INDEX

TOPICS

 Certificates………………………………………………………………………………………
 Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………........

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Spur gear mechanism…………………………………………….………………………………...

3.2 DC Generator……………………………………………………………………...………………..

3.3 Charging Circuit……………………………………………….…………………………………...

3.4 Battery………………………………………………………………………….……………………

CHAPTER 3: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 4: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

The power generation which is designed to fit onto the outside of the knee, is circular and
consists of two spur gears. The spur gear rotates as the knee joint goes through a walking motion. The
knee itself is an ideal starting point for energy generation as it has a large change in angle during
walking and does so at significant speeds. A spur gear attached to the joint could therefore generate
large amounts of power.

Non-conventional energy system is very essential at this time to our nation. Non-conventional
energy using foot step is converting mechanical energy into the electrical energy. This project
using simple spur gear drive mechanism for power generation

For this project the conversion of the force energy in to electrical energy. The control
mechanism carries the spur gear mechanism, D.C generator, battery and charging circuit. We have
discussed the various applications and further extension also. The D.C generator used in this project is
Permanente Magnet D.C generator. The Generator is coupled to the Shaft with the help of Spur Gear
Mechanism.

INTRODUCTION

Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for his sustenance and well being ever
since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man required energy primarily in the
form of food. He derived this by eating plants or animals, which he hunted. Subsequently he
discovered fire and his energy needs increased as he started to make use of wood and other bio mass
to supply the energy needs for cooking as well as for keeping himself warm.

With the passage of time, man started to cultivate land for agriculture. He added a new
dimension to the use of energy by domesticating and training animals to work for him. With further
demand for energy, man began to use the wind for sailing ships and for driving windmills, and the
force of falling water to turn water for sailing ships and for driving windmills, and the force of falling
2
water to turn water wheels. Till this time, it would not be wrong to say that the sun was supplying all
the energy needs of man either directly or indirectly and that man was using only renewable sources
of energy.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The complete diagram of the Knee power generation is given below. When knee movement
gets inclined in certain small angle which is used to generate the power. The pushing power is
converted into electrical energy by proper driving arrangement. The spur gear arrangement is fixed at
the inclined movement. The spur gear is connected to shaft of the DC generator.

The smaller gear is running same direction for the forward and reverse direction of rotational
movement of the larger gear using spur gear mechanism. This action locks like a cycle pedaling
action. The fly wheel and gear wheel is also coupled to the smaller gear to the shaft. The gear wheel is
coupled to the generator shaft with the help of another gear wheel. The generator is used here, is
permanent magnet D.C generator. The generated voltage is 12Volt D.C which is used to charge the
battery using charging circuit.

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 CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction:

In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1:

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FIG 3.1: Block diagram of construction of POWER-GENERATING KNEE STRAP HINTS

The main blocks of this project are:

1. Spur gear mechanism

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 2. Generator

3. Charging Circuit

4. Battery

3.9 Mechanical Parts:

Spur gear
Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion between two shafts, normally with a
constant ratio. 

  The pinion is the smallest gear and the larger gear is called the gear wheel..   A rack is a rectangular prism
with gear teeth machined along one side- it is in effect a gear wheel with an infinite pitch circle diameter.   In
practice the action of gears in transmitting motion is a cam action each pair of mating teeth acting as
cams.  Gear design has evolved to such a level that throughout the motion of each contacting pair of teeth the
velocity ratio of the gears is maintained fixed and the velocity ratio is still fixed as each subsequent pair of
teeth come into contact.  

When the teeth action is such that the driving tooth moving at constant angular velocity produces a
proportional constant velocity of the driven tooth the action is termed a conjugate action.   The teeth shape
universally selected for the gear teeth is the involute profile.

Consider one end of a piece of string is fastened to the OD of one cylinder and the other end of
the string is fastened to the OD of another cylinder parallel to the first and both cylinders are rotated in the
opposite directions to tension the string(see figure below).   The point on the string midway between the
cylinder P is marked.   As the left hand cylinder rotates CCW the point moves towards this cylinder as it wraps
on .   The point moves away from the right hand cylinder as the string unwraps.  The point traces the involute
form of the gear teeth.

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 The lines normal to the point of contact of the gears always intersects the centre line joining
the gear centers at one point called the pitch point.  For each gear the circle passing through the pitch
point is called the pitch circle.  The gear ratio is proportional to the diameters of the two pitch
circles.  For metric gears (as adopted by most of the worlds nations) the gear proportions are based on
the module.

m = (Pitch Circle Diameter (mm)) / (Number of teeth on gear).

In the USA the module is not used and instead the Diametric Pitch d pis used

d p = (Number of Teeth) / Diametrical Pitch (inches)

Profile of a standard 1mm module gear teeth for a gear with Infinite radius (Rack ).Other
module teeth profiles are directly proportion . e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 x this profile.

Many gears trains are very low power applications with an object of transmitting motion with
minimum torque e.g. watch and clock mechanisms, instruments, toys, music boxes etc. These
applications do not require detailed strength calculations.

Standards:

 AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors and Calculation Methods for
involute Spur Gear and Helical Gear Teeth
 BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of
deviations relevant to corresponding flanks of gear teeth

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  BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of
deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout information

 BS ISO 6336-1:1996...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic principles,
introduction and general influence factors

 BS ISO 6336-2:1996...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of surface
durability (pitting)

 BS ISO 6336-3:1996...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of tooth
bending strength

 BS ISO 6336-5:2003...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Strength and quality o
material.

If it is necessary to design a gearbox from scratch the design process in selecting the gear size is not
complicated - the various design formulae have all been developed over time and are available in the
relevant standards.  However significant effort, judgment and expertise is required in designing the whole
system including the gears, shafts, bearings, gearbox, lubrication.  For the same duty many different gear
options are available for the type of gear, the materials and the quality.  It is always preferable to procure
gearboxes from specialized gearbox manufacturers materials.

Terminology - spur gears:

 Diametric pitch (d p )...... The number of teeth per one inch of pitch circle diameter.
 Module. (m) ...... The length, in mm, of the pitch circle diameter per tooth.

 Circular pitch (p)...... The distance between adjacent teeth measured along the are at the pitch circle
diameter

 Addendum ( h a )...... The height of the tooth above the pitch circle diameter.

 Centre distance (a)...... The distance between the axes of two gears in mesh.

 Circular tooth thickness (ctt)...... The width of a tooth measured along the are at the pitch circle
diameter.

 Dedendum ( h f )...... The depth of the tooth below the pitch circle diameter.

 Outside diameter ( D o )...... The outside diameter of the gear.

 Base Circle diameter ( D b ) ...... The diameter on which the involute teeth profile is based.

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 Pitch circle dia ( p ) ...... The diameter of the pitch circle.

 Pitch point...... The point at which the pitch circle diameters of two gears in mesh coincide.

 Pitch to back...... The distance on a rack between the pitch circle diameter line and the rear face of the
rack.

 Pressure angle...... The angle between the tooth profile at the pitch circle diameter and a radial line
passing through the same point.

 Whole depth...... The total depth of the space between adjacent teeth.

Spur Gear Design:

The spur gear is is simplest type of gear manufactured and is generally used for transmission of rotary
motion between parallel shafts.  The spur gear is the first choice option for gears except when high speeds,
loads, and ratios direct towards other options.  Other gear types may also be preferred to provide more
silent low-vibration operation.  A single spur gear is generally selected to have a ratio range of between 1:1
and 1:6 with a pitch line velocity up to 25 m/s.  The spur gear has an operating efficiency of 98-99%.  The
pinion is made from a harder material than the wheel.  A gear pair should be selected to have the highest
number of teeth consistent with a suitable safety margin in strength and wear.   The minimum number of
teeth on a gear with a normal pressure angle of 20 degrees is 18.

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 The preferred number of teeth is as follows

12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 28 30 32 34 38 40 45 50 54 60
64 70 72 75 80 84 90 96 100 120 140 150 180 200 220 250

Materials used for gears:

Mild steel is a poor material for gears as as it has poor resistance to surface loading.    The carbon
content for unhardened gears is generally 0.4%(min) with 0.55%(min) carbon for the pinions.  Dissimilar
materials should be used for the meshing gears - this particularly applies to alloy steels.  Alloy steels have
superior fatigue properties compared to carbon steels for comparable strengths.  For extremely high gear
loading case hardened steels are used the surface hardening method employed should be such to provide
sufficient case depth for the final grinding process used.

Material Notes applications

Ferrous metals

Low Cost easy to machine with Large moderate power,

Cast Iron
high damping commercial gears

Power gears with medium rating to

Cast Steels Low cost, reasonable strength
commercial quality

Good machining, can be heat Power gears with medium rating to

Plain-Carbon Steels
treated commercial/medium quality

Heat Treatable to provide Highest power requirement. For

Alloy Steels
highest strength and durability precision and high precisiont

Corrosion resistance with low

Stainless Steels Good corrosion resistance.
power ratings. Up to precision
(Aust) Non-magnetic
quality

Stainless Steels Hardenable, Reasonable Low to medium power ratings Up

(Mart) corrosion resistance, magnetic to high precision levels of quality

Non-Ferrous metals

Aluminium alloys Light weight, non-corrosive Light duty instrument gears up to

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 and good machinability high precision quality

Low cost, non-corrosive, low cost commercial quality gears.

Brass alloys
excellent machinability Quality up to medium precision

Excellent machinability, low

For use with steel power gears.
Bronze alloys friction and good compatability
Quality up to high precision
with steel

Light weight with poor Ligh weight low load gears.

Magnesium alloys
corrosion resistance Quality up to medium precision

Low coefficient of thermal Special gears for thermal

Nickel alloys
expansion. Poor machinability applications to commercial quality

High strength, for low weight, Special light weight high strength
Titanium alloys
good corrosion resistance gears to medium precision

Low cost with low precision High production, low quality gears
Di-cast alloys
and strength to commercial quality

Sintered powder Low cost, low quality, High production, low quality to
alloys moderate strength moderate commercial quality

Non metals

Wear resistant, low water Long life , low load bearings to

Acetal (Delrin
absorbtion commercial quality

Low cost, low quality, High production, low quality to

Phenolic laminates
moderate strength moderate commercial quality

No lubrication, no lubricant, Long life at low loads to

Nylons
absorbs water commercial quality

Special low friction gears to

PTFE Low friction and no lubrication
commercial quality

Equations for basic gear relationships:

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 It is acceptable to marginally modify these relationships e.g to modify the addendum /dedendum to
allow Centre Distance adjustments. Any changes modifications will affect the gear performance in good
and bad ways...

Addendum h a = m = 0.3183 p

Base Circle diameter Db = d.cos α

Centre distance a = ( d g + d p) / 2

Circular pitch p = m.π

Circular tooth thickness    ctt = p/2

Dedendum h f = h - a = 1,25m = 0,3979 p

Module m = d /z

Number of teeth z=d/m

Outside diameter D o = (z + 2) x m

Pitch circle diameter d = z . m ... (d g = gear & d p = pinion )

Whole depth(min) h = 2.25 . m

Top land width(min) t o = 0,25 . m

Module (m):

The module is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The unit of the module is milli-
metres.Below is a diagram showing the relative size of teeth machined in a rack with module ranging from
module values of 0,5 mm to 6 mm.

