CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 1

CHAPTER

1
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
SOUTHEAST ASIA
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 2

Lying east of India and south of China, Southeast Asia juts out from the rest of the Asian
continent and then fragments into a jumble of islands that straddle the Equator. Two peninsulas
form the mainland—the bulbous Indochina Peninsula and the narrow Malay Peninsula, which
extends southward from the other like a long, gnarled finger. Millions of years ago, tectonic
plates collided to form parallel mountain ranges that span the mainland from north to south.
Great rivers, such as the Irrawaddy, Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Red, course through the valleys
between these ranges and create fertile deltas where they meet the sea.
Most of the region’s islands are mountainous, too, but their peaks were spawned by
ancient volcanic eruptions. Active volcanoes remain a threat on these islands, which lie along
the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Rain forests cover parts of Southeast Asia. Watered by monsoon rains, these forests—
valued for their timber and wildlife—are decreasing because of extensive logging.
1. Peninsulas and Islands
When the Eurasian, Philippine, and Indo-Australian tectonic plates collided millions of
years ago, they formed the landmasses that are known today as Southeast Asia. The upheaval
formed cordilleras, or parallel mountain ranges and plateau that extend into the Indochina
Peninsula. Activity from related volcanoes and earthquakes created a series of archipelagos in
the South Pacific.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 3

Straddling the Equator, the peninsulas and islands of Southeast Asia combine
mountainous terrain with a predominantly tropical climate. The region stretches from the Asian
mainland almost to Australia and covers 1,570,000 square miles (4,066,300 sq. km). Two large
land areas, the Indochina Peninsula and the Malay Peninsula, make up mainland Southeast
Asia. South and east of this area lies the vast Malay Archipelago, sometimes called the East
Indies. The Malay Archipelago, containing 20,000 islands, stretches from the Indian Ocean to
the Pacific Ocean.
Mainland Southeast Asia
About half of Southeast Asia’s 11 countries are located on the mainland. The rest are
island countries, except for Malaysia, which is both a mainland and an island country. Laos is
the region’s only country without a coastline. The four mainland countries of Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, and Myanmar (formerly called Burma) lie entirely on the Indochina Peninsula.
Most of Thailand also is located there, but part of that country trails southward to the Malay
Peninsula. Malaysia shares the Malay Peninsula with Thailand, while the rest of Malaysia is
located on Borneo, an island east of the Malay Peninsula.
Island Southeast Asia
The insular, or island, countries of Southeast Asia include Brunei, East Timor, Indonesia,
Singapore, and the Philippines. Brunei, almost surrounded by Malaysia, is a small country on
the northern coast of Borneo. Indonesia is the largest island countryin the region. Its 13,677
islands span 3,000 miles (4,827 km) and two oceans, the Indian and the Pacific. Only about
6,000 islands are named, and fewer than 1,000 are permanently settled. East Timor, formerly a
part of Indonesia, voted to become independent in 1999. Two years later, East Timorese held
elections for a new national assembly.
The country of Singapore, a collection of one large island and more than 50 smaller ones,
sits just off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. The country’s capital is on the large island,
and both the island and the capital city are called Singapore. The size of the islands varies
greatly. The total area of the island of Singapore is 221 square miles (572 sq. km), and the total
area of all the other islands is about 18 square miles (47 sq. km). Half of those islands are
uninhabited.
Although more than 7,000 islands make up the Philippines, only around 900 are settled,
and 11 islands account for over 95 percent of the country’s area. As in Indonesia and Singapore,
many of the Philippine islands have not been named.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 4
Southeast Asia Country Profiles (1)
GDP (PPP)
Population Density GDP (nominal),
State Capital Area (km2) per capita,
(2020) (/km2) USD (2020)
Int$ (2020)

Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan 5,765 437,479 74 12,455,000,000 $85,011

Cambodia Phnom Penh 181,035 16,718,965 90 26,730,000,000 $5,044

East Timor*** Dili 14,874 1,267,974 85 2,938,000,000 $5,321

Indonesia Jakarta 1,904,569 267,670,543 141 1,111,713,000,000 $14,841

Laos Vientiane 236,800 7,061,507 30 19,127,000,000 $8,684

Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 329,847 31,528,033 96 365,303,000,000 $34,567

Myanmar Nay Pyi Taw 676,578 53,708,320 79 65,994,000,000 $7,220

Philippines Manila 300,000 106,651,394 356 356,814,000,000 $10,094

Singapore Singapore 719.2 5,757,499 8,005 362,818,000,000 $105,689

Thailand Bangkok 513,120 69,428,453 135 529,177,000,000 $21,361

Vietnam Hanoi 331,210 95,545,962 288 261,637,000,000 $8,677

 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 5
Southeast Asia Country Profiles (2)
Country &
Flag & Language Major Export Major Import Currency Government
Capital

