation
Preparation
9.1.Green
9.1. GreenTea
Tea
Greentea
Green tea(G.T., Camellia sinensis)
(G.T., Camellia sinensis)(Table
(Table 1)
1) extracts
extracts contain
contain catechin
catechinderivatives
derivatives(e.g.,
(e.g.,
epicatechin, epicatequinagalato, epigallocatechin, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate)
epicatechin, epicatequinagalato, epigallocatechin, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate) that can that can
scavenge free radicals. Formulations with 6% G.T. have a prolonged moisturizing
scavenge free radicals. Formulations with 6% G.T. have a prolonged moisturizing effect, effect,
improve microrelief,
improve microrelief, andandreduce
reduceskin
skinroughness
roughness [151]. Topical
[151]. Topicalapplication of G.T.
application prevents
of G.T. pre-
UV-oxidative
vents injury,injury,
UV-oxidative reducesreduces
the matrix
the metalloproteinases, collagenase,
matrix metalloproteinases, and hyaluronidase
collagenase, and hya-
productionproduction
luronidase [152,153], and decreases
[152,153], and UV-induced erythema [154].
decreases UV-induced Tea used
erythema [154].orally and
Tea used
topically decreases sebum production, and prevents and treats acne vulgaris
orally and topically decreases sebum production, and prevents and treats acne vulgaris [155]. Anti-
acne activity
[155]. Anti-acne is ascribable to antimicrobial
activity is ascribable against Propionibacterium
propertiesproperties
to antimicrobial acnes, the
against Propionibacterium
increase of apoptosis of the SEB-1 cell line of sebocytes, the reduction of the
acnes, the increase of apoptosis of the SEB-1 cell line of sebocytes, the reduction of the lipogenesis by
regulation of MLPK-SREBP-1 (M locus protein kinase-Sterol regulatory
lipogenesis by regulation of MLPK-SREBP-1 (M locus protein kinase-Sterol regulatory el- element-binding
protein 1), and of
ement-binding the inflammation
protein 1), and of thebyinflammation
reducing NF-kB (nuclear factor-κB)
by reducing production
NF-ĸB (nuclear [155].
factor-κB)
In addition,[155].
production the use of epigallocatechin-3-gallate
In addition, improves hair growth
the use of epigallocatechin-3-gallate via proliferative
improves hair growth
and antiapoptotic effects on scalp follicle dermal papilla cells and
via proliferative and antiapoptotic effects on scalp follicle dermal papilla cells prolongs the
andanagen
pro-
stage [156].
longs the anagen stage [156].
Table 1.
Table Some food
1. Some food ingredients
ingredients used
used in
in cosmetic
cosmetic formulations.
formulations.

