Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530

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Construction and Building Materials

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Mechanical and dynamic properties of self-compacting crumb rubber

modified concrete
Khalid B. Najim ⇑, Matthew R. Hall
Nottingham Centre for Geomechanics, Division of Materials, Mechanics and Structures, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, the mechanical and dynamic properties of Self-Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SCRC)
Received 28 February 2011 were experimentally investigated. Crumb rubber from scrap tyres was used as a partial replacement
Received in revised form 24 June 2011 for Fine Aggregate (FA), Coarse Aggregate (CA) and combined Fine and Coarse Aggregate (FCA) at 5, 10,
Accepted 18 July 2011
and 15 wt% proportions. Incorporating rubber aggregates generally has a detrimental effect on the
Available online 23 August 2011
mechanical strength, but gives improved strain capacity resulting in significant reductions in the flexural
Crack Mouth Open Displacement (CMOD), compared to the reference mix. Structural grade SCRC
Keywords:
(fc > 17 MPa; q > 2000 kg/m3) can be obtained with up to 260 kg/m3 (equivalent to 15 wt%) in all forms
Self-compacting concrete
Alternative aggregates
of crumb rubber aggregate substitution. The Dynamic Modulus and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity decreased
Crumb rubber as the proportion of rubber substitution was increased, however SCRC has superior vibration damping
Dynamic properties behaviour in all cases with up to 230% enhancement in damping ratio and damping coefficient for the
Vibration CR 15 wt% mix.
Mechanical properties Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ity) concrete with high flowability and low/medium strength

(<35 MPa), which is difficult to achieve using SCC [20,21] using
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is a sophisticated high perfor- alternative aggregates that are environmentally friendly (i.e.
mance concrete [1] described as the ‘‘most revolutionary step’’ in green-concrete). In infrastructure applications the range of
concrete technology over the last two decades due to its impact strength is usually between 28 and 35 MPa. In applications such
on economic and environmental sustainability in the construction as bridge barriers and road foundations, concrete with high defor-
industry [2]. It offers the advantages of increased productivity mation and high toughness is desirable while >35 MPa compres-
rates, decreased manpower, and elimination of the noise and fuel sive strength is not a requirement [22].
consumption associated with vibrator plant [3]. In comparison The dynamic properties of concrete include the dynamic modu-
with plain concrete, it has the ability to fully self-compact under lus (Ed), vibration damping coefficient, and natural resonant fre-
its own weight [4–9] and has high flowability and filling rates, re- quency. These are of importance in structural applications,
duced blocking in congested reinforced areas, and high segregation particularly with respect to vibration control and noise reduction.
resistance [10], as well as high durability, low permeability and Ed can provide a reliable guide to understand the dynamic response
high compressive strength [11–13]. behaviour of the material while damping is a material property
Recycling end-of-life vehicle tyres as alternative aggregates to characteristic of energy dissipation that can be identified in the
produce a new class concrete is an innovative option with environ- form of the decay of free vibration. Optimising these dynamic
mental, economic and performance benefits [14]. Using shredded properties can significantly improve structural reliability in terms
and/or crumb rubber particles as concrete aggregate replacement of natural hazards (e.g. earthquakes), accidental load, and hydro-
has been widely researched (summarised in a detailed review pa- static and wind loading, or explosive blasts and fragmentations
per [14]), and several recent studies explore the increase in com- [22,23]. To date there has been no comprehensive study of the
patibility of crumb rubber particles when used as a sand mechanical and dynamic properties of SCRC composites, and their
replacement in SCC mixes [14–20]. Due to the high powder content corresponding toughness behaviour, or how to optimise them in
of SCC its microstructure is very compacted and dense, which re- terms of aggregate type and level of replacement.
sults in high mechanical strength and brittle failure modes. There-
fore, Self-Compacting Rubberised Concrete (SCRC) composites 2. Materials, mix design and specimens
could be used for applications requiring deformable (high ductil-
CEM1 ‘high strength’ Portland cement (52.5 MPa) was used, along with natural
quartzite fine aggregate (G = 2.65, A = 1.1%) and coarse aggregate (G = 2.60,
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 (0) 115 846 7873; fax: +44 (0) 115 951 3159. A = 1.2%), both of which were sourced from Hope Valley, UK. Uniformly graded
E-mail address: [email protected] (K.B. Najim). and angular 2–6 mm crumb rubber aggregate was sourced from J. Allcock & Sons