Constitutional
Crude oil Machinery Brunei dollar
Monarchy
Malay, English, Chinese

Construction Constitutional
Timber Riel
materials Monarchy
Khmer, French

Manufactured
Coconut products US dollar Republic
goods
Tetun, Javanese, Portugese

Manufactured
Crude oil Rupiah Republic
goods
Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese

Wood products Machinery Kip Communist State

Lao, French
Constitutional
Electronic equipment Machinery Ringgit
Monarchy
Malay, English, Chinese

Beans Machinery Kyat Republic

Burmese, local languages

Electronic equipment Raw materials Philippine peso Republic

Tagalog, English

Computer equipment Aircraft Singapore dollar Republic

 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 6
Country &
Flag & Language Major Export Major Import Currency Government
Capital
Chinese, Malay, Tamil,
English

Constitutional
Manufactured goods Machinery Baht
Monarchy
Thai, local languages

Crude oil Machinery Dong Communist State

Vietnamese, local languages
Country map of ASEAN
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 7

2. Physical Features
Read to find out:
 How did tectonic plate movement, volcanic activity, and earthquakes form
Southeast Asia?
 Why are the region’s waterways important to its peoples?
 How do rich natural resources affect Southeast Asia’s economy?
Cordilleras loom above fertile fields. Rivers create transportation routes through lush
vegetation. Majestic volcanoes add to the scenery. These physical features create Southeast
Asia’s colorful and varied landscapes.
Mountains
Mountains dominate Southeast Asian landscapes,
although most peaks crest below 10,000 feet (3,048 m).
Throughout the region these mountains create geographic
and political boundaries. The Indochina Peninsula’s
western and northern highlands separate the region from
India and China. To the south and east, three cordilleras
run mainly north to south, forming natural barriers
between and within mainland Southeast Asian countries.
These parallel mountain ranges include the Arakan Yoma
Range in western Myanmar; the Bilauktaung Range, which runs along the border between
Myanmar and Thailand; and the Annam Cordillera, the mountain range that separates Vietnam
from Laos and Cambodia. Viet Nam’s principal physiographic features are the Annamese
Cordillera (French: Chaîne Annamitique; Vietnamese: Nui Truong Son), extending generally
from northwest to south east in central Viet Nam and dominating the interior, and two
extensive alluvial deltas formed by the Red (Hong) River in the north and the Mekong (Cuu
Long) River in the south. Between these two deltas
is a long, relatively narrow coastal plain.
Mountains on Southeast Asia’s islands form
part of the Ring of Fire, an area of volcanic and
earthquake activity roughly surrounding the
Pacific Ocean. These mountains are actually
volcanoes, many of which are still active. Some
islands of Indonesia and the Philippines are
marked with craters formed by these volcanoes.

Wild animals in Annam Cordillera Mineral-rich volcanic material that has broken
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 8

down over the centuries has left rich, fertile soil, making Southeast Asia’s islands highly
productive agricultural areas.
Rivers
Southeast Asia’s people rely on waterways for transportation, communication, and food.
The rivers’ silt and deposits of sediment also create fertile agricultural regions. Mainland rivers
originate in the northern highlands of Southeast Asia and in southern China. Most of these
rivers flow southward toward the Gulf of Thailand.
Major mainland rivers include the Irrawaddy in Myanmar, the Chao Phraya in Thailand,
and the Red (Hong) in Vietnam.
Generally shorter than their mainland counterparts, rivers on Southeast Asia’s islands
flow in various directions. Most rivers in Indonesia run south to north, cutting vertically across
the narrow islands. Borneo’s rivers tend to start near the island’s center, running outward
toward the sea like spokes on a wheel.

Can you find?

 Indochina Peninsula Malay Peninsula
 Annam Cordillera Irrawaddy River
 Chao Phraya River Red River
 Mekong River
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 9