FOODS
FOODS Bioactive
BioactiveMolecules
Molecules Bioactivity
Bioactivity Cosmetic
Cosmetic Relevance
Relevance
Green tea
Green tea
Green tea extracts have a
Catechin derivatives (e.g., Green tea extracts have a prolonged mois-
Catechin derivatives (e.g., epicatechin, prolonged moisturizing effect,
epicatechin, turizingimprove
effect, improve microrelief, re-
epicatequinagalato, epigallocatechin, Free microrelief, reduce
epicatequinagalato, Freeradical
radicalscavengers.
scavengers.duce skin roughness and sebum produc-
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 and epigallocatechin-3-gallate. skin roughness and sebum 13 of 28
epigallocatechin, and tion, and prevent and treat acne vulgaris.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 production, and prevent13and of 28
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 epigallocatechin-3-gallate. 13 of 28
treat acne vulgaris.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 13 of 28
Coffea
Coffeaarabica
arabica
Coffea arabica Coffea
Coffea arabica arabica
extracts extracts are
are skin-lightening
Coffea arabica
Proanthocyanidins,
Proanthocyanidins, quinicquinic
acid, caf- Coffeaand
agent skin-lightening
arabica extracts
enhance agent and
are skin-lightening
wrinkle, fine line, and
Coffea arabica Antioxidant properties. Coffea arabica extracts are skin-lightening
feicacid,
acid, caffeic
Proanthocyanidins, acid, and
quinic
and chlorogenic acid,
acid.caf- Antioxidant properties. agent andenhance
pigmentation enhance wrinkle,
wrinkle,
in patients fineline,
with fine
actinicline,
and
dam-
Proanthocyanidins, quinic acid,Antioxidant
caf- properties. agentextracts
Coffea arabica and enhance wrinkle, fine line, and
are skin-lightening
chlorogenic
feic acid, acid. acid.
and chlorogenic Antioxidant properties. and
pigmentation pigmentation
age. withinactinic
in patients patients
dam-
feic acid, quinic
Proanthocyanidins, and chlorogenic
acid, caf- acid. pigmentation
agent and enhance in patients
wrinkle, withand
fine line, actinic dam-
Antioxidant properties. with actinic
age. damage.
feic acid, and chlorogenic acid. pigmentation in patients with age.actinic dam-
Vitis vinifera
Vitis age.
Vitis vinifera
vinifera
Vitis vinifera
Vitis vinifera Stilbenes (e.g., resveratrol), proantho- Vitis vinifera extracts inhibit UV light-me-
Stilbenes (e.g., resveratrol), Antioxidant properties.
Stilbenes (e.g.,and
cyanidins, resveratrol), proantho-
procyanidins. Vitis
Vitis vinifera vinifera
extracts
diated extracts
skininhibit
aging.UV inhibit
light-me-
proanthocyanidins, and
Stilbenes (e.g., resveratrol), Antioxidant
proantho-
Antioxidant properties.
properties. Vitis vinifera extracts inhibit UV light-me-
cyanidins, and procyanidins. Antioxidant properties. UV light-mediated
diated skin aging. skin aging.
procyanidins.
cyanidins,
Stilbenes (e.g., and proantho-
resveratrol), procyanidins. Vitis vinifera extractsdiated
inhibitskin
UV aging.
light-me-
Antioxidant properties.
cyanidins, and procyanidins. diated skin aging.
Pomegranate
Pomegranate
Pomegranate
Pomegranate
Antioxidant, antifungal, and
Pomegranate Ellagic acid, punicalagin, and punicic
Antioxidant, antifungal,
anti-inflammatory proper-and Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
Ellagic acid, punicalagin,
acid. and punicic Antioxidant, antifungal, and
Ellagic acid, punicalagin, and punicic anti-inflammatory
ties. proper- Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
Ellagic acid, punicalagin,
acid. and Antioxidant,
Antioxidant, antifungal,
anti-inflammatory
antifungal, andand Pomegranate
proper- Pomegranate extracts
extracts decrease wrinkles.
Ellagic acid, acid. acid.
punicalagin,
punicic and punicic anti-inflammatory ties. properties.
ties.
anti-inflammatory proper- decrease wrinkles.
Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
acid.
Glycine max (soybean) ties.
Glycine max extracts reduce UV-induced
Glycine max (soybean)
Isoflavones (e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. Glycine max
oxidative DNA extracts
damage reduce UV-induced
and skin photo-
Glycine max (soybean) Glycine max extracts reduce UV-induced
Glycine
Glycine max (soybean)
max (soybean) Isoflavones (e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. oxidative DNA
Glycine damage
damage.
max and
extracts skin photo-
reduce
Isoflavones (e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. oxidative
Glycine max extracts DNA damage and skin photo-
reduce UV-induced
UV-induced damage. oxidative DNA
Aloe vera Isoflavones
Isoflavones(e.g.,
(e.g.,genistein).
genistein). Antioxidant
Antioxidant properties. oxidative DNA damage damage.
properties. and skin photo-
Aloe vera damage and skin
Aloe vera Aloesin, mucopolysaccharides, and damage.
Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- Soybean extracts have photodamage.
a skin-lightening ef-
Aloe vera Aloesin,
amino mucopolysaccharides,
acids (e.g., arginine, histidine,and
Aloesin, mucopolysaccharides, andand water-retention
Antioxidant,
tory, anti-inflamma- Soybean extracts
fect, improve skinhave a skin-lightening
elasticity, and reduceef-
amino acids
threonine, (e.g., arginine,
glycine, serine, andhistidine,
ala- Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- Soybean extracts have a skin-lightening ef-
Aloesin, amino acids (e.g.,
mucopolysaccharides, arginine,
and histidine,
tory, and water-retention
properties. fect, improve skin elasticity,
wrinkles. and reduce
threonine, glycine,
nine). serine, and ala- Antioxidant, tory, and water-retention
anti-inflamma- fect, improve
Soybean extracts have askin elasticity, and
skin-lightening ef- reduce
amino acids threonine,
(e.g., glycine,histidine,
arginine, serine, and ala- properties. wrinkles.
nine). properties.
tory, and water-retention wrinkles.
fect, improve skin elasticity, and reduce
threonine, glycine, serine, nine).
and ala-
properties. wrinkles.
Citrus limon nine).
Citrus limon
Citrus limon Citrus limon extracts have antiaging and
Flavanones (e.g., hesperidin), citral,
Citrus limon Antioxidant properties. Citrus limon extracts
depigmenting effects,have
and antiaging
reduce acneand
Flavanones (e.g.,and
D-limonene, hesperidin),
β-pinene.citral, Citrus limon extracts have antiaging and
Flavanones (e.g., hesperidin), citral, Antioxidant properties. depigmenting
and haireffects, and reduce acne
disorders.
D-limonene, and β-pinene. Antioxidant properties. depigmenting
Citrus limon extracts haveeffects, and reduce
antiaging and acne
Flavanones (e.g.,D-limonene, and citral,
hesperidin), β-pinene. and hair disorders.
Antioxidant properties. and hair disorders.
depigmenting effects, and reduce acne
 cyanidins, and procyanidins. Antioxidant properties. diated skin aging.
cyanidins, and procyanidins. diated skin aging.
Pomegranate
Pomegranate
Pomegranate
Pomegranate Antioxidant, antifungal, and
Pomegranate Ellagic acid, punicalagin, and punicic Antioxidant, antifungal, and
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 anti-inflammatory
Ellagic acid, punicalagin, and punicic Antioxidant, proper-
antifungal, and Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
13 of 28
acid.
Ellagic acid, punicalagin, anti-inflammatory
and punicic Antioxidant, proper-
antifungal, and Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
acid.
Ellagic acid, punicalagin, and punicic Antioxidant, ties.
anti-inflammatory proper- Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
antifungal, and
ties.
acid.
Ellagic acid, punicalagin, and punicic anti-inflammatory proper- Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
acid. ties.
anti-inflammatory proper- Pomegranate extracts decrease wrinkles.
acid. ties.
ties.
Glycine max (soybean)
Glycine max (soybean) Table 1. Cont. Glycine max extracts reduce UV-induced
Glycine max (soybean) Glycine max extracts reduce UV-induced
Glycine max (soybean) Isoflavones (e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. oxidative
Glycine DNA
max damage
extracts andUV-induced
reduce skin photo-
Isoflavones
Bioactive(e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. oxidative
Glycine maxDNA damage
extracts andUV-induced
reduce skin photo-
GlycineFOODS
max (soybean) Isoflavones Molecules
(e.g., genistein). Bioactivity
Antioxidant properties. oxidative Cosmetic
DNA damage.
damage Relevance
andUV-induced
skin photo-
Glycine max extracts reduce
Isoflavones (e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. oxidative DNA damage.
damage and skin photo-
Aloe
Aloe vera Isoflavones (e.g., genistein). Antioxidant properties. damage.and skin photo-
oxidative DNA damage
Aloe vera damage.
Aloe vera Aloesin, damage.
Aloe vera Aloesin, mucopolysaccharides, and Soybean extracts have a
Aloe vera mucopolysaccharides,
Aloesin, mucopolysaccharides, andand Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- Soybean extracts have a skin-lightening ef-
Antioxidant,
amino acids
Aloesin, (e.g., arginine, histidine,
mucopolysaccharides, and skin-lightening
Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- Soybean extracts effect, ef-
have a skin-lightening
amino
amino acids
acids
Aloesin, (e.g.,(e.g., arginine,
arginine,
mucopolysaccharides, histidine,
and tory, and
Antioxidant,water-retention
anti-inflammatory,
anti-inflamma- fect, improve
andSoybean skin
extracts haveelasticity, and reduce
a skin-lightening ef-
threonine,
amino acids glycine, serine, histidine,
(e.g., arginine, and ala- tory, and water-retention
Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- Soybean improve
fect, improve skin
extracts skin elasticity,
elasticity,
have a and ef-
and reduce
skin-lightening
Aloesin,
threonine,mucopolysaccharides,
histidine, threonine,
glycine, glycine,
serine, and and
ala- properties.
water-retention properties. wrinkles.
amino acids (e.g., arginine, histidine,
nine). tory, and
Antioxidant,water-retention fect, improve
anti-inflamma- Soybean
properties. skin
extracts have
reduceelasticity, and reduce
awrinkles.
wrinkles. skin-lightening ef-
threonine,
amino acids glycine,
serine,(e.g.,
and serine, histidine,
arginine,
alanine).
nine). and ala- tory, and water-retention fect, improve skin elasticity, and reduce
threonine, glycine, serine, and ala- tory, andproperties.
water-retention wrinkles.
fect, improve skin elasticity, and reduce
nine).serine, and ala-
threonine, glycine, properties. wrinkles.
nine). properties. wrinkles.
Citrus limon nine).
Citrus limon
Citrus limon
Citrus limon Citrus limon extracts
Citrus limon Flavanones (e.g., hesperidin), citral, Citrus limonhave antiaging
extracts haveand
Citrus limon extracts have antiaging and
Citrus limon Flavanones
Flavanones (e.g.,
(e.g., hesperidin),
hesperidin), citral, Antioxidant properties. depigmenting effects, and reduce acne
D-limonene, and β-pinene. Antioxidant properties. Citrus antiaging
limon
depigmenting extractsand
have
effects, depigmenting
andantiaging and
reduce acne
citral,
Flavanones D-limonene,
(e.g.,
D-limonene, and
hesperidin), citral, Antioxidant properties. Citrus limon extracts
and hair have antiaging
disorders. and
Flavanones (e.g., and β-pinene.citral,
hesperidin), Antioxidant properties. Citrus effects,
depigmenting
limon and reduce
effects,
extracts
and hair acne and
andantiaging
have reduce acne
disorders. and
Flavanones β-pinene.
D-limonene, and β-pinene.
(e.g., hesperidin), citral, Antioxidant properties. depigmenting effects, and reduce acne
D-limonene, and β-pinene. Antioxidant properties. depigmenting hair
and hair disorders.
disorders.
effects, and reduce acne
D-limonene, and β-pinene. and hair disorders.
Opuntia ficus indica. and hair disorders.
Opuntia ficus indica.
Opuntia
Opuntia ficus indica.
ficus indica.
Opuntia ficus indica. Stimulate cell renewal,
Opuntia ficus indica. Stimulate cell renewal, Opuntia ficus indica extracts have antiaging
Linoleic acid, oleic, and stearic acid. supporting
Stimulate
Stimulate skin
cell
cell moisturiz-
renewal,Opuntia
renewal, ficus indicaficus
Opuntia extracts haveextracts
indica antiaging
Linoleic acid, acid,
Linoleic oleic, oleic,
and stearic
and acid. supporting
Stimulate skin
cell moisturiz-
renewal, properties
Opuntia for skin,
ficus indica hair,
extracts andantiaging
have nails.
Linoleic acid, oleic, and stearic acid. ing and
supportingcollagen
supporting production.
skinproduction.
skin moisturiz- properties
Opuntia have
moisturizing for
ficus indicaskin, hair,
extracts
antiaging and nails.for
have antiaging
properties
Linoleic acid, oleic,acid.
and stearic acid. ing Stimulate
supporting cell
and collagen
skin renewal,
moisturiz- Opuntia
stearic properties
ficus for skin,
indica hair,have
extracts andantiaging
nails.
Linoleic acid, oleic, and stearic acid. ing andcollagen
and collagen
supporting production. propertiesskin,
skin production.
moisturiz-
ing and collagen production.
for skin,
hair,hair,
andand nails.
nails.
properties for skin, hair, and nails.
Ficus carica. ing and collagen production.
Ficus carica.
Ficus carica. Ficus carica extract restores the regular epi-
Ficus carica. Ficus carica extract
Ficus carica.
Ficus carica. Ficus
dermal, caricarestores
improves extract
skin
the regularthe
restores
lightness,
epi-
reduces
Ficin and phenolic compounds. Ficus
Antioxidant properties. Ficus carica
dermal, extract restores
improves skin the regular
lightness, epi-
reduces
Ficin and phenolic compounds. carica
sebum
Antioxidant properties. Ficus extract
regular restores
epidermal,
production, the
exfoliation, regular
improves epi-
hyperpig-
dermal, improves
carica extract skin lightness,
restores the reduces
regular epi-
FicinFicin
and phenolic compounds.
and phenolic Antioxidant properties. sebum
dermal,production,
improves
skin
mentation,
exfoliation,
skin
lightness,
wrinkle, lightness,
reduces
acne,
hyperpig-
reduces
sebum
and hyperpig-
freckles.
Ficin and phenolic compounds. Antioxidant
Antioxidantproperties. sebum
properties. sebum
dermal,production,
improves
mentation, wrinkle, exfoliation,
skin lightness,
acne, reduces
and hyperpig-
freckles.
compounds.
Ficin and phenolic compounds. Antioxidant properties. production,
production,exfoliation,
exfoliation,
mentation,
sebum wrinkle,
production, acne, andhyperpig-
exfoliation, freckles.
mentation, wrinkle, acne, andwrinkle,
hyperpigmentation, freckles.
Cynara scolymus. mentation, wrinkle, acne, and freckles.
Cynara scolymus. acne, and freckles.
Cynara scolymus.
Cynara scolymus. ROS-scavenging effect, anti-
Cynara scolymus.
Cynara scolymus. ROS-scavenging effect, anti- Cynara scolymus extracts have a photopro-
inflammatory effect,
ROS-scavenging modu-
effect, anti- Cynara scolymus extracts have a photopro-
Phenolic compounds. inflammatory effect,
ROS-scavenging modu-
effect, anti- tective scolymus
Cynara effect and increase
extracts roughness
have and
a photopro-
Phenolic compounds. lation of
inflammatory genes involved
effect, modu- in Cynara effect
tective scolymusand increase
extracts roughness
have and
a photopro-
Phenolic compounds.
ROS-scavenging
ROS-scavenging
lation effect,
of geneseffect,
inflammatory involved effect,
anti-
modu- in Cynara
tective
Cynara
effect and
scolymus
skinincrease
extracts
elasticity.
roughness
have
and
antiaging processes. scolymus extracts
skin increase have
elasticity. a photopro-
Phenolic compounds. lation of genes involved
anti-inflammatory
inflammatory
antiaging effect, in tective effect
effect,
modu-
processes. and
a photoprotective roughness
effect and and
Phenolic
Phenoliccompounds.
compounds. lation of genes involved in tective effect skinincrease
and elasticity.
roughness and
antiaging
modulation
lation processes.
of
of genes genes
involved involved
in skinroughness
increase elasticity. and skin
antiaging processes. skin elasticity.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 Flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, querce- in antiaging
antiaging processes.
processes. elasticity. 14 of 28
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 Flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, querce- Carica papaya extracts reduce skin 14 ery-
of 28
tin, myricetin,
Flavonoids and
(e.g., glycosides),
kaempferol, phe- ROS=scavenging effect, and Carica papaya extracts reduce skin ery-
querce-
Carica papaya. tin, myricetin,
Flavonoids and glycosides), phe- ROS=scavenging effect, and thema, proteolytic wound debridement,
Carica papaya. nolic
tin, acids(e.g.,
(e.g.,
myricetin, and
kaempferol,
ferulic acid, querce-
glycosides),caffeic anti-inflammatory
phe- ROS=scavenging effects.
effect,
Carica proteolytic
and thema,
Carica
papaya extracts
papaya wound
extracts
reduce skin ery-
debridement,
reduce skin ery-
Flavonoids
acids (e.g.,
nolicmyricetin,
(e.g., kaempferol,
ferulic querce-
acid, caffeic anti-inflammatory effects. and haveantibacterial effects.
Carica
Carica papaya.
papaya. tin,
acid), cysteineand glycosides),
endopeptidases. phe- ROS=scavenging effect, and thema,
Carica
and proteolytic
papaya wound
extracts
haveantibacterial debridement,
reduce skin ery-
effects.
Carica papaya. nolic
tin, acids (e.g.,
myricetin,
acid), cysteineandferulic acid, caffeic
glycosides),
endopeptidases. anti-inflammatory
phe- ROS=scavenging effect, and thema, proteolytic wound debridement,
effects.
Carica papaya. nolic acids (e.g., ferulic acid, caffeic anti-inflammatory effects. thema, and haveantibacterial
proteolytic effects.
wound debridement,
acid),
nolic cysteine
acids endopeptidases.
(e.g., ferulic acid, caffeic anti-inflammatory effects. and haveantibacterial effects.
acid), cysteine
Flavonoids endopeptidases.
(e.g., kaempferol, and haveantibacterial effects.
acid), cysteine endopeptidases. Carica papaya extracts reduce
quercetin, myricetin, and
ROS=scavenging effect, and skin erythema, proteolytic
glycosides), phenolic acids
anti-inflammatory effects. wound debridement, and
(e.g., ferulic acid, caffeic acid),
haveantibacterial effects.
cysteine endopeptidases.

Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice). Glycyrrhiza glabraprevent

extracts
Glycyrrhizaglabra
glabra (licorice).
(licorice). Glycyrrhiza glabra extracts pig-
Glycyrrhiza Glycyrrhiza glabra extracts prevent
Flavonoids (e.g., glabridin, glabrene, Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- mentation prevent
disorders pigmentation
(e.g., age spots,pig-
me-
Flavonoids (e.g., glabridin, glabrene, Antioxidant,
Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- mentation disorders (e.g., age spots,
spots, me-
Flavonoids (e.g.,
isoliquiritigenin, glabridin,
licochalcone A, and tory, and modulation of di- lasma, anddisorders
sites (e.g.,
of actinic age
damage) as deo-
isoliquiritigenin, licochalcone A, and anti-inflammatory,
tory, and modulation ofand
di- lasma, and sites of actinic damage)
glabrene, isoliquiritigenin,
liquiritin). acetyl production. melasma,
dorant properties and
andsites hairdeo-
as
of actinic
improve
modulation of diacetyl
licochalcone liquiritin).
A, and liquiritin). acetyl production. dorant properties
damage) and
as
growth. improve
deodorant hair
production. growth.
properties and improve
Theobroma cacao.
Theobroma cacao. hair growth.
Polyphenols (e.g., flavan-3-ols, proan- Theobroma cacao
Polyphenols (e.g.,
thocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, and
anthocyanins) proan-Antioxidant and anti-inflam- extracts haveTheobroma cacao properties
photoprotective
thocyanidins, anthocyanins)
methylxanthines (e.g., theobromineand Antioxidant and anti-inflam-
matory properties. extracts have photoprotective
and regulate collagen I, III, andproperties
IV and
methylxanthines (e.g., theobromine
and caffeine). matory properties. andglycosaminoglycan
regulate collagen I,production.
III, and IV and
and caffeine). glycosaminoglycan production.

Prunus dulcis Triterpenoids (e.g., urosolic, betulinic,

Prunus dulcis Triterpenoids
and oleanolic (e.g., urosolic,
acids), betulinic,
catechin, flavo-
and oleanolic acids), catechin, flavo- Prunus dulcis extracts reduce eczema and
nol glycosides, phenolic acids (e.g., Prunus dulcis extracts reduce eczema and
Antioxidant properties. pimples. Almond oil nourishes, softens,
protocatechuic acid and vanillic (e.g.,
nol glycosides, phenolic acids acid), Antioxidant properties. pimples. Almond oil nourishes, softens,
protocatechuic acid andand
vanillic acid), and strengthens the hair.
phytosterol, fatty acids, lipid-sol- and strengthens the hair.
phytosterol,uble
fatty acids,
vitamins. and lipid-sol-
uble vitamins.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 14 of 28

Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice).

