The Eight Parts of Speech

THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in
meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more than
one part of speech when used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for
determining the correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.
1. NOUN – pangngalan
 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article (the, a, an), but
not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do not. Nouns can be
singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by adding 's. Nouns can function in
different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a subject, direct object, indirect object,
subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.
2. PRONOUN - panghalip
 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific noun, which
is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns
are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things; possessive pronouns
indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative
pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to
nouns.
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.
3. VERB - pandiwa
 A verb expresses action or being.

jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or more
helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must agree with its
subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different forms to express
tense.
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.
4. ADJECTIVE – pang-uri
 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
pretty... old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the question
of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.)
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.
5. ADVERB – pang-abay
 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It usually
answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs
often end in -ly.
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.
6. PREPOSITION – pang-ukol
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until

(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in
the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase
almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list includes the most common
prepositions:
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.
7. CONJUNCTION - pangatnig
 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the elements
joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so,
yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while, since,
etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.
8. INTERJECTION - pandamdam
 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.
Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
NOUNS
The first real word you ever used probably was a noun-a word like mama, daddy, car, or cookie. Most
children begin building their vocabularies with nouns. A noun names something: a person, place, or
thing. Most other parts of our language either describe nouns, tell what a noun is doing, or take the
place of a noun.
Nouns have these characteristics:

 They are abstract or concrete.
 They are proper or common.
 Most are singular or plural, but...
 Some are collective.
In English, nouns are often preceded by noun markers--the articles/adjectives a, an, the, or some for

example; or possessive words like my or your. A noun always follows a noun marker, though adjectives
or other words may come between them:
my former roommate

a sunny June day
an objective and very thorough evaluation
some existential angst
Because of their noun markers, you could safely guess that roommate, day, evaluation and angst are

nouns (even if you didn't know what angst was). Although not all nouns are preceded by markers, you
can use a noun marker test to identify many, including abstract nouns. Consider this example:
Enthusiasm and willingness to work hard are a remedy for the existential angst of many students.
Remedy is marked as a noun by the noun marker a. Angst is preceded by the noun

marker the. Students is preceded by the adjective (adjectives modify nouns) many. Test the remaining
words: can you have an enthusiasm or some enthusiasm? Certainly: "I have an enthusiasm for
snowboarding" or "Show some enthusiasm!" So enthusiasm is a noun. Can you have an and or some
and? Uh, no. So and is not a noun. Can you have a willingness or some willingness? Sure, you can have
"a willingness to learn"; willingness is also a noun.
Every noun is either abstract or concrete.

Nouns like enthusiasm, willingness and angst are abstract nouns. Abstract nouns name things we
cannot see, touch, or detect readily through our senses. Abstract nouns name ideas
(existentialism, democracy), measurements (weight, percent), emotions (love, angst), or qualities
(responsibility). Concrete nouns, on the other hand, name persons, including animals (cousins, Roger
Rabbit), places (beach, Chico), or things we can see, touch, or otherwise detect through our senses
(smoke, beer).
Every noun is either proper or common.

A proper noun identifies a particular person, animal, place, thing, or idea--Roger Rabbit, for example.
The first letter of each word of a proper noun is capitalized. A common noun does not name a particular
person or thing; rather, it refers to a whole class or type. Common nouns do not require capitalization.
Proper noun (capitalized) common

noun
Sierra Nevada Crystal

is his favorite beer.
Wheat
are our local soccer and

The Rooks and the Rangers teams.
baseball
Bidwell Park is one of the largest municipal parks.
Lundberg Family Farm is a sustainable, organic farm.
Most nouns are either singular or plural...

Most nouns are made plural with the addition of s or es. Thus, instructor becomes instructors,
and class becomes classes. Some nouns have irregular plural forms: man becomes men,
and woman becomes women. Child becomes children, and person becomes people.
Many people, both men and women, believe that having children will be a remedy for their existential
angst.
Some nouns have the same form in both singular and plural: "A moose is crossing the river. No, wait--
three moose are crossing the river!"
...but some nouns are collective.

A collective noun names a collection or group of things. Although a collective noun refers to a group of
many things, it is usually singular in form. We think of a collective noun as singular because its members
act in one accord:
The army is withdrawing from those Asian countries that are in negotiations.
Here, army is a collective noun referring to a group of many people acting with one will. We treat it as a
singular noun. Countries is a plural noun. If several countries joined together to form an alliance, we
could say this:
The Asian alliance is united in its determination to repel foreign invaders.
In some instances a collective noun describes a group that is not acting with one will, whose members
rather are taking independent, divergent actions. In this case, the collective noun is treated as a plural to
reflect the plurality of the members' actions:
The jury were unable to come to any consensus.
If the jury had reached a unanimous decision, we would have said:
The jury was unanimous in its verdict.

PRONOUNS
Pronouns replace nouns. Without them, language would be repetitious, lengthy, and awkward:
President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although President John Kennedy approached
stairs gingerly and lifted with care, President John Kennedy did swim and sail, and occasionally President
John Kennedy even managed to play touch football with friends, family members, or co-workers.
With pronouns taking the place of some nouns, that sentence reads more naturally:
President John Kennedy had severe back trouble, and although he approached stairs gingerly and lifted
with care, he did swim and sail, and occasionally he even managed to play touch football with friends,
family members, or co-workers.
The pronoun he takes the place of the proper noun President John Kennedy. This makes President John
Kennedy the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent is the noun or pronoun that a pronoun
replaces. There are six types of pronouns:
Personal Reflexive
Indefinite Relative
Possessive Demonstrative
Personal pronouns
Since nouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, personal pronouns also refer to specific persons,
places, or things. Pronouns have characteristics called number, person, and case.
Number refers to whether a pronoun is singular (him) or plural (them). Thus John Kennedy
becomes he or him, while the president's friends would be they or them.
Person is a little more abstract. The first person is the person speaking-I. The sentence "I expect to
graduate in January," is in the first person. The second person is the one being spoken to–you: "You may
be able to graduate sooner!" The third person is being spoken of-he, she, it, they, them: "She, on the
other hand, may have to wait until June to graduate." A pronoun must match (agree with) its
antecedent in person as well as number. So graduating students must be referred to as they or them,
not as us; a valedictorian must be referred to as he or she, him or her, not as we or you.
Case refers to what job a pronoun can legally perform in a sentence. Some pronouns can be subjects
and others cannot. For example, we are allowed to say "I expect to graduate soon," but we are not
allowed to say "Me expect to graduate soon." Pronouns that may be subjects are in the subjective case;
they are subject pronouns. Some pronouns cannot be subjects; they are, instead, used as direct objects,
indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. They are in objective case; they are object pronouns: "His
uncle hired him after graduation." "Uncle Joe gave her a job, too." "Without them, he would have been
shorthanded."
First person Second person Third person
Subjective Objective Subjective Objective Subjective Objective
I, we me, us you you he, she, it, they him, her, it, them
Subject pronouns also are used after linking verbs, where they refer back to the subject: "The
valedictorian was
she."
Indefinite pronouns
While personal pronouns refer to specific persons, places, or things, indefinite pronouns refer
to general persons, places, or things. Indefinite pronouns all are third-person pronouns and can be
subjects or objects in sentences.
Many indefinite pronouns seem to refer to groups–everybody seems like a crowd, right?-and so are
often mistakenly treated as plurals ("Everybody overfilled their backpack"). However, any indefinite
pronoun that ends in -one, -body, -thing is singular: "Everybody overfilled his (or her) backpack." The
following indefinite pronouns are usually singular; if one of these words is the antecedent in a sentence,
the pronoun that refers to it must also be singular. Thus, we must write, "Does anyone know," rather
than "Do anyone know"; "Each of them knows," rather than "Each of them know"; and
"Someone left her cell phone," rather than, "Someone left their cell phone."
Indefinite pronouns, singular
anyone anybody anything either each
no one nobody nothing another one
someone somebody something any
everyone everybody everything
On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns are plural:

Indefinite pronouns, plural
both few many several
Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs and plural pronouns: "Both were rewarded
for their courage." "Many attend in spite of their other obligations."
A few indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural, depending on the context:
Indefinite pronouns, singular or plural
most any all none some neither
Thus, we may write, "All is well," (singular) in reference to the general condition of things, or
"All are attending," (plural) in reference to individuals. (For more, look up count and non-count nouns in
an English grammar reference or online.)
(Some of the indefinite pronouns above can also be used as adjectives. In "Many left their trash on the
riverbank," many is a pronoun replacing swimmers. In contrast, in "Many students went tubing on the
river," many is an adjective modifying students. For more information, see the TIP sheet "Adjectives.")
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns. Thus, Jamie's Corvette becomes her Corvette. Possessive
pronouns never take apostrophes.
Possessive pronouns
my our your his, her its their whose
mine ours yours his, hers theirs
In the table above, the words in the upper row must accompany nouns: her Corvette, our Nissan. The
pronouns in the lower row stand alone, as replacements for the adjective + noun pair– "Hers is
fast; mine is slow."
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns add emphasis. They always follow a noun or personal pronoun and do not appear
alone in a sentence: "Jamie herself changed the tire." "She herself changed the tire." The meaning is that
she, and no one else, changed the tire, and the emphasis is on the independence of her action. Reflexive
pronouns also show that someone did something to himself or herself: "She surprised herself with how
well she did on the test."
Reflexive pronouns
yourself himself, herself, itself

myself ourselves
yourselves themselves
A reflexive pronoun cannot replace the subject of a sentence, such as in "Burcu and myself are taking

that class together." Instead, use a personal pronoun: "Burcu and I are taking that class together" or
"Burcu and I myself are taking that class together."
There is no theirself or theirselves. "They waxed the car themselves at home." There is no hisself: "Jesse
taught himself French."
Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun begins a clause that refers to a noun in a sentence. (A clause is a word group with its
own subject and verb.) Who begins a clause that refers to people: "Krista is the math tutor who helped
me the most." That may refer either to persons or things: "Laura is the math tutor that knows the most
about calculus; calculus is the class that I am taking in the fall." Which begins a clause that refers to
things: "Statistics, which is the interpretation of collected numerical data, has many practical
applications."
Relative pronouns
that who whoever whose
which whom whomever what
Who is a subject pronoun; it can be the subject of a sentence: "Who was at the door?" Whom is an
object pronoun. It cannot be the subject of a sentence, but it can be a direct or indirect object or the
object of a preposition: "Don't ask for whom the bell tolls." Who and whom often appear in questions
where the natural word order is inverted and where the words you see first are the pronouns who or
whom, followed by part of the verb, then the subject, then the rest of the verb. So it isn't always easy to
figure out if you should use who or whom. Is it "Who did you visit last summer?" or "Whom did you visit
last summer?" To decide, follow these steps:
1. Change the question to a statement: "You did visit who/whom last summer." This restores
natural word order: subject, verb, direct object.
2. In place of who/whom, substitute the personal pronouns he and him: "You did visit he last
summer"; "You did visit him last summer."
3. If he, a subject pronoun, is right, then the right choice for the original question is who–another
subject pronoun. If him, an object pronoun, is correct, then the right choice for the original
question is whom–another object pronoun.
4. Based on step three, above, correctly frame the question: "Whom did you visit last summer?"
Similarly, whoever is a subject pronoun, and whomever is an object pronoun. Use the same test for,
"Whoever/whomever would want to run on such a humid day?" Change the question to a statement,
substituting he and him: "He (not him) would want to run on such a humid day." The right word,
therefore, would be whoever, the subject pronoun. On the other hand, you would say, "Hand out plenty
of water to whomever you see." You would see and hand the water out to him, not to he; this sentence
requires the object pronoun.
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns indicate specific persons, places, or things: "That is a great idea!" That is a
pronoun referring to the abstract noun idea.
Demonstrative pronouns
this these
that those
(Like some indefinite pronouns, demonstrative pronouns can also be used as adjectives. In "That band
started out playing local Chico clubs," that modifies the noun band.)
VERBS
If a noun was the first word you ever spoke (Mama or cookie), a verb probably followed just as soon as
you learned that "Give cookie" got you better results than "Cookie." In a sentence, the verb expresses
what the subject does (She hopes for the job) or what the subject is (She is confident). All verbs are one
of three types:
 Action verbs
 Linking verbs
 Helping verbs
Action verbs
In a sentence, an action verb tells what the subject does. Action verbs express physical or mental
actions: think, eat, collide, realize, dance. Admittedly, some of these seem more active than others.
Nevertheless, realize is still as much a verb as collide:
I finally realized my mistake.

The outfielder collided with the second-baseman.
She dances every Friday night.
(In the present tense, statements with subjects of he, she, or it, we add an s to the verb: I
go downstairs, we go downstairs, and ballplayers go downstairs, but he goes downstairs and Loren
goes downstairs. For more, see the TIP Sheet "Subject-Verb Agreement.")
Linking verbs
Linking verbs are the couch potatoes of verbs, that is, not very active at all. In a sentence, a linking verb
tells what the subject is rather than what it does; linking verbs express a state of being. For example, all
the forms of the verb to be are linking verbs:
3rd person (she, he, it;

1st person (I; we) 2nd person (you)
they)
present am; are are is; are
past was; were were was; were
participl [have] been; [had] [have] been; [had]

[has] been; [had] been
e been been
These verbs connect a subject, say, Loren, with more information about that subject: Loren is an athlete,
or Loren was glad.
Another set of linking verbs are those pertaining to our five senses--seeing, tasting, touching, hearing,
and smelling--and how we perceive the world: the verbs appear, seem, look, feel, smell, taste,
and sound, for example. When used as linking verbs, they connect the subject with a word offering more
information about that subject:
Loren seems anxious about the test.

The well water tastes wonderful.
My carpet still feels damp.
You sound hoarse.
The curtains smell a little smoky.
As linking verbs, these "sense" verbs have about the same meaning as is. Loren seems anxious is roughly
equivalent to Loren is anxious; the curtains smell smoky is about the same as the curtains are smoky.
However, these same "sense" verbs can sometimes be action verbs instead. The real test whether one
of these verbs is or is not a linking verb is whether it draws an equivalence with the subject, almost like a
math equation: Loren = anxious; curtains = smoky. Consider the sentence I can't taste my lunch because
I have a cold. Taste here does not draw an equivalence between I and lunch; rather, here it is an action
verb, something the subject does. In the sentence Can you smell smoke? smell does not describe what
the subject is, but what the subject does; it is an action verb.
Other common linking verbs include become, remain, and grow, when they link the subject to more
information (either a noun or an adjective) about that subject:
You will soon become tired of the monotony.

Pha has become a very responsible teenager.
I remain hopeful.
Daniel grew more and more confident.
Again, these verbs might be action verbs in other sentences, such as in I grew carrots.
Helping verbs...
Verbs often appear with helping verbs that fine-tune their meaning, usually expressing when something
occurred. The complete verb is the main verb plus all its helping verbs.
Verb tense is the name for the characteristic verbs have of expressing time. Simple present tense verbs
express present or habitual action, and simple past tense verbs express actions that were completed in
the past; neither simple present nor simple past tense verbs require helping verbs. However, most other
verb tenses require one or more helping verbs. Moreover, some helping verbs express more than just
time-possibility, obligation, or permission, for example.
...have, has, had

Every verb has three basic forms: present or simple form, past form, and participle form. All participle
forms require a helping verb that fine-tunes the time expression:
Comets have collided with earth many times.

Stan had known about the plan for some time.
The table below demonstrates these three forms with their required helping verbs:
present or simple form past form participle form participle + helper
collide collided collided has, have, had collided
is was been has, have, had been
choose chose chosen has, have, had been
know knew known has, have, had been

Participles used as verbs in a sentence must be used with has, have, or had. Participles used without
helpers become adjectives: The early explorers sailed beyond the known world.
...to be: am, are, is, was, were, been
Verbs with -ing endings require a helper from the to be family of verbs. These progressive verb tenses
express ongoing present action, continuous past action or future planned action:
They are still working on the contract.