Red River
The waters of the Red
The Red River rises in mountains south of Dali in China’s Yunnan Province, and then
descends 1,149 KM through Viet Nam to exit into the Gulf of Tonkin. The river flows past
Hanoi’s capital, Hanoi. Rainfall is uneven across the basin and ranges from 700 to 4,200 mm
a year, about 80% of which falls between May and October. Average annual discharge from
the river is about 136 KM³, the equivalent of some 54 million Olympic swimming pools. 61%
of this water is derived from Viet Nam. Flooding is a significant issue on the Red River. In the
Delta, the average altitude is 3-5 meters lower than maximum flood levels. As a consequence,
much hydraulic infrastructure in the basin is devoted, in whole or in part, to flood control.
Conversely, infrastructure can also cause flooding downstream. Viet Nam regularly complains
of unannounced dam releases from Chinese hydropower dams.
A development river
The Red River is heavily developed. In China, there are 41 hydropower dams in China,
2 multi-purpose dams and 25 irrigation dams in the Red River Basin; in Viet Nam, there are
25 hydropower dams, 3 multi-purpose dams, and 9 irrigation dams. There are some immense
reservoirs in the Basin. The Ban Chat reservoir in Viet Nam stores some 2.1 billion m3 of water,
the Tha Bac stores almost 2.5 billion m³, while the Tuyên Bac stores about 2.3 billion m³.
A breadbasket
The Red River’s delta covers
almost 120 km², and produces nearly a
third of Viet Nam’s rice. 47% of the Delta
is devoted to agricultural production. In
Viet Nam, the river is heavily exploited
for agriculture, with extensive irrigation
throughout – 10,800 KM of irrigation
canals, 9,300 KM of drainage canals, 3,
828 irrigation sluices, and 4,300 drainage sluices (for both river and sea).
A dirty river
High population densities and
under-regulated industry cause
considerable pollution challenges. In Viet
Nam, two primary pollution indicators,
Ammonia-nitrogen and Biochemical
Oxygen Demand exceed national water
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 10

quality standards by several fold. The problems are worst during the dry season, when river
flows are low.
Mekong river
The Mekong has many names
In China, it is known as the Lancang Jiang, meaning ‘turbulent river’. The Thai and the
Lao refer to it as Mae Kong or Mae Nam Kong, meaning ‘mother water’. In the delta, where
the river splits into multiple branches, the Vietnamese refer to it as Cuu Long, meaning ‘nine
dragons’.
The Mekong is usually
considered the world’s 12th longest
river at 4,350 km. But other researchers
claim it is longer (4,909 km) which
would make it the eighth longest river in
the world. The Mekong rises in the
Himalayas in China, in an area called the
‘three rivers area’. The other two rivers
that rise here are the Yangtze (6,300 km)
and Yellow (5,464 km) rivers. In terms of discharge, the Mekong is the 14th largest river in the
world. It discharges 475 km³ of water into the South China Sea every year – that’s about 25
billion swimming pools. The Lao Peoples’ Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) contributes some
35% of this water, followed by Thailand and Cambodia (18% each), China (16%), Viet Nam
(11%) and Myanmar (2%).
Irrawaddy river
The Irrawaddy is the biggest river in Myanmar, into which most of the river’s basin
falls. Here, it is known as the Ayeyarwady. The river itself is often regarded as only starting at
the confluence of two of its major tributaries, the N’Mai and the Mali Rivers, which converge
in southern Kachin State. Nevertheless, these two rivers are part of the Irrawaddy’s basin. The
N’Mai rises in the eastern glaciers of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, while the Mali
rises in Kachin’s northern mountains. Other important tributaries are the Shweli, which rises
in China’s Western Yunnan Province, and where it is known as the Long Jiang; and the
Chindwin River, the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy.
A river of development
The Irrawaddy is Myanmar’s most economically important river. Many of its largest
urban areas – including Yangon – fall within its basin. The total population in the basin was
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 11

estimated at 39.5 million people in 2015, with about 1.9 million in Yunnan, 2.8 million in India
and 35 million in Myanmar– making up about 66% of that country’s total population.
The Irrawaddy has a large hydropower potential, and Myanmar’s soaring electricity
demand has focused on developing this. Currently, there are a total of 41 hydropower dams in
the basin, mostly concentrated in China (35). The Irrawaddy’s irrigation potential has also been
heavily developed – in Myanmar, there are some 115 irrigation dams with a reservoir surface
are of 0.5 km² and above.
The Irrawaddy Delta is a zone of intensive economic activity. Some 60% of Myanmar’s
rice harvest comes from the four states that share the Delta. Fisheries constitute an important
source of livelihoods in the Basin. Little is known, however, about the magnitude of fish
landings.
The Irrawaddy River or the Ayeyarwady River is the longest river in Myanmar with the
origin from the Kachin River. The Chindwin River is one of five tributaries of the Ayeyarwady
River. On the banks of the Irrawaddy River, there are different cultures existing among the
people. For example, the Kachin dominate on the upper reaches while in the middle and lower
basin, the majority are the Burmese. In the delta to the south, in addition to the Burmese, there
is also a significant number of Karen and some Indians. Along the river’s drainage basin
scatters a small number of Chinese.
Chao Phraya River