Glycyrrhiza glabra extracts prevent pig-
Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice). Flavonoids (e.g., glabridin, glabrene, Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- mentation disorders (e.g., age spots, me-
Glycyrrhiza glabra extracts prevent pig-
isoliquiritigenin, licochalcone A, and
Table tory, and modulation of di- lasma, and sites of actinic damage) as deo-
Cont.
1. Antioxidant,
Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice). Flavonoids (e.g., glabridin, glabrene, anti-inflamma- mentation disorders (e.g., age spots, me-
liquiritin). acetyl production. dorant properties
Glycyrrhiza glabra and improve
extracts prevent hair
isoliquiritigenin, licochalcone A, and tory, and modulation of di- lasma, and sites of actinic damage) aspig-
deo-
FOODS Bioactive
Flavonoids (e.g., Molecules
glabridin, glabrene, Bioactivity
Antioxidant, anti-inflamma- mentation growth.
Cosmetic Relevance
liquiritin). acetyl production. dorant properties and improve hairme-
disorders (e.g., age spots,
Theobroma cacao. isoliquiritigenin, licochalcone A, and tory, and modulation of di- lasma, and sites of actinic damage) as deo-
growth.
Theobroma cacao. Theobroma cacao hair
Polyphenols liquiritin).
(e.g., flavan-3-ols, acetyl production. dorant properties and improve
Theobroma cacao. Polyphenols (e.g., flavan-3-ols, proan- Theobroma
extracts have
growth. cacao
photoprotective
proanthocyanidins,
thocyanidins, anthocyanins) and Antioxidant and anti-inflam- extracts have photoprotective properties
Polyphenols (e.g., flavan-3-ols, Antioxidant and properties
Theobroma and cacaoregulate
Theobroma cacao. anthocyanins)
methylxanthines and proan-
(e.g., theobromine matory properties. and regulate collagen I, III, and
thocyanidins, anthocyanins) anti-inflammatory properties. collagen I, III, and IVIVandand
methylxanthines
and caffeine). (e.g., and Antioxidant and anti-inflam- extracts have photoprotective properties
glycosaminoglycan production.
Polyphenols
methylxanthines(e.g., flavan-3-ols,
(e.g., proan-
theobromine matory properties. and regulate glycosaminoglycan
Theobroma
collagen cacao
I, III, and IV and
theobromine and caffeine).
thocyanidins, anthocyanins) and Antioxidant and anti-inflam- extracts
and caffeine). glycosaminoglycanproduction.
have photoprotective properties
production.
Prunus dulcis methylxanthines (e.g., theobromine matory properties. and regulate collagen I, III, and IV and
Triterpenoids (e.g., urosolic, betulinic,
Triterpenoids (e.g., urosolic,
and caffeine). glycosaminoglycan production.
Prunus dulcis
Prunus dulcis and oleanolic acids), catechin, flavo-
betulinic, and
Triterpenoids (e.g.,oleanolic
urosolic,acids),
betulinic, Prunus dulcis extracts reduce eczema and
nol glycosides, phenolic acids (e.g.,
catechin,
and flavonol
oleanolic glycosides,
acids), catechin, flavo- Antioxidant properties. pimples. Prunus
Almond dulcis extracts reduce
oil nourishes, softens,
Prunus dulcis protocatechuic
Triterpenoids acid urosolic,
(e.g., and vanillic acid),
betulinic, Prunus dulcis extracts reduce eczema and
phenolic
nol glycosides, acids (e.g.,
phenolic acids (e.g., eczema and pimples.
and strengthens the hair. Almond
phytosterol, fatty
andprotocatechuic
oleanolic acids,
acids), and lipid-sol-
catechin, Antioxidant
Antioxidant properties. pimples. Almond oil nourishes, softens,
properties.
protocatechuic acid andacid and flavo-
vanillic acid), oil nourishes,
Prunus dulcis extracts reduce softens, andand
eczema
nol uble vitamins.
glycosides, phenolic acids (e.g., and strengthens the hair.
phytosterol, fatty acids,
vanillic acid), and lipid-sol-
phytosterol, Antioxidant properties. pimples. Almondstrengthens the hair.
oil nourishes, softens,
Coconut protocatechuic acid
ubleacids,
fatty and
vitamins.
and vanillic acid),
and strengthens the hair.
phytosterol, fatty acids,
lipid-soluble vitamins. and lipid-sol- Coconut oil inhibits UV light-mediated
Coconut
uble vitamins. skin aging, moisturizes skin, reduces pro-
Fatty acids (e.g., myristic, lauric, and Antioxidant and anti-inflam- Coconut oil inhibits UVinhibits
light-mediated
Coconut
Coconut tein loss in Coconut
the hair, isoila useful scrub, UVand
palmitic acids). matory properties. skin aging, moisturizes skin,
light-mediated reduces
skin aging,pro-
Fatty acids (e.g., myristic, lauric, and Antioxidant and anti-inflam- can be
Coconutused as
oil a deodorant. Coconut milk
tein theinhibits
hair, isUV
loss inmoisturizes a skin,light-mediated
useful scrub, and
reduces
palmitic acids). matory properties. softens the skin
skin aging, and removes
moisturizes black spots.
skin,Coconut
reduces pro-
Fatty
Fatty acids
acids (e.g.,(e.g., myristic,
myristic, Antioxidant
lauric, and Antioxidant and can be used
and anti-inflam- as a deodorant.
protein loss in the hair, ismilk
a
tein loss
softens the in the hair,
skinscrub, is a
and removes useful scrub,
black and
spots.
palmitic
lauric, and acids).
palmitic acids). matory properties.
anti-inflammatory properties. useful and can be used
can be used as a deodorant. Coconut milk
as a deodorant. Coconut milk
9.2. Coffea arabica softens the skin and removes black spots.
softens the skin and removes
9.2. Coffea arabica (Table 1) contains antioxidant compounds such as black
Coffeaarabica spots.
proanthocyanidins,
quinic acid,arabica
Coffea caffeic acid, and chlorogenic acid [157], acting as skin-lightening agents, de-
9.2. Coffea arabica (Table 1) contains antioxidant compounds such as proanthocyanidins,
creasing
quinic ROS
acid, formation
caffeic acid, and and chlorogenic
tyrosinase synthesis
acid [157], [158,159].
acting asInskin-lightening
addition, the use of 0.1%
agents, de-
9.2. Coffea
Coffea arabica
arabica (Table 1) contains antioxidant compounds such fine
as proanthocyanidins,
coffeeberry cleanser and 1% coffeeberry cream enhances wrinkle,
creasing ROS formation and tyrosinase synthesis [158,159]. In addition, the use of 0.1% line, and pigmen-
quinicCoffea
tation acid,
in caffeic
arabica
patients acid,
(Table
with and chlorogenic
1) contains
actinic damageantioxidant
after acid [157],
a 6-week acting
compounds
treatment as such
skin-lightening
period agents, de-
as proanthocyanidins,
coffeeberry cleanser and 1% coffeeberry cream enhances wrinkle, fine[160].
line, and pigmen-
creasing
quinic acid,ROScaffeic
formation acid,and andtyrosinase
chlorogenic synthesis [158,159].
acid [157], acting Inas addition, the use of
skin-lightening 0.1%
agents,
tation in patients with actinic damage after a 6-week treatment period [160].
coffeeberry
decreasing
9.3. cleanser
ROS formation
Vitis vinifera and 1% and coffeeberry
tyrosinase cream enhances
synthesis wrinkle,In
[158,159]. fine line, andthe
addition, pigmen-
use of
tation in patients cleanser
0.1% coffeeberry with actinic anddamage after a 6-week
1% coffeeberry cream treatment period [160].
enhances wrinkle, fine line, and pig-
9.3. Vitis
Vitisvinifera
vinifera (Table 1) contains resveratrol, a stilbene with antioxidant properties able
mentation in patients with actinic damage after a 6-week treatment period [160].
to control skin cancer,
Vitisvinifera
vinifera (TableUV light-mediated
1) contains skin aaging,
resveratrol, stilbeneandwithother inflammatory
antioxidant disorders
properties able
9.3. Vitis
[161].
to Grape
control
9.3. Vitis skin seed
vinifera polyphenolic
cancer, compounds
UV light-mediated (proanthocyanidins
skin and procyanidins)
aging, and other inflammatory have
disorders
Vitis viniferaproperties
skin-lightening (Table 1) contains resveratrol,
[162]compounds
since they can a inhibit
stilbeneROS withand antioxidant
scavenge properties
free radicalsable
[161]. Grape
Vitis seed(Table
vinifera polyphenolic
1) contains resveratrol, (proanthocyanidins
a aging,
stilbeneandwith and
antioxidant procyanidins)
properties have
able to
to control skin cancer,
[157,162]. The lightning UV light-mediated
mechanism exhibitedskinby inhibit other
proanthocyanidins inflammatory
is related disorders
to their an-
skin-lightening
control skin properties
cancer, UV [162] since
light-mediated they
skin can
aging, and ROSinflammatory
other and scavenge free
disorders radicals
[161].
[161]. Grape
tioxidant seed polyphenolic
properties ablemechanism
to reduce compounds
melanin (proanthocyanidins
biosynthesis. The oraland intake procyanidins)
of proanthocya- have
[157,162].
Grape Thepolyphenolic
seed lightning compounds exhibited by proanthocyanidins
(proanthocyanidins and is related
procyanidins) tohave
theirskin-
an-
skin-lightening
nidin-rich grape properties
seed extract [162]
enhancessincehyperpigmentation
they can inhibit ROS in and scavenge
women with free radicals
chloasma [162].
tioxidant properties
lighteningThe properties able
[162] to reduce melanin
since theyexhibited biosynthesis.
can inhibit The oral intake of proanthocya-
[157,162]. lightning mechanism by ROS and scavenge free
proanthocyanidins radicals
is related to [157,162].
their an-
nidin-rich
The grape
lightning seed extractexhibited
mechanism enhancesby hyperpigmentation
proanthocyanidins inis women
related with
to chloasma
their [162].
antioxidant
tioxidant properties
9.4. Pomegranate able to reduce melanin biosynthesis. The oral intake of proanthocya-
propertiesgrape
nidin-rich able to reduce
seed extract melanin
enhances biosynthesis. The oral intake
hyperpigmentation in women of proanthocyanidin-rich
with chloasma [162].
9.4. Pomegranate
grapePunica granatum
seed extract (pomegranate)
enhances (Table 1) contains
hyperpigmentation in womenellagic acid, punicalagin,
with chloasma [162]. and
punicic acid. The ellagic acid and punicalagin enhance skin
Punica granatum (pomegranate) (Table 1) contains ellagic acid, punicalagin, and health by impeding tyrosinase
9.4. Pomegranate
9.4. promoting
and Pomegranate
punicic acid. Theantifungal
ellagic acid and
andanti-inflammatory
punicalagin enhance effects
skin[163–165]. In addition,
health by impeding punicic
tyrosinase
acid Punica
acts granatum
against (pomegranate)
UV-induced radiation (Table
[166]. 1)Ellagic
contains acid ellagic
is a acid, punicalagin,
phenolic component and
ap-
Punica granatum
and promoting (pomegranate)
antifungal (Table 1) contains
and anti-inflammatory ellagic
effects acid, punicalagin,
[163–165]. In addition,and puni-
punicic
punicic
proved acid. The ellagic acid and punicalagin enhance skin health by impeding tyrosinase
acid actsasagainst
cic acid. a lightening
The ellagic ingredient
acid
UV-induced for cosmetic
and radiation
punicalagin formulations
enhance
[166]. Ellagic skin issince
acidhealth byit impeding
a phenolicchelates copper
component ions
tyrosinase
ap-
and
and promoting
present inatyrosinase
promoting antifungalenzymes
antifungal and
andanti-inflammatory
[167] and decreases
anti-inflammatory effects [163–165].
UVB-induced
effects [163–165]. In addition,
hyperpigmentation
In addition, punicic
proved as lightening ingredient for cosmetic formulations since it chelates copper puni-
ions
acid actsacts
cic acid against UV-induced
against UV-induced radiation
radiation[166]. Ellagic
[166]. acidacid
Ellagic is a is
phenolic
a phenolic component
component ap-
present in tyrosinase enzymes [167] and decreases UVB-induced hyperpigmentation
proved as a lightening ingredient for cosmetic formulations
approved as a lightening ingredient for cosmetic formulations since it chelates copper since it chelates copper ions
present in tyrosinase
ions present in tyrosinase enzymes enzymes [167][167]
and anddecreases
decreases UVB-induced
UVB-induced hyperpigmentation
hyperpigmenta-
tion [168]. Pomegranate also can improve the thickness, hydration, elasticity values of
the dermis [169], skin wrinkling [170], and decrease glycation scavenging free radical and
inhibiting fructosamine formation in the Maillard reaction [171]. In addition, skin glycation
affects collagen deteriorating skin elasticity. Therefore, pomegranate extract eliminates
wrinkles due to damage from UV and skin aging.
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 15 of 28