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.07.013
522 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530

Nomenclature

FA fine aggregate d depth of the prism (mm)

CA coarse aggregate l length of the prism (mm)
CR coarse aggregate rubber replacement p maximum flexural load (N)
FR fine aggregate rubber replacement CMOD Crack Mouth Open Displacement (mm)
FCA fine and coarse aggregate In toughness index
FCR fine and coarse aggregate rubber replacement GD dynamic shear modulus (GPa)
Ed dynamic modulus of elasticity (GPa) v dynamic Poisson’s ratio
E Young’s modulus of elasticity (GPa) UPV Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (m/s)
Fmax load bearing capacity (MPa) 1 damping logarithmic decrement
dFmax strain capacity (mm) f damping ratio
fcu unconfined compressive strength (MPa)
b width of the prism (mm)

Ltd. in Manchester, UK, see Fig. 1. Aggregate particle-size distribution was deter- 3.1. Compressive strength
mined in accordance with BS 882:1992 [24] and is presented in Fig. 2. The chemical
composition of the crumb rubber is given in Table 1, and its physical properties are
summarised in Table 2. Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA) was sourced from Ratcliffe-on-
The correlation between unconfined compressive strength and
Soar power station and was used a pozzolanic cement additive. The chemical com- both type and amount of rubber aggregate replacement is shown
position of the PFA is given in Table 3, and this conforms with the requirements of in Fig. 3. The deterioration in compressive strength is similar to
BS EN450: 2005 [25] for use with cement, i.e. SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 > 70% and that indicated for Plain Rubberised Concrete (PRC) [14], which
SiO2 > 25%. The PFA pozzolanic reactivity was measured in accordance with ASTM
can logically be attributed to (i) the low modulus of elasticity (E)
C311-87a [26] as explained by Agarwal [27], where the accelerated pozzolanic
activity value was found to be 84% (must be greater than 75% [26,27]). ADVA Flow for rubber particles and high Poisson ratio (v) which may encour-
411 high range water-reducing admixture was used, which is based on a polycar- age premature cracking under load, (ii) increased porosity due to
boxylate polymer next-generation super plasticiser (SP). It has a unit weight of air entrainment from rubber particles [16,18–20], and (iii) weak
1.08 kg/l (1080 kg/m3), a freezing temperature of 0 °C, the maximum chloride con-
bonding in the interfacial transition zone between the cement
tent is <0.1 wt% and the maximum alkali content is 0.5 wt%.
The SCC reference mix was designed by modifying a Normal Vibrated Concrete
paste and rubber particles which could be due to crack initiation
(NVC) mix design based on the British method that has been explained in Neville from the voids that form between crumb rubber particles and ce-
[28] and using the mix guidelines given by the European Federation of National ment paste, as observed by Emiroglu et al. [35]. Therefore, under
Associations Representing producers and applicators of specialist building products compression loading the aggregates can be susceptible to pull-
for Concrete (EFNARC) [3]. Table 4 shows details of the NVC and reference SCC mix
out resulting in particle perimeter voids and crack initiation sites.
designs. The addition of PFA and SP were used in quantities of 30 wt% and 2.5 wt% of
cement, respectively, in order to achieve the 730 mm slump flow value and to meet/ The FCR replacement offered the best results, whereas in FR