Phanat was studying all night.
Holly had been reviewing her notes since the day before.
We are holding student elections next September.
Verbs with -ing endings must be used with one of the to be helpers; an -ing word without a helper is
ineligible to act as the verb of a sentence. It can, however, be a noun (Hiking is fun) or an adjective (The
hiking trail is closed).
...do, does, did

The helping verbs do, does, and did may be used optionally to add emphasis: She certainly does like her
morning mocha.
While adding emphasis is optional, these helpers must be used when forming

questions: Does Andrea ski every weekend? They must also accompany the verb in sentences that
combine not with an action verb: Don't you want to take the train? Do not wait for me past 4:30.
When do and does are used, they change form to match the subject while the main verb remains in
simple form: instead of She likes coffee, we would say, She sure does like her coffee. Similarly, for
questions, we change the form of the helper and leave the main verb in simple
form: Does Andrea ski? The negative is Andrea does not ski, even though the statement would have
been Andrea skis. (In the past tense, with did, the verb never changes form.)
...will and shall

Future tense verbs require a helper, will or shall, and express intention, expectation, or action that will
happen later.
We shall drive to Santa Barbara in August.

Krista will not attend.
We will be holding student elections in September.
...would, could, should, can, may, might...

The verb helpers would, could, should, can, may, might, must, supposed to, ought to, used to,
and have to are examples of modal helpers. (Will and shall are technically modals as well.) Modal
helpers are little different from real verbs because they never change form. They are easy to use
because they always are used with the simple form of the verb:
I may want to change my flight.
You can cash your check at the grocery store.
Paul must notify his employer soon.
Instead of expressing time, modals help verbs express a variety of other things:
Expresses For example...
past habit I never used to eat breakfast; I would never eat breakfast.
He would like us to clean

requests
up; could you clean up? Can you do it?
Yes, you can go. You may change the channel.

permission
He could leave early.
necessity, You must see that movie! We ought to go soon;
advisability we will have to call later.
I might pay with cash; we may write a check.

possibility
That could be true.
For more information on the various possible meanings of some modals, see the TIP Sheet "Would,
Should, Could." For more on verbs, see the TIP Sheets "Consistent Verb Tense" and "Two-Word Verbs."
(Grammar geek note: Sometimes, when words like would and could express a statement of possibility or

desire, or when they state something contrary to fact, a special verb form, the subjunctive, is required.
For example, If he had known, he would have come sooner is an expression contrary to fact. So in this
example, the subjunctive form causes the helper to change to have instead of the expected has--for
more information, check a grammar and usage guide for "subjunctive mood.")
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word used to describe, or modify, noun or a pronoun. Adjectives usually answer

questions like which one, what kind, or how many:
that hilarious book
the red one
several heavy books
In English adjectives usually precede nouns or pronouns. However, in sentences with linking verbs, such
as the to be verbs or the "sense" verbs, adjectives can follow the verb (for more information on to be or
"sense" verbs, see the TIP Sheet "Verbs"):
Dave Barry's books are hilarious; they seem so random.
One good adjective can be invaluable in producing the image or tone you want. You may also "stack"
adjectives--as long as you don't stack them too high. In general, if you think you need more than three
adjectives, you may really just need a better noun. For instance, instead of saying the unkempt,
dilapidated, dirty little house, consider just saying the hovel. (It's not true that he who uses the most
adjectives wins; it's he who uses the most suitable adjectives.)
Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives (steamy, stormy) call up images, tones, and feelings. Steamy weather is different
from stormy weather. Steamy and stormy conjure different pictures, feelings, and associations.
Many descriptive adjectives come from verbs. The verb had broken, without the helper had, is an
adjective: a broken keyboard. Likewise, the -ing verb form, such as is running, used without its helper is,
can be an adjective: running shoes. (For more on -ed and -ing forms, see the TIP SheetS "Verbs" and
"Consistent Verb Tense.")
Nouns can be used as adjectives, too. For instance, the noun student can be made to modify, or
describe, the noun bookstore: the student bookstore. Nouns often combine to produce compound
adjectives that modify a noun as a unit, usually joined by hyphens when they precede the noun. When
they follow the noun, the hyphens are omitted:
He was an 18-year-old boy, but the girl was only 16 years old.
Other compound adjectives do not use hyphens in any case. In income tax forms, income tax is a
compound adjective that does not require a hyphen.
Articles
The, an, and a, called articles, are adjectives that answer the question which one? The modifies a noun
or pronoun by limiting its reference to a particular or known thing, either singular or plural. A expands
the reference to a single non-specific or previously unknown thing. An is similar to a, but is used when
the word following it begins with a vowel sound:
the books on the table

a book from an online store, the one we ordered last week
See the TIP sheet "Articles" for more information.
Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives answer the question which one(s)? They are the only adjectives that have
both a singular and plural form--this and that are singular; these and those are plural. Demonstrative
adjectives point to particular or previously named things. This and these indicate things nearby (in time
or space), while that and those suggest distance (in time or space):
This novel is the worst I've ever read; these biographies are much better.
Tell me more about that author; why does she write about those events?
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives answer the question whose? They include my, our, your, his, her, its, and their:
our joke book

its well-worn pages
Indefinite adjectives
Indefinite adjectives include some, many, any, few, several, and all:
some jokes
few listeners
Note that these words can also be used as pronouns: Some were in bad taste; few could carpool. For
more, see the TIP Sheets "Pronouns" and "Pronoun Reference."
Questioning adjectives
Which and what are adjectives when they modify nouns or pronouns:
Which joke did you like better, and what reason can you give for your preference?
Like indefinite adjectives, the questioning (or interrogative) adjectives can also function as pronouns;
see the TIP Sheets "Pronouns" and "Pronoun Reference."
Adjective order and punctuation

Some stacks of adjectives can be rearranged freely without changing the meaning. They are coordinate
adjectives, and they are equal and separate in the way they modify a noun. For example, we can freely
rearrange a dull, dark, and depressing day: a depressing, dark, dull day. Separate two or more
coordinate adjectives with commas (note that no comma goes immediately before the noun).
Other adjective groups cannot be freely rearranged. These cumulative adjectives are not separated by
commas. Rich chocolate layer cake cannot be changed to layer chocolate rich cake. For more on
identifying and punctuating coordinate and cumulative adjectives, see the TIP Sheet "Commas."
If you were born to English, you may not realize that there are rules for placing adjective groups in
order. For example, the determiner (a, an, the) comes first, then size words, then color, then purpose:
a large, purple sleeping bag
You can't freely rearrange these adjectives and say, for example, sleeping, purple, a large bag without
awkwardness, absurdity, or loss of meaning, The rule is that a stack of adjectives generally occurs in the
following order: opinion (useful, lovely, ugly), size (big, small), age (young, old), shape (square, squiggly),
color (cobalt, yellow), origin (Canadian, solar), material (granite, wool), and purpose (shopping, running).
scary, squiggly solar flares
lovely, cobalt, Canadian running shoes
Cobalt, running, Canadian, lovely shoes doesn't work. If English is a second language for you, consult an
ESL guide for more information.
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. An adverb usually modifies by
telling how, when, where, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. An adverb is often formed by
adding -ly to an adjective.
Conjunctive adverbs form a separate category because they serve as both conjunctions (they connect)
and adverbs (they modify). Groups of words can also function as adverb phrases or adverb clauses.
(In the examples below, the adverb is in bold and the modified word is underlined.)
1. An adverb can modify a verb.
The girls ran quickly but happily through the puddle. (The adverbs quickly and happily modify the verb
ran by telling how.)
Go to the administration office first, and then come to class. (The adverb first modifies the verb go, and
the adverb then modifies the verb come. Both modify the verbs by telling when.)
They are moving her office upstairs. (The adverb upstairs modifies the verb moving by telling where.)
2. An adverb can modify an adjective. The adverb usually clarifies the degree or intensity of the
adjective.
Maria was almost finished when they brought her an exceptionally delicious dessert. (The
adverb almost modifies the adjective finished and exceptionally modifies delicious by describing the
degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
He was very happy about being so good at such an extremely challenging sport. (The
adverb very modifies the adjective happy, so modifies good, and extremely modifies challenging by
describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
Students are often entertained and sometimes confused, but never bored in that class. (The
adverb often modifies the adjective entertained, sometimes modifies confused,
and never modifies bored by describing the degree or intensity of the adjectives.)
3. An adverb can modify another adverb. The modifying adverb usually clarifies the degree or
intensity of the adverb.
Eating her lunch somewhat cautiously, Carolyn tried to ignore the commotion. (The
adverb somewhat modifies the adverb cautiously by telling to what degree.)
Stan can discuss the English language very thoroughly. (The adverb very modifies the
adverb thoroughly by telling to what degree.)
Even in the other room, Vickilee was never completely unaware of the crying kittens. (The adverb never
modifies the adverb completely by telling to what degree.)
Additional Notes on Adverbs
In addition to the rules that apply to the use of adverbs, the following points further discuss their
formation and function.
 Adverbs are often made by adding -ly to an adjective.
adjective: slow adverb: slowly
adjective: deep adverb: deeply
adjective: fair adverb: fairly
Ø However, not all words that end in -ly are adverbs!
nouns: family, homily, rally, lily
adjectives: friendly, worldly, lovely, sly
 Some common adverbs do not originate from adjectives.
very
quite
only
so
Some adverbs modify by negating a statement. These are referred to as negative adverbs.
hardly
never
no
not
scarcely
Ø When using negative adverbs, be careful to avoid a double negative.
(Incorrect double negative)

He can't hardly understand the words of the speaker.
(Correct)
He can hardly understand the words of the speaker.
(See TIP Sheet "Avoiding Modifier Problems" regarding "limiters" for further information on negative
adverbs.)
 In order to form the comparative or superlative forms of adverbs, add the ending of -er or -
est to certain adverbs of only one syllable (fast, faster, fastest). However, all adverbs which end
in -ly and most adverbs of more than one syllable form the comparative and superlative with the
addition of more or most.
Todd drives faster than I do, but I get there sooner and more efficiently by taking a shorter route. Amy
drives most slowly of all of us.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Words that function as adverbs (telling how, when, where, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree) and which also function as conjunctions (joining grammatical parts) are called conjunctive
adverbs.
 Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly finally likewise similarly

also furthermore meanwhile specifically
anyway hence moreover still
besides however nevertheless subsequently
certainly incidentally next then
consequently indeed nonetheless therefore
conversely instead otherwise thus
Conjunctive adverbs join and create transitions between independent clauses. A conjunctive adverb may
begin a sentence and is often followed by a comma. When place between independent clauses, a
conjunctive adverb is preceded by a semicolon and is usually followed by a comma.
Her husband is a rice farmer; consequently, these days he is busy from sunrise until
nightfall. Nevertheless, he is still home every night to read his sons a story.
Adverb Phrases and Adverb Clauses
Sometimes groups of words function together to form an adverb phrase or adverb clause.
 Adverb prepositional phrase
The puppy is sleeping under my desk. (Under my desk is a prepositional phrase that functions as an
adverb because it modifies the verb sleeping by telling where.)
 Adverb infinitive phrase

To prevent the theft of your food, use a locked cabinet to store your camp supplies. (To prevent the
theft of your food is an infinitive phrase that functions as an adverb because it modifies the verb use by
telling why.)
 Adverb dependent clause
Marco departed before the storm arrived. (Before the storm arrived is a dependent clause that modifies
the verb departed by telling when.)
REPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Prepositions are common; they are not flashy. They are sometimes very little words, like on, in,
and unlike; sometimes they are two words, like according to. A preposition combined with a noun (or
pronoun), in that order, makes a prepositional phrase:
in Duffy's Tavern

on the dashboard of my car
unlike most biologists
according to most moviegoers
Prepositional phrases usually tell where or when. Or, as most instructors are fond of saying, they show
relationship, for example, of location (in Duffy's Tavern) or of time (in February).
The formula, with variations

To describe a prepositional phrase we can borrow some math shorthand (although our description does
not really function like an equation--the preposition must always come first!):
preposition + noun or pronoun = prepositional phrase
without Suzanna
without her
Stuff can be added between, usually in the form of various adjectives, but a prepositional phrase always
begins with the preposition and ends with the noun (or pronoun):
preposition + adjectives + noun or pronoun = prepositional phrase
in a yellow submarine

of the best and brightest students
above it
The second example above adds multiple adjectives (as well as a conjunction) but it begins with the
preposition and ends with the noun, and that is what matters.
The noun (or pronoun) that ends a prepositional phrase is called the object of the preposition. If all
prepositional phrases ended with nouns, you might not care to know this; however, prepositional
phrases may also end with pronouns, and those pronouns must be objective
pronouns: her (not she), him (not he), me (not I), them (not they), us (not we).
Rossi will come with her and me.

Why council members didn't explain about it was beyond us.
Notice that prepositional phrases may end with double nouns or double pronouns (compound objects of
the preposition), as illustrated above.
A complete list of prepositions would be huge. You do not need to know all of them, but become
familiar with at least some common prepositions:
about below inside throughout
above beneath into to
across beside like toward
after between near under
against beyond of underneath
along by off unlike
among down on until
around during out up
as except outside upon
at for over with
before from past within
behind in through without
The no-subject rule

Is there any practical advantage to knowing about prepositional phrases, you ask? Well, consider that it
is a common mistake for beginning writers to misidentify the subject of a sentence (randomly picking
out a likely noun, perhaps), make punctuation choices based on this mistake, and end up with basic
sentence errors in their writing. And consider further that you will not make this mistake if you
remember this rule: a prepositional phrase never contains the subject of a sentence.
This is the advantage to knowing how to recognize prepositions and prepositional phrases in your own
writing. You need to be able to identify the subjects of sentences to be sure you have constructed and
punctuated them correctly. For example, you must be able to identify subjects in order to avoid creating
comma splices and fragments; ESL learners need to be able to identify the subject in order to make sure
the verb is in agreement with the subject.
To make this rule work for you, place parentheses around the prepositional phrases in your sentences.
Whatever is inside the parentheses is not the subject, no matter how prominently it is placed:
(After the homecoming game), (before midnight), we will leave.
Since the nouns in this sentence, game and midnight, occur in prepositional phrases, they are
disqualified as subjects. That leaves only we--a simple pronoun subject buried near the end of the
sentence and easily overlooked.
Preposition look-alikes
"Preposition" is a function of the word, not the word itself. A preposition, to be a preposition, must be in
a prepositional phrase. Sometimes a word on the list of common prepositions above occurs alone in a
sentence, without a noun or pronoun following. In the following example, outside is not a preposition at
all, but a simple adverb modifying the verb practice:
Please practice your soccer dribbling outside!
For more on adverbs, see the TIP Sheet "Adverbs."
Another preposition look-alike occurs when the word to appears followed by a verb rather than by a
noun. This is a type of verbal phrase called an infinitive:
They practiced their dribbling outside to avoid breaking the furniture.
For more on verbals, see the TIP Sheet "Other Phrases: Verbal, Appositive, Absolute."
Yet another preposition look-alike is the phrasal verb-two-word verbs such as check out, run into, or
show up:
Carol never showed up for the soccer game on Sunday.
For more information on phrasal verbs, see the TIP Sheet "Two-word (Phrasal) Verbs."
Problem expressions
Which prepositions go with which verbs in which expressions is often a matter of custom rather than
rule. For ESL students in particular, prepositions can be difficult to master. The prepositions describing
when something occurs are a good example. If you wish to state that an event occurred generally within
a particular season, week, month, or year, use during or in:
During the winter break I worked at the Heavenly Valley ski resort.
In 2002 the snow was pretty sparse; we're hoping for more this year.
That year we were already getting spring snow conditions in February!
On the other hand, if you are stating that an event occurred on a particular calendar date, weekday, or
holiday, use on:
You'd be surprised how many families ski on Christmas.