9.5. Soybeans
Glycine max (soybean) (Table 1) contains the isoflavone genistein that can reduce UV-
induced oxidative DNA damage [172] and skin photodamage [173–175]. The isoflavones
can stimulate fibroblast proliferation, decrease collagen breakdown, and impede the protein
tyrosine kinase activity [176–179]. The extracts containing more than one isoflavone and
aglycone form of isoflavones (unconjugated forms) have higher beneficial effects [180–182].
Some antiaging sunscreens and facial moisturizers contain genistein.

9.6. Aloe vera

Aloe vera (Table 1) contains aloesin [183], which produces a skin-lightening effect, in-
hibits melanogenesis, and decreases tyrosinase and DOPA polymerase actions [156,183–185].
Mucopolysaccharides and the amino acid profile of Aloe vera (e.g., arginine, histidine, thre-
onine, glycine, serine, and alanine) improve water retention in the stratum corneum [186].
Aloe gel has antioxidant properties. It enhances the metallothionein, superoxide dismu-
tases, and glutathione peroxidase activities in skin-cells act. Aloe makes the skin elastic and
reduces wrinkles, improving elastin and collagen production by fibroblasts [187]. Aloe gel
has wound-healing effects. It keeps the wound moist, reduces the inflammation process,
and enhances the epithelial cell migration and rapid maturation of collagen [188]. Finally,
Aloe gel promotes hair growth through pilosebaceous targeting in a rat model [189].

9.7. Citrus limon

Hesperidin (flavanone) and ascorbic acid in lemon (Table 1) can decrease tyrosinase activ-
ity and prevent melanin biosynthesis [157,183]. Additionally, citral, D-limonene, and β-pinene
have a depigmenting effect. They decrease tyrosinase activity and L-dihydroxyphenylalanine
(L-DOPA) oxidation [190]. Hesperidin and ascorbic acid are used in antiaging cosmetics since
they are antioxidant compounds [40,191,192]. Hyalurosomes and glycerosomes carriers are
used to meliorate the antioxidant potential of lemon extracts in skin-building structures [193].
Vitamin C is used in antiaging products to reduce thin wrinkles, improving collagen pro-
duction [191]. Lemon-derived products positively affect acne-prone skin that is affected by
mycosis and sunburn [194]. Lemon juice mixed with olive oil is used to treat scalp and hair
disorders [195].

9.8. Opuntia ficus indica

Opuntia ficus indica (Table 1) has restorative and antiaging properties for skin, hair,
and nails. The high levels of linoleic acid stimulate cell renewal, favoring deep and quick
penetration through dermal layers, oleic and stearic acid supporting the skin moisturizing
and collagen production, whereas palmitic acid prevents wrinkles, reinforcing the skin’s
barrier function [196].