exceed the other SCC requirements (e.g. segregation resistance, V-funnel, etc.), as replacement the reduction in mortar phase (and hence cohesion)
specified in EFNARC [3]. The experimental data for fresh SCRC properties, including reduced homogeneity and so had the biggest influence on strength
slump flow, segregation resistance and V-funnel tests, have been published else-
reduction. All of the concrete mixes met/exceeded the minimum
where [29]. The rubber aggregate was used to partially substitute Fine Aggregate
(FA), Coarse Aggregate (CA), and a 50/50 combination of the two (FCA) in propor-
strength for structural concrete, i.e. fc > 17 MPa [28], and mixes
tions of 5, 10, and 15 wt%. In order to produce homogenous mixes, all solid ingre- with 610 wt% crumb rubber replacement meet the target of 28–
dients were mixed together in a rotary mixer for three minutes. Afterwards, the 35 MPa compressive strength that is required for civil infrastruc-
mixing water gauged with the full SP quantity was added following the manufac- ture applications [22].
turer’s recommendations and mixed for a further three minutes. The mixes were al-
lowed to rest for two minutes prior to casting, which was done without the aid of
vibration or tamping. 3.2. Splitting tensile strength
All specimens for mechanical and dynamic properties were tested at 28-days
following water curing at 20 ± 2 °C. For compressive and splitting tensile strength,
100 mm cubic moulds were used based on BS 1881-116 [30], and BS 1881:117
All concrete typically has low tensile strength (10% of com-
[31] respectively and the average of three reading was taken. For flexural and dy- pressive strength) and a low strain capacity [36]. However, tensile
namic properties, a 500  100  100 mm prism mould was used and the test for strength is important in highway design, airfield slabs, and when
flexural strength, dynamic modulus of elasticity and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity were shear strength and crack resistance are a priority. The addition of
carried out in accordance with ASTM C 1018 [32], BS 1881: Part 209 [33] and BS
crumb rubber to SCC exacerbates these shortcomings as shown
1881-203 [34] respectively and the average of two reading was recorded.
in Fig. 4, where there is a general tendency towards tensile
strength reduction which may be attributed to the same reasons
3. Mechanical properties affecting compressive strength. The relationship between com-
pressive and splitting tensile strength is controlled by numerous
The mean of three tested values at 28 days was recorded to factors including aggregate type and particle size distribution, de-
determine the compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength, gree of air entrainment, and curing age [28] as well as powder and
for all mixtures. admixture(s) content and type.
As can be seen from Fig. 5 the tensile strength for NVC is greater
than for SCC and SCRC, even at the same compressive strengths.
This may occur because the dense microstructure in SCC mixes
leads to increased brittleness and thus decreases the splitting
strength. In SCC mixes, polycarboxylate SP causes enlargement in
the ettringite and calcium hydroxide crystals which generally
weakens the cement–aggregate bond, whilst high powder contents
can increase shrinkage resulting in micro-cracking within the ITZ
Fig. 1. Crumb rubber aggregate. [37–39]. However, there is a general positive correlation between
 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530 523