I'll meet you there on the 24th.
For specific times of day and clock times, use at:
The best time to catch the gondola to the top is at 11:30, just before the lunch rush.
Our favorite ski run of the day is the run from the top at sunset.
In addition, one can be on time for a scheduled event, but in time for an unscheduled one:
He met me at the bottom of the expert run right on time, as we had agreed.
The Ski Patrol arrived just in time to keep Jeff from breaking his neck.
Other expressions mean very different things depending on which prepositions they are paired with, for
example, differ from (be dissimilar) and differ with (disagree with). In comparisons, a thing is similar
to another thing. We agree with a person, but we agree on a plan and agree to particular actions.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. The three different types of conjunctions indicate different
relationships between the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions link elements of equal
value. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to establish a specific relationship between elements of
equal value. Subordinating conjunctions indicate that one element is of lesser value (subordinate) to
another element.
1. Use a coordinating conjunction to connect elements (words, phrases, or clauses) of equal

grammatical value.
 There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English:
and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
(Note: These are often remembered with the acronym FANBOYS.)
 Coordinating conjunctions link equal elements.
Swimming and reading are my two favorite summer activities. (Swimming and reading are both subjects
in the sentence.)

Please place the papers on top of the desk or in the drawer. (On top of the desk and in the drawer are
both prepositional phrases.)
She wanted to drive the car, but she had never received her license. (She wanted to drive the
car and she had never received her license are both independent clauses.)
2. Use correlative conjunctions in pairs to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical
value. Correct use of these conjunctions is critical in achieving parallelism in sentence structure (see
TIP Sheet on "Achieving Parallelism").
 Correlative conjunctions always come in pairs:
as...as
both...and
not only...but also
either...or
neither...nor
whether...or
 Make sure that the grammatical structure following the second half of the pair is the same as
that following the first half.
You must decide either to fly or to drive. (The elements to fly and to drive are both infinitives.)
Contrary to my plans, I spent much of my vacation both correcting papers and contacting students. (The
elements correcting papers and contacting students are both participial phrases.)
I hope not only that you will attend the play, but also that you will stay for the cast party afterwards.
(The elements that you will attend the play and that you will stay for the cast party afterwards are both
subordinate clauses.)
3. Use a subordinating conjunction to connect a subordinate (dependent) clause to an independent

clause.
 Common subordinating conjunctions include the following:
after even though than whenever
although if that where
as in order that though whereas
as if rather than unless wherever
because since until whether
before so that when while

(Note: Some of the words listed can serve as different parts of speech, depending on how they are
used.)
 A subordinating conjunction indicates that the dependent clause is not complete without an
attached independent clause.
If you finish your homework, you will be prepared for the test. (If you finish your homework by itself is an
incomplete thought.)
I lose myself in the music whenever I practice the piano. (Whenever I practice the piano by itself is an
incomplete thought.)
4. Conjunctive adverbs (sometimes called adverbial conjunctions) are used to indicate a relationship
between sentences and independent clauses.
 Common conjunctive adverbs include the following:
however therefore moreover nevertheless
 When a conjunctive adverb appears at the beginning or in the middle of an independent clause,
it is usually set off by commas. When a conjunctive adverb introduces a second clause within a
sentence, a semicolon precedes it and a comma follows it.
Carrot cake is very tasty. Moreover, the carrots make it a "healthy" choice for dessert.
I realize you were busy. It is unfortunate, however, that you missed that phone call.
The hurricane has lessened in intensity; nevertheless, we are evacuating in an hour.
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are words intended to express different levels of emotion or surprise, and are usually seen
as independent grammatically from the main sentence.
 Interjections usually stand alone and are often punctuated with an exclamation point.
Oh! Wow! My goodness!
 Sometimes mild interjections are included within a sentence and are then set off by commas.
Well, it's about time you showed up.
BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement
Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite complicated. For
the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed here.
The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.
SUBJECT
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The simple subject usually
contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The man . . .
PREDICATE
The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate contains the verb
and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The man / builds a house.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In addition,
there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or detail. These
elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of these elements can
be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or compound/complex sentences.
(See TIP Sheet on "Sentence Type and Purpose.")
DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds a house.
The man builds it.
INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being done. The
indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The man builds his family a house.

The man builds them a house.
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is usually a noun,
pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb within the sentence
(often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).
The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)
The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)
Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of a sentence, a noun can
function within a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, or subject
complement.
For more information on the structure and formation of sentences, see the following TIP Sheets:
Sentence Types and Purposes

Sentence Fragments
Independent and Dependent Clauses: Coordination and Subordination
Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Other Phrases: Verbal, Appositive, Absolute
Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences
The Eight Parts of Speech
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbes
Conjunctions
Interjections
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
A sentence is a group of words that contains three things:
 A subject (that makes sense with the verb
 A verb (that goes with the subject)
 A complete thought
A sentence fragment is a group of words that lacks one or more of these three things. While there are
many ways to end up with a fragment, almost every fragment is simply a result of one of the following
three problems:
 It is missing a subject
 It is missing a verb.
 It fails to complete the thought it starts.
Fragments are no big deal in conversation; spoken English is full of them. In fact, if you spoke in
complete sentences for one entire day, you would probably get some strange looks. But English
conventions require that you avoid writing fragments (except in very rare instances), so you must be
able to identify them in your writing and fix them.
To begin to identify fragments in your writing, read a sentence aloud. Does it sound complete? If you
walked up to a stranger and said it to him, would it sound like a complete thought to him? Or would he
be waiting expectantly for you to finish? Even if it sounds okay to you (because you already know what
you mean), look at it and identify the subject (who or what did the action) and the verb (what the
subject did) to make sure they're there. (For help identifying subjects and verbs, see the TIP Sheet Parts
of Sentences.) If you think a subject is missing, or the verb sounds a little strange, or the thought is left
hanging, refer to the tips below.
Missing subjects
Some fragments are missing subjects. Often the subject appears nearby, perhaps in the preceding
sentence; however, each sentence must have a subject of its own. The following fragment lacks a
subject:
Fragment
Was running late that day.
Who was running late? The instructor? The train? The simplest (but by no means only) way to correct
this fragment is to add a subject:
I was running late that day.
Phrases which include words ending in -ing often appear as fragments:
Fragment
Biking and swimming after work on Thursday.
What about biking and swimming? Who is biking and swimming? Are you proposing that we all go biking
and swimming? Add both a subject and a verb to correct this (again, not the only solution):
Mitchell went biking and swimming after work on Thursday.
Another suspect in the missing subject category is a phrase like this one:
Fragment
To register for class before the deadline.
Who wants to register? Or failed to register? Or plans to register? This fragment lacks both subject and
verb. ("To register" is not really a verb, but another thing entirely; see the TIP Sheet Other Phrases:
Verbal, Appositive, Absolute). The simplest fix is to add a subject and verb:
Stan hopes to register for class before the deadline.
(Avoid the mistake of thinking that a command, demand, or request lacks a subject. This kind of
sentence has an unstated subject, you. So the subject of "Turn in your schedule changes at the counter"
is you: "[You] turn in your schedule changes at the counter.")
Missing verbs
Some fragments are fragments because they are missing a verb or an essential part of a verb. Any
phrase, no matter how long, is a fragment if the verb is missing:
Fragment
The birch trees with their rattling yellow leaves.
What about the birch trees? Adding a verb makes this fragment complete:
The birch trees with their rattling yellow leaves swayed in the wind.
Some verbs require helpers in order to be complete. Words ending in -ing, for example, must include
helpers such as is, are, was, were, will be, or has been to be real verbs; without these helpers, they are
not verbs. (If you want to know more about verb look-alikes, see the TIP Sheet Other Phrases: Verbal,
Appositive, Absolute.) The fragment below contains an incomplete verb:
Fragment
Caroline studying her sociology tonight at Moxie's downtown.
Did your ear hear the strangeness? Add helpers to make the verb complete and repair the fragment:
Caroline will be studying her sociology tonight at Moxie's downtown.
Unfinished thoughts
A very common type of fragment is the unfinished thought fragment. While other kinds of fragments
require you to add something--a subject, or a verb, or both--you can often fix unfinished thought
fragments simply by joining them to a preceding or following sentence. The following example, while it
contains a subject and a verb, fails to complete the thought:
Fragment
Because tuition increased again this semester.
The word to blame for making this thought incomplete is because. (Contrary to rumor, it's perfectly okay
to start a sentence with because; you just have to finish what you're saying--in the same sentence.) If
you find a fragment of this kind, see if the sentence before or the sentence after it would complete it:
Because tuition increased again this semester, Kou got a second job as a Student Assistant.
Or
Kou must take fewer units because tuition increased again this semester.
If the preceding or following sentence does not complete the unfinished thought, add the missing
information to the fragment to make it complete. There are many words that, by their mere presence,
make a clause incomplete, for example, since, while, when, unless, although. For more about these
words, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses.
In spite of the rules of grammar, language is plastic and can be shaped a great many ways, so for any
fragment problem, many solutions exist. The more you practice writing, the more you will be able to
spot fragments and fix them. And the more you learn about English, the more ways you will find to make
your grammatically correct sentences say exactly what you mean.
RUN-ON SENTENCES AND COMMA SPLICES
Run-on sentences can be divided into two types. The first occurs when a writer puts no mark of
punctuation and no coordinating conjunction between independent clauses. The second is called
a comma splice, which occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined by just a comma and
no coordinating conjunction.
Example of a run-on sentence:
The flowers are beautiful they brighten the room. (Incorrect)
Example of a comma splice:
The flowers are beautiful, they brighten the room. (Incorrect)
Examples of correct alternatives:
The flowers are beautiful. They brighten the room.

The flowers are beautiful; they brighten the room.
The flowers are beautiful, and they brighten the room.
The flowers are beautiful because they brighten the room.
A run-on sentence is not defined by its length! The fact that a sentence is very long does not
automatically make it a run-on sentence. As you will see, the sentence structure and use of punctuation
determine whether a sentence is a run-on.
In order to better understand run-on sentences and comma splices, it is important to review the basics
of writing a grammatically correct simple sentence:
A simple sentence is made up of only one independent clause.

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a
subject and a predicate and forms a complete thought when
standing alone. The subject refers to someone or something
(the subject contains at least one noun or pronoun). The
predicate refers to what the subject does or is (the predicate
contains the verb or verbs). Both the subject and predicate can
contain additional descriptive elements, such as adverbs,
adjectives, prepositions, or other modifying phrases, but in its
most basic form the subject is the part of the sentence that
contains the noun, and the predicate contains the verb.
A sentence can be complete and correct with one basic independent clause made up of one subject plus
its corresponding predicate. To demonstrate the basic structure of a simple sentence, find the noun that
forms the subject and divide it from the verb.
Subject Predicate Sentence
I am. I am.
The man studied. The man studied.
A frog jumped. A frog jumped.
Lola sings. Lola sings.
By dividing the noun and verb, we can add modifiers to a simple sentence and still see the two basic
parts, the subject and the predicate.
Subject Predicate
The man studied.
The kind man studied hard.
The kind man at the library studied hard for the test on Friday.

When looking at the structure of an independent clause, it is helpful to think of all elements of the
subject separately from all elements of the predicate. Together the subject and predicate form the two
basic and separate parts of each clause.
Subject Predicate
studied hard for the test and read

The kind man and his wife
a book.
The man, his wife, and studied hard, read books, and ate
their child dinner.
If the independent clause forms a complete thought, a period at the end demonstrates that the
sentence is complete. The period means STOP. The sentence has ended, and a new sentence will begin.
Run-ons and comma splices occur when more than one subject/predicate pair exists in the sentence.
When one subject/predicate pair is followed by an additional subject/predicate pair within one sentence
(forming separate independent clauses), they need to be separated (or joined) according to very specific
rules of punctuation and grammar.
Look at the following example of a run-on sentence:
The kind man studied hard his wife read a book. (Incorrect)
If we divide the sentence into subject/predicate pairs (each an independent clause), we see that two
independent clauses exist, one following the other:
First independent clause Second independent clause
Subject Predicate Subject Predicate
The kind man studied hard his wife read a book.
Without the correct separation, the two independent clauses written together form a run-on sentence.
Once you can identify a run-on sentence by its incorrect structure, it is not hard to find a way to correct
it.
When two independent clauses appear in one sentence, they must be joined (or separated) in one of
four ways:
1. The two clauses can be made into two separate sentences by adding a period.
2. The two clauses can be joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (comma plus: and,
but, or, nor, for, so, yet).
3. The two clauses can be joined by a semicolon.
4. The two clauses can be rewritten by adding, changing, rearranging, or deleting words. The simplest
way to accomplish this is to add a subordinating conjunction between the clauses.
Notice that joining the independent clauses by a comma alone is NOT a choice. When two independent
clauses are joined by only a comma, this error is called a comma splice.
The table below demonstrates the four correct options. When two independent clauses appear in a
sentence, try to imagine a middle column in which only four possibilities exist to join the two clauses:
First independent Second independent

clause clause
4 CORRECT
Subject Predicate Subject Predicate
OPTIONS
The studied har read a

. (period) His wife
kind man d book.
, and
, but
, or
, for
, nor his wife
kind man d book.
, so
, yet
(comma plus a coordinating
conjunction)

; (semicolon) his wife
kind man d book.
while
after
as
because . . . his wife
kind man d book.
(examples of subordinating
conjunctions - no comma
required)
Please note again that in the above examples a comma alone is NOT one of the correct options.
The kind man studied hard, his wife read a book. (Incorrect)
A comma alone between two independent clauses creates an incorrect comma splice.
Summary (Including Related Grammar Rules)
1. An independent clause contains one subject/predicate pair and expresses a complete thought.
Music makes my life worth living.
Subject Predicate
2. A simple sentence is made up of only one independent clause:
3. A run-on sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses that are not joined correctly or
which should be made into separate sentences. A run-on sentence is defined by its grammatical
structure, not its length.
Incorrect: My favorite band is in town they are performing now.

Correct: My favorite band is in town. They are performing now.
Correct: My favorite band is in town, and they are performing now.
4. A comma splice is the incorrect use of a comma to join two independent clauses.
Incorrect: I love classical music, it makes me feel joyful.

Correct: I love classical music because it makes me feel joyful.
Correct: I love classical music; it makes me feel joyful.