The Chao Phraya River is located in the country of Thailand and empties into the Bay of
Bangkok. The Chao Phraya basin is the most important river basin in
Thailand www.unesco.org/water/wwap/case_studies/chao_phraya/index.shtml. The Basin
covers 30% of Thailand's land area, is home to 40% of the country's population, employs 78%
of its work force, and generates 66% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The total population
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 12

of the Chao Phraya basin was 23.0 million inhabitants in 1996. The headwaters of the Chao
Phraya river originate in mountainous terrain in the northern part of the country and consist of
four large tributaries, the Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan rivers. The drainage basin comprises some
992,000 sq km in area and has a relatively low relief (average 176 m). The elevation of the
basin, however, is quite high, averaging 1,033 m in elevation. Drainage density (0.19 km
stream length per 500 sq km) is quite low for such a large basin. Over 90% of the area of the
basin is either used for agriculture or covered with forest, with the proportions of these land
uses being roughly equal.

3. Natural Resources
In addition to the remarkable features found in the landscape, Southeast Asia also has
rich natural resources. Fossil fuels, natural steam, minerals, and gems can be found in the region.
The flora and fauna, or plants and animals, of Southeast Asia are among the most diverse on
the earth and a valuable natural resource of the region.
Energy Sources
The region has a plentiful supply of fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas. Malaysia’s
second major export is petroleum, and the country’s production of oil and natural gas has
increased since the 1970s. Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines mine coal, and Vietnam
also has rich oil reserves offshore. Oil and natural gas deposits off Borneo’s northern coast
have made the sultan, or ruler, of Brunei one of the world’s richest people. Indonesia also has
large petroleum reserves. The island of Sumatra supplies two-thirds of Indonesia’s oil, and oil
and gas are the country’s main exports. One of the leading producers of oil in the Far East,
Indonesia is a member of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).
Minerals and Gems
Southeast Asia has an abundance of minerals. Indonesia mines nickel and iron, and the
Philippines mines copper. Thailand, Laos, Indonesia, and Malaysia mine tin. Indonesia and
Malaysia are among the world’s leading producers of tin.
Gems also are plentiful in the region. Sapphires and rubies can be found in Myanmar,
Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In the Philippines, pearls are harvested in the province of
Sulu and on the island of Palawan. A giant pearl found off Palawan in 1934 weighed about 14
pounds (6.4 kg), making it the largest natural pearl ever harvested. Although most countries
take advantage of the wealth provided by nature, some countries’ resources remain
underdeveloped. Myanmar, for example, has substantial deposits of tin, zinc, and other
minerals, as well as jade, rubies, and sapphires, but mining employs less than 1 percent of
Myanmar’s workers.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 13

Flora and Fauna

Southeast Asia’s plant life is exotic and diverse. The region boasts the world’s largest
flower, the Rafflesia arnoldii, a spectacular plant with a blossom three feet wide. Southeast
Asian flora, however, is more than just beautiful—it also contributes to the region’s economy.

Rafflesia arnoldii Komodo dragon

For example, Thailand cultivates over 1,000 species of orchids, a valuable trade commodity.
Workers tap rubber trees from Malaysia and process woods for export such as mahogany from
the Philippines and teak from Myanmar. Indonesia is the world’s largest supplier of plywood.
Like the region’s flora, Southeast Asian fauna is varied and distinctive. Elephants, tigers,
rhinoceroses, and orangutans roam the region’s wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.
Southeast Asia is home to animals found nowhere else in the world, including Borneo’s
bearded pig, the Malaysian lacewing butterfly, and the Komodo dragon, an Indonesian native
and the world’s largest lizard.
Fishing
More than 2,500 species of fish swim the tropical waters of Southeast Asia. Fish thrive
in the mainland rivers and in seas near the Philippines, Indonesia, and Myanmar. Fish farming
is an important part of the region’s economy. Southeast Asians consume seafood at almost
twice the world’s average rate. The region’s fishers, who have traditionally maintained small
operations, now compete with large fleets of trawlers. This competition has produced an
increased fish yield that helps meet demand, and so overfishing is a concern. Luckily, demand
for exported seafood has started to level off, which may ease the pressure to fish excessively.
4. Climate and Vegetation
The rain forests of Southeast Asia owe much of their ancient beauty to an equally ancient
climate pattern—monsoons, or seasonal winds that blow over the northern part of the Indian
Ocean and the land nearby. In summer, moist monsoons blow in from the cooler sea in the
south and west toward the warmer land and bring abundant rain, enough to support the region’s
tropical rain forests. The ample rain falls on lush tropical plants whose exotic flowers perfume
the air. In winter, air over the land is cooler than that over the sea, so the wind blows out to sea
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 14