Fig. 2. Particle-size distribution of the aggregates used.

Table 1 of 5 wt% rubber replacement, but at 15 wt% the reduction was as

Chemical compositions of crumb rubber [53]. much as 39% in the case of CR replacement. The addition of rubber
Composition % by weight decreased the load bearing capacity (Fmax) due to the positive rela-
Natural rubber 23.1
tion between the strength and first peak response, whilst increasing
Synthetic rubber 17.9 the strain capacity dFmax (deflection corresponding to peak load) as
Carbon black 28 shown in Fig. 7. The maximum deflection, for example, increased
Steel 14.5 from 0.039 mm for the SCC reference mix to 0.051 mm for the
Ash content% 5.1
SCFR10% mix which corresponds to maximum loads of 16.78 and
Fabric, fillers, accelerators, etc. 16.5
14.89 MPa, respectively (see Table 5). The reduction in Modulus of
Rupture can be explained by the same properties affecting strength,
Table 2 and in addition, crack initiation may take place before the maximum
Physical properties of crumb rubber. load is applied since micro crack form when the post-peak zone is
Property Value
reached and propagates after exceeding this stage [41]. Therefore,
rubber particles may work to delay the formation of micro cracks
Specific gravitya 1.12
Apparent densitya 489 kg/m3
by stress relaxation. Consequently, crumb rubber modification ap-
Thermal conductivitya 0.11 W/k m pears to offer measurable improvements to pre-micro crack strain
Tensile resistanceb 4.2–15 MPa capacity and so would most likely reduce shrinkage cracking in a
Speed of combustionb Very low similarly beneficial manner [16,19].
Water absorptionb 0.65 (negligible)
Sunlight effectb Nil
Weak acids/bases effectb Nil 3.4. Flexural stiffness
a
Measured by the authors.
b
[54]. The flexural stiffness, K was calculated as the linear part of the
load–deflection curve between 50% and 10% of the maximum load,
compressive and splitting tensile strength for both SCC and SCRC. defined elsewhere as DF/Dd [19]. It has been determined here, as
Splitting tensile strength of SCRC can be predicted using the for- defined above, and before the first crack point initiation which cor-
mula 0.0535(fcu) + 1886, where Fig. 6 shows the real and predicted responds to the point at which the load–deflection curve becomes
values. non-linear [32], as shown in Fig. 8. There is a general decline in K
with increased rubber content, as shown by Fig. 9.
3.3. Flexural strength
3.5. Flexural toughness
Four point flexural strength testing was conducted to determine
the Modulus of Rupture using the equation PL/bd2. From Fig. 4 it can The flexural toughness indices (I5, I10, and I20) were determined
be seen that flexural strength decreases by less than 11% for all types in accordance with ASTM C 1018 [32] see Fig. 8. Few researchers
524 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530

Table 3
Chemical compositions of PFA.

Components SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O SO3 P2O5 LOI (950 °C)
PFA (wt%) 49.81 0.96 23.05 7.13 0.12 2.14 4.90 0.84 2.27 1.57 0.92 4.09

Table 4
Details of NVC and SCC mix designs.

Cement Sand Gravel Water PFA SP Slump/flow T50 (s) J-ring flow V-funnel (s) Seg. (%) fcu (MPa)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (mm) (mm)
NVC 363 670 1092 174 – – 65 – – – – 58
SCC 363 881 881 174 109 9.075 730 3 700 4.9 6.8 54

Fig. 3. The effect of rubber content on the compressive strength.

Fig. 5. The relationship between compressive and splitting tensile strength (data of
SCC and NVC taken from [37]).

Fig. 4. The effect of rubber content on the splitting tensile and flexural strength.

Fig. 6. The relationship between compressive and both actual and predicted
have studied the flexural toughness of rubber-modified concrete splitting tensile strength.
[16,19], and to date none have investigated the behaviour of SCRC.
It is defined as the post-crack energy absorption capacity of a
material. It represents the calculated area under the flexural stress relaxation at the rubber–cement interface thus restricting
load–deflection curve up to critical deflections, specified in ASTM crack mouth opening.
C 1018 as d, 3d, 5.5d, and 10.5d, where d represents the first crack From a serviceability point of view, the crack width should not
deflection or the elastic limit [40]. These values are used to calcu- exceed 0.35 mm for interior members, 0.25 mm for exterior mem-
late the toughness index I5, I10, and I20, as illustrated by Fig. 8. Ta- ber under normal exposure conditions, and 0.15 mm for external
ble 5 shows that there is a general tendency for crumb rubber members exposed to aggressive environments in structural con-
aggregate replacement to significantly increase all toughness indi- crete [28]. Therefore, not only is deflection against load important,
ces in all cases. The best results for all toughness indices were for but also the Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) needs to
5 wt% FR replacement where the increase was 76% (I5), 102% (I10), be quantified and understood. For this study, a Digital Image Cor-
and 118% (I20), due to significant enhancements in strain capacity relation system Q-400 (DIC camera) and ISTRA 4D software were
and energy absorption. As discussed earlier, this could result from employed during the flexural test to measure the CMOD whilst
 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530 525

Fig. 7. Load–deflection relationship for all tested mixes.

Table 5
The maximum load, deflection and flexural toughness indices of SCRC.