5. A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses that are correctly joined by a
comma plus a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon:
Music means a lot to me, and certain songs bring wonderful memories to mind.
First independent
Second independent clause
clause
Comma and
Subjec
Predicate coordinating Subject Predicate
t
conjunction
means a lot certain bring wonderful

Music , and
to me songs memories to mind.
Music means a lot to me; certain songs bring wonderful memories to mind.
First independent
Second independent clause
clause
Subjec
Predicate Semicolon Subject Predicate
t
means a lot to certain bring wonderful memories to

Music ;
me songs mind.
6. A comma plus a coordinating conjunction can connect independent clauses correctly. There are
seven coordinating conjunctions (sometimes remembered by the acronym "fanboys"):
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
7. A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
The dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction:
I always think of summer whenever they play that song.
First independent clause Second independent

clause
Subjec Subordinating
Predicate Subject Predicate
t conjunction
always think of
I whenever they play that song.
summer
8. A subordinating conjunction connects a dependent clause to an independent clause. The dependent

clause cannot stand alone; it requires attachment to an independent clause in order to express the
complete meaning of the sentence. The following are examples of some of the most common
subordinating conjunctions:
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even though, if, in order that, rather than, since, so that, than,
that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while
For more information, please see the following TIP Sheets:
Independent and Dependent Clauses: Coordination and Subordination

Sentence Type and Purpose
SENTENCE TYPE AND PURPOSE
Sentences come in a variety of shapes and lengths. Yet whatever their shapes and lengths (or types), all
sentences serve one of only a few very basic purposes.
Sentence Type
Sentence variety is not about mere novelty; it is about meaning. You can avoid boredom (yours and your
readers') and choppiness by varying your sentence types. Longer, more complex sentences can increase
the impact of a shorter, simpler sentence.
Every sentence is one of the following types.
 Simple
 Compound
 Complex
 Compound/Complex
In order to vary your writing, you want to be able to construct sentences of each kind. To master these
four types, though, you really only need to master two things: independent and dependent clauses. This
is because the four types of sentences are really only four different ways to combine independent and
dependent clauses.
(Let's review: independent clauses are essentially simple, complete sentences. They can stand alone or
be combined with other independent clauses. Dependent clauses are unfinished thoughts that cannot
stand alone; they are a type of sentence fragment and must be joined to independent clauses. For more
information, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses: Coordination and Subordination.)
The simple sentence

A simple sentence is simple because it contains only one independent clause:
Justin dropped his Agricultural Economics class.
A simple sentence is not necessarily short or simple. It can be long and involved, with many parts and
compound elements. But if there is only one independent clause, it is, nevertheless, a simple sentence.
The following example has a single independent clause with a single subject (Justin) and a compound
verb (gulped, swallowed, groaned, and decided):
Justin gulped down his fourth cup of coffee, swallowed a Tylenol for his pounding headache, groaned,
and decided he would have to drop his Agricultural Economics class.
The compound sentence

When you join two simple sentences properly, you get a compound sentence. Conversely, a compound
sentence can be broken into two complete sentences, each with its own subject and its own verb. You
can join simple sentences to create compound sentences either of two ways:
 With a semicolon
 With a comma and coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
For example, the following pairs of independent clauses can be joined either way:
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays; Environmental Horticulture conflicted with
his schedule.
Homer has Basic Plant Science on Mondays and Wednesdays, but Environmental Horticulture conflicted
with his schedule.
(Be aware that if you join two simple sentences improperly, you do not get a compound sentence; you
get a run-on, most likely either a comma splice or a fused sentence. For more information, see the TIP
Sheets Comma Splices and Run-on Sentences and Independent & Dependent Clauses: Coordination &
Subordination.)
The complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains both a dependent and an independent clause. In the
following example, both clauses contain a subject and a verb, but the dependent clause has, in addition,
the dependent-making words even though. If you start the sentence with the dependent-making words
(or subordinating conjunction), place a comma between the clauses. On the other hand, if you start with
the independent clause and place the dependent-making words in the middle of the sentence, do not
use a comma:
Even though Eva took Turf Management just to fill out her schedule, she found it unexpectedly
interesting.
Eva found Turf Management unexpectedly interesting even though she took it just to fill out her
schedule.
(For more on subordinating conjunctions, see the TIP Sheet Independent & Dependent Clauses:
Coordination & Subordination.)
The compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence combines at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause. The punctuation rules remain the same: the two simple sentences are joined by one of the two
methods described above, and the dependent clause is punctuated (or not) depending on whether it
precedes or follows an independent clause. In the following example, the dependent-making word
signaling the beginning of the dependent clause is while:
Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab while Justin was sleeping off his headache.
While Justin was sleeping off his headache, Homer was already in class, and Eva was in the lab.
Homer was already in class while Justin slept off his headache; Eva was in the lab.
Sentence Purpose
Sentences can do different things. The purpose of some sentences is to make statements. Declarative
sentences make statements and end with periods:
I am planning to drop Agricultural Economics.
The purpose of another sentence may be to pose a question. These interrogative sentences ask
questions and end with question marks:
Have you taken any Agricultural Engineering classes?
Imperative sentences give commands or make demands or requests. They usually end with a period. An
imperative sentence often has as its subject an unstated "you" (giving to beginners in English grammar
the appearance of lacking a subject altogether). The subject of each of the following four sentences is
"you:"
Hand in your homework assignments, please.
Stop. Drop. Roll.
Exclamatory sentences convey strong emotion and end with exclamation marks; use them sparingly:
Watch out for the rattlesnake!
INDEPENDENT & DEPENDENT CLAUSES: COORDINATION & SUBORDINATION
An independent person is one who can solve problems on his own, take care of his own needs, stand on
his own two feet, so to speak. An independent clause (a clause is a group of words that contains at least
one subject and one verb) is one that can stand on its own two feet--independently. You can join
independent clauses if you want to. This is called coordination.
A dependent person is one who needs help from another, more independent person. A dependent
person needs to lean on someone stronger. A dependent clause is one that cannot stand on its own two
feet--it needs an independent clause to lean on. You must join a dependent clause to an independent
one. This is called subordination.
Independent clauses are strong

Compare an independent clause to the ideal roommate: She cleans up after herself, pays her share of
the bills, never forgets to turn off the iron, and can fix a leaky faucet. Like the ideal roommate, an
independent clause lacks nothing to stand on its own. For example, each of the following independent
clauses can stand alone:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party.
Mai figured out how to fix the garbage disposal.
The clauses above contain a subject and a verb, and they finish the thought they have started; they are
complete simple sentences. For the sake of variety, however, you will often want to combine simple
sentences using coordination to create compound sentences. You can choose one of two methods:
 Join two independent clauses with a semicolon.
 Join two independent clauses with a comma and coordinating conjunction.
The most used coordinating conjunctions are often referred to as the FANBOYS
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). When you use one of the FANBOYS between independent clauses, you
signal that the clauses are equal (sort of like how two independent roommates are equals). These two
methods of coordination are demonstrated below:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party; Mai figured out how to
fix the garbage disposal.
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party, and Mai figured out how
to fix the garbage disposal.
If you choose to coordinate two independent clauses using a semicolon, you have another option. You
may choose to add a conjunctive adverb (followed by a comma-the adverb acts rather like an
introductory phrase) after the semicolon:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party; moreover, Mai figured
out how to fix the garbage disposal.
A conjunctive adverb adds meaning or clarifies the relationship between the two clauses. See how
choosing a different conjunctive adverb subtly changes the meaning of the pair:
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet before leaving for the party; however, Mai figured out
how to fix the garbage disposal.
The pattern, with appropriate punctuation (and yes, the punctuation counts) is as follows:
Coordinating Independent Clauses
Method 1 Independent Independent

;
Semicolon clause clause
;moreover,
;however,
Semicolon with
;consequently
conjunctive Independent Independent
,
adverb and clause clause
;indeed,
comma
;nevertheless,
;therefore,
Method 2 , for
Comma and , and
coordinating , nor
Independent Independent
conjunction , but
clause clause
, or
, yet
, so

(Note: Do not try to join two independent clauses with a simple comma. This error is called a comma
splice. Furthermore, do not try to join two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction alone,
omitting the comma. This error is called a run-on. For more on these errors, see the TIP Sheet Comma
Splices and Run-on Sentences.)
Dependent clauses are needy

In contrast to an independent clause, a dependent clause is incomplete; it is a type of sentence
fragment. (For more information, see the TIP Sheet Fragments.) A dependent clause may contain a
subject and a verb, but it begins a thought that it doesn't finish:
Because Amy left the iron on.

When the firemen arrived at the dorm.
The words that are to blame for making the above dependent clauses dependent are the
words because and when. Inquiring minds want to know-what happened as a result of the iron being left
on? What happened when the fire department reached the dorm? Like a needy roommate, these
dependent clauses need to lean on something stronger. In the following examples we have added
independent clauses for the dependent clauses to lean on:
The dorm's obsolete wiring melted and started a fire because Amy left the iron on.
Jennifer and Mai had already put out the fire when the firemen arrive at the dorm.
When you join a dependent clause to an independent clause, you are not joining equals. One side of the
resulting sentence (the independent clause) is stronger, and the other side (the dependent clause) is
weaker, or subordinate. (If you are a subordinate at work, you do as you're told.) The words used to join
unequal pairs of clauses are called subordinating conjunctions.
But even here you have choices. Just because the independent clause is stronger, it doesn't have to
always go first. (Sometimes the stronger person holds the door open to allow the person on crutches to
enter first.) You could just as well write the following:
Because Amy left the iron on, the dorm's obsolete wiring melted and started a fire.
When the firemen arrived at the dorm, Jennifer and Mai had already put out the fire.
The important thing to remember about subordination is that the punctuationdiffers depending on
whether the independent or the dependent clause "enters" first. If the dependent clause is first (again,
rather like an introduction to the main clause), it is followed by a comma (like in this sentence and the
next). If the independent clause comes first, no punctuation separates the two.
The pattern, with appropriate punctuation, is as follows:
Subordinating Dependent Clauses
Method 1 Independent (No Dependent

Independent
clause first clause punctuation) Clause
Method 2
Dependent Independent
Dependent , (comma)
clause Clause
clause first
For variety or to fine-tune meaning, you may choose to combine two independent clauses, making one
of the clauses subordinate to the other with the addition of a subordinating conjunction:
While Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet, Mai figured out how to fix the garbage
disposal.
Jennifer put a new washer in the bathroom faucet since Mai was figuring out how to fix the garbage
disposal.
Here is a partial list of subordinating conjunctions. (Some textbooks call them "dependent-making
words," or "dependent marker words.")
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after in order that unless

although rather than until
as (as if) since when
because so that whenever
before than whereas
even though that whether
if though while
While other punctuation rules apply to particular kinds of clauses (for example, see the TIP Sheet
Relative Pronouns: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses), if you learn to distinguish independent from
dependent clauses and recognize subordinating conjunctions you will be more apt to avoid some
common fragment and punctuation errors in your writing.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
The verb of a sentence must agree with the simple subject of the sentence in number and
person. Number refers to whether a word is singular (child, account, city, I) or plural
(children, accounts, cities, we). Person refers to whether the word denotes a speaker (I, we are first
person), the person spoken to (you is second person), or what is spoken of
(he, she, it, they; Gary, college, taxes are third person).
Third person singular
Choosing verbs to agree with first and second person subjects is not usually much of a problem, but a
peculiarity of third person singular verbs causes some students, especially ESL students, some confusion
when working with third person singular subjects.
It matters whether a subject in the third person is singular or plural because the verb form for third
person singular often differs from other verb forms. For most third person singular verbs, add an s to the
root form of the verb: sit + s = sits, the third person singular form. (Be careful-while an s on a noun
usually denotes a plural, an s on a verb does not make the verb plural.) Examples of how the verb form
changes in third person singular follow; notice that even irregular helping verbs (to have, to be, to do)
add an s -- has, is, was, does -- in third person singular:
Third person singular (he - she - it) Third person plural (they)
sits sit
is sitting are sitting
was sitting were sitting
has sat have sat
has been sitting have been sitting
does not sit do not sit
doesn't sit don't sit
Thus, Olivia sits, Phong sits, the college president sits in her office, and the remote control sits on the
table. When Olivia and Phong get together, however, they sit; the college trustees sit.
Only the simple subject

The verb must agree with its simple subject -- not with the description or explanation of the subject;
ignore the descriptions and explanations. If the simple subject is singular, use the singular form of the
verb. If the simple subject is plural, use the plural form of the verb. (For more about subjects, see the TIP
Sheet Parts of Sentences: Subject, Verb, Object, Complement. For tips on how to use prepositional
phrases to help identify the subject, see Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases.)
The pink and red flowers in the tall vase have wilted.
The old table that my parents gave us needs a coat of paint.
The back wheels of the car you borrowed are wobbling.
The verb must agree with its simple subject -- not with the subject complement. The subject and its
complement are not always both singular or both plural. Even if one is singular and the other plural, the
verb agrees with the subject:
His only hobby is his pigeons.

Her parents are her sole support.
Compound subjects
A compound subject joined by and is plural and takes a plural verb form:
Olivia and Phong are looking for the remote control. (They are looking.)
The verb for compound subjects joined by or or by (n)either...(n)or agrees with the subject nearer to the
verb:
Olivia or Phong has the responsibility to make the video presentation. (He has.)
Neither Phong nor Olivia knows if the board will be pleased. (She knows.)
The college president or the trustees interview all the candidates. (They interview.)
The trustees or the president often asks for a second interview. (He or she asks.)
Relative clauses
Relative clauses begin with the relative pronouns who, that, or which and contain a verb separate from
that of the independent clause. The verb in a relative clause agrees in person and number to the word --
the person or thing -- to which the relative pronoun refers:
Most instructors appreciate students who ask good questions.

The student who asks a lot of questions is a valuable asset to a class.
The logic class, which is known to be difficult, nevertheless attracts a certain type of student.
The classes, which are held in the fall, usually fill up fast.
Verb preceding the subject

In questions, the subject follows the verb, but the subject still determines the person and number of the
verb:
Where in the house are the medicines kept? (They are kept.)
Why doesn't the soup have any noodles? (It does have.)
Under which tree do the mushrooms grow? (They do grow.)
In sentences that begin with a construction such as here is or there are, the subject follows the verb but
still determines the person and number of the verb:
Here is the famous flea circus. (It is here.)

Here are the famous fleas. (They are here.)
There is a mouse in the attic. (It is there.)
There are mice in the attic. (They are there.)
Indefinite pronoun subjects

Some indefinite pronouns are always singular, and some are always plural. (Some can go either way; for
more on indefinite pronouns, see the TIP Sheets Pronouns and Pronoun Reference, or see a writers'
guide such as SF Writer.)
Some indefinite pronouns are always singular no matter how much you feel that words like everyone are
plural. They require the third person singular verb form:
Nobody knows her.

Has anyone asked?
Everyone says so.
Each gets a ticket.
One uses a hammer.
Another has arrived.
Other indefinite pronouns are always plural and require a plural verb form:
Several work here.