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 0,5    0,8  
  1     1,25     1,5     2,5     3     4     5     6     8     10   12     16     20     25     32     40     50.

Normal Pressure angle α:

An important variable affecting the geometry of the gear teeth is the normal pressure
angle.  This is generally standardized at 20o.  Other pressure angles should be used only for special
reasons and using considered judgment. The following changes result from increasing the pressure
angle

 Reduction in the danger of undercutting and interference

 Reduction of slipping speeds

 Increased loading capacity in contact, seizure and wear

 Increased rigidity of the toothing

 Increased noise and radial forces

Gears required having low noise levels have pressure angles 15o to17.5o

Contact Ratio:

The gear design is such that when in mesh the rotating gears have more than one gear in
contact and transferring the torque for some of the time.   This property is called the contact
ratio.  This is a ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch.   The higher the contact ratio
the more the load is shared between teeth.  It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or
greater. Under no circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1.

A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and
during the remaining time one pair is in contact.   A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth
are always in contact.   Such as high contact ratio generally is not obtained with external spur gears,

13
but can be developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair or specially designed
non-standard external spur gears.

(Rgo2 - Rgb2 )1/2 + (Rpo2 - Rpb2 )1/2 - a sin α

Contact ratio m =
p cos α

R go = D go / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Gear

R gb = D gb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Gear
R po = D po / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Pinion
R pb = D pb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Pinion
p = circular pitch.
a = ( d g+ d p )/2 = center distance.

Spur gear Forces, torques, velocities & Powers:

 F = tooth force between contacting teeth (at angle pressure angle α to pitch line
tangent. (N)

 F t = tangential component of tooth force (N)

 F s = Separating component of tooth force

 α= Pressure angle

 d 1 = Pitch Circle Dia -driving gear (m)

 d 2 = Pitch Circle Dia -driven gear (m)

 ω 1 = Angular velocity of driver gear (Rads/s)

 ω 2 = Angular velocity of driven gear (Rads/s)

 z 1 = Number of teeth on driver gear

 z 2 = Number of teeth on driven gear

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  P = power transmitted (Watts)

 M = torque (Nm)

 η = efficiency

Tangential force on gears F t = F cos α

Separating force on gears F s = F t tan α

Torque on driver gear T 1 = F t d 1 / 2

Torque on driver gear T 2 = F t d 2 / 2

Speed Ratio =ω 1 / ω 2 = d 2 / d 1 = z 2 /z 1

Input Power P 1 = T1 .ω 1

Output Power P 2 =η.T 1 .ω 2

Spur gear Strength and durability calculations:

Designing spur gears is normally done in accordance with standards the two most popular
series are listed under standards above:

The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating gear strengths. The methods are
really only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock gears (ref links below). —
Detailed design of spur and helical gears is best completed using the standards.   Books are available
providing the necessary guidance.   Software is also available making the process very easy.   A very
reasonably priced and easy to use package is included in the links below (Mitcalc.com)

The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required torque for the desired
operating life is completed by determining the strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the
durability i.e of the teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The equations below are
based on methods used by Buckingham.

Bending:
The basic bending stress for gear teeth is obtained by using the Lewis formula

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σ = Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

 F t = Tangential force on tooth

 σ = Tooth Bending stress (MPa)

 b a = Face width (mm)

 Y = Lewis Form Factor

 m = Module (mm)

Note: The Lewis formula is often expressed as

σ = Ft / ( ba. p. y )

Where y = Y/π and p = circular pitch

When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with some degree of
impact.  To allow for this a velocity factor ( Kv ) is introduced into the equation.   This is given by the
Barth equation...

V = the pitch line velocity = d.ω/2 (m/s)

The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows

σ = K v.Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

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Surface Durability:

This calculation involves determining the contact stress between the gear teeth and utilizes a
Herzian contact stress analysis. This is based on the analysis of two cylinders, in contact along their
length and subject to a radial force.

σ w = 2.F / ( π .b .l )

σ w = largest surface pressure

F = force pressing the two cylinders (gears) together
l = length of the cylinders (gear)
b = halfwidth = half of the width of the contact surface between the two cylinders.

d 1 ,d 2 Are the diameters for the two contacting cylinders.

ν 1, ν 2 Poisson ratio for the two gear materials
E 1 ,E 2 Are the Young's Modulus Values for the two gears

To arrive at the formula used for gear calculations the following changes are made
σ w is replaced by σ c (dynamic contact stress)
F is replaced by F t / cos α
d is replaced by 2.r
l is replaced by W ( Face width of gear)
The velocity factor K v as described above is introduced.
Also an elastic constant Z E is created

17
When the value of E used is in MPa then the units of Ze are √ MPa . The Imperial version of Ze is Cp
with value of E used in psi and value of Cp = √ psi
The resulting formula for the compressive stress developed is as shown below

Note: r1 and r2are the radii of curvature of the tooth surfaces at the contact point.
As gear tooth wear is generally first found at the pitch point, the curvatures at the pitch point are used:

r1 = d1 sin α /2
r2 = d2 sin α /2

The dynamic contact stress σc developed by the transmitted torque must be less than the allowable
contact stress Se...

Note: Values for Allowable stress value (Se) and the elastic constant ZE for some materials are
provided at   Gear Table.

Design Process

To select gears from a stock gear catalogue or do a first approximation for a gear design select the
gear material and obtain a safe working stress e.g Yield stress / Factor of Safety. /Safe fatigue stress

 Determine the input speed, output speed, ratio, torque to be transmitted

 Select materials for the gears ( pinion is more highly loaded than gear )

 Determine safe working stresses (uts /factor of safety or yield

stress/factor of safety or Fatigue strength / Factor of safety )

 Determine Allowable endurance Stress Se

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  Select a module value and determine the resulting geometry of the gear

 Use the lewis formula and the endurance formula to establish the
resulting face width

 If the gear proportions are reasonable then - proceed to more detailed

evaluations

 If the resulting face width is excessive - change the module or material or

both and start again

Internal Gears:

1. Advantages: Geometry ideal for epicyclic gear design

2. Allows compact design since the center distance is less than for external gears.

3. A high contact ratio is possible.

4. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against a concave surface.

5. Disadvantage Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the external gear nests
within the internal gear.

6. Low ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences.

7. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually special tooling is required ages:

3.9.3 Flywheel:

A flywheel is a mechanical device with significant moment of inertia used as a storage device for
rotational energy.

Power storage devices for uses in vehicles

It is a heavy metal disk at the rear end of the crankshaft; its inertia was used to smooth out speed
fluctuations in the revolving crankshaft.

Flywheel:

19
The flywheel effect is the continuation of oscillations in an oscillator circuit after the control stimulus
has been removed. This is usually caused by interacting inductive and capacitive elements in the
oscillator

Flywheel effect is used in class C modulation where efficiency of modulation can be achieved as high
as 90%

Application:

Cloud Mitigation for Solar PV

Power outputs from solar photovoltaic (PV) assets are subject to rapid fluctuations due to clouds. A
passing cloud, for example, can easily decrease PV power output by 80 percent or more within
seconds. Conversely, as the cloud passes, power output can increase just as rapidly. Most PV
resources are interconnected at distribution voltages, and such power fluctuations can cause
unacceptable voltage disturbance. Depending on local conditions, utilities may refuse to allow a PV
resource to interconnect unless something is done to mitigate these fast ramps in power output.
Beacon's flywheel technology has the ability to buffer these fluctuations and, where they are
unacceptable to the local distribution utility, our energy storage can neatly solve the problem.

Ramp Mitigation for Wind

A safe, reliable and energy-efficient modern grid should be capable of integrating pollution-free
renewable energy resources on a large scale without causing deterioration of generation, transmission
or distribution operations. Renewable Portfolio Standards have been put in place at the state level to
encourage greater market penetration of wind and solar power. However, the variable nature of these

20
resources poses a challenge. For example, in one western state, wind developers filed plans to add
new wind capacity that exceeds the current peak load of the region. Without a new and more effective
approach for integrating variable wind resources, the deployment of wind power could be severely
curtailed.

Fast ramp-rate flywheel energy storage systems can be coordinated as part of an integrated energy
balancing system that includes variable wind generation, slower-ramping conventional fossil
generation, and demand response resources. Such a system could be effective in leveling out the big
peaks and valleys that adding more wind generation is expected to create. Flywheel-based energy
storage could act as both a buffer and balancing resource between variable wind generation, slower-
ramping conventional fossil generation, and various fast- and slow-acting demand response resources.
Flywheel energy storage offers an excellent set of features to accomplish this new energy balancing
application. These include a ramp rate up to 100 times faster than conventional fossil-fired generation
plants; high-cyclic capability without any degradation of energy storage capacity over time; low
maintenance; zero fuel consumption and no direct CO2 emissions; no use of toxic materials; and a 20-
year life.

Wind/Diesel/Flywheel Hybrid

The number of wind/diesel power systems operating around the world continues to increase at a rapid
pace. A wind turbine placed in parallel with a diesel generator works to reduce the fuel used by that
generator by allowing it to be shut down when wind power exceeds load. However, when load
approximately matches available wind power, the generator must be kept at idle for the occasional
event when wind power drops for a few seconds or minutes below connected load. This mode of
operation is not very efficient, since much of the diesel generator's time is spent either at idle or
inefficient low power settings.

The introduction of energy storage can act to further reduce diesel fuel consumption by using the
stored energy to provide both load following and supplying the occasional shortfall, while leaving the
generator turned off. Beacon's flywheel energy storage should be ideal for this application thanks to
its low maintenance, long design life, high cycling capability without any degradation in storage
value, its ability to respond almost instantaneously (thus improving load following), and its ability to
provide real and/or reactive power.

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Stabilization of Distributed Generation (DG) Systems

Functionally, Beacon's flywheel technology can supplant the grid with respect to the grid's normal
provision of a synchronization signal. Our technology can also provide load following capability
above the capacity rating of the DG asset, as well as voltage and reactive power support and control.
For Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems, Beacon's technology has the potential to facilitate the
use of natural gas reciprocating engines and/or gas turbines as part of a CHP system, by improving
these systems' ability to follow fast-changing loads. The benefits to grid operators would be to
improve the ability of the DG asset to operate on an islanded basis during a blackout, as well as to
reduce emissions.

Peak Power Support

A large number of applications exist that collectively can be categorized under "peak power support."
For example, oil drilling rigs typically maintain a number of diesel power systems to meet the peak
power needs of an oil drilling platform. Collectively, much of this diesel power capacity stands idle or
operates at a low capacity factor (often with high emissions) based on the irregular power demands of
drilling. A flywheel system could augment the capacity of the diesel generators, thereby making it
possible for fewer diesels to meet peak power demand requirements. The economics of this
application are based on the ability to reduce the needed investment in power generation assets.
Added value may derive from reduced wear and tear on generating equipment and reduced air
emissions, especially in ecologically sensitive areas and/or air basins currently operating outside of
EPA-mandated air pollution limits.

Frequency Response Reserve (FRR)

When there is a sudden loss of a power plant, transmission line or distribution line, a rapid drop in
grid frequency can occur. While most generators must be able to compensate for a rapid drop in
frequency on a fractional basis according to their capacity rating, some parts of the grid lack sufficient
frequency response resources, either because there is not enough fast-response generating capacity,
and/or because of transmission constraints.