9.9. Ficus carica

Ficus carica (Table 1) contains ficin and phenolic compounds that can be used to for-
mulate skincare products for dry and stressed skin [197]. The phytochemicals contained
in Ficus carica extracts alleviate skin damage due to stress hormone activity, such as oxi-
dation, inflammation, skin turning to a pale color, and alteration of the skin barrier. The
treatment with Ficus carica extract restores the regular epidermal, improves skin lightness,
and reduces sebum production and exfoliation in the clinical tests [16]. A topical cream
containing Ficus carica fruit extract can reduce hyperpigmentation, wrinkles, acne, and
freckles [198].

9.10. Cynara scolymus

The extract of Cynara scolymus (Table 1) has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant prop-
erties. Furthermore, it enhances the vasodilatation and microcirculation of endothelial
cells, decreases NO production, defends the lymphatic vessels from ROS formation, and
improves cellular cohesion by reinforcing the tight junction complex [199]. In addition,
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 16 of 28

it increases roughness and skin elasticity. Therefore, the extracts of Cynara scolymus in
cosmetic formulations are used as a photoprotective agent and enhance roughness and
skin elasticity [200].

9.11. Carica papaya

The Carica papaya (Table 1) is used in anti-skin aging cosmetics since it contains
flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, and their glycosides) and phenolic acids
(e.g., ferulic acid, caffeic acid) [201,202] that have an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
action [203,204]. The Carica papaya fruit metabolites can scavenge ROS, decrease NF-
κB, improve SOD and CAT activities [204], downregulate MMPs expression, and have
photoprotective action against collagen degradation. Caffeic acid reduces skin erythema
via inhibitory action towards NF-κB and AP-1 signaling [205]. Cysteine endopeptidases
and chymopapain have proteolytic wound-debridement and antibacterial effects [206–209].

9.12. Glycyrrhiza glabra

Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) (Table 1) has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and UV pro-
tection potential [210]. It contains flavonoids (e.g., glabridin, glabrene, isoliquiritigenin,
licochalcone A, and liquiritin) with depigmenting abilities and tyrosinase inhibition ef-
fects [211] used to prevent pigmentation disorders (e.g., age spots, melasma, and sites of
actinic damage) [212]. In addition, the Glycyrrhiza glabra extract can be used as a deodorant
agent since it decreases the unpleasant odors emanated from the feet, axillae, and head
regions, preventing the diacetyl formation produced by resident skin bacteria [213]. Finally,
the hydro-alcoholic extract of licorice improves hair growth [214].

9.13. Theobroma cacao

Cocoa beans (Table 1) contain polyphenols (e.g., flavan-3-ols, proanthocyanidins,
anthocyanins) and methylxanthines (e.g., theobromine and caffeine) [215] that have an-
tioxidant and antiradical properties [216,217]. Topical application of Cocoa polyphenols
regulates collagen I, III, and IV and glycosaminoglycan production [216]. Their oral con-
sumption has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and photoprotective [217]. The cocoa extract
incorporated into microemulsion is used in skincare formulation [218].

9.14. Prunus dulcis (Almonds)

Almonds are rich in triterpenoids (e.g., urosolic, betulinic, and oleanolic acids), cat-
echin, flavonol glycosides, phenolic acids (e.g., protocatechuic acid and vanillic acid),
phytosterols, fatty acids, and lipid-soluble vitamins [219,220]. The Prunus dulcis extract has
antioxidant properties [221]. It can be used to treat eczema and pimples [222]. The almond
oil nourishes, softens, and strengthens the hair [223].

9.15. Coconut
Coconut oils have oxidative stability ascribable to high contents of saturated fatty
acids (e.g., myristic, lauric, and palmitic acids) [224]. Coconut oil protects our skin from
UV rays. It can block 20% of UV rays [225]. Coconut milk softens the skin and removes
black spots on the face because it is rich in natural fatty acids and contains antiseptics [226].
Consumption of coconut oil has potent anti-inflammatory effects [227]. Topic application
of coconut oil on the limbs can moisturize skin [228]. Instead, it reduces protein loss
if put to the hair before or after shampooing [229]. Coconut oil can be used as natural
deodorant [228], body scrub, lip scrub, shaving cream, and personal cleansing agents (e.g.,
soaps, shampoo, and detergents) [229–232].

10. Strategies in the Delivery of Natural Products in Cosmetic Formulations

Many natural products with cosmetic potential are unable to penetrate the skin, are
unstable to the environment, degrade in the gastric, are poorly bioavailable and soluble,
and have a rapid metabolism and uncontrolled-release; therefore, they cannot be used in
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 17 of 28

cosmetic formulations because they are unable to carry out their biological activity [233].
Some delivery systems are used to solve this problem. Among these, food-grade materials
from proteins (e.g., whey proteins, gelatins, caseins, cereal proteins, soy proteins, and pulse
proteins), lipids, and polysaccharides (e.g., starch, pectins, cellulose, alginate, chitosan, and
gums) are employed due to their safety and biodegradability. For example, pomegranate
bioactive compounds are added in several nanostructures (e.g., nanoemulsion, phytosomes,
nanoliposomes, nanoparticles, niosomes, and nanovesicles) to be transported to the site’s
action [234].

10.1. Lipid-Based Nano-Encapsulation Systems

The lipid-based nano-encapsulation systems are broadly used since they are stable,
control release, and sustain release profiles [235].

10.1.1. Liposomes
The liposomes are cell-like spherical bilayer vesicles with unilamellar or multilamellar
structures that can protect and encapsulate lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds. They
are generally made with phosphatidylcholine [235–238] and have a hydrophobic tail and
hydrophilic head [239]. They can have a variable size (from 20 nm to several microme-
ters) [238]. Vitamins (e.g., A, E, and K) and antioxidants (e.g., CoQ10, carotenoids, and
lycopene) are included in liposomes to improve their chemical and physical stability when
they are dispersed in water [240]. At 4–25 ◦ C, the stability of liposomes in an aqueous or
hydroalcoholic jelly environment varies from 2–3 years. Liposomes made by polymeriza-
tion of phospholipids covered by a mixture of polysaccharide and collagen, γ-globulin, or
albumin are also stable [241]. Liposome stability is preserved by employing phospholipids
with saturated acyl chains (e.g., hydrogenated soybean) to prevent oxidation and avoid the
hydrolysis of the ester groups at pH values near the 4.5–6.5 or dispersing liposomes in a
lipid solution with surfactant [242]. Some specialized liposomes are made with enzymes
such as ultrasomes (they contains an enzyme extracted from Micrococcus luteus that can
recognize sun damage and remove the damaged DNA), and photosomes (they contains a
photo-reactivating enzyme extracted from a marine plant that can protect from sunlight
injuries) [241].