from the northeast as a dry monsoon. The rain forests themselves are aptly named. They are
generally wet all year long.
Tropical Climate Regions
Tropical rain forest climate dominates Southeast Asia. Parts of the mainland and some
of the islands have a tropical savanna or humid subtropical climate. These climate regions are
characterized by grasslands and tropical forests that support a diverse ecosystem.
Tropical Rain Forest Climate
Most of the region, including the islands and coastal areas, has a tropical rain forest
climate. This climate is characterized by little variation in temperature and mostly wet
conditions almost year-round. The 79°F (26°C) average daily temperature creates hot, humid,
and rainy conditions. Rainfall averages between 79 and 188 inches (201 and 478 cm) per year,
and the humidity hovers between 80 and 90 percent.
The tropical rain forest climate supports a diverse ecosystem. More than 145,000 species
of flowering plants blossom in Malaysia alone. The Malaysian rain forest, where vegetation
types mix, may be the region’s oldest forest, dating back many millions of years. Here there
are several layers of vegetation between river valleys and higher elevations. Peat swamp forests
thrive in the river valleys. Sandy coastal soil supports various shrubs, and mangrove swamp
forests cover the tidal mud flats. Lowland areas with poor or shallow soil support forests of tall
trees with leathery, evergreen leaves. Some of these trees produce aromatic resins, or organic
compounds. Such resins are used to make medicines and varnishes, or chemicals that protect
wood from water damage.
Tropical Savanna Climate
The second most prominent climate zone, the tropical savanna, sweeps southeastward
across the Indochina Peninsula and along the southeastern parts of Indonesia. Unlike the steady,
wet climate of the tropical rain forest, alternate wet and dry seasons characterize this climate,
which supports tropical grasslands with scattered trees and some forests. On the Indochina
Peninsula, the dry season may last from four to eight months each year.
On the mainland from around May through September, summer monsoon winds bring
rain. The winter dry season extends from October to April. The first few months of this period
are generally cooler, but the last few months become hot. In southern Indonesia, south of the
Equator, the wet and dry cycles are reversed. From May to September, South Pacific
tradewinds bring the hot, dry season. From October to April, the monsoons bring rain.
Humid Subtropical Climate
Parts of Southeast Asia’s mainland, including most of Laos, a small part of Thailand, and
northern Myanmar and Vietnam, have a humid subtropical climate. The northern reaches of
Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam provide relief from the hot, humid temperatures. From November
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 15

to April, the cool, dry temperatures there average around 61°F (16°C). In Myanmar the elevated
Shan Plateau has lower temperatures than the rest of the country. The cli- mate there resembles
cooler climates elsewhere, and the plateau is sometimes called “tropical Scotland.”
Highlands Climate
In mountainous areas of Myanmar, New Guinea, and Borneo, highlands climates
predominate. The much cooler temperatures of these areas set them apart from surrounding cli-
mate regions. Deciduous forests with moss-covered tree trunks are found on lower slopes.
Deciduous trees are broad-leafed and lose their leaves in autumn. Evergreen forests appear at
higher elevations. In Myanmar’s highlands climate, forests of rhododendrons grow.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 16

Summary of Key Points

 Southeast Asia’s mountains were formed when the Indo-Australian, Philippine, and
Eurasian tectonic plates collided.
 Straddling the
Equator, Southeast Asia
includes the Indochina and
Malay Peninsulas as well as
the 20,000 islands of the
Malay Archipelago.
 About half of
Southeast Asia’s 11
countries are located on the
mainland. The rest are
island countries, except for
Malaysia, which is both a
mainland and an island
country.
 Mountains and
rivers dominate the region’s
landscape. The island
mountains are part of the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
 Rivers on the mainland of Southeast Asia are important for agriculture,
communication, and transportation.
 Southeast Asia contains abundant natural resources, including fossil fuels, natural
steam, minerals, and gems. Monsoons cause two main seasons in Southeast Asia, one wet and
one dry.
 Southeast Asia’s major climate is tropical rain forest, although parts of the
mainland and some of the islands have other types of climate.
 Humid subtropical climates predominate in Laos and in northern areas of Myanmar,
Thailand, and Vietnam.
 Highland climates are found in the mountains of Myanmar, Borneo, and New
Guinea.
 Southeast Asia’s lush vegetation is characteristic of tropical rain forest and tropical
savanna climate regions.