Beacon's 20 MW frequency regulation plants have the inherent ability to provide frequency response
support without compromising the efficacy of the primary frequency regulation application. As with
the other potential secondary overlay applications for our flywheel regulation plants, the economics of
22
this application will compete with other technology solutions on the basis of incremental versus stand-
alone cost. Since nearly all the equipment needed to provide FRR is already built into a 20 MW
frequency regulation plant, the economics of this application are potentially quite attractive.

The Western Electricity Coordinating Council, which is responsible for coordinating and promoting
electric system reliability across 14 western states between Canada and Mexico, is currently
evaluating the possible inclusion of a 30-second tariff for FRR.

Voltage Support for Rail Systems

As the number of passengers carried by rail increases, trains become heavier, the spacing between
trains decreases and rail systems become more prone to voltage drops that impair performance and
reliability. While substations can be upgraded to add power conditioning equipment, space constraints
and the related difficulty of increasing local power distribution can make it very costly to upgrade
some substations. Another solution would be to install flywheels to boost voltage. Our flywheel
systems can be located in places where the voltage sag is severe. For retrofit of existing rail systems
or construction of new light rail transit systems, installing flywheels at strategic trackside locations
can support voltage and reduce both the number and cost of substations required. Reduction in the
number of substations needed and associated savings in equipment, land and maintenance may
provide an attractive economic basis for installation of our flywheel systems. Another related
secondary application for rail systems is regenerative braking. Most new trains are designed to use
regenerative braking to generate electricity as they decelerate. Instead of wasting this energy by
sending it to a resistive load bank, our flywheels can be used to capture that energy. Savings would
derive from lower energy costs, reduction in peak power demand charges, and reduced maintenance
on brake systems.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

A global industry exists for Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) systems. Beacon's flywheels have
the capability to supply highly reliable backup power. As a replacement for battery-based UPS
systems, flywheel technology has the advantage of being virtually maintenance-free compared to
maintenance-intensive and less-reliable battery-based UPS. The challenge for market acceptance of
flywheel-based UPS is cost. As Beacon scales up production of its flywheels for frequency regulation,
we expect to lower costs based on the learning curve and volume production effect. Over time, we

23
expect to be able to participate in the global UPS market in a variety of sub-applications, especially
those requiring very high reliability and minimal need for maintenance. Our core technology can also
be used as part of a flywheel design with a higher power-to-energy ratio, cost-effectively aligning
with some UPS application requirements.

Angular Instability Control

A safe, reliable and energy-efficient modern grid should be capable of automatically detecting and
mitigating grid-wide conditions that can lead to wide-scale blackouts. Despite extensive engineering
efforts, modern power infrastructures remain vulnerable to the phenomenon of angular instability.
Angular instability is essentially a low-frequency (usually less than 1 Hz) un damped power
fluctuation traveling from one end of a power grid to the other end. This traveling wave cannot be
easily damped and can take up significant capacity on transmission lines. If the low-frequency
oscillation could be damped, the transmission line capacity could be restored making it easier to
relieve congested lines or reduce possible grid instability. In the past, this type of instability has been
linked to wide-scale regional blackouts costing billions of dollars in lost productivity, goods and
services. A flywheel energy storage system, combined with phasor measurements and an integrated
communications and control network, has the potential to overcome this vulnerability and prevent
such blackouts.

Analysis conducted by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) of the August 10, 1996,
blackout indicates that a Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)-based Wide Area Measurement System
(WAMS) could have provided a 6-minute warning prior to separation of the then-Western System
Coordinating Council (WSCC) system into four islands. With a lead time of six minutes, the
opportunity exists for real-time control actions designed to damp out the system oscillations. In the
case of the August 10, 1996, blackout, system separation might have been avoided if the oscillations
of the California-Oregon Inertia had been damped to a sufficient degree. Damping of oscillations may
be achieved by fast injection of real and reactive power at a frequency similar to that of the
oscillations.

Application of flywheel energy storage for angular instability control could be done as a standalone
application, or as an application "overlay" on top of one or more multi-megawatt flywheel regulation
power plants. A new revenue model would need to be created for the angular instability control

24
application before it can be commercialized. Such precedent exists for the purchase by ISOs of key
grid services, e.g., black start capacity, that are considered essential to reliable operation of the grid.

Flywheels are rotating disks used to store kinetic energy. To me this is one of the most integral parts
of an engine. Flywheels resist changes in their rotational speed which helps by steadying the shaft,
when torque is applied. There are many purposes and uses for flywheels; one example of a use for a
flywheel is to create high power pulses which are needed for some experiments. Flywheels as of late
have become the focus for a lot of research for use as power storage devices in automobiles.

A flywheel is simply a heavy wheel, usually composed of metal. It may be any shape, from disk to
saucer, and is typically symmetric. The most useful property of a flywheel is usually considered to be
its mass.

Spur gear teeth are manufactured by either involute profile or cycloidal profile. Most of the gears are
manufactured by involute profile with 20° pressure angle. When two gears are in mesh at one instant
there is a chance to mate involute portion with non-involute portion of mating gear. This phenomenon
is known as INTERFERENCE and occurs when the number of teeth on the smaller of the two
meshing gears is smaller than a required minimum. To avoid interference we can have undercutting,
but this is not a suitable solution as undercutting leads to weakening of tooth at its base. In this
situation Corrected gears are used. In corrected gears Cutter rack is shifted upwards or downwards.

There are two types of corrected gears:

1. S0 gearing (x1+x2=zero)
2. S gearing (x1+x2 not equal to zero)

Gear Rack Capacity

Particular Metric
Imperial

Max. (full depth) 20 mod 1DP

Max. Face Width 250 mod 10''

Max. Overall Width 500 mm 20''

25
Max. Height 300 mm 12''

Max. Length 2500 mm  

Tooth Pressure Angle 14 1/2˚, 20˚, 25˚  

ISO, AGMA and DIN
Full Depth and stub Spur or Helical to 45˚ PA  

Standard Gear Racks

The gear, toothed wheel, cylinder, or cone that transmits motion from one part of a machine
to another; it is one of the oldest means of transmitting motion. When the teeth of two gears are
meshed, turning one gear will cause the other to rotate. In most cases both gears are mounted on shafts
so that when one shaft turns, the other also rotates. By meshing two gears of different diameters, a
variation in both speed and torque between the two shafts is obtained; the smaller gear in this case is
called the pinion. A spur gear consists of a wheel with straight teeth mounted radially either on the
inner circumference (internal spur gear) or outer circumference (external spur gear) of the wheel. Two
meshed spur gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts. A rack and pinion consists of a
pinion engaging and transferring motion to or from a special kind of spur gear, called a rack,
consisting of a series of teeth in a straight line on a flat surface. The rack and pinion changes linear
motion into rotary motion, or vice versa.

26
 A helical gear is similar to a spur gear, but its teeth are twisted instead of straight. Helical
gears can be used to transmit motion between shafts that do not intersect and are at any angle with
respect to each other. A bevel gear has straight or curved teeth on a conical surface near its rim. Bevel
gears are used to transmit rotary motion between shafts that are not parallel and that would intersect at
an angle if extended. Hypoid gears are special bevel gears used in the differential, in the automobile, a
set of gears used on the driving (usually rear) axle. The two wheels on the driving axle must be
interconnected in order to receive their energy from the same source, the driving shaft; at the same
time they must be free to revolve of an automobile to connect the drive shaft to the rear axle. A worm
gear, meshed with a threaded cylinder, or worm, that resembles a screw, is used to transmit motion
between perpendiculars, nonintersecting shafts. See transmission, in automobiles, system of parts
connecting the engine to the wheels. Suitable torque, or turning force, is generated by the engine only
within a narrow range of engine speeds, i.e., rates at which the crankshaft is turning.

Machine component consisting of a toothed wheel attached to a rotating shaft. Gears operate
in pairs, the teeth of one engaging the teeth of a second, to transmit and modify rotary motion and
torque. To transmit motion smoothly, the contacting surfaces of gear teeth must be carefully shaped to
a specific profile. The smallest of a gear pair is often known as the pinion. If the pinion is on the
driving shaft, the pair acts to reduce speed and to amplify torque; if the pinion is on the driven shaft,
the pair acts to increase speed and reduce torque.

1. A toothed wheel that engages with another toothed wheel or with a rack in order to change the
speed or direction of transmitted motion

2. A mechanism for transmitting motion by gears, esp for a specific purpose

3. The engagement or specific ratio of a system of gears

4. Nautical all equipment or appurtenances belonging to a certain vessel, sailor, etc.

5. Short for landing gear

6. A less common word for harness

3.2 Charging Circuit

Charging Circuit:

27
From the above circuit diagram, we can see that the 18v AC is being converted to 18V pulsating DC
which is in turn converted to smooth DC with the help of the Capacitor. This 18V Smooth DC is
converted to 12V DC by the Voltage Regulator 7812. At the output of the regulator, we get some
spikes which are not desirable. These spikes are removed with the help of another capacitor used. We
can get 12V Steady DC at the output terminal which can be indicated if the LED glows.

3.3 D.C GENERATORS

Generator principle

An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (or power). Induced e.m.f is produced in it according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. This e.m.f causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are:

a) Magnetic field.

b) Conductor or conductors which can move as to cut the flux.

28
1.2 Simple loop generator

In fig.(1.1) is shown a single turn rectangular copper coil ( AA′BB′ ) rotating about its own
axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The two end of the
coil are joined to two slip-rings which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two
collecting brushes (carbon or copper) press against

the slip-rings. The rotating coil may be called (armature) and the magnets as (field
magnets).One way to generate an AC voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular velocity in
a fixed magnetic field, fig. (1.1). (slip rings and brushes connect the coil to the load). The magnitude
of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut (faraday's law), and its
polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field. The direction of an
induced e.m.f can be predetermined by using Flemings UR Uight-hand rule (often called the
geneURUator rule) fig.(1.2).

UFUirst finger- UFUield

ThuUMUb – UMUotion

sUEUcond finger – UEU.m.f

Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time.
For example in (a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no flux lines are being cut and
the induced voltage at this instant (and hence the current) is zero. (this is defined as the 0P°P position
of the coil). As the coil rotates from the 0PP position, coil sides AAP⁄P and BBP ⁄P cut across flux
lines, hence, voltage builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the maximum rate in the 90P
°Pposition as in (b). Note the polarity of the voltage and the direction of current. As the coil rotates
further, voltage decrease, reaching zero at the 180P°Pposition when the coil sides again move parallel
to the field as in (c).At this point, the coil has gone through a half-revolution.During the second half-
revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that which they did in the first half revolution,
hence, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. As indicated in (d), voltage reaches a peak at the
270P °P point, and, since the polarity of the voltage has changed, so has the direction of current.
When the coil reaches the 380P °P position, voltage is again zero and the cycle starts over. Fig. (1.1)
shows one cycle of the resulting waveform. Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced
will be a repetitive, periodic waveform as you saw in fig. (1.1).E.m.f. generated in one side of loop=

29
Blv ⋅ sinφ , and total e.m.f. generated in loop=2 × Blv ⋅ sinφ (volts), where(B): flux density in (teslas),
(l ): length in (meters), ( v ): the conductor velocity, is measured in meters per second.