Many have done it.
Few believe it.
Both were yellow.
CONSISTENT VERB TENSE
Verbs express a particular action (throw) or state of being (was). In addition, verbs help express who or
what performs the action (person), how many people or things perform the action (number), the
speaker's attitude toward or relation to the action (mood), and whether the subject is the giver or
receiver of the action (voice). Perhaps the most obvious characteristic of verbs, however, is how the
verb tenses express time.
Different verb forms are used in combination to express when actions occur. The simple present, past,
and future tenses simply place events in time. The perfect tenses (they occur with have, has, and had)
express events or actions completed; the progressive tenses (-ing verbs used together with helpers such
as is, was, and were) show actions or events that are continuing.
Intentional shifting of verb tense

A statement such as the following intentionally mixes verb tenses:
I had decided to add Anthropology 11 when I discovered it already had filled up and the
instructor would not be accepting any more students.
The mixed verb tenses here are intended to convey in what order things happened, what actions are
completed, and what actions are continuing. The class had filled and the speaker had decided (both
actions completed in the past) before he or she discovered the class was full. And the instructor is at
present turning away students and will continue to turn them away for the foreseeable future.
In the following example, a statement about past actions is followed by a statement of a general truth:
I had decided to add Anthropology 11 when I discovered it already had filled up; it is unwise to wait
until the last minute to add a required class.
Generalities and truisms like this (it is unwise to wait) are expressed in the simple present tense, even if
they are imbedded in a statement written in a past tense.
Unintentional shifting of verb tense

Clearly, intentionally shifting verb tenses can convey a great deal of information. However, when verb
tenses shift for no good reason, meaning becomes garbled. In general, avoid unnecessary changes in
verb tense. This is a particular problem in personal narratives, where it is common to see something like
this:
I was undecided about my major when I was a freshman. I wanted to study journalism but I like art,
too. I find that sketching is relaxing and helped reduce stress, while journalism was a high-energy,
often stressful class.
The verb shifts are unnecessary and make it more difficult for the reader to follow. Here is the statement
revised to a consistent past tense:
I was undecided about my major when I was a freshman. I wanted to study journalism but I liked art,
too. I found that sketching was relaxing and helped reduce stress, while journalism was a high-energy,
often stressful class.
In personal narratives, you may choose to use either past or present tense verbs. Just do not mix them
as this writer did:
He turns the key in the ignition, but only heard the relentless, useless chugging of an engine unwilling
to turn over. He glanced left, then right. He cannot see the approaching train through the driving rain,
but he could hear it, a low moaning wail still distant enough that he thought he still might be able to
save the car.
Revised to a consistent past tense, this story is more coherent:
He turned the key in the ignition, but only heard the relentless, useless chugging of an engine unwilling
to turn over. He glanced left, then right. He couldn't see the approaching train through the driving rain,
but he could hear it, a low moaning wail still distant enough that he thought he still might be able to
save the car.
In this case, however, you might be more successful in recreating the suspense of the moment by
keeping to a consistent present tense:
He turns the key in the ignition, only to hear the relentless, useless chugging of an engine unwilling to
turn over. He glances left, then right. He cannot see the approaching train through the driving rain, but
he can hear it, a low moaning wail still distant enough that he thinks he still might be able to save the
car.
The literary present tense
For discussing literary works, the preferred tense is the present:
Author Michael Crichton frequently addresses bioethical questions of this sort. His Jurassic
Park character Ian Malcolm is a kind of devil's advocate, a doomed protagonist who asks the unasked
question: "We can--but should we?"
This statement includes one about the author and his intentions or techniques, and another about a
character in one of his books; both are constructed in the literary present tense. Use literary present
tense for book and article reviews, summaries, and critiques.
Critiques of musical performances, art shows or other artistic works also may use the literary present
tense.
For more information on verbs, see the TIP Sheet Verbs.
OTHER PHRASES: VERBAL, APPOSITIVE, ABSOLUTE
A phrase is a group of words that lacks a subject, a predicate (verb), or both. The English language is full
of them: under his supervision, apple trees in blossom, having completed the soccer season. You are
probably familiar with prepositional phrases--they begin with prepositions, end with nouns (or
pronouns), and they describe, or modify, a particular word in the sentence: along the Yahi Trail, above
Salmon Hole. (For more, see the TIP Sheet "Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases.") But other kinds of
phrases also enrich the English language: verbal, appositive, and absolute phrases.
1. Verbals are verb look-alikes.

A verbal looks like a verb but does not act like a verb. In the following sentences, verbals are used as
something other than verbs:
Climbing El Capitan was out of the question. (Noun and subject of the sentence)
The applauding crowd rose to its feet. (Adjective)
I despise frozen peas. (Adjective)
He intends to study agricultural science. (Noun and direct object).
There are three kinds of verbals:
 Gerunds (-ing forms that function as nouns)
 Participles (present or past participle verb forms that function as adjectives)
 Infinitives (the root form of a verb preceded by to; it can function as a noun, adjective, or
adverb)
Gerund phrases are nouns.

A gerund is an -ing verb form that actually functions as a noun. Any -ing verb used in the predicate (part
of the verb) of a sentence must be accompanied by a helper verb such as is, was, or has been; a gerund
lacks this helper. As a result, a gerund can never function as a verb, but it can do anything another noun
can do. For example, the following gerund phrase is the subject of a sentence:
Backpacking in Little Yosemite Valley was unforgettable.
This one-word gerund is the direct object of an action verb:
Tom explained rappelling as we clambered up Half Dome.
Gerunds can be predicate nominatives after linking verbs (careful! The verb of the sentence below
is was, not was stumbling. The adventure was not, itself, stumbling! The favorite adventure was our act
of stumbling.):
Our favorite adventure was stumbling upon Frog Pond deep in the forest.
The following gerund phrase is the object of a preposition:
We worried about being swept away over the waterfall as we swam.
Participial phrases are adjectives.

Participial verbals--words or phrases--are adjectives. They look like present participle (-ing) or past
participle (-ed or -en) verb forms. A past participle verb used in the predicate of a sentence must be
accompanied by a helper verb such as has, had, or have; participles or participial phrases functioning as
adjectives lack this helper. The following participial phrase describes the noun bear:
Grunting and snuffling noisily, the bear reached on tiptoe for our suspended food bags.
Above, suspended is a past participle form functioning as an adjective.

Below, frozen and making introduce participial phrases:
Frozen in anticipation, our muffled breath making scarcely a sound, we watched the bear ascend the
tree toward the ropes.
Frozen in anticipation modifies the pronoun we. Making scarcely a sound, on the other hand,

modifies breath. Muffled is a participial adjective also describing breath.
Infinitive phrases are nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

An infinitive is the root, or simple, form of a verb preceded by to: to expect, to enroll, to have thought.
(Because to is a common preposition, infinitives are often mistaken for prepositional phrases, which
they are not. For more information, see TIP Sheet "Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases.") Infinitives
are easy to recognize, with their to + verb pattern. They can play many roles in a sentence--noun,
adjective, or adverb.
In the following examples, infinitive phrases are used as nouns--in this case subject and direct object,
respectively:
To watch the bear toss our things around was distressing.
We tried to signal our friends on Half Dome with a text message, but failed.
On the other hand, the following infinitive phrase is used as an adjective to modify plans:
Our plans to continue on to Tuolumne Meadows changed suddenly once we lost our food supplies.
The following infinitive is an adverb phrase modifying the verb will use (adverbs answer the
questions when, where, how, and why):
Next time, to prevent the loss of our food cache, we will use bear canisters instead.
(Note: Some verbs require an infinitive [claim to know] and some require a gerund [avoid stating]. And
some verbs differ dramatically in meaning if you switch from gerund to infinitive [stop smoking, stop to
smoke]).
2. Appositive phrases are nouns.

An appositive is a noun phrase that renames or restates the preceding noun or pronoun:
An overpowering fragrance, apple trees in blossom, drifted through the open window.
Appositive phrases are almost always punctuated as parenthetical elements of a sentence set off by
commas. An exception is a one-word appositive, where commas are unnecessary:
My brother Joseph reads six or seven blogs a day.
3. Absolute phrases modify absolutely everything.

Unlike other modifiers, absolute phrases do not modify a particular word in a sentence; rather, they
modify the entire sentence--setting the scene or background overall, so to speak. An absolute phrase
typically consists of a noun (or pronoun) and a participle (see "Participial phrases," above): umbrellas
tossing in the wind, his hopes dashed at last. In the following examples, notice that the absolute phrases
cannot logically be said to modify any particular word of the main clause:
Umbrellas tossing in the wind, the students at the bus stop huddled under the scant shelter of the elms.
Rodrigo unhappily prepared to vacate and sell his dream home, his hopes for a reconciliation dashed at
last.
Like appositives, absolute phrases are set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
PRONOUN REFERENCE
Pronouns are indispensable; they replace nouns in our conversation and writing, keeping us from saying
things like this:
My instructor arrived late to class. My instructor claimed that the child care center opened late and that
was why my instructor, in turn, was late; however, a classmate said that the classmate saw the
instructor at the coffee bar at 8:00, and that the instructor greeted the classmate as the instructor
strolled toward the classroom.
Clearly, a few he's and she's would help this narrative. Of course, if both the instructor and the
classmate are females, we might end up with some confusion. Unclear pronoun reference, along with a
mismatch between the pronoun and its referent (or antecedent, the word the pronoun is intended to
replace), are issues that frequently cause students trouble. Avoid most pronoun reference problems by
following these rules:
Make pronouns agree in person and number with their antecedents.

Make pronouns gender-neutral when possible.
Make pronouns refer unambiguously to their intended referents.
Make sure the pronoun referent actually appears nearby.
1. Agreement in person and number

Pronouns must match the person and number of the words they replace. (Pronouns must, in addition,
match case. Case refers to whether a pronoun is a subject [I know this!] or object [Tell me more.] in a
sentence. Choosing the correct case is not a big problem for native speakers of English, who usually
know instinctively which pronoun to use in most instances. For information about pronoun case see the
TIP Sheet "Pronouns.")
First person pronouns are all those that can refer to the speaker(s): I, me, we, us. Second person
pronouns refer to the person(s) spoken to: you. And third person pronouns refer to what is spoken of:
he, him, she, her, it, they, them. Some of these pronouns are singular-I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it. And
some are plural-we, us, you, they, them. There are a great many more pronouns, all of them with person
and number. The trick is to make pronouns agree, in both person and number, with their antecedents.
Singular antecedents take singular pronouns in the appropriate person. Plural antecedents take plural
pronouns in the appropriate person.
The election was a watershed; it brought voters out in droves. (third person singular)
Voters stood in line for hours waiting for their turn at the ballots. (third person plural)
Each was eager to take part, knowing he or she was part of an historic event. (third person singular)
We were a little anxious, for it was our first experience with touch screen voting. (first person plural)
A prepositional phrase following an antecedent, or referent, has no effect on a following personal

pronoun, which still must match the referent itself:
One of the boys left his soccer ball here.
Though boys is plural, the pronoun in this sentence must agree with the singular referent one (here the
subject of the sentence. For more about using prepositional phrases to help identify sentence subjects,
see TIP Sheet "Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases").
Agreement in person and number is trickier with indefinite pronouns. Like the personal pronouns listed
above, indefinite pronouns also have person and number–it's their number that causes confusion. In
general, any pronoun that ends with –body (anybody, everybody) or –one (someone, everyone) is
singular, no matter how much you feel that it should be plural:
Somebody from the girls' soccer team left her cleats on the field.
Everyone on the girls' team wants to play indoor soccer when this season ends to keep
up her conditioning.
Other (usually) singular indefinite pronouns are each, either, and neither:
It's such a fast game, neither of the girls wants to play goalie for her team.
Each of the boys has received a sports scholarship to his preferred college.
On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns, such as none, can go either way depending on whether
they refer to count or non-count nouns:
None of the students will want to defer their education for another year. (plural, because none is talking
about students-a count noun.)
None goes to waste; it is all time well spent. (singular, because none here is about a quantity of time-a
non-count noun.)
For a more complete list of indefinite pronouns, see a writer's guide such as SF Writer, or the TIP Sheet
"Pronouns."
Other tricky words are collective nouns, for example jury, team, society. Collective nouns, though they
represent groups, are singular when the members act as one:
The soccer team was like an extended family to its members.
Our society values its sports heroes more than its civil servants.
On the other hand, if a group is acting as individuals or at cross purposes, a collective noun becomes
plural:
As soon as the judge read the verdict, the hung jury issued their statements.
Sometimes a pronoun refers to a compound subject. When a compound subject is joined by and, it is
plural and takes a plural pronoun:
Jack and Jill were unable to play because of their injuries.
When a compound subject is joined by nor/or (often accompanied by neither or either, which in any
case are themselves singular pronouns), the pronoun reference is singular:
Amy or Miya will be at her computer tomorrow.

2. Gender neutral pronouns
Even though most of us understand that mankind means all of us, male and female, and that the generic
he, like man, refers to both men and women, it is a recent innovation that pronouns must, whenever
possible, be chosen so as to be gender-neutral or gender-inclusive. There are various clumsy ways to
accomplish this, since in English there exists no gender-neutral pronoun in third person singular (except
it, which is inappropriate in reference to a person). To comply with this practice, try using both male and
female pronoun references:
Each student took his or her place at a computer station.
This method becomes awkward if there are a great many of these references. Another way, therefore,
to avoid a gender-exclusive pronoun is to change the antecedent to a plural if possible, and use a plural
pronoun reference:
All the students took their places at the computer stations.
A third way to avoid this so-called "sexist" language is to alternate pronoun reference
between he's and she's–this is actually the preferred solution at some general circulation magazines
(look up their writers' guidelines, or read a few magazine articles on childcare, for instance, and see for
yourself)!
Admittedly, gender-neutral or gender-inclusive language makes a certain amount of sense in some

contexts, for instance in the example below, where the intended implication is to point out that the
privilege of suffrage is extended to males and females as equals:
Voters stood in line for hours waiting for their turn at the ballots. Each was eager to take part,
knowing he or she was part of an historic event.
At this time the use of gender-neutral language is undergoing discussion and evolution. Some people are
trying to invent a new, gender-neutral personal pronoun, while others are calling for a return to their as
a singular pronoun–the way most of us use it in conversation anyway, as in Everybody took their turn (it
may be technically incorrect, but it sure has numbers going for it!). For more information than you
imagined existed on this subject, start with the University of Texas website
http://www.crossmyt.com/hc/linghebr/austheir.html. Meanwhile, if you are unclear how to handle
gender issues in your own papers, ask if your instructor has a preference.
3. Unambiguous reference
The referent must appear prior to the pronoun that refers to it. It may appear in a nearby sentence if
the reference is clear enough. Below, Mr. Piluso is the referent for all the he's and him's, while Mai is the
referent for the she's and her's:
Mr. Piluso arrived late to class. He claimed that the child care center opened late and that was why he,
in turn, was late. But Mai said that she saw him at the coffee bar at 8:00, and that he greeted her as he
strolled toward the classroom.
However, if there are two possible referents and if there is a possibility that a reader will misunderstand
which is intended, revise the sentence. For example, in the sentence below, clearly two females interact;
but who greeted whom, and who strolled to class?
She said she saw her at the coffee bar at 8:00, and she greeted her as she strolled toward the classroom.
It is necessary to replace some of these pronouns; the various she's must be named before the
pronouns which refer to them. In addition, they must be identified as many times as necessary to avoid
confusion:
Mai said she saw Ms. Kloss at the coffee bar at 8:00; Mai greeted her as Ms. Kloss strolled to class. (Ms.
Kloss, alas, is in no hurry.)
Mai said she saw Ms. Kloss at the coffer bar at 8:00; Mai greeted her as she strolled to class. (Now Mai is
the one strolling to class.)
4. Missing referents
The pronoun's referent must actually appear (indefinite pronouns such as someone and everyone are an
exception). They and it commonly appear without proper antecedents, as in the following examples:
On the news it said Chairman Arafat died of natural causes.

At the bed and breakfast, they don't allow pets.
The missing referent of the first sentence may be news or reporter. The missing referent of the second
sentence might be managers or owners. One of these words should appear in the sentence, or the
sentence should be revised to eliminate the orphan pronoun:
The news was that Chairman Arafat died of natural causes; NBC reported it first.
On the news, the reporter said Chairman Arafat died of natural causes.
The owners of the bed and breakfast told us they don't allow pets.
At the bed and breakfast, the owners don't allow pets.
You may use the pronoun you without a referent only if you are actually referring to your reader (as we
just did); you may not use it to refer to people in general. For formal writing, avoid you and
substitute one (it's gender-neutral, by the way):
One never knows what one can expect of dogs and cats on vacation.
Don't overuse one–it tends to sound stuffy in American English. If by you you mean people in general,
choose another word: people, society, everyone, most Americans.
A pronoun may not usually refer to a possessive word. In the following example, therefore, the referent
is missing:
In the staff's opinion, the contract offers them distinct advantages.

The intended referent of them is staff; however, staff's, as a possessive, is ineligible. Revise to add the
missing referent, or eliminate the pronoun:
The staff believe the contract offers them distinct advantages.

In the staff's opinion, the contract offers distinct advantages.
However, a possessive may be the antecedent of another possessive:
The union's solidarity increased its bargaining power.
Relative clauses beginning with which often lack referents; the pronoun which must refer to a particular
word or at most, a noun phrase; it may not refer to an entire clause. In the following sentence,
therefore, which lacks an antecedent:
English 11 was not offered, which created a hardship for seniors.
Revise this sentence by adding a specific referent, or eliminate the which clause altogether:
English 11 was not offered, a situation which created a hardship for seniors.
English 11 was not offered, thus creating a hardship for seniors.
For more information on the use of relative pronouns such as this and which, see the TIP Sheet "Relative
Pronouns: Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clauses."
RELATIVE PRONOUNS: RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE
The relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, and that. Relative pronouns introduce
subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive subordinate clauses,
and do not use commas to set off restrictive clauses. The choice of relative pronouns is determined by
the way the pronoun is used and the noun or pronoun to which it refers. Who, which, and that take
verbs that agree with their antecedents.
1. Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses functioning as adjectives.
The man who robbed us was never caught.