SCC SCRC (FR) SCRC (FR) SCRC (FR) SCRC (CR) SCRC (CR) SCRC (CR) SCRC (FCR) SCRC (FCR) SCRC (FCR)
ref. 5% 10% 15% 5% 10% 15% 5% 10% 15%
Fmax (KN) 16.78 14.27 14.89 10.98 15.88 12.41 10.28 15.06 12.45 12.26
dmax (mm) 0.039 0.047 0.051 0.050 0.048 0.037 0.044 0.040 0.038 0.047
I5 3.3 5.08 3.86 4.41 2.92 3.91 4.66 2.71 3.47 4.00
I10 3.79 7.68 5.38 6.59 3.46 5.53 7.23 3.38 4.82 5.75
I20 4.26 9.28 6.53 8.63 3.78 6.73 8.83 3.93 5.71 7.50

Fig. 9. The effect of rubber content on the stiffness.

CMOD is illustrated in Fig. 12, where it can be seen that the

replacement type (FR, CR, or FCR) and the corresponding deflection
affects it significantly. The CMOD can therefore be predicted when
the deflection is known, which is vital if SCRC is to be used in cast-
ing structural members especially when durability is a priority.
Fig. 8. Methodology for calculating flexural stiffness and toughness index (adopted
from ASTM C 1018 & ACI committee 544 guidelines) [40].
4. Dynamic properties

the load was applied, and the position of the cameras is shown in With regard to dynamic properties, the dynamic modulus of
Fig. 10. Fig. 11 shows that there is a general improvement (de- elasticity Ed and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) were measured
crease) in CMOD with increasing wt% rubber replacement at the according to BS 1881-203 1986 [34] using a CNS Farnell PUNDIT
same level of loading. The relationship between deflection and Plus instrument. The damping constant, Q (quality factor), and
526 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530

Modulus of Rigidity (i.e. shear modulus), GD, were determined

using the resonant frequency tester ERUDIT, based on BS1881-5:
1970 [42], as explained in the ERUDIT technical manual [43]. In
addition, the dynamic Poisson ratio, v, was determined by calcula-
Ed
tion using the term v ¼ 2G D
 1 [23].

4.1. Dynamic modulus of elasticity and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)

There is a general but non-precise correlation between modulus

of elasticity, E, and compressive strength in concrete [28]. It is also
well known that aggregate type and volumetric proportion are
highly influential on strength and E. However, Ed is determined using
a non-destructive test with zero applied stress and hence there is
neither micro crack formation nor creep during the test. In conse-
quence, it appears higher than the static modulus of elasticity (se-
cant) and it is almost equal to initial tangent modulus of elasticity,
therefore Ed is significantly influenced by aggregate type and quan-
Fig. 10. DIC camera position in four point flexural test. tity. In this study, Ed was found to decrease systematically with wt%

Fig. 11. The relationship between the load and CMOD.

Fig. 12. The relationship between the deflection and CMOD.

 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530 527

rubber replacement, as shown in Fig. 13. This is understandable in the rubber-modified concrete higher showing close agreement
since the addition of crumb rubber causes significant air entrain- with another study using PRC [22].
ment, and the rubber aggregates have a low E [22,44,45]. The highest It is clear that UPV and Ed, as defined by Khaloo et al. [46], de-
reduction in Ed occurred for CR replacement followed by FCR and FR creases with wt% rubber substitution in Plain Rubberised Concrete
replacement. Fig. 14 shows the relationship between Ed and com- (PRC), as highlighted by Najim and Hall [14]. Fig. 15 shows that the
pressive strength for SCRC and NVC, where Ed is significantly lower UPV reduction in SCRC is highest in CR replacement, followed by
FCR and FR. This can be mainly attributed to significant absorption
of acoustic vibration by the rubber particles compared to mineral
aggregates (found to be 21 times lower than hardened cement
paste [44]), as well as the increase in bulk porosity as a result of
air entrainment. Generally, the UPV was found to reduce in parallel
with both compressive strength and Ed, as shown by Fig. 16. Previ-
ous studies [47,48] developed generic criteria to assess the quality
of rubber-modified concrete, in relation to the UPV value, against
which all of the SCRC mixes tested in this study are classified as
‘good’ (i.e. UPV > 3.660 km/s).