30
1.3 Construction of DC Generators

The parts of a simple DC generator are shown in fig.(1.3). The principle of operation of a DC
generator is similar to that of the AC generator, which was discussed previously. A rotating armature
coil passes through a magnetic field that develops between the north and south polarities of permanent
magnets or electromagnets. As the coil rotates, electromagnetic induction causes current to be induced
into the coil. The current produced is an alternating current. However, it is possible to convert the
alternating current that is induced into the armature into a form of direct current. This conversion of
AC into DC is accomplished through the use of a commutator. The conductors of the armature of a
DC generator are connected to commutator segments. The commutator shown in fig. (1.3) has two
segments, which are insulated from one an other and from the shaft of the machine on which it rotates.
An end of each armature conductor is connected to each commutator segment. The purpose of the
commutator is to reverse the armature coil connection to the external load circuit at the same time that
the current induced in the armature coil reverses. This causes DC at the correct polarity to be applied
to the load at all times.

Figure

31
32
U1.4 Armature Windings

Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are joined to
the commutator. These are called (lap windings) and (wave windings). These windings will be
examined individually below, and their advantage and disadvantage will be discussed.

U1.4.1 The Lap Winding;

The simplest type of winding construction used in modern DC machines is the simplex lap
winding. A simplex lap winding is a rotor (armature) winding consisting of coils containing one or
more turns of wire with the two end of each coil coming out at adjacent commutator segments fig.
(1.5). The number of current paths in a machine is :

a = mp lap winging, Where:

a : number of current path in the rotor.

m: plex of the windings (1,2,3,etc….)

p : number of poles on the machines.

33
Lap wound generators produce high current, low voltage output.

1.4.2 The Wave Winding

The wave winding is an alternative way to connect the rotor(armature) coils to the commutator
segments. Fig. (1.6) shows a simple wave winding. In this simplex wave winding, every other rotor
coil connects back to a commutator segment adjacent to the beginning of the first coil. Therefore,
there are two coils in series between the adjacent

commutator segments. Furthermore, since each pair of coils between adjacent segments has a side
under each pole face, all output voltage are the sum of the effects of every pole, and there can be no
voltage imbalances. wave windings, generators produce higher-voltage, low current outputs, since the
number of coils in series between commutator

segments permits a high voltage to be built up more easy than with

a = 2m multiplex wave

34
Fig.(1.6) Wave wound DC machine.

1.5 Electromotive Force (e.m.f) Equation

The induced voltage in any given machine depends on three factors:

1. The flux φ in the machine

2. The speed ω of the machine's rotor.

3. A constant depending on the construction of the machine.

The voltage out of the armature of a real machine is equal to the number of conductors per current
path time the voltage on each conductor. The voltage in any single conductor under the pole faces was
previously shown to be.e Blv in =Where B , the flux density, is measured in teslas, l , the length of
conductor in the magnetic field, is measured in meters, and v , the conductor velocity, is measured in
meters per second. The voltage out of the armature of a real machine is thus E ZBlv A =Where ( z ) is
the total number of conductors and (a) is the number of current paths. The velocity of each conductor
in rotor can be expressed v = rω , where r is the radius of the rotor, ω , angular velocity in radiansper
second, soThis voltage can be re-expressed in a more convenient form by noting that the flux of a pole
is equal to the flux density under the pole times the pole's area: p φ= BA The rotor of the machine is
shaped like a cylinder, so its area is

A = 2πrl

1.6 Types of D.C Generators:

35
 D.C Generators are classified according to the way in which a magnetic field is developed in
the stator of the machine. Thus, there are three basic classification DC generators (1) permanent-
magnet field (2) separately-excited field and (3) self-excited field.

1) permanent-magnet field

Permanent-magnet DC machines are widely found in a wide variety of low-power

applications. The field winding is replaced by a permanent magnet, resulting in simpler construction.
Chief among these is that they do not require external excitation and its associated power dissipation
to create magnetic fields in the machine the space required for the permanent magnets may be less
than that required for the field winding, and thus machine may be smaller, and in some cases cheaper,
than their externally excited counter parts. Notice that the rotor of this machines consists of a
conventional DC armature with commutator segments and brushes.

2) Separately-excited field

Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an
independent external source of DC current. It is shown diagrammatically in fig (1.8).

36
3) Self-excited field

Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced
by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in poles.
When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f and hence some induced current is produced which is partly
or fully passed through the field coils thereby

strengthening the residual pole flux. There are three types of self-excited generators named according
to the manner in which their field coils ( or windings) are connected to

armature.

(a) Shunt -Wound

The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and have
the full voltage of the generator applied across them fig. (1.9).

37
(b) Series -Wound

In this case, the field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors fig. (1.10). As
they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turn of thick wire or strips. Such generators
are rarely used except for special purposes.

Fig.

38
(c) Compound –Wound

The compound-wound D.C generator has two sets of field windings. One set is made of low-
resistance windings and is connected in series with the armature circuit. The other set is made of high-
resistance wire and is connected in parallel with the armature circuit. A compound wound D.C
generator is illustrated in figure (1.11), can be either short-shunt or long-shunt. In a compound
generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When series field aids the shunt field,
generator is said to be cumulatively-compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt
field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded. Various types of DC generators have been

39
Geared DC Motor

Introduction:

DC motors and gear motors with permanent magnets are also known as Brushed Electrical
Motors. The rotor, winded in a copper wire connected to a collector, constitutes the rotating part
which transmits the mechanical power. The stator, external and fixed part, constitutes the seat of the
permanent magnets and brushes. The main material of the magnets is ferrite, whereas for the brushes
it is graphite. The permanent magnets present in DC motors constitute the magnetic field, which, in
opposition to the magnetic field generated inside the rotor, permits the transmission of the mechanical
power. The tension in DC motors is transmitted to the rotor through the sliding contact between
brushes and collector. The brushes are connected through power cables to the external supply tension,
which are at low voltage DC motors, usually used are 12V, 24V, 36V, 42V or 48V, or, it would be

40
nonetheless included within these values. DC motors and gear motors with permanent magnets have a
high degree of efficiency.

The motor (without gearbox) can in fact reach efficiency levels up to 80-85%. The gear motor can go
up to 40-45%. N DC gear motors, then, the efficiency level depends upon the gear ratio. The electrical
losses present in DC motors are therefore contained and are of mainly 3 kinds:

- Losses due to Joule’s effect in the copper wire of the winding and in the brushes
- Losses due to parasitic currents which generated in the lamination pack of the rotor
- Losses due to attrition

The losses due to the Joule’s effect are integral to the DC motors and gear motors and cannot
be eliminated. The losses due to parasitic currents depend upon the thickness and the material of the
laminations used in the rotor. These can also be minimized but not eliminated. The losses due to
attrition are tightly connected to the building quality of D motors and gear motors with permanent
magnets. The advantage of DC motors is therefore the possibility of supplying high specific powers
and, moreover, they are very easily managed from an electrical perspective. The possibility of
managing them electrically has actually increased the application potential of DC motors and gear
motors. In fact, thanks to a correct electronic management, it is possible to both increase the duration
features and to maximize the supplied power values.

Selection of the reduction ratio:

The selection of the reduction ratio should be made according to the desired Gear Box revolution speed
output, keeping in mind that this changes linearly in the DC motors as function of the applied load. To make it
easier, for each type of motor a reference speed useful for this calculation should be known besides its
nominal number and load speed.
When a 12 V DC Motor having no load speed of 2400 rpm is used to get suppose an output gear box speed of
say 60 rpm then

Motor Speed 2400 =

Reduction ratio : = 40(aprox)
Desired o/p speed 60

41
 The reduction ratio should be selected among the available ratios (shown for each gear boxes
separately with their specifications) close as possible to the calculated ratio.

42
DC Reduction Gear Motors:

The DC Gear motor, consisting of a DC electric motor and a gearbox, is at the heart of several
electrical and electronic applications. Precision Micro drives have been designing and developing
such high quality mini DC gear motors in an easy-to-mount package for a range of products and
equipment. Our miniature gear motor work smoothly and efficiently, supporting these electrical and
electronic applications. These geared motors have reduction gear trains capable of providing high
torque at relatively low shaft speed or revolutions per minute (RPM).  Precision Micro drives DC
geared motors reduce the complexity and cost of designing and constructing applications such as
industrial equipment, actuators, medical tools, and robotics.

Precision Micro drives have engineered a range of planetary and spur gear motors (also known
as mini-geared motors and micro-geared motors) suitable for many future and existing applications.
The main characteristics of these gear motors are miniature form factors, offering significant strength,
torque, and other technical capabilities that these applications require. Their linear performance
characteristics make them suitable for many applications requiring a controlled performance. 

Whether you are looking for automotive, medical, or domestic applications, DC Gear motors
from Precision Micro drives not only offer the variable speed and torque control required in each of
these applications. They also possess quality characteristics of reliability, ruggedness, and
compactness. The operations performed by Precision Micro drives geared motors appear simple and
effortless. However, they are highly sophisticated devices, and some units are encapsulated in
housings to prevent exposure to moisture and dust. Precision Micro drives are the leading supplier of
sub Ø60 mm DC Gear motors in the industry.

43
Working of Geared DC Motor:
Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already had its Insight details
demystified here. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached to the motor. The speed of motor is
counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per minute and is termed as RPM .The gear assembly helps in
increasing the torque and reducing the speed. Using the correct combination of gears in a gear motor, its speed
can be reduced to any desirable figure. This concept where gears reduce the speed of the vehicle but increase its
torque is known as gear reduction.  This Insight will explore all the minor and major details that make the gear
head and hence the working of geared DC motor.

External Structure:

At the first sight, the external structure of a DC geared motor looks as a straight expansion over the
simple DC ones.

44
 The lateral view of the motor shows the outer protrudes of the gear head. A nut is placed near the shaft
which helps in mounting the motor to the other parts of the assembly.

45
 Also, an internally threaded hole is there on the shaft to allow attachments or extensions such as
wheel to be attached to the motor.

Types of geared DC motors:

1271 Series Geared DC Instrument Motors:

The 1271 geared instrument dc motor is ideally suited to a wide range of applications requiring a
combination of low speed operation and small unit size. The integral iron core DC motor provides
smooth operation and a bidirectional variable speed capability while the gear head utilizes a
multistage metal spur gear train rated for a working torque up to 0.2Nm. The unit, which is
suitable for mounting in any attitude, provides reliable operation over a wide ambient temperature
range and is equipped with an integral VDR (voltage dependant resistor) electrical suppression
system to minimize electrical interference. The 1271 unit offers a range of gear ratio options for
operating speeds from 5-200rpm and is ideally suited to applications where small size and low
unit price are important design criteria.

Features -

 6 or 12Vdc operation
 Ratios from 10:1 to 392:1

 Rated torque up to 20Ncm

 4mm Output shaft

1308 Series Geared DC Instrument Motors:

The 1308 geared instrument DC motor is ideally suited to a wide range of applications requiring a
combination of low speed operation and compact unit size. The integral iron core dc motor
provides smooth operation and a bi-directional variable speed capability while the gear head
utilizes a multi-stage metal spur gear train and a diecast metal housing rated for a working torque
up to 1.0Nm. The unit, which is suitable for mounting in any attitude, provides reliable operation
over a wide ambient temperature range and is equipped with a rear shaft extension to which a
speed or position sensor may be attached The 1308 unit offers a range of gear ratio options for
operating speeds from 5-100rpm and is ideally suited to applications where a combination of high
torque, compact size and economic unit price are important design criteria.