The arrow that has left the bow never returns.
In addition to introducing the clause, the relative pronoun, in this case

who, points back to a noun or pronoun that the clause modifies (man). In the second sentence, that
points back to arrow.
Relative pronouns are sometimes "understood."
The things [that] we know best are the things [that] we haven't been taught.
2. Use commas to set off nonrestrictive elements. Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements.
A restrictive element defines or limits the meaning of the word it modifies and is therefore essential to
the meaning of the sentence. Because it contains essential information, a restrictive element is not set
off with commas.
Restrictive: For camp the children need clothes that are washable.
If you remove a restrictive element from a sentence, the meaning changes significantly, becoming more
general than you intended. The writer of the example sentence does not mean that the children need
clothes in general. The intended meaning is more limited: The children need washable clothes.
Nonrestrictive: For camp the children need sturdy shoes, which are expensive.
A nonrestrictive element describes a noun or pronoun whose meaning has already been clearly defined
or limited. Because it contains nonessential or parenthetical information, a nonrestrictive element is set
off with commas. If you remove a nonrestrictive element from a sentence, the meaning does not change
significantly. The children need sturdy shoes, and these happen to be expensive.
3. The choice of that, which, who, or whom is dependent upon the way in which the pronoun is used
within the sentence, as well as the noun or pronoun to which it refers.
In general, use that with restrictive clauses and which with nonrestrictive clauses.
Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things,

may be used to refer to a group or class of people.
Fans wondered how an old man who (not that or which) walked with a limp could play football.
The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.
Who is used for subjects and subject complements; whom is used for objects.
Who is bringing what for whom?
4. Who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
Take a suit that travels well. (A suit... travels well.)

Take clothes that are easy to wash. (Clothes... are easy to wash.)
Sometimes problems occur when one of the and only one of the are used. Generally, one of the is
treated as plural, and only one of the is treated as singular.

Our ability to use language is one of the things that set us apart from animals.
The antecedent of that is things, not one. Several things set us apart from animals, and language is one
of them.
Carmen is the only one of the applicants who has the ability to step into this position.
The antecedent of who is one, not applicants. Only one applicant, Carmen, has the ability to step into
the position.
AVOIDING MODIFIER PROBLEMS
Modifiers are words-adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, clauses-that explain, expand, and enrich
sentences. Misplaced modifiers are modifiers that need to be moved elsewhere in the sentence to avoid
possible confusion. The result of misplaced modifiers can be confusing or comedic-in fact, comedians
take deliberate advantage of them, as in these words of Groucho Marx:
While hunting in Africa, I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How an elephant got into my pajamas I'll
never know.
A dangling modifier is an orphan-the thing that it is intended to modify does not actually appear in the
sentence at all. Revise sentences containing dangling modifiers.
Misplaced modifiers
Following are fourrules of placement that can correct the majority of modifier problems:
1. Simple adjectives precede.

2. Adjective phrases and clauses follow.
3. Adverbs move around.
4. Limiters precede.
1. Simple adjectives precede.

In the following, aromatic modifies tea, fluffy modifies socks, and cold modifies feet:
Mai set a cup of aromatic tea to steep on the counter while she pulled fluffy socks over her cold feet.
In general, an adjective modifier precedes the noun it modifies. In other words, it is aromatic tea, not
"tea aromatic." Nor is it "...cup of tea to steep aromatic on the counter," or "pulled socks over her fluffy
cold feet." If you are a native speaker of English, you probably knew this instinctively.
2. Adjective phrases and clauses follow.
We tend to associate phrase modifiers with the nearest preceding noun. The following example has a
comic effect because we read the modifier, with a deep tan, as belonging to the nearest noun:
Incorrect:
The lifeguard dove into the surf with the deep tan. (The surf with the deep tan?)
Revised:
The lifeguard with the deep tan dove into the surf.
Adjective phrases like this not only follow the nouns they describe (their headwords, as Tod E. Jones
calls them in his online article "Common Problems of English Grammar and Punctuation"), they must
follow very closely to make the proper sense.
Treat adjective clauses similarly. These are word groups that contain both a subject and verb, but are
not complete because they also contain a dependent-making word (that or which, for example). They
explain or otherwise expand on information in the sentence and, like adjective phrases, should
immediately follow their headwords:
Incorrect:
Her sorority sponsored a blood drive to assist the disaster relief effort that they had spent almost six
months planning. (Did the sorority plan the entire disaster relief effort? Or just the blood drive?)
Revised:
Her sorority sponsored a blood drive that they had spent almost six months planning to assist the
disaster relief effort.
3. Adverbs move around.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. In English, adverbs are allowed to move around
quite a bit in a sentence. In the following example, the adverb quickly modifies the verb calculated, or
the verb graphed, or both - but without causing a great deal of confusion no matter where it is placed.
Quickly she calculated the slope and graphed the result.
She quickly calculated the slope and graphed the result.
She calculated the slope and quickly graphed the result.
She calculated the slope and graphed the result quickly.
However, misplaced adverbs can cause ambiguity. If this happens, simply move the adverb to place it
next to the headword it is intended to modify.
Incorrect:
Mikail followed the instructions for setting up the computer network carefully. (Followed the
instructions carefully? Or were the instructions to set up the network carefully?)
Revised:
Mikail carefully followed the instructions for setting up the computer network.
Or:
Mikail followed the instructions for carefully setting up the computer network.
Because of the ability of adverbs to float around freely in a sentence, they are sometimes said to squint.
A squinting adverb is one which seems to modify two things at the same time. Like an optical illusion, a
sentence with a squinting adverb seems to mean first one thing and then another. In the following
example the prepositional phrase is modifying a verb or verbal-but which?
Incorrect:
She agreed after the Rooks' game to meet her friends at Moxie's. (Did she agree to this after the game?
Or did she agree to meet following the game?)
Revised:
She agreed to meet her friends at Moxie's after the Rooks' game.
Or:
After the Rooks' game she agreed to meet her friends at Moxie's.
Adverb clauses express relationships such as time, cause, purpose, and condition, using words
like when, because, in order that, and if. Adverb clauses can move around in a sentence without much
problem. The following adverb clause clearly modifies the verb will erode, whether the adverb clause is
placed first or last:
If the Sacramento River rises fast enough, some farmland will erode along the banks.
Some farmland will erode along the banks if the Sacrament River rises fast enough.
If you think a reader may misunderstand, feel free to move the clause or revise the sentence to
eliminate confusion.
4. Limiters precede.
Limiters are words like only, almost, just, nearly, or hardly. Place these words in front of their
headwords. Consider the difference in meaning in the following two examples:
He does math homework almost every day.
Or:
He almost does math homework every day.
The difference - did you catch it? - is that the first subject does his math, while the second does not. In
the first example, almost modifies every. In the second, almost modifies do. But one either does math,
or doesn't; "almost doing" math is nonsense, unless the intended meaning is that the second
speaker thinks about doing math, and gets ready to do math, but never actually does math.
Dangling modifiers
Dangling modifiers are missing their intended headwords; that is, you cannot point to any word in the
main part of the sentence that the modifier refers to. In the following example, the underlined modifier
refers clearly to rafters:
Staggering with exhaustion after their long day on the river, the sunburned rafters dragged their boat
into the shallows.
But in the next example, the rafters have inexplicably disappeared, and the boat itself is said to be
staggering with exhaustion, which of course is nonsense:
Incorrect:
Staggering with exhaustion after their long day on the river, the boat was dragged into the shallows.
Dangling modifiers frequently take the shape of -ing, or -ed phrases (gerunds and participles) and most
commonly appear at the beginnings of sentences. (They also frequently involve passive voice verbs,
which are less direct, less vivid, and more ambiguous. See the TIP Sheet Active and Passive Voice to learn
more about this.) To fix a dangling modifier, revise the sentence to include the proper headword.
Incorrect:
Worried about finding an apartment, dozens of rental applications were filled out. (The dozens of
applications were worried?)
Revised:
Worried about finding an apartment, the two roommates filled out dozens of rental applications.
Less commonly, a dangling modifier occurs near the middle or end of a sentence, but the same principle
applies. Find the modifier, identify the appropriate (missing) headword, and revise the sentence to
clarify it.
Incorrect:
My GPA improved a whole point by using the textbook chapter reviews as a study guide. (My GPA used
the textbook chapter reviews?)
Revised:
I improved my GPA a whole point by using the textbook chapter reviews as a study guide.
Of course, as writers we know what we mean. But as writers with a purpose and an audience, we must
use word order rules that avoid ambiguity as much as possible so that the reader also knows what we
mean.
TRANSITIONS
The burden of moving smoothly from one thought to another belongs to the writer. When you write,
your reader should never have to go to the trouble of puzzling out hidden connections between ideas;
those connections should be readily apparent. You can help your reader see at a glance that a certain
train of thought is begun, developed, challenged, or completed by using word signals called transitions.
Good writers combine two transition techniques:
 Using transitional words and phrases (such as however or moreover) to make connections
 Using placement of ideas to make connections (especially in longer papers)
Transitional words and phrases

Transitions are words or phrases (furthermore, for example, nevertheless, indeed) that indicate how a
statement in one sentence relates to a statement that precedes or follows. In the following example, the
underlined transitions signal contrast:
In the winter of 1973-74 drivers lined up all over America to fill their gas tanks. But it was not merely a
question of a fifteen-minute wait and back on the road again. On the contrary, cars often began to
congregate at dawn.
Transition words are most effective when they are placed at the beginnings of sentences (although they
can also be used in the middle or at the end). The transition below signals a shift to similarity:
Similarly, walkers appeared early on frigid mornings with an empty five-gallon can in one hand and a
pint of steaming coffee in the other, determined to wait out the chill and avoid disappointment.
The next passage uses a cause-and-effect transition:
Everybody had to wait. As a result, high-school kids took Saturday morning jobs as gas line sitters;
spouses drove their mates to work and spent the rest of the day in line, and libraries had a surge of
activity as people decided to catch up on their reading while waiting.
In the final passage, this writer signals that she is summing up and concluding:
All in all, Americans were at their best during that bizarre season, abiding by the new rules as if a place
in the gas line had been guaranteed to everyone by the Bill of Rights.
In the lists below you will find that some transitions can do double duty, signaling, for instance, either
addition or amplification, depending on the context:
To add a thought or to show sequence in your own writing, use the following transitions:
again equally important in the first place still
also finally last then

and first moreover
and then furthermore next
besides in addition second
To amplify or intensify:
and also furthermore moreover
again further in addition too
after all even indeed truly
interestingly it is true of course
To show insistence:
indeed in fact yes no
To compare or show likeness:
also in the same way likewise similarly
To show concession:
granted it is true of course to be sure
To show contrast:
although despite however notwithstanding still
and yet even so in contrast on the contrary though
at the same even on the other

in spite of whereas
time though hand
for all
but nevertheless regardless yet
that
To give examples:
an illustration of for instance specifically
for example in fact to illustrate
To show a restatement:
that is in other words in simpler terms to put it differently
To show cause and effect or consequence:
accordingl
consequently otherwise therefore to this end
y
for this
as a result since thereupon thus
purpose
with this
because hence then this
object
To show time or place:
above below formerly near(by) subsequently
adjacent to earlier here opposite to there
elsewher
afterward hitherto simultaneously this time
e
at the same
farther on later so far until now
time
To repeat, summarize, or conclude:
in in
all in all in brief therefore
particular summary
altogether in in short on the to put it

conclusion whole differently
as has been in other in simpler

that is to summarize
said words terms
Placement of ideas
Another strategy is to place older, previously stated ideas first, followed by newer, just-introduced ideas.
This is effective in essay and research papers (generally in pieces longer than a single paragraph).
In the following example, the second paragraph recaps the information contained in the first paragraph
before going on to introduce a new idea:
Interestingly, in A Canticle for Leibowitz it is institutional religion itself that leads the struggle against
ignorance and superstition. The brothers of the Albertian Order of St. Leibowitz live their lives-and
sometimes lay those lives down-for the preservation of those fragments of written human knowledge
that have survived both the nuclear holocaust and the Great Simplification.
While for generations the church alone values these relics of knowledge, it is also, ironically, the church
alone that recognizes (as the new generation of scholar-scientists does not) that knowledge will not
redeem man, or make him better, or make him wiser. The secular scholar Thon Taddeo sees the monks
as lacking understanding of that which they preserve and himself as a seeker after understanding;
nevertheless, it is Abbott Paulo, not Taddeo, who points out that there is no conflict between true
religion and Taddeo's "refrangible property of light." In other words, it is the church that most clearly
understands both the value and the proper limits of human knowledge.
The above example combines this placement technique with transitions of emphasis, time, addition,
contrast, and restatement; you, too, may use every trick in the book to lead your reader along the path
of your thought.
TIP Sheet
WOULD, SHOULD, COULD
Would, should and could are three auxiliary verbs that can be defined as past tenses of will, shall,
and can; however, you may learn more from seeing sentences using these auxiliaries than from
definitions. Examples of usage follow.
Would
Technically, would is the past tense of will, but it is an auxiliary verb that has many uses, some of which
even express the present tense. It can be used in the following ways:
 To ask questions:
Would you like some coleslaw? = Do you want some coleslaw?

Would you turn in your assignment now? = Please turn in your assignment now.
 With who, what, when, where, why, how:
How would the neighbors react?

What would you do if I sang out of tune?
In the two sentences above, would means about the same thing as will.
 To make polite requests:
I would like more coleslaw, please. = I want more coleslaw, please.

I would like you to sit down now. = I want you to sit down now.
 To show a different response if the past had been different:
I would have helped you if I had known you were stranded.

(I didn't know that you were stranded. This "not knowing" occurred before my not helping you.)
John would've missed the trail if Mary hadn't waited for him at the stream.
(First Mary waited for him. If her response had been to not wait, then next John would have been on the
wrong trail.)
 To tone down strong, controversial statements-not recommended in formal essays:
I would have to say that you're acting a bit immature.

Here would has a similar meaning to do but less emphatic.
 To explain an outcome to a hypothetical situation:
Should I win a million dollars, I would fix up my house.

Think of should as if, and would as will.
 To show habitual past action:
Helen would sob whenever John would leave home.

Think of would as did.
 To show repetitive past action:
For a moment the plane would be airborne, then it would bump back down along the hard earth.
(The plane was in the air and then back on the ground several times.)
 To show preference between two choices, used with rather or sooner:
I would sooner die than face them. = I prefer death in place of facing them.
I would rather handwrite than type. = I prefer handwriting instead in typing.
However, the second choice may by implied but not stated:
I would rather die.

Implied is that I would rather die than...do whatever it is that the context has provided as an alternative
to dying.
 To show wish or desire:
Those people would allow gambling. = Those people want to allow gambling.
Would it were so. = I wish it were so. (Infrequently used)
We wish that he would go. = We want him to go.
 To show intention or plan:
She said she would come. = She said she was planning to come.
 To show choice:
I would put off the test if I could.