10.1.2. Niosomes
Niosomes are cell-like spherical bilayer nano-vesicles with unilamellar or multilamel-
lar structures. They are made up of self-assembly of hydrated nonionic surfactants (e.g.,
spans, brijs, tweens, sorbitan ester, alkyl amides, crown ester, steroid-linked surfactants, and
polyoxyethylene alkyl ether), with or without cholesterol or lipids [243]. Their size ranges
vary from 100 nm to 2 µm [244]. Numerous moisturizing, anti-wrinkle, skin-whitening
creams, conditioners, and hair-repairing shampoos are formulated with noisome [245,246].

10.2. Nanoemulsions
The nanoemulsions are a dispersion of liquids in which a surfactant combines the
oil phase and water phase stably. There are three types of nanoemulsions (water in oil,
oil in water, and bicontinuous nanoemulsion) with variable sizes from 50 nm to 200 nm.
They generally have low viscosity, high interfacial area, high solubilization capacity, and
high kinetic stability [247]. In cosmetics, nanoemulsions are used to make available rapid
penetration and active transport of active ingredients, improve infiltration in narrow gaps,
and hydration to the skin in lotions, sunscreens, deodorants, shampoos, conditioners, hair
serums, and nail enamels [248].

10.3. Nanoparticles
The nanoparticles differ in chemical compositions and morphologies. Nevertheless,
they are used in sunscreen preparations (e.g., TiO2 -nanoparticles, ZnO-nanoparticles, CeO2 -
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 18 of 28

nanoparticle, and ZrO2 -nanoparticles) and physical UV filters [223]. In addition, silica and
clay nanoparticles are added as thickeners [249,250].
The “gold nanoparticles” (range from 5 to 400 nm in size) display various forms
(e.g., nanosphere, nanoshell, nanocube, nanostar, nanocluster, nanorod, and nano-triangles
branched). They have essential characteristics such as non-cytotoxicity, inertness, highly
stable nature, biocompatibility, antibacterial and antifungal properties. They are used in
face packs, antiaging creams, deodorant, lotion, etc. [251].
The “lipid nanoparticles” (nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and solid lipid nanopar-
ticles (SLN)) are used for the controlled release of actives and to improve skin hydration,
enhancing the effect of occlusion. In addition, they improve the chemical stability of
compounds light-sensitive and susceptible to hydrolysis and oxidation. Lipid nanoparti-
cles are used to transport retinol, coenzyme Q10, tocopherol, and ascorbyl palmitate in
cosmetics [252,253].

10.4. Silicone Matrices and Vesicles

Silicones, in association with various active ingredients (e.g., aluminum, zirconium,
and tetrachlorohydrex), can act as delivery vesicles for cosmetic actives. The silicon vesicles
reduce stickiness and defend the actives from hydrolysis. Silicones are used in cosmetics
for sunlight protection (stearyl dimethicone improves the sun-protection factor) and hair-
care formulations since they enhance shine, conditioning, manageability, and decrease
flyway [241].

10.5. Multi-Walled Delivery Systems

The multi-walled delivery system (MDS) mixes structured vesicle-forming ingredients
and high-shear processing to give long-term stability to cosmetic formulations. Am-
phiphilic molecules (e.g., derivatives of polyglycerols, oleic acid, and amino acid residues)
make MDS. As a result, MDS gives stability to liposomes and sustains and defends the
skin, optimizing cosmetic product performance [254].

10.6. Emulsions
Some emulsion delivery systems (e.g., microemulsion, nanoemulsions, liquid crystal,
multiple emulsions, and Pickering emulsions) are employed in cosmetics.
Microemulsions have a diameter < 100 nm. They are transparent (or translucent)
dispersions of oil and water stabilized by surfactant/s molecules and co-surfactant/s. The
surfactants have non-ionic groups, which determines their excellent cutaneous tolerance
and balanced lipophilic and hydrophilic properties. The co-surfactants enhance interfacial
fluidity, and regulate the Hydrophilic–Lipophilic Balance (HLB) of surfactants. Microemul-
sions are employed in the moisturizing formulation. They have an excellent aesthetic
appearance, apply easily, and give no tackiness in the treated area [255]. Multifunctional
silicone quaternary polymer microemulsions are used in hair-care formulation. They give
protection from heat and conditioning, increase color retention, body volume, and product
clarity [256]. Nanoemulsions have droplet diameter < 100 nm. They have good sensorial
properties (e.g., merging textures, rapid penetration) and hydrating power. They are used
in ringing gels, water-like fluids, transparent milk, lotions, and crystal-clear gels. Cationic
nanoemulsions are employed in hair-care formulation to enhance the dry hair aspect (after
several shampoos) [257].
Liquid crystals are a state of incomplete melting. They increase emulsion stability,
act as rheological barriers to coalescence, and improve the cosmetic demand since the
preparations into which they are incorporated have a colored appearance. Lipophilic
materials into a liquid–crystalline matrix are protected from photo and thermal degrada-
tion [258]. Multiple emulsions are emulsions in which the dispersed phase encapsulate tiny
droplets. The multiple emulsions can be Water/Oil/Water (W/O/W), in which external
water phases are separated from an oil layer, and Oil/Water/Oil (O/W/O), in which water
parts the two oil phases. In cosmetics, the most used type is W/O/W. They require two
Molecules 2021, 26, 3921 19 of 28

stabilizing surfactants, a low HLB (decaglycerol decaoleate, mixed triglycerol trioleate, or

sorbitan trioleate forming a primary emulsion) and higher HLB surfactant (poloxamers and
polysorbates to achieve the secondary emulsification) [259]. In cosmetics, they are used in
personal care formulations containing skin lipids, perfumes, free radical scavengers, and
vitamins [260]. Pickering emulsions are solid particles (e.g., zinc oxide or titanium dioxide)
stabilized emulsions of water-in-oil (w/o), oil-in-water (o/w), or even multiple emulsions.
They give a dry or dull impression on the skin, which the addition of cyclodextrin can
overcome [261].

11. Conclusions
A significant correlation between the intake of food supplements and the skin’s
wellbeing is reported in the literature. Unfortunately, currently, no specific legislation
regulates their use as cosmetics. If many efforts have been made to improve the access
of the active ingredients to the sites of use in our body through carriers that improve
their bioavailability, there are no official or validated methods that allow us to identify
and dose all the active ingredients obtained from food. A precise knowledge of this
information would allow to maximize the cosmetic effects, reduce adverse reactions, and
above all, it would help legislators formulate rules for the use of food-borne bioactive in
cosmetic products.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, writing—review and editing, I.D.; resources, S.L. Both
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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