46
 Features -

 ratios from 30:1 to 510:1

 Rated torques from 15Ncm to 100Ncm

 6 or 12Vdc operation

 6mm Output shaft

Premotec 9904 120 52 Series Geared DC Motors:

Range of gear ratios provides a choice of speeds from 5-600RPM and torque of 15Ncm. With
voltage options of 6V, 12V and 24Vdc operation.

 Features -
 10 ratios from 5.57:1 to 729:1

 Cw and CCw variants

 5Ncm to 15Ncm torque range

 Graphite and copper commutation

 All plastic gearing

Premotec 9904 120 53 Series Geared DC Motors:

High strength version of the 9904 120 52 series providing increased torque up to 50Ncm.

Features -

 5 ratios from 81:1 to 729:1

 Cw and CCw variants

 6V, 12V and 24Vdc operation

 Graphite and copper commutation

 Plastic and metal gearing

Premotec 9904 120 55 Series Geared DC Motors:

Iron cored DC geared motor units 60RPM 30Ncm with choice of 6, 12 and 24Vdc operation.

47
Features -

 81:1 Gear ratio

 Cw rotation only

 6V, 12V and 24Vdc operation

 Graphite and copper commutation

 Plastic and metal gearing

48
Applying Gear Ratios to DC Motor Systems:

DC motors sometimes have current limits they must stay under or other load limits.  Designs
sometimes require certain speeds, which motors must be geared up or down to achieve. The first step
in these types of design problems is to calculate the load the motor must be under to meet the design
criteria. This is done using the motor characteristics, the design criteria, and the formulas and after
this, it is a matter of taking the output requirements and the input limits and calculating the ratio
required. 

 For the above arm configuration, assume the system has one VEX 2-wire Motor 393, and that
this motor cannot draw more than 2.5 amps at any time.  What gear ratio is needed to lift the 30
Newton object and not exceed this current draw?

The first step is to calculate the torque applied by the arm:

49
Torque = Force x Distance = 30 N x 0.5 m = 15 N-m. The next step is to calculate the torque load
which will cause the motor to exceed 2.5 amps:

Torque Load = (Given Motor Current – Free Current) x Stall Torque / (Stall Current – Free Current)

Torque Load = (2.5 amps – 0.37 amps) x 1.67 N-m / (4.8 amps – 0.37 amps)

Torque Load = (2.13 amps) x 1.67 N-m / (4.43 amps)

Torque Load = 0.803 N-m

So if the torque load at the output of the gearbox is 15 N-m, and the load on motor can’t be
more than 0.803 N-m, the gear reduction is required

Output Torque = Input Torque x Gear Reduction

Re arranging:

Gear Reduction = Output Torque / Input Torque

Gear Reduction = 15 N-m / 0.803 N-m = 18.68

Based on this example the gear reduction required is 18.68.  However, as discussed above it is
not always possible to achieve specific gear ratios with the gears on hand.  Assuming the designer
only has 12-tooth, 36-tooth, 60-tooth, and 84-tooth gears, calculate a compound reduction that creates
the overall gear ratio required for the above example.

There are many different solutions possible; the most important thing is that the compound
ratio chosen results in a reduction of more than 18.68 to achieve the design goals shown above.

Considerations: Designers should try to achieve the required reduction in as few stages as
possible, and should try to get as close to 18.68 as possible without going under.

HINT: One can look at the big list of reduction options shown previously in this unit, and see
which ones multiplied together as a compound reduction come close to 18.68.

50
How about 12:60, then 12:60?

60 / 12 = 5

60 / 12 = 5

5 x 5 = 25

25 is greater than 18.68, so it is acceptable – however, 25 is a lot more reduction than required,
so the arm will move slower than is necessary to achieve the design goal.  Is there another option
which is closer to 18.68?

How about 12:36, then 12:84, as a simple 2-stage compound gear reduction?

36 / 12 = 3

84 / 12 = 7

3 x 7 = 21

21 is greater than 18.68, so 12:36 then 12:84 is an acceptable choice, this option is much
closer to the minimum required reduction than 12:60, 12:60!

Choosing a Motor and Gearing Combination:

Basics of Power Transmission:

For most robotics and macaronis applications, DC motors run at speeds higher than we want
and with less torque than we want. The most common solution to this problem is to attach the output
shaft of the motor to a transmission that reduces speed and increases torque. The input to this
51
transmission is attached to the output shaft of the motor, and the output of the transmission performs
the lower speed, higher torque motion that we want (e.g., motion of a wheel, robot joint, etc.). The
transmission can be built of belts and pulleys, gears, or other elements, and the output motion of the
transmission can be rotational or linear. Here, let's consider the case of a rotational output motion
where the output speed of the transmission is G times slower than the input speed of the transmission
(the speed of the motor shaft). Since gearboxes are the most common transmission, we call G the gear
ratio, and usually G > 1. We will refer to transmissions as gearboxes.

You can find more on gears at the Gears page.

If the input shaft to an ideal gearbox is turning with a speed ωin and torque τin, then the output turns
with a speed ωout and torque τout, where

We see that the output power Pout equals the input power Pin:

Since the ideal gearbox neither adds nor subtracts power. If the speed ω is measured in radians per
second, and the torque τ is measured in Newton-meters, then the units for power are Watts.

In terms of the speed-torque curve above, a gearbox has the effect of reducing the maximum speed
and increasing the maximum torque. The figure below shows a speed-torque curve of a motor, and for
the same motor with gearboxes of G = 2 and G = 4. Also shown is a desired speed+torque operating
point for the motor+gearbox combination, showing that only the G = 4 gearbox meets our
specification.

52
If we have two gearboxes with gear ratios G1 and G2, and the output shaft of gearbox 1 is connected to
the input shaft of gearbox 2, the total gear ratio from the input of gearbox 1 to the output of gearbox 2
is Gtotal = G1G2. Gearboxes can achieve gear ratios of several hundred, often by chaining multiple sets
of gears.

In practice, transmissions are not 100% efficient at transmitting power. Some power is lost due to
friction. Gearboxes have an associated efficiency η < 1, such that Pout = ηPin. Since the gear exactly
enforces the speed relationship ωout = ωin / G, this means that the torque output of the gearbox is
actually τout = ηGτin. The efficiencies of gearboxes attached to each other is obtained by multiplying
the individual efficiencies. Gearboxes with large gear ratios are usually obtained by having several
gearing stages in series, so the total efficiency of large gear ratio gearboxes are generally lower than
those with smaller gear ratios (if the gears are made with the same materials and precision). Below is
shown the speed-torque curve for a motor, a motor with an ideal gearbox with G = 2, and a motor

with a gearbox with G = 2 but an efficiency .

53
Another practical issue with gearboxes is backlash. Backlash is defined as the angle the gearbox
output shaft can be rotated without the input shaft moving. Backlash can be large (a few degrees) in
cheap gears, much lower in precision gears, and nearly zero for certain gear technologies (e.g.,
harmonic drive gears). See the Gears page.

One other issue to keep in mind with gearboxes is back drivability. A motor+gearbox is backdrivable
if it is possible to rotate the output of the gearbox while the motor is off. Some gear types make it
nearly impossible to backdrive. Sometimes you want the system to be backdrivable, so a human can
physically manipulate it, for example. Other times you don't: for example, you might want the system
to hold its position without brakes or power, even under gravity. Backdrivability is a qualitative
property. Of two systems using the same type of gearing, the one with the smaller gear ratio is usually
more backdrivable.

Finally, gearboxes usually come with specifications on the maximum speed allowable at the input
shaft and the maximum torque allowable at the output shaft.

Choosing a Motor and Gearing Combination

To choose a motor and gearbox appropriate for your application, consider the following issues:

 What is the typical power you need? In other words, what is a typical speed and torque operating point for
your system? Choose a motor that is capable of providing this much mechanical power. (Most motors are
classified according to their power.) Usually you will choose the smallest, lightest, most inexpensive motor
that meets your specifications. You may also have constraints on the nominal voltage of the motor (e.g.,
you have a 12V supply available, so you want the motor to run at around 12V). Since the input electrical
power is the current times the voltage, low-voltage-rated motors of the same power draw larger amounts of
current.
 Once you have chosen a motor, choose a gearbox for the motor so that the speed+torque combinations you
want from it (including the maximum speed and maximum torque you need) are under the speed-torque
curve of the motor+gearbox combination. Also make sure the gearbox output shaft maximum torque
specification is sufficient.

 Motors should not be run for long periods of time at stall, as they are likely to overheat, as explained in
Brushed DC Motor Theory. It is fine if they intermittently stall. The allowable continuous operation region
of the speed-torque curve depends on the thermal characteristics of your motor, but typically you don't

54
 want continuous operation at less than 1/4 or 1/2 of the maximum speed of the motor. You may need to
choose a larger motor to meet this specification.

 You can further optimize your design for maximum efficiency in converting electrical power to mechanical
power, to save on electrical power for battery-powered robots. Motors usually are most efficient at
converting electrical power to mechanical power at high speeds. On the other hand, gearboxes with larger
gear ratios generally have lower efficiency than gearboxes with smaller gear ratios. Don't worry about
efficiency in converting electrical to mechanical power unless it is a critical issue for you.

 Some of the mechanical power created by a motor goes to accelerate the rotor of the motor itself, and some
of it goes to accelerate the load. To maximize the mechanical power that goes to accelerate the load, you
would choose a gear ratio

This is called inertia matching. Again, this is only an issue for more sophisticated designs.

♦ To make a best selection, it is necessary to select either a coreless, iron core or brushless motor in
consideration of the power supply, control, running conditions, etc. 

♦ Power supply conditions

55
· Range of voltage to use, rectified power supply or battery, need of current limiter.

·Need of PWM control, voltage fluctuation control, etc.

·Need of encoder.

♦  Running conditions (continuous, intermittent, forward/reverse, drive time, lock, short brake).

♦ Environmental conditions (temperature, atmosphere, etc.).

♦ Dimensional restrictions including the gear head and encoder

♦ A procedure to select a motor and gear head using basic parameters presented by the customer will be
explained below.

Supply voltage U=12V

Rated speed Nr=90min-1

Rated torque Tr=40mNm

Size (diameter, length) Φ16 mm max., length 50 mm max.

Motor-based selection:

1. DC Motor output:

    Calculate the motor output (W) based on the torque and speed that you require in your application.

 If you plan to use a gear head, it is necessary to select a DC motor of an output calculated in consideration of
the gear head efficiency.

    
  For a target of 90min-1, assuming you select a DC motor speed of 9000min-1 and gear ratio of
1/100, calculate an output including the efficiency. (Spur gear 5 stages: 59%)

56
    

2. Voltage and size:    In consideration of the voltage supplied to the DC motor, size (diameter and length) and
an output greater than the DC motor rated output calculated above, make a final section of a motor.