This means my choice is to delay taking the test, but I do not have the ability to delay taking it.
 To express doubt:
The answer would seem to be correct. = The answer is probably correct.
 To show future likelihoods relative to past action:
He calculated that he would get to the camp around 6 p.m. The men would have dinner ready for him.
The first sentence means he believed his camp arrival time was going to be about 6:00 p.m. The
"calculating" (or believing) happened in the past, yet the arrival is going to occur later. The second
sentence predicts that, at that future time, dinner will be ready for him.
 Strange but true: Notice how changing have to had can change the way would works:
Would you had changed your mind. = I wish you had changed your mind.
Would you have changed your mind. = If circumstances had been different, is it possible that you might
have changed your mind?
Should
Technically, should is the past tense of shall, but it is an auxiliary verb with a few uses, not all of which
are in the past tense, namely, the following:
Should you have erased the disk? = Were you supposed to have erased it?
Should I turn in my assignment now? = Am I supposed to turn in my assignment now?
Here, should means about the same thing as ought.
 To show obligation:
You should floss and brush your teeth after every meal.
Think of should as supposed to, as in the previous example, but here to make a persuasive statement.
 To show a possible future event:
If I should find your coat, I will be sure to call you.

Think of should as do; furthermore, should could be left out of the above sentence, leaving, "If I find
your coat, I will be sure to call you." Alternately, if could be left out of the sentence: "Should I find your
coat, I will be sure to call you."
 To express a hypothetical situation:
Should you wish to do so, you may have hot tea and biscuits. = If you wish to do so, you may have hot
tea and biscuits.
 To express what is likely:
With an early start, they should be here by noon.

Think of should as ought to or probably will.
 To politely express a request or direct statement:
I should like to go home now. = I want to go home now.

I should think that a healthy forest program is essential to any presidential victory.= I think that a
healthy forest program is essential to any presidential victory.
Could
Technically, could is the past tense of can, but it is an auxiliary verb with a few uses, not all of which are
in the past tense, namely the following:
 As the past tense of can:
In those days, all the people could build houses. = In those days, all the people had the ability to build
houses.
Could you have erased the disk? = Is it possible that you erased the disk?
Could I leave now? = May I leave now; am I allowed to leave now?
 To show possibility:
You could study harder than you do. = You have the potential to study harder than you do.
He knew the sunset could be spectacular. = He knew that the sunset was sometimes spectacular.
 To express tentativeness or politeness:
I could be wrong. = I may be wrong.

Could you come over here, please? = Please come here.
In conclusion, you could use these three auxiliaries if you would, and you should! Write a sample
sentence for each possible usage of could, would, and should; then ask any Reading/Writing or English
tutor for further assistance.
ACHIEVING PARALLELISM
Effective writing requires a certain amount of variety. You vary word choice, for example, as well as
sentence length and structure. But effective writing is also patterned.
Parallelism is the way that we pattern writing so that similar elements in a sentence are grammatically
equivalent. That is, if there are two or more subjects, they are all nouns or noun phrases. If there are
two or more verbs, they are all of the same form. If there are two prepositional phrases, they are similar
in form (with no verbs snuck in to transform one of them into a clause).
Achieving parallelism smoothes out writing and increases its impact. For example, without their subject-
verb pattern, these words by Confucius would not have nearly the impact they do:
"I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand."
What he means, of course, is "We learn best by doing." But there would be nothing particularly
memorable about saying so!
Parallelism is so important to the smooth flow of ideas that comedians sometimes deliberately violate
the rules of parallelism in order to make us laugh. Compare the elegance of Confucius's parallel
expression above to Dave Barry's unexpectedly non-parallel statement below:
"Skiing combines outdoor fun with knocking down trees with your face."
If we wanted to make this expression properly parallel, the two elements that follow "Skiing combines"
should be grammatically equivalent: "Skiing combines outdoor fun [adjective-noun] with physical
danger [adjective-noun]." (But you wouldn't have smiled.)
Unless you are writing comedy, then, follow these rules:
 In any compound composition using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet),
such as sentences with compound subjects, compound verbs, compound adjectives, compound
prepositional phrases, or compound clauses, parallel structure is required. (Note: It
is not necessary to make the two parts of a compound sentence parallel, even if they are joined
by coordinating conjunctions.)
 In any correlative composition using correlative pairs (not only...but also, either...or,

neither...nor, both...and) parallel structure is required.
 In any series, list, or outline parallel structure is required.
Coordination
Coordinating conjunctions must connect like-patterned things. This sentence uses parallel compound
subjects:
High temperature [adjective-noun] and low humidity [adjective-noun] are typical of summers in Chico.
This parallel structure is better than, for example, "High temperatures and the lowness of the humidity
are typical of summers in Chico."
The following example joins parallel compound verb forms:
We hiked along the creek to Bear Hole, where we gratefully dropped [past tense verb] our
daypacks, shed [past tense verb] our clothes, and plunged [past tense verb] into the water.
If we had not taken care to construct parallel verbs, we might have said, "We hiked along the creek to
Bear Hole, where we gratefully dropped our daypacks, were shedding our clothes, and plunged into the
water."
The following sentence uses parallel prepositional phrases, parallel verbs, and parallel direct objects:
Along the Maidu Trail [prepositional phrase] and around Horseshoe Lake, [prepositional phrase] people

were walking [progressive verb] or running [progressive
verb] their retrievers [noun] and Labradors [noun].
A non-parallel expression is clumsier: "Along the Maidu Trail people were walking or ran their dogs,
which were mostly labs and retrievers, and around Horseshoe Lake we saw them, too."
This example uses parallel infinitives (to + verb, functioning as a noun):
In the summer we love to swim [infinitive/noun] at Five Mile and to hike [infinitive/noun] in Upper

Bidwell Park.
(It would be just as correct to eliminate the second "to" as long as the roots of the infinitives were
similar: "In the summer we love to swim at Five Mile and hike in Upper Bidwell Park.")
The following sentence uses parallel gerunds (-ing words functioning as nouns) as subjects:
Swimming [gerund/noun], hiking [gerund/noun], and stargazing [gerund/noun] are great ways to pass
summer evenings in Chico.
Gerunds should not be combined with infinitives in sentences requiring parallel structure: "Swimming,
hiking, and to stargaze are great ways to pass summer evenings in Chico."
Correlation
In correlative pairs (either...or, not only...but also, neither...nor, both...and) whatever grammatical
element follows the first part must follow the second as well.
We could either leave [present tense verb] at dusk or wait [present tense verb] until the planetarium
opened.
The sound of the coyotes yammering in the distance was not only very haunting [adverb-adjective] but
also somehow comforting [adverb-adjective].
A non-parallel version might be, "The sound of the coyotes yammering in the distance was not only
rather haunting but also comforted us in some strange way."
Other connecting words similar to correlative pairs benefit from and sometimes require parallel
structure. Use parallel structure when comparing (more than, less than) or contrasting (rather [this] than
[that], instead of), and in expressions such as "from [this] to [that]"
Even more than lunch [noun], I would like a cold drink [noun].
A non-parallel version is clumsier (though not technically incorrect): "Even more than lunch, I would
like to get something to drink."
They decided that they would rather tour [present tense verb] the brewery than visit [present tense
verb] the art glass factory.
Here is a version using non-parallel verbs following "rather...than": "They decided that they would
rather tour the brewery than be visiting the art glass factory."
Another characteristic of parallel expression in correlative pairs is that the two parts of the expression
are developed similarly; that is, each part contains approximately the same amount of detail:
I prefer dancing [noun] to drinking [noun].
The parallel nouns in this example are both gerunds. We could have said, "I prefer dancing to a bunch of
drunks who can't balance even on two legs." The point is rather the same, but the nouns are of different
types and the two halves of the expression are unevenly developed: the second half is developed with
more enthusiasm than the first half.
Series, lists, and outlines

In sentences, items in a series need to be parallel in form:
I'm registered for economics, drafting, and Spanish [parallel nouns].
Compare to this: "I'm registered for economics, to learn drafting, and practicing Spanish." This
incorrect, non-parallel version combines a prepositional phrase, an infinitive phrase, and a gerund.
The following sentence contains a single subject and compound parallel verbs:
The tutors can explain the assignment, help you locate background material, and give you tips for
citing your sources [parallel verb forms].
The verbs are parallel in form and share the single subject, tutors. Compare this with the following: "The
tutors can explain the assignment, help you locate background material, and you learn valuable tips for
citing your sources." Even though the third verb looks similar, sticking in a second subject (you) breaks
the pattern.
Series items are not necessarily verbs or nouns. The following example uses a series of parallel
modifiers:
Marketing should consider whether the plan is feasible, impractical, or impossible [parallel adjectives].
The above example is easy to understand compared to this: "Marketing should consider the feasibility of
the plan, as well as whether it is impractical or if we should simply consider it impossible."
Items in lists require parallel form, whether they occur in a sentence following a colon or in a bulleted
list (frequently used by business writers):
Be sure you bring all the essentials: sunscreen, insect repellent, water, snacks, fire
starter, whistle, emergency shelter, first aid kit, and extra clothing [parallel nouns].
In the following non-parallel form, extra verbs break the pattern (and, worse, create comma splices): "Be
sure you bring all the essentials: sunscreen, insect repellent is important, water, snacks, fire starter is
useful, especially the newer magnesium ones, whistle, emergency shelter, first aid kit, and you never
know when you'll need a change of clothing."
Bulleted lists should always begin with parallel forms.
College outreach representatives should be able to perform these tasks:
 Identify the special needs of the at-risk high school population
 Formulate a plan that addresses those needs
 Communicate the plan effectively to high school counselors [parallel verb phrases]

The bullets can be written as parallel verb or noun phrases, prepositional phrases, or even complete
sentences. (Write the introductory sentence so that it logically and grammatically leads into whatever
list follows. For example, the sentence "College outreach representatives should have these
characteristics:" could not logically introduce the above example, since the list is not one of personal
characteristics.)
The headings of formal outlines (that is, outlines that are to be turned in as part of an assignment rather
than used for personal reference and study) require parallel form:
I. Things to do in Bidwell Park [noun phrase
A. Swim in Big Chico Creek [verb phrase]
1. The water can be cold early in the summer.

2. Some of the swimming holes can be dangerous.
3. Sycamore Pool has lifeguards in the summer. [full sentences]
B. Hike in Upper Park [verb phrase]
1. Early morning is a cooler time.

2. There is very little shade most of the way.
3. The views are spectacular. [full sentences]
II. Things to do in downtown Chico [noun phrase]
Notice that the corresponding levels of the outline are parallel with each other, although not every level
is parallel to every other level. The main headings I and II are noun phrases. Headings A and B are verb
phrases; heading C would also have been a verb phrase. On the other hand, the details 1, 2, and 3 are all
complete sentences. You may use phrases or sentences at any level, as long as you keep corresponding
items in each level parallel in structure.
Strategies
To achieve parallelism, try skimming your papers for coordinating conjunctions such as and and or.
Check the sentence elements on both sides of the conjunction to see if they are parallel in form. If they
are not, revise those sentences to achieve parallel structure. If you are unsure whether the elements are
parallel (you might discover you need a brush-up on basic parts of speech, for example), underline them.
Ask your instructor or bring them to a tutor for help. (For more on parts of speech, see the TIP Sheet The
Eight Parts of Speech.)
If you have a visual learning preference, try writing the sentence parts requiring parallel structure in
columns. Check to see if the elements are parallel. (Once you have taken the words out of their context,
though, avoid mistaking things like gerunds, swimming, for verbs, were swimming).
If you have a preference for auditory learning, try reading aloud, listening for patterns of sound. This
may help you find awkward places that reveal lack of parallel structure. (Reading aloud is a useful
proofreading technique anyway, since it forces you to slow down.) For practice in discerning the
rhythms parallelism creates, try reading aloud some of the examples below.
Impact
Speechwriters and orators know the impact of parallel expression. For example, American abolitionist
Frederick Douglass said this in 1886:
"Where justice is denied, where poverty is enforced, where ignorance prevails, and where any one class
is made to feel that society is in an organized conspiracy to oppress, rob, and degrade them, neither
persons nor property will be safe."
British statesman Winston Churchill said this:
"The empires of the future are the empires of the mind."
It just does not have the same impact to say, "The empires of the future will be mental"! In fact,
Churchill had a positive genius for parallelism:
"We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France. We shall fight on the seas
and oceans. We shall fight with growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island, whatever the
cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches. We shall fight on the landing grounds. We shall fight in the
fields and in the streets. We shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender."
American author Henry David Thoreau, Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu, American civil rights activist Martin
Luther King Jr., Chilean poet Pablo Neruda, former Costa Rican president Oscar Arias Sanchez-almost any
quotation search will turn up dozens of examples of masterful use of parallel language.
You may not aspire to change the course of history; you may just want to improve this semester's
English grade. Achieving parallelism is sometimes more art than science, but with practice, you can
achieve a degree of parallelism that will smooth out your writing at the very least, or-who knows?-
change the world.
DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before nouns or noun equivalents and
are a type of adjective. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to indicate that the identity of the
noun is known to the reader. The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun that is general or when
its identity is not known. There are certain situations in which a noun takes no article.
As a guide, the following definitions and table summarize the basic use of articles. Continue reading for a
more detailed explanation of the rules and for examples of how and when to apply them.
Definite article
the (before a singular or plural noun)

Indefinite article
a (before a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound)

an (before a singular noun beginning with a vowel sound)
Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular or plural
Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always singular
COUNT NON-COUNT
NOUNS NOUNS
Rule #1 a, an (no article)

Specific identity not
known
Rule #2 the the

Specific identity known
Rule #3 (no article) (no article)

All things or things in
general
For the purposes of understanding how articles are used, it is important to know that nouns can be
either count (can be counted) or noncount (indefinite in quantity and cannot be counted). In addition,
count nouns are either singular (one) or plural (more than one). Noncount nouns are always
in singular form.
For example, if we are speaking of water that has been spilled on the table, there can be one drop
(singular) or two or more drops (plural) of water on the table. The word drop in this example is
a count noun because we can count the number of drops. Therefore, according to the rules applying
to count nouns, the word drop would use the articles a or the.
However, if we are speaking of water in general spilled on the table, it would not be appropriate to
count one water or two waters -- there would simply be water on the table. Water is a noncount noun.
Therefore, according to the rules applying to noncount nouns, the word water would use no
article or the, but not a.
Following are the three specific rules which explain the use of definite and indefinite articles.
Rule #1 - Specific identity not known: Use the indefinite article a or an only with a singular count noun
whose specific identity is not known to the reader. Use a before nouns that begin with a consonant
sound, and use an before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.
 Use the article a or an to indicate any non-specified member of a group or category.
I think an animal is in the garage

That man is a scoundrel.
We are looking for an apartment.
 Use the article a or an to indicate one in number (as opposed to more than one).
I own a cat and two dogs.
 Use the article a before a consonant sound, and use an before a vowel sound.
a boy, an apple
◊ Sometimes an adjective comes between the article and noun:
an unhappy boy, a red apple
 The plural form of a or an is some. Use some to indicate an unspecified, limited amount (but

more than one).
an apple, some apples
Rule #2 - Specific identity known: Use the definite article the with any noun (whether singular or
plural, count or noncount) when the specific identity of the noun is known to the reader, as in the
following situations:
 Use the article the when a particular noun has already been mentioned previously.
I ate an apple yesterday. The apple was juicy and delicious.
 Use the article the when an adjective, phrase, or clause describing the noun clarifies or restricts
its identity.
The boy sitting next to me raised his hand.