4.2. Dynamic shear modulus (Modulus of Rigidity) GD and Dynamic

Poisson ratio v

GD was determined by calculating the flexural fundamental

resonant frequency, the value of which is highly dependent upon
concrete density and strength as well as aggregate type (see
Fig. 13. The effect of rubber content on Ed. Figs. 17–19). GD declines sharply with wt% rubber substitution in
a semi-uniform relationship. Experimental data for the dry density
values used here have been presented elsewhere [29].
Fig. 20 demonstrates that v is highly dependent upon wt% rub-
ber substitution and type (FR, CR, or FCR). As with other dynamic
properties, the largest change in v occurred with CR replacement
followed by FCR, and with only a minimal change in FR. Clearly
coarse aggregate rubber substitution is the most important factor.
This correlates with an increase in aggregate specific surface area
which places a requirement on the mix design to have sufficient
mortar to encapsulate the remaining coarse particles.

4.3. Vibration damping capacity

Damping can be defined as a phenomena resulting in distur-

bance and loss of vibration energy due to inelasticity within the
transferring body. During acoustic wave propagation through a
rigid body, friction is generated at crack interfaces and other
Fig. 14. The relationship between Ed and compressive strength for NVC⁄ and imperfections resulting in partial loss of energy. The amount of
SCRC (⁄ data taken from [52]). damping refers to the material quality, where it has been found

Fig. 15. The effect of rubber content on UPV.

528 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530

Fig. 19. The effect of compressive strength on GD.

Fig. 16. The relationship between UPV and compressive strength for NVC⁄ and
SCRC (⁄ data taken from [52]).

Fig. 20. The effect of rubber content on Dynamic Poisson’s ratio.

Fig. 17. The effect of rubber content on GD.

Q ¼ n0 =n1  n2 ð1Þ

where n0 is the resonant frequency (Hz), n1 and n2 are the frequen-

cies on each resonant side when the amplitude of vibration is 0.707
times the maximum amplitude. The damping capacity can be as-
sessed by the damping coefficient, 1, which is calculated using the
following formula [22,50]:

1 A0
1 ¼  ln ð2Þ
n An
where A0 is initial amplitude and An is amplitude after n number of
cycles. Logarithmic decrement can also be calculated from the funda-
mental resonant frequency and the frequencies on each side, when
the vibration amplitude is 0.707 times the maximum amplitude. It
is related to Q by the expression 1 = p/Q. The damping ratio f can be
calculated using the term f = 1/2p [22,23,49,50]. In general, a low
Q-value means higher vibration damping which, in concrete, is
Fig. 18. The effect of concrete density on GD. mainly affected by the presence of cement paste air voids, particu-
larly if water-filled [51], although in addition the contrast in E for
the rubber and cement paste, and the poor ITZ between them, may
that damping is greater for low strength concrete than high also play a role. Previous research has also shown that the type of
strength such that damping has a positive correlation with ductil- coarse aggregate has greater influence upon damping than Ed, Fcu,
ity rather than brittleness [23,49]. Damping capacity can be evalu- and flexural strength [49].
ated by determination of the damping constant, the logarithmic In this study, the damping constant fell sharply with increased
decrement, and the damping ratio. wt% rubber substitution for all replacement types, which is in gen-
The damping constant (quality factor), Q, is considered to be a eral agreement with previous findings for PRC [22] and thought to
more reliable quality indicator of concrete than the dynamic modu- be attributable to a weak rubber–cement ITZ and reduced homoge-
lus due to its sensitivity to any small imperfections, e.g. micro cracks, neity [22]. Fig. 21 shows that FR replacement resulted in the least
which causes relatively large changes in Q whilst Ed is only slightly reduction in damping constant and that CR replacement result in
affected [23,43]. Q is calculated from the bandwidth as follows: the most, which is supported by the fact that the coarse aggregate
 K.B. Najim, M.R. Hall / Construction and Building Materials 27 (2012) 521–530 529

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