  Example: Model selected: SCR16-2502 (12V, 0.71W) Outside diameter Φ16mm, length 42.55mm total

* See DC motor specifications on pages 12 to 14.

See DC coreless motors on pages 29 to 42.

3. Gear head selection:

    Select a gear head in consideration of the rated allowable torque and size (diameter and length). (The geared
must be used below its rated allowable torque.) Select a gear ratio to achieve the required speed and allowable
torque. 

Example: Model selected: RA-16R 1/97 (rated torque 49.1mNm, efficiency 59%)

    

 See Gear heads on pages 51 to 67.

♦ This catalog contains the specifications of DC Gear motor to enable selection based on sizes or torque/speed
of DC gear motors. The following simplified procedure can be used:

Size-based selection where your product design poses restrictions on the size of a motor or gear motor or when
you are currently using a DC motor or DC gear motor and are looking for an alternative, select a suitable motor
based on sizes.

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1. Rough selection based on size

Make a rough selection based on the size (diameter and length) of the gear motor.

Example: Model selected: Gearhead/RA-16R

Model selected: DC motor/SCR16-2502

Outside diameter Φ16mm, length 42.55mm total

*A list of combination on pages 8 to 9.

2. Selection of gear ratio

Confirm the power supply voltage to be supplied to the DC motor and select a gear ratio from the DC gear
motor specifications, referring to the allowable rated torque and rated speed. (Please note that the torque to use
actually must be lower than the rated torque of the DC gear motor.)

Features of DC Gear Motors:

 Gear materials: Plastic or metal.
 Motor types: Wound-field, permanent-magnet, brushless, intermittent and continuous duty motors.

 Brush-type and brushless motors: The brushed motor gains torque from the power supplied to the motor
using stationary magnets, commutation and rotating electrical magnets. Brushless motors use a soft
magnetic core in the rotor or a permanent magnet, as well as stationary magnets in the housing.

 Uncommitted motors: Homopolar motors or ball bearing motors.

 Connection types: Shunt, series and compound connections.

 Motor constants: Kv and Km.

 Speed control and reversibility: Smoothly control a speed down to zero without power circuit switching,
even after accelerating in the opposite direction.

 Dynamic braking and regenerative braking: Ideal for applications that require quick stops so you don’t
need a mechanical brake.

 Magnet types: Rare earth, ceramic or ferrite magnets.

 Winding resistance: Choose a motor that doesn’t adversely affect the Km.

 Gear ratios: Several varieties available, such as 28:1 or 18:1.

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 Environment: Motors are available for indoor or outdoor use.

 Torque multiplication: Generate a large force at a low speed.

 Custom-built: You can have a DC gear motor designed and manufactured to suit your size, power, torque
and mounting needs.

ADVANTAGES:

 Quality Gearing - Wider widths and smoother hobbing makes Bison gears wear longer even under adverse
conditions. And they generate less heat and run more quietly as well.
 Heavy Duty Bearings - Ball and needle bearings are used throughout to increase load-handling capability
and lengthen service life.

 Lifetime Lubrication - Gearboxes are oil filled and then permanently sealed to provide superior
lubrication over a wide ambient temperature range.

 Stronger Housings - Additional reinforcing and greater wall thickness of Bison’s tough, cast aluminum
housings contribute to Bison’s high performance ratings.

 Advanced Technology - Designed to ISO standards and manufactured on modern, computer controlled
equipment operated by a TQM trained, skilled workforce, and Bison products rank among the best of their
kind in the world.

 Rugged Shafts - Standard output shafts are made of hardened steel with keyways.

Uses of DC Gear Motors:

The uses for DC gear motors are nearly unlimited. The following applications are some that you may
recognize:

 Battery-operated toys
 Disk drives

 Steel rolling mills

 Paper machines

 Medical equipment

 Radio-controlled aircraft

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 Automobiles

 Drive systems

 Positioning, industrial and consumer actuators

 Winches

 Robotics

 Mixers, from cake to concrete

 Cranes

 Power drills

 Washing machine knobs

 Electromechanical clocks

Motor as a Generator

INTRODUCTION:

Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators
were used. They operated on electrostatic principles. Such generators generated very high voltage and
low current. They operated by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, and disks that carried
charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms:

 Electrostatic induction
 The turboelectric effect, where the contact between two insulators leaves them charged.

Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high
voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of
commercially significant quantities of electric power. The Wimshurst machine and Van de Graff
generator are examples of these machines that have survived.

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 In 1827, Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with the electromagnetic rotating
devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors, now called the Jedlik's dynamo. In the prototype
of the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the
revolving parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years before
Siemens and Wheatstone but didn't patent it as he thought he wasn't the first to realize this. In essence
the concept is that instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets opposite to each other induce
the magnetic field around the rotor. It was also the discovery of the principle of self-excitation.

In the years of 1831–1832, Michael Faraday discovered the operating principle of

electromagnetic generators. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is
generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first
electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc
rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.

61
 This design was inefficient, due to self-canceling counterflows of current in regions that were
not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the
magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the
magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste
heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of
magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow
direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path
through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could
produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns,
generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns.
Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.

The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The
dynamo uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical rotation into direct current through the
use of a commutator. The first dynamo was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832. A dynamo machine
consists of a stationary structure, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating
windings which turn within that field. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be
provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field
provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.

Through a series of accidental discoveries, the dynamo became the source of many later
inventions, including the DC electric motor, the AC alternator, the AC synchronous motor, and the
rotary converter.

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the
magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as
Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii.

Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar - each active
conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions.
The first public demonstration of a more robust "alternator system" took place in 1886. Large two-
phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. Lord

62
Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100
and 300 Hz. In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated
around 15 kHz). After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple
differing phases. Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between
sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric
motors.

Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of
alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large direct-current
dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC has come to dominate due to
the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very high voltages to permit low losses over
large distances.

Motor as a generator:

A motor-generator (an M-G set or a dynamotor for dynamo-motor) is a device for

converting electrical power to another form. Motor-generator sets are used to convert frequency,
voltage, or phase of power. They may also be used to isolate electrical loads from the electrical power
supply line. Large motor-generators were widely used to convert industrial amounts of power while
smaller motor-generators (such as the one shown in the picture) were used to convert battery power to
higher DC voltages.

Low-powered devices such as vacuum tube mobile radio receivers did not use motor-
generators. Instead, they would typically use an inverter circuit consisting of a vibrator (a self-exciting
relay) and a transformer to produce the B+ voltages required for the vacuum tubes.

63
 While a motor-generator set may consist of distinct motor and generator machines coupled
together, a single unit motor-generator will have both rotor coils of the motor and the generator
wound around a single rotor, and both coils share the same outer field coils or magnets. Typically the
motor coils are driven from a commutator on one end of the shaft, when the generator coils output to
another commutator on the other end of the shaft. The entire rotor and shaft assembly is smaller in
size than a pair of machines, and may not have any exposed drive shafts.

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to

electrical energy. A generator forces electric current to flow through an external circuit. The source of
mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or
waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any other
source of mechanical energy. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.

64
The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors
and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity and
frequently make acceptable generators.

Electromagnetic generators:

Dynamo:
A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of a
commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for
industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices
were based, including the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the rotary
converter. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency,
reliability and cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator. Also,
converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices (vacuum tube or more
recently solid state) is effective and usually economic.
Alternator:

Without a commutator, a dynamo becomes an alternator, which is a synchronous singly fed

generator. Alternators produce alternating current with a frequency that is based on the rotational
speed of the rotor and the number of magnetic poles.

Automotive alternators produce a varying frequency that changes with engine speed, which is
then converted by a rectifier to DC. By comparison, alternators used to feed an electric power grid are
generally operated at a speed very close to a specific frequency, for the benefit of AC devices that
regulate their speed and performance based on grid frequency. Some devices such as incandescent
lamps and ballast-operated fluorescent lamps do not require a constant frequency, but synchronous
motors such as in electric wall clocks do require a constant grid frequency.

When attached to a larger electric grid with other alternators, an alternator will dynamically
interact with the frequency already present on the grid, and operate at a speed that matches the grid
frequency. If no driving power is applied, the alternator will continue to spin at a constant speed
anyway, driven as a synchronous motor by the grid frequency. It is usually necessary for an alternator
65
to be accelerated up to the correct speed and phase alignment before connecting to the grid, as any
mismatch in frequency will cause the alternator to act as a synchronous motor, and suddenly leap to
the correct phase alignment as it absorbs a large inrush current from the grid, which may damage the
rotor and other equipment.

Typical alternators use a rotating field winding excited with direct current, and a stationary
(stator) winding that produces alternating current. Since the rotor field only requires a tiny fraction of
the power generated by the machine, the brushes for the field contact can be relatively small. In the
case of a brushless exciter, no brushes are used at all and the rotor shaft carries rectifiers to excite the
main field winding.

Induction generator:

An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that

uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC
asynchronous motor usually can be used as a generator, without any internal modifications. Induction
generators are useful in applications such as minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing
high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively simple
controls.

To operate an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is usually done
by connection to an electrical grid, or sometimes they are self excited by using phase correcting
capacitors.

MHD generator:

A magneto hydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases
through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators
were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD generator is a flame, well able to heat
the boilers of a steam power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in
1965.

The U.S. government funded substantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration

plant in 1987. In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular

66
commercial operation on the Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant
rating in the world at that time. [7] MHD generators operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007)
less efficient than combined cycle gas turbines.

Other rotating electromagnetic generators:

Other types of generators, such as the asynchronous or induction singly fed generator, the
doubly fed generator, or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator, do not incorporate
permanent magnets or field windings that establish a constant magnetic field, and as a result, are
seeing success in variable speed constant frequency applications, such as wind turbines or other
renewable energy technologies.

The full output performance of any generator can be optimized with electronic control but
only the doubly fed generators or the brushless wound-rotor doubly fed generator incorporate
electronic control with power ratings that are substantially less than the power output of the generator
under control, a feature which, by itself, offers cost, reliability and efficiency benefits.

Homopolar generator:
A homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically conductive disc
or cylinder rotating in a plane perpendicular to a uniform static magnetic field. A potential difference
is created between the center of the disc and the rim (or ends of the cylinder), the electrical polarity
depending on the direction of rotation and the orientation of the field. It is also known as a unipolar
generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, or Faraday disc. The voltage is typically low, on the order
of a few volts in the case of small demonstration models, but large research generators can produce
hundreds of volts, and some systems have multiple generators in series to produce an even larger
voltage. They are unusual in that they can source tremendous electric current, some more than a
million amperes, because the homopolar generator can be made to have very low internal resistance.
Terminology:

The two main parts of a generator or motor can be described in either mechanical or electrical terms.

Mechanical:

 Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine

 Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine

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Electrical:

 Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator, alternator, or

dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current. The armature can be on either the rotor or
the stator.
 Field: The magnetic field component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or
alternator can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on either the rotor
or the stator.

Because power transferred into the field circuit is much less than in the armature circuit, AC
generators nearly always have the field winding on the rotor and the stator as the armature winding.
Only a small amount of field current must be transferred to the moving rotor, using slip rings. Direct
current machines (dynamos) require a commutator on the rotating shaft to convert the alternating
current produced by the armature to direct current, so the armature winding is on the rotor of the
machine.

Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of generator and load.

G = generator
VG=generator open-circuit voltage
RG=generator internal resistance
VL=generator on-load voltage
RL=load resistance

The equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the diagram to the right. The
generator's and parameters can be determined by measuring the winding resistance (corrected
to operating temperature), and measuring the open-circuit and loaded voltage for a defined current
load.
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Electric power handling:

In the context of electric power generation and large fixed electrical power systems, a motor-
generator consists of an electric motor mechanically coupled to an electric generator (or alternator). The motor
runs on the electrical input current while the generator creates the electrical output current, with power flowing
between the two machines as a mechanical torque; this provides electrical isolation and some buffering of the
power between the two electrical systems.

One use of this type of motor-generator is to eliminate spikes and variations in "dirty power" or to
provide phase matching between different electrical systems; another is to buffer extreme loads on the power
system. For example, tokomak fusion devices impose very large peak loads, but relatively low average loads,
on the electrical grid. The DIII-D and Princeton Large Torus (PLT) tokomaks and Nimrod synchrotron used a
large flywheel on multiple motor-generator rigs to level the load imposed on the electrical system: the motor
side slowly accelerated a large flywheel to store energy, which was consumed rapidly during a fusion
experiment as the generator side acted as a brake on the flywheel. Similarly, the next generation U.S. Navy
aircraft carrier Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) will use a flywheel motor-generator rig to
supply power instantaneously for aircraft launches at greater than the ships installed generator capacity.

Conversions:

Motor-generators may be used for various conversions including:

 Alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC)

 DC to AC

 DC at one voltage to DC at another voltage

 AC at one frequency to AC at another harmonically-related frequency

 AC at a fixed voltage to AC of a variable voltage

 AC single phase to AC three phase

Variable AC voltage Power supply:

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 Before solid state AC voltage regulation was available or cost effective, motor generator sets were used
to provide a variable AC voltage. The DC voltage to the generators armature would be varied manually or
electronically to control the output voltage. When used in this fashion, the MG set is equivalent to an isolated
variable transformer.

Motor-generators used to increase Ride-Through:

Motor-generators have even been used where the input and output currents are essentially the
same. In this case, the mechanical inertia of the M-G set is used to filter out transients in the input
power. The output's electric current can be very clean (noise free) and will be able to ride-through
brief blackouts and switching transients at the input to the M-G set. This may enable, for example, the
flawless cut-over from mains power to AC power provided by a diesel generator set.

The motor-generator set may contain a large flywheel to improve its ride-through; however,
consideration must be taken in this application as the motor-generator will require a large amount of
current on re-closure, if prior to the pull-out torque is achieved, resulting in a shut down. The in-rush
current during re-closure will depend on many factors, however. As an example, a 250 kVA motor
generator operating at 300 ampere of full load current will require 1550 ampere of in-rush current
during a re-closure after 5 seconds. This example used a fixed mounted flywheel sized to result in a
1/2 Hz per second slew rate. The motor-generator was a vertical type 2 bearing machine with oil bath
bearings.

Motors and generators may be coupled by a non-conductive shaft in facilities that need to
closely control electromagnetic radiation,[1] or where high isolation from transient surge voltages is
required.

70
The motor-generator today:

Motor-generator sets have been replaced by semiconductor devices for some purposes. In the
past, a popular use for MG sets was in elevators. Since accurate speed control of the hoisting machine
was required, the impracticality of varying the frequency to a high power AC motor meant that the use
of an MG set with a DC hoist motor was a near industry-standard solution. Modern AC variable-
frequency drives and compatible motors have increasingly supplanted traditional MG-driven elevator
installations, since AC drives typically have 50% and higher efficiency gains over DC-powered
machinery.

Another use for MG sets was on the southern region of British Rail. They were used to convert
the 600VDC - 850VDC line supply voltage from the third rail into 70VDC to power the controls of
the EMU stock in use. These have since been replaced with solid state converters on new rolling
stock.

On the other hand, in industrial settings where harmonic cancellation, frequency conversion,
or line isolation is needed, MG sets remain a popular solution. A useful feature of the motor-generator
is that they can handle large short-term overloads better than semiconductor devices of the same
average load rating. Consider that the thermally current-limited components of a large semiconductor
inverter are solid-state switches massing a few grams with a thermal time constant to their heat sinks
of likely more than 100 ms, whereas the thermally current limited components of an MG are copper
windings massing some hundreds of kilos which are intrinsically attached to their own large thermal
mass. They also have inherently excellent resistance to electrostatic discharge (ESD).

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Modern use of the term motor-generator:
In the context of hybrid vehicles and other lightweight power systems, a motor-generator can
be used to describe a single power transducer that can be used as either an electric motor or a
generator, converting between electrical power and mechanical power. In principle, any electrical
generator can also serve as an electric motor, or vice versa. A device that is specifically designed for
use in either mode may be called a "motor-generator"; the literature distributed by Toyota to describe
the Hybrid Synergy Drive is an example of this newer usage.
Engine-generator:
An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime
mover) mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are
usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used. And there are even hybrid diesel-gas units,
called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of engine-generators are available - ranging from very
small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations. The primary advantage of engine-
generators is the ability to independently supply electricity, allowing the units to serve as backup
power solutions.
Human powered electrical generators:

A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio station
equipment).

Human powered direct current generators are commercially available, and have been the
project of some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle
trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases
are designed with an integral inverter. The average adult could generate about 125-200 watts on a
pedal powered generator, but at a power of 200 W, a typical healthy human will reach complete
exhaustion and fail to produce any more power after approximately 1.3 hours. [13] Portable radio
receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During
the mid 20th century, pedal powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide
schooling (School of the Air), medical and other needs in remote stations and towns.

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Linear electric generator:
In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth
through a solenoid - a spool of copper wire. An alternating current is induced in the loops of
wire by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of generator
is used in the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave power
schemes.

Tachogenerator:
Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to measure the speeds of
electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power. Generators generate voltage roughly
proportional to shaft speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to
produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds.

Applications of DC Generator:
1. DC shunts Generator:
The terminal voltage of DC shunt generator is more or less constant from no load to full load
.Therefore these generators are used where constant voltage is required.
 For electro plating

 Battery charging

 For excitation of Alternators

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2. Series Generators:

The terminal voltage of series generator increases with load current from no load to full load
.Therefore these generators are,

 Used as Boosters
 Used for supply to arc Lamps

3. Compound Generator:
 Differential Compound generators are used to supply dc welding machines.

 Level compound generators are used to supply power for offices, hostels and Lodges etc.

 over compound generators are used to compensate the voltage drop in Feeders.
4. Separately Exited Generator:
 As a supply source to DC Motors, whose speed is to be controlled for certain applications
 Where a wide range of voltage is required for the testing purposes.

3.4 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF 12V CHARGING CIRCUIT

Rechargeable battery:

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery. It

comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator. It is known as a
secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries
come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to
stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly
used, including: lead–acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-
ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

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 Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable
batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types.
Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very cheaply and used many
times.

Charging and discharging:

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative
material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external
circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as in
lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical
reaction, as in lead–acid cells.

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using
AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet.
Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source. The
negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source and the
positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage
output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but not much higher: the greater the
difference between the power source and the battery's voltage capacity, the faster the charging
process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and damaging the battery.

Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without
voltage- or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or
more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending
on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple
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ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to
stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often
incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating.

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current.
The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For
example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging and
discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical
cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell
components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at
which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and
discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable
terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate.
Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated
time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.

Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid.

Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and refers to
the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. (This is typically in reference to 12-volt lead-
acid batteries.) For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC
requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.

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 Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops
with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than
alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.

Damage during storage in fully discharged state:

If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal
effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell
reversal--either by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to
dissipate its charge over time.

Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may
occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the sulfation
that occurs in lead-acid batteries that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is
often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge
level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the
optimal level of charge during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.

change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally a rechargeable battery system will
tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle.

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Charge Mode:

Constant voltage charge (constant voltage and constant resistance charge) is recommended.
Charging current is limited, so be sure to charge via a charge-limiting resistor.
The specified charge voltage must also be observed.
* If you are considering adopting constant current and constant voltage charge mode, contact SII.

Charge Voltage Range:

Observe the specified charging voltage range.

* Charging at a voltage higher than the upper limit may degrade the electrical characteristics or lead to
leakage or bursting.
* Charging at a voltage lower than the lower limit significantly reduces discharge capacity.

Charging circuit example:

Explaining of the Circuit:

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 First of all the circuit is well separated is two sections the power supply on the left (green line)
with the battery pack and the outline with the purple line

We take the transformer (220V Europe make the calculations over Atlantic reader) and we
connect it in a formation of diodes called bridge. This circuit is what a first year student learns and
remembers it for ever. Its the simplest circuit to achieve best results, cheap and realible.Ok, if u like to
transform from AC to AC again then the circuit remains the same u change the diodes of type 4402,
4403, 4002, of course the transformer and the appropriate relay working in AC. The capacitor of
1000uF value is a filter and a choke to elevate the power. Connect the diodes to the capacitor and then
this one at the line of the relay. Then the + pole of the device gets to the switch of the relay. At the +

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pole of the device we attach a diode or a BY251 and a resistor 33Ohm of 5 Watts (we prefer 5watts so
the resistor isn't get hot when it works and cools down faster)
You will not need any PCB. Take a protorype or better a perforated card and just place the materials
and do the connections. No particular attention needed (of course take all the precautions when using
high voltage such as 220VDC are able to fry you in seconds and send next to your anchestors for
ever) from the + and - we will take line and we will drive it to 2 RCA female (chassis) The one male
RCA connected here goes to the charge the battery and the other goes at the device where we will
place a fake battery.

How long time does it take to recharge a rechargeable battery:

Formula for calculating batteries charging time:

hr = mAh / mA
“hours” equal “battery size in milliamp ere-hour” divided by “charger output power in mill amperes”.
(Need more information? The charge formula is explained in details with examples further below.).

Charging rechargeable batteries:

Type into the calculator your rechargeable battery’s capacity number, normally can be red on
the battery body e.g. 1700 mAh ( milli-ampere-hours ). Then select the battery type/size in the left
column ( NiMH – NiCd – AAA – AA – C – D – 9V ( 9 volt )) and in the right side select a current
output ( electric power output ) of your charger in mA ( milli-amperes ).

Type in a capacity number of one battery only without changing outcome as per hours/mA a
1-4 batteries can be charged.

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 You can select and use a specific / special battery sizes at the bottom of the field and then set a
different current output from a battery charger, if needed, by choosing the 1mA current and
multiplying the outcome backwards – dividing in fact by the existing current value at which your
charging equipment operates.

Re-charging 9 volt rechargeable batteries:

Time control for charging of common 9V rechargeable batteries ( NiCd and NiMH 9 V
batteries.) The timer takes longer because these can only be charged at much lower current rate of
0.1C or 1/10C (mAhr/10 = charging time in hours) of their mAh capacity value. Usually between 30
mA to 100 mA depending on the 9V battery capacity in mAh this is still great to put up with
considering that the 9 volts non rechargeable batteries cost arm and leg, but they don’t have to.