Thank you for the advice you gave me.
 Use the article the when the noun refers to something or someone that is unique.
the theory of relativity

the 2003 federal budget
Rule #3 - All things or things in general: Use no article with plural count nouns or any noncount nouns
used to mean all or in general.
Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)
Additional Information Regarding the Use of Articles
 When indicating an unspecified, limited amount of a count or noncount noun, use some.
My cousin was seeking some advice from a counselor (not advice in general or advice about everything,
but a limited amount of advice).
I would love some coffee right now (not coffee in general, but a limited amount of coffee).
We might get rain tomorrow. Some rain would be good for the crops (a certain amount of rain, as
opposed to rain in general).
There are some drops of water on the table (a limited number, but more than one drop).
 Noncount nouns are those which usually cannot be counted. Following are some common
examples:
◊ Certain food and drink items: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy, cauliflower, celery,
cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce, meat, milk,
oil, pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt
◊ Certain nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain,
silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
◊ Most abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness, health,
honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, wealth
◊ Areas of study: history, math, biology, etc.
◊ Sports: soccer, football, baseball, hockey, etc.
◊ Languages: Chinese, Spanish, Russian, English, etc.
◊ Other: clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, lumber, machinery, mail, money,
news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
 Geographical names are confusing because some require the and some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas, oceans, seas, gulfs, canals, rivers,
mountain ranges, groups of islands
the Gobi Desert
the United Arab Emirates
the Sacramento River
the Aleutians
◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most countries, continents, bays, single
lakes, single mountains, islands
Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay
Examples of the Use of Articles
I do not want a gun in my house (any gun).

The gun is in his closet (implies there is a specific gun).
I am afraid of guns (all guns in general).
She sent me a postcard from Italy (an unspecific postcard - not a letter, not an e-mail).
It's the postcard that I have in my office (one specific postcard).
Getting postcards makes me want to travel (any postcard in general).
I have a dog (one dog).

The dog is very friendly (the dog that I have already mentioned).
Dogs make great pets (dogs in general).
Greta needs furniture in her apartment (furniture is a noncount noun).

She is going to select the furniture that she needs (the specific furniture that she needs).
She hopes to find some furniture this weekend (an unspecified, limited amount of furniture).
We are going to see the Statue of Liberty this weekend (the only Statue of Liberty).
TWO-WORD (PHRASAL) VERBS
Verbs can be single words or can have "helpers" such as has, have, had, is, am, was, or were. Verbs can
be accompanied by modals such as could, would, might, or may. As if that were not confusing enough,
there exists another kind of verb, phrasal verbs, which look like verbs with prepositions (or adverbs)
attached: hand in, break up, fill out, run into. Some are three words: come up with, check up on.
You probably have run into many verbs like these without experiencing any discomfort. You might never
even need to know that phrasal verbs exist. However, if you have learned to identify the subject and
verb of a sentence by crossing out all the prepositional phrases (up the stairs, out the door), then phrasal
verbs may be problematic. For instance, in the phrasal verb come up with, is with a preposition? Then
where is the object of the preposition? Or is it part of the verb?
Take, for example, this sentence: "You have run into verbs like these." It would be easy to make the
mistake of calling the verb run, and identifying into verbs as a prepositional phrase. In fact, the verb
is run into, meaning encountered; verbs is a direct object: what you encountered. You have not run. You
have encountered.
Phrasals can look like a verb + preposition (look into), or a verb + adverb (get away), or a verb + adverb +
preposition (get away from). An Internet search turns up exhaustive discussions of phrasals (they are
separable, inseparable, transitive, intransitive) and word order related to phrasals, but in general,
phrasal verbs have the following general characteristics:
 They are informal; usually there exists another, more "proper" word with the same or similar
meaning.
 They are idiomatic; that is, you cannot easily make out the meaning of the verb by adding up the
meanings of its parts.
 They are, nevertheless, often sensible, even if not obvious; phrasals do make a certain amount
of sense, depending on how you understand the particle, or preposition-like attachment.
Informal
Phrasal verbs are informal, though perfectly acceptable in most academic papers. However, some
phrasal verbs contain "filler" words that do not add meaning (keep on going means the same thing
as keep going, for example; fell off of means the same as fell off). Some are vague or somewhat cliché. In
order to attain vivid writing, you will sometimes want to substitute other, stronger verbs.
For example, here are some phrasal verbs and possible substitutes:
Phrasal verb Substitution
Hand in Submit
Check out Examine or borrow
Look up to Admire
Some phrasal verbs are difficult to replace. It's hard to think of a better way, for example, to say, "I had
to look up the word in the dictionary." And if you happen to be writing dialogue, the informality of
phrasals may be more authentic than stuffier language.
There are a great many phrasal verbs, far too many to list or memorize. For lists of phrasal verbs with
their corresponding meanings, try searching the Internet using the keyword "phrasal verbs."
Idiomatic
Phrasal verbs are idiomatic. For example, even if you know the meanings of blow and up, you cannot
add them together to arrive obviously at the intended meaning of blow up, which means explode or
erupt with force. Blow + up might just as easily refer to a gentle updraft of wind.
Because they are idiomatic, phrasals and their meanings might vary depending on where the speaker
lives. This TIP Sheet uses meanings commonly understood in the United States, specifically in California,
and even more specifically in a rural area of Northern California. Speakers of British English or even
speakers from other regions of the U.S. might understand some of these expressions differently. For
example, while an American might call you up on your cell phone, a Brit would ring you up to tell you he
needed to kip down (stay temporarily, the American equivalent of crash) in your apartment. In the
southern U.S., one might scoot down the car; in California one would hose it down with water.
The website Phrasal Verb Demon offers a great discussion of phrasals. At the same time, it illustrates the
idiomatic nature of phrasals, giving definitions as they are commonly understood in Great Britian; some
of these may be new to U.S. readers (whose computers, for example, usually freeze up, while British
computers pack up.)
Sensible
Even though they are idiomatic, many phrasals do make a certain amount of sense, depending on how
you understand the particle, or preposition-like attachment. A single preposition/particle can carry any
of a multitude of meanings, and the meaning of a phrasal verb like blow up depends largely on which
meaning of up you choose. For example, up can refer to increase (freshen up = increasing freshness); to
movement (boil up = move about in a chaotic way); or being out of bed (get up, stay up = getting or
staying out of bed).
For example, in the case of blow up, you might understand up as relating either to increase (as a fireball
increases, perhaps), or to movement (for chaotic movement of air and debris). (Up in blow up, on the
other hand, has nothing whatever to do with staying out of bed.)
It is largely the particle that changes the meaning of a phrasal verb. For example, the word break usually
means a sudden stopping, bursting, or loss of function. On the other hand, the website Phrasal Verb
Demon lists seven different senses of the word up, nine different senses of out, and ten of down. Break
up is a phrasal verb meaning to end a personal relationship (up = completion). Break down means to
stop functioning (down = failure), and break out means to happen suddenly (out = appearance).
Phrasals frequently are figurative; there is often an underlying metaphor that can help you make sense
of them. In the case of blow up, the metaphor compares the movement of air created by an explosion to
the movement of boiling water in a kettle. In addition, blow up is frequently itself used in a figurative
sense, as in, "The issue of the councilman's overspending blew up once the newspapers ran the story."
Here, the sudden public revelation and subsequent discussion of the councilman's overspending is
compared to an explosion.
The simile in the first two lines sets forth a comparison between the way “you” fits into the poet like a
hook and eye closure for perhaps a garment. This is an example of rhetorical effect in that the wording
carefully achieves the idea of two things meant to connect to each other. In the second two lines, the
wording is clarified by adding “fish” to “hook” and “open” to “eye,” which calls forth an unpleasant and
even violent image. The poet’s descriptions of hooks and eyes are not meant literally in the poem. Yet
the use of figurative language allows the poet to express two very different meanings and images that
enhance the interpretation of the poem through contrast.
Types of Figures of Speech
The term figure of speech covers a wide range of literary devices, techniques, and other forms of
figurative language, a few of which include:
 Simile
 Metaphor
 Personification
 Paradox
 Understatement
 Metonymy
 Apostrophe
 Hyperbole
 Synecdoche
 Irony
 Pun
 Euphemism
 Epigram
 Oxymoron
 Antithesis
 Litotes
 Alliteration
 Onomatopoeia
 Circumlocution
 Pleonasm
Common Examples of Figures of Speech Used in Conversation
Many people use figures of speech in conversation as a way of clarifying or emphasizing what they
mean. Here are some common examples of conversational figures of speech:
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a figure of speech that utilizes extreme exaggeration to emphasize a certain quality or

feature.
 I have a million things to do.
 This suitcase weighs a ton.
 This room is an ice-box.
 I’ll die if he doesn’t ask me on a date.
 I’m too poor to pay attention.
Understatement
Understatement is a figure of speech that invokes less emotion than would be expected in reaction to
something. This downplaying of reaction is a surprise for the reader and generally has the effect of
showing irony.
 I heard she has cancer, but it’s not a big deal.
 Joe got his dream job, so that’s not too bad.
 Sue won the lottery, so she’s a bit excited.
 That condemned house just needs a coat of paint.
 The hurricane brought a couple of rain showers with it.
Paradox
A paradox is a figure of speech that appears to be self-contradictory but actually reveals something
truthful.
 You have to spend money to save it.
 What I’ve learned is that I know nothing.
 You have to be cruel to be kind.
 Things get worse before they get better.
 The only rule is to ignore all rules.
Pun
A pun is a figure of speech that contains a “play” on words, such as using words that mean one thing to
mean something else or words that sound alike in as a means of changing meaning.
 A sleeping bull is called a bull-dozer.
 Baseball players eat on home plates.
 Polar bears vote at the North Poll.
 Fish are smart because they travel in schools.
 One bear told another that life without them would be grizzly.
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that connects two opposing ideas, usually in two-word phrases, to
create a contradictory effect.
 open secret
 Alone together
 true lies
 controlled chaos
 pretty ugly
Common Examples of Figure of Speech in Writing
Writers also use figures of speech in their work as a means of description or developing meaning. Here
are some common examples of figures of speech used in writing:
Simile
Simile is a figure of speech in which two dissimilar things are compared to each other using the terms
“like” or “as.”
 She’s as pretty as a picture.
 I’m pleased as punch.
 He’s strong like an ox.
 You are sly like a fox.
 I’m happy as a clam.
Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things without the use of the terms “like”
or “as.”
 He is a fish out of water.
 She is a star in the sky.
 My grandchildren are the flowers of my garden.
 That story is music to my ears.
 Your words are a broken record.
Euphemism
Euphemism is a figure of speech that refers to figurative language designed to replace words or phrases
that would otherwise be considered harsh, impolite, or unpleasant.
 Last night, Joe’s grandfather passed away (died).
 She was starting to feel over the hill (old).
 Young adults are curious about the birds and bees (sex).
 I need to powder my nose (go to the bathroom).
 Our company has decided to let you go (fire you).
Personification
Personification is a figure of speech that attributes human characteristics to something that is not
human.
 I heard the wind whistling.
 The water danced across my window.
 My dog is telling me to start dinner.

 The moon is smiling at me.
 Her alarm hummed in the background.
Writing Figure of Speech
As a literary device, figures of speech enhance the meaning of written and spoken words. In oral
communication, figures of speech can clarify, enhance description, and create interesting use of
language. In writing, when figures of speech are used effectively, these devices enhance the writer’s
ability for description and expression so that readers have a better understanding of what is being
conveyed.
It’s important that writers construct effective figures of speech so that the meaning is not lost for the
reader. In other words, simple rearrangement or juxtaposition of words is not effective in the way that
deliberate wording and phrasing are. For example, the hyperbole “I could eat a horse” is effective in
showing great hunger by using figurative language. If a writer tried the hyperbole “I could eat a barn
made of licorice,” the figurative language is ineffective and the meaning would be lost for most readers.
Here are some ways that writers benefit from incorporating figures of speech into their work:
Figure of Speech as Artistic Use of Language
Effective use of figures of speech is one of the greatest demonstrations of artistic use of language. Being
able to create poetic meaning, comparisons, and expressions with these literary devices is how writers
form art with words.
Figure of Speech as Entertainment for Reader
Effective figures of speech often elevate the entertainment value of a literary work for the reader. Many
figures of speech invoke humor or provide a sense of irony in ways that literal expressions do not. This
can create a greater sense of engagement for the reader when it comes to a literary work.
Figure of Speech as Memorable Experience for Reader
By using effective figures of speech to enhance description and meaning, writers make their works more
memorable for readers as an experience. Writers can often share a difficult truth or convey a particular
concept through figurative language so that the reader has a greater understanding of the material and
one that lasts in memory.
Examples of Figure of Speech in Literature
Works of literature feature innumerable figures of speech that are used as literary devices. These figures
of speech add meaning to literature and showcase the power and beauty of figurative language. Here
are some examples of figures of speech in well-known literary works:
Example 1: The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald)

In his blue gardens men and girls came and went like moths among the whisperings and the champagne
and the stars.
Fitzgerald makes use of simile here as a figure of speech to compare Gatsby’s party guests to moths. The
imagery used by Fitzgerald is one of delicacy and beauty, and creates an ephemeral atmosphere.
However, the likening of Gatsby’s guests to moths also reinforces the idea that they are only attracted to
the sensation of the parties and that they will depart without having made any true impact or
connection. This simile, as a figure of speech, underscores the themes of superficiality and transience in
the novel.
Example 2: One Hundred Years of Solitude (Gabriel Garcia Marquez)
Both described at the same time how it was always March there and always Monday, and then they
understood that José Arcadio Buendía was not as crazy as the family said, but that he was the only one
who had enough lucidity to sense the truth of the fact that time also stumbled and had accidents and
could therefore splinter and leave an eternalized fragment in a room.
In this passage, Garcia Marquez utilizes personification as a figure of speech. Time is personified as an

entity that “stumbled” and “had accidents.” This is an effective use of figurative language in that this
personification of time indicates a level of human frailty that is rarely associated with something so
measured. In addition, this is effective in the novel as a figure of speech because time has a great deal of
influence on the plot and characters of the story. Personified in this way, the meaning of time in the
novel is enhanced to the point that it is a character in and of itself.
Example 3: Fahrenheit 451 (Ray Bradbury)
A book is a loaded gun in the house next door…Who knows who might be the target of the well-read
man?
In this passage, Bradbury utilizes metaphor as a figure of speech to compare a book to a loaded gun.
This is an effective literary device for this novel because, in the story, books are considered weapons of
free thought and possession of them is illegal. Of course, Bradbury is only stating that a book is a loaded
gun as a means of figurative, not literal meaning. This metaphor is particularly powerful because the
comparison is so unlikely; books are generally not considered to be dangerous weapons. However, the
comparison does have a level of logic in the context of the story in which the pursuit of knowledge is
weaponized and criminalized.

The Eight Parts of Speech

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The Eight Parts of Speech

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THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

man... Butte College... house... happiness

See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.

 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

She... we... they... it

See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.

 A verb expresses action or being.

See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.

 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.

pretty... old... blue... smart

See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.

 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

gently... extremely... carefully... well

See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.

by... with.... about... until

See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.

 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.

and... but... or... while... because

See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.

 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.

Oh!... Wow!... Oops!

An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.

Nouns have these characteristics:

 They are proper or common.

 Most are singular or plural, but...

 Some are collective.

In English, nouns are often preceded by noun markers--the articles/adjectives a, an, the, or some for

my former roommate

Because of their noun markers, you could safely guess that roommate, day, evaluation and angst are

Remedy is marked as a noun by the noun marker a. Angst is preceded by the noun

Every noun is either abstract or concrete.

Every noun is either proper or common.

Proper noun (capitalized) common

Sierra Nevada Crystal

are our local soccer and

Bidwell Park is one of the largest municipal parks.

Lundberg Family Farm is a sustainable, organic farm.

Most nouns are either singular or plural...

...but some nouns are collective.

The jury were unable to come to any consensus.

If the jury had reached a unanimous decision, we would have said:

The jury was unanimous in its verdict.

First person Second person Third person

Subjective Objective Subjective Objective Subjective Objective

Indefinite pronouns, singular

anyone anybody anything either each

no one nobody nothing another one

someone somebody something any

everyone everybody everything

On the other hand, some indefinite pronouns are plural:

both few many several

Indefinite pronouns, singular or plural

most any all none some neither

my our your his, her its their whose

mine ours yours his, hers theirs

yourself himself, herself, itself

A reflexive pronoun cannot replace the subject of a sentence, such as in "Burcu and myself are taking

that who whoever whose