Common abbreviations – symbols – prefix:

 nickel-metal hydride ( cell ) – NiMH

 nickel-cadmium battery ( cells ) – NiCd

 9 volts battery – 9V – 9 V

 mill ampere hour – milliamp hour – mAh – mAhr – mAhrs

 mill ampere – mA ( 1/1000 of ampere | 1 A = 1000 mA )

 ampere – A ( electric charge amount measure )

 battery current or capacity – C

 hour – h – hr

 hours – hrs

How do I calculate charging time for rechargeable battery manually?

Formula for manual calculation for battery recharging processes

AAA – AA – C – D sizes rechargeable batteries:

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hours ( charging time ) equals to 12 x Ahr = hrs OR 12/1000 x mAh = hrs
( 12/1000 x mAh = hours of charging )
Example calculations with this manual formula; calculate charging time length for 2400 mAh NiMH
AA size 1.2v rechargeable batteries with 100 mA charger and secondly with a 3.5 times more
powerful 350 mA current output power charger:

100mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 2400 = 28.8 (hrs)
It requires 28.8 hours ( 28 hours and 48 minutes ) to charge or recharge aa size 2400mAh batteries
with charger that has 100mA current output.

350mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 2400 = 28.8
28.8 : 3.5 = 8.2 (hrs)

It takes 8.2 hours ( 8 hours and 12 minutes ) time to charge or recharge 2400mAh batteries with
charger that has 350mA current output. Here is a second example of how long to charge batteries but
this time for charging 1800 mAh 1.2 volt NiMH aa type rechargeable batteries and with the same
current chargers:

100mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 1800 = 21.6 (hrs)

It takes 21.6 hours ( 21 hours and 36 minutes ) to charge or recharge aa size 1800mAh batteries with
charger that has 100mA current output.

350mA battery charger:

12 : 1000 = 0.012
0.012 x 1800 = 21.6
21.6 : 3.5 = 6.2 (hrs)

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In total 6.2 hours ( 6 hours and 12 minutes ) is needed to charge or recharge 1800mAh batteries with
charger that has 350mA current output power.

9v (9 volt) rechargeable batteries:

hours equal to battery mAhr/10 ( mAh/10 = hrs )

Basics:

Battery charging time = capacity of the battery / charging current power output of the charger. hr =
mAh / mA.

Usage and applications:

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light
vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and
uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles
are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase lifetime.

Traditional rechargeable batteries have to be charged before their first use; newer low self-
discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically charged at the factory
to about 70% of their rated capacity before shipping.

Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store
electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power
generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries during
periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical demand,
load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost
of generators over more hours of operation.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demand for
rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non rechargeable.

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 Industrial Battery Charger Project Kit:
The assignment is intended for charging battery(s) by DC from AC supply of power. DC
power supplied for a battery’s charger is a derivative from a thyristor controlled rectifier
mechanism. AC supply of power is useful to a link rectifier consisting of diodes and a TRIAC
achieving preferred power from the micro...

24V to 36V Battery Charger Circuit:

This 24V to 36V linear battery charger is long overdue. While this is an old circuit
technique, it is optimized for charging higher voltage lead-acid battery packs, and could be used
on other types of batteries as well. By proper transformer selection, it can be optimized for
either 24 or 36V. Note that actual float charge...
Reverse Polarity Protection Battery Charger:
This reverse polarity protection NiCd battery charger can charge up to 7 NiCd batteries
connected in series. This number can be increased if the power supply is increased with 1.65V
for each supplementary battery. If T2 is mounted on a proper heat sink, the input voltage can
be increased at a maximum of 25V.
Charging Circuit:

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From the above circuit diagram, we can see that the 18v AC is being converted to 18V pulsating DC
which is in turn converted to smooth DC with the help of the Capacitor. This 18V Smooth DC is
converted to 12V DC by the Voltage Regulator 7812. At the output of the regulator, we get some
spikes which are not desirable. These spikes are removed with the help of another capacitor used. We
can get 12V Steady DC at the output terminal which can be indicated if the LED glows.

3.6 High power LED

High power LED’s from Philips Lumileds Lighting Company mounted on a 21 mm star
shaped base metal core PCB

High power LED’s (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an
ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LED’s. They produce up to over a thousand lumens.
Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat
dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will burn out in seconds. A single
HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful
LED lamp.
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 Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto
Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009 some HPLEDs
manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W(e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip emitting Cool
White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even
fluorescent style lights as LED’s become more cost competitive.

LED’s have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without
the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this
is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40 lm/W. A
large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009
Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage capable of being driven from AC power with a
simple controlling circuit. The low power dissipation of these LED affords them to be use used more
flexibly than the original AC LED.

Product Protection
LED is the electrostatic sensitive devices, so the product storage, transportation, application
process, paying particular attention to static electricity, electromagnetic waves, and together with the
necessary anti-static measures Safety Precautions Harmful substances such devices include GaAs, Gas
dustand fumes are toxic, this product cannot be broken, cutting or grinding, not with chemicals to
dissolve.

Design and Application

1. In the ratings to be used within the operating LED current limit function of the resistor. How much
resistance will have to refer to the specific product specifications required to calculate the rated
current plus that.
2. LED to be used in parallel mode, each LED channel by adding resistors are required, must not be
led directly to multiple parallel.
3. Circuits shall be designed to note: When the LED goes out to prohibit reverse voltage.

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4. Circuitry required designing note: the lights turn off the lights when you prevent the instantaneous
voltage Wayjun Technology Co., Ltd
5. Solder direction (electrode direction) to be orthogonal with the direction of PCB.
6. High temperature will reduce its performance and re liability, please stay away from heat sources.

Cleaning
1. Avoid the use of non-designated chemical solvents to clean the LED. For example: trichloroethene,
chlorosilanes, acetone, difluoro esters.
2. If necessary cleaning carried out at room temperature, and not more than 1 minute.
3. When using any cleaning a chemical solvent to be especially careful, because some chemical
solvents will damage the gel surface.
4. Recommend the use of isopropyl alcohol or pure water (not tap water) for cleaning.
5. If using pure water, then immediately after cleaning dehumidifying, forced drying.

Save
1. Before unpacking, LED should be stored in 30 °C/ 90% RH or less environment. After opening the
package, LED should be placed in 30 °C/ 70%RH or below the environment
2. Effective use for 1 year, after opening in 168H (7 days) of the exhausted.
3. If the use of desiccant fades or expired, the need to dry and roast: 60 ± 6°C/ 24H.
4. LED James Gray lens easily, you need to do a good job related to dust control measures

Pick and place

Grasping LED can only touch on the body frame, tweezers; a tool can not put pressure on the lens, not
to stamp stab or push the lens.

Heat treatment
When the LED current drive is too large the Tj (junction temperature) will exceed its limit,
which can cause serious shorten the life of LED, the heat treatment measures to effectively reduce the
thermal resistance applications. More common practice is to install the LED package device PCB
board in the metal matrix. 1W LED products require heat the metal substrate surface area of at least
30 C ㎡ (3W products recommended above 80 C ), and its thermal conductivity is higher than
2.0W/mK.LED and thermal conductivity of metal substrate by a better combination of thermal plastic,
thermal requirements Coefficient is higher than 1.0W/mK. Thickness of less than 100um
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Features

●Highest flux per LED family in the world

●Very long operating life (up to 100k hours)
●Available in White: 2500K-25000K
● Lambertian radiation pattern
●More energy efficient than incandescent and most halogen lamps
●Low voltage DC operated
●Cool beam, safe to the touch
●Fully dimmable
●No UV
●Superior ESD protection
●lower Rth
●RoHS compliant — Lead-free
●Instant light (less than 100ns) 1W White LED & Aluminum PCB

Advantages:

 Efficiency: LED’s produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs.
 Color: LED’s can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that traditional
lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

 Size: LED’s can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto printed circuit
boards.

 On/Off time: LED’s light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in microseconds. LED’s used in communications devices can have even faster response
times.

 Cycling: LED’s are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike
fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID lamps that require a
long time before restarting.

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 Dimming: LED’s can very easily be dimmed either by Pulse-width modulation or lowering the
forward current.

 Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LED’s radiate very little heat in the form of IR that
can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the
base of the LED.

 Slow failure: LED’s mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of
incandescent bulbs.

 Lifetime: LED’s can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000
hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are
rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent
light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.

 Shock resistance: LED’s, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.

 Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner.

 Toxicity: LED’s do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

3.6.2: Application of LED’s falls into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human
eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects.

 Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human visual
system.

3.6.3: Applications of LED:

 Portable (flashlight, bicycle)
 Reading lights (car, bus, aircraft)

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 Orientation
 Mini-accent
 Decorative
 Fiber optic alternative
 Appliance
 Sign and channel letter
 Architectural detail
 Cove lighting
 Automotive exterior (Stop-Tail-Turn, CHMSL, Mirror side repeat)
 Edge lit signs (Exit, point of sale)

 A large LED display behind a disc jockey.

 LED destination displays on buses, one with a colored route number

 An information sign outside a parking garage in Sweden

 LED digital display that can display 4 digits along with points.

 Traffic light using LED

 Dropped ceiling with LED lamps

 LED panel light source used in an experiment on plant growth. The findings of such
experiments may be used to grow food in space on long duration missions.

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 CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:

1. Conservation of Non Renewable energy sources.

2. Maximum output can be obtained.
3. Efficient and low cost design.
4. Low power consumption.
5. Power generation is simply walking.
6. Power also generated by running or walking through knee strap set up.
7. No need fuel input.
8. This is a Non-conventional system.

Disadvantages:

1. Periodic Monitoring and Maintenance is required.

2. A drastic environmental change cannot be tolerated by the equipment.
3. Only applicable for the particular place.
4. Mechanical moving parts are high.
5. Initial cost of this arrangement is high.
6. Care should be taken for batteries.

Applications:

1. This energy can be utilized for simple house hold appliances.

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 2. This energy can be stored and utilized as backup power supply mainly in industries.

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS

7.1 Result:

The project “POWER-GENERATING KNEE STRAP HINTS AT END FOR

BATTERIES” was designed such that to generate electrical power as non-conventional method by
simply walking with knee strap set up using spur gear mechanism. Non-conventional energy using
walking or running using converting mechanical energy into the electrical energy

7.2 Conclusion:

Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best
working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s with the help of growing technology, the
project has been successfully implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed and
tested.

7.3 Future Scope:

Our project “POWER-GENERATING KNEE STRAP HINTS AT END FOR

BATTERIES” is mainly intended to generate electrical power as non-conventional method by simply
walking or running with knee strap using spur gear mechanism. Non-conventional energy using
spur gear mechanism using converting mechanical energy into the electrical energy

For this project the conversion of the force energy in to electrical energy. The control
mechanism carries the spur gear mechanism, D.C generator, battery and charging circuit. We have
discussed the various applications and further extension also. The D.C generator used in this project is

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Permanente Magnet D.C generator. The Generator is coupled to the fly wheel Shaft with the help of
Spur Gear Mechanism.

We can extend the project by adding rack and pinion mechanism and also using other gear
mechanism. We can even add inverter circuit for conversion of DEC to AC power for electrical
appliances control.

REFERENCES

The sites which were used while doing this project:

1. www.wikipedia.com

2. www.howstuffworks.com

3. Electronics for you

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