PED 101 REVIEWER

I. Early Childhood Development The Basic needs of children are

Development - defined as the process of change which the child comes to master more  Food and shelter - responsibility of their parents
complex levels of doing things.  Physical Safety - they need others to provide physical safety
Early Childhood Development - Refers to the different skills and milestones that children  Developmental needs- developing and learning important and useful skills
are expected to reach by the age of 5  Social skills - they need to learn the rules of society to be able to communicate their
 Development varies from child to child. ideas and desires.
 Development is influenced by culture in different ways and the goals for children
 Emotional security - they need the help and assurance of their parents to be
differ from culture to culture.
emotionally secured.
 A long term pattern of changes and milestones of children
 Internal skills - the need to learn self-confidence and emotional maturity.
 is considered to be the most rapid period of development in a human life
 The first five years of life are called the formative years.  Career abilities - children need to learn y abilities that are useful in developing
careers. Children discover their talents and the things that motivate them.
II. Principles of Growth and Development  Physiological needs - the requirements for human survival like food etc. The
 The principles of human development explain the basic factor which governs all attention, acceptance, respect, love etc.
growth and development. Principles of Development
 Hereditary factors are innate characteristics with which the child is equipped at birth  Development is a product of the interaction of the organism and the environment. -
Needs of Children The processes of hereditary and environment are interdependent and complementary.
 Children’s needs differ across the early childhood years  Developmental patterns show wide individual differences - has been observed that the
 A child’s developmental needs will vary over the first years of life in relation to pattern of growth is to some extent predictable.
his/her maturation process.  Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex – Children use
 Prenatal and Birth their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. Learning relationship
 During this period, attention is focused on the mother through maternal between things (how things are similar) or to give description or function (both concrete
and child health programs, thought) between two objects. And As children develop further in cognitive skills, they
 Infancy (up to about 18 months) are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and
 Sensory learning, auditory and visual, control of physical actions and things then the child is cognitively capable of classification
attachment to significant caregivers seem to be the central tasks.  Growth and development proceeds from general to specific - In motor development,
 Toddler and post-toddler (about 18 to 36 months) the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using the thumb
 A child’s coordination, language, ability to think, and social skills advance and forefinger.
rapidly  Growth and development are continuous processes - As a child develops, he or she
adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further
 Preschool (approximately 3,4,5,6)
achievement and mastery of skills.
 Socialization and preparation for schooling take on greater importance, and the
circle of peers and caregivers widens.  Development depends on maturation and learning - Maturation refers to the
sequential characteristics of biological growth and development. The biological changes
 From age four onwards
occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. children must mature to a
 early childhood programs are associated with education and preschools,
certain point before they can progress to new skills.
but health and nutrition remain key component of what young children
 Development is sequential - There is a pattern of order and sequence in human growth
need. and development.
 Early primary school (roughly ages 6 to 8)
 a period of “transition” into school and the world at large. Can be relatively
easy or extremely difficult.
 Understanding of the principles of development helps us plan appropriate activities and  SUPER EGO – (conscience)it decides whether ego’s problem-solving strategies
stimulating and enriching experiences for children and provide a basis for understanding are morally acceptable, internalized moral standards
how to encourage and support young children’s learning. if certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur
III. Theories of Development Fixation- is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage
Theory - Researchers use these theories as frameworks in their studies. An Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
organized set of facts and [proposals about how things operate and helps Oral - Birth to 1 year- Mouth focused simulation and interaction
scientists explain. - If fixation occurs at this stage, the individual would have issues with dependency
Human development—refers to long term changes that occur during the or aggression
person’s lifetime and the patterns of those changes. - May seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, eating.
Theories of Human Development Anal- 1-3 years – Anus focused simulation and interaction
Four theories relevant to the study of development - positive experience will result for people to be competent, productive and
1. Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic—which emphasizes unconscious drives and creative
motives. - if parents are too lenient this will result to anal-expulsive personality. messy,
a. Freud’s - Psychosexual theory wasteful or destructive personality.
b. Erikson’s - Psychosocial theory - If parents are too strict this will result to anal-retentive personality. The
2. Learning—emphasizes learned responses to particular situations. individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.
a. B.F Skinner – Operant Conditioning Phallic- 3-6 years – Genitals focus of simulation
b. Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning - Gender role and moral development
3. Cognitive—focuses on the individual’s understanding of self and others. Oedipus complex- when boys wanting to possess their mother and replace the
a. Piaget’s Stages of cognitive Development father
4. Sociocultural – deals with the cultural influences on the growth of individual Castration Anxiety- the child fears that he will be punished by the father for these
learning feelings.
and competencies. Electra Complex – similar set of feelings experienced by young girls.
a. Lev Semanovich Vygotsky – Zone of Proximal Development Latency- 6-12 years – a period of suspended sexual activity, energies shit to physical to
 1. Psychodynamic Development Theories intellectual activities
Freudian Theory - The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm
A. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – his ideas influenced the understanding of personality - Develops social and communication skills and self confidence
Development. - Fixation may result to immaturity and inability to form fulfilling relationships as
- World’s first Psychoanalyst an adult.
- Austrian Neurologist Genital- 12 years to adulthood – genitals focused of stimulation with the onset of
- creator of psychoanalysis puberty, mature sexual relationships develop.
- psychoanalysis is the approach to understanding and treating - If other stage have been completed the individual should be well balanced,
psychological problems warm, caring
The 3 Hypothetical/Imaginary Mental Structures B. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
 ID – (pleasure-centered) driven by instincts Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
 EGO – (reality-centered) rational component, perception learning and logical - he studied psychoanalysis with Freud’s daughter Anna
reasoning - Erikson proposed that development occurs in a series of eight stages
- beginning with infancy and ending with old age
 - Each stage is named for the particular psychosocial crisis that the child must - If successful navigation involves accomplishments like raising a family success at
resolve to be able to move on to the next. work and volunteers in the community.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages and developmental processes - People who aren’t able to do this often feel disconnected from the rest of the
1. Trust vs. Mistrust - Birth to 1 year - world
- Development of trusting relationships with caregivers and of self-trust (HOPE) 8. Ego Integrity vs Despair - 65 years and older
- those who aren’t able to trust their caregivers may be left feeling that the world Focus- Belief in integrity of life including successes and failures (WISDOM)
is unreliable - Older people looking back on their lives who feel satisfied with all they
2. Autonomy vs shame and Doubt -1-3 years experienced with a sense of wisdom
- Development of control over bodily functions and activities. (WILL) - Those who have regrets may end up being bitter.
- When the child becomes self-reliant they are likely to develop a strong sense of  2. Behavioural Learning and Social Cognitive Learning Theories
independence and autonomy. Learning – is defined as relatively permanent change in observable behaviour that
- When parents do everything for the child, they will be left feeling ashamed or results from experience.
doubtful of her abilities Behaviourism - as a theory was developed by B.F. Skinner
3. Initiative vs Guilt - 3-6 years - Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning.
- Focus- Locomotor-genital activity Testing limits of self-assessment and Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 –August 18, 1990)
purposefulness (purpose) - Was an American psychologist, behaviourist, author, inventor and social
- Children who successfully resolve this conflict develop a sense of purpose philosopher.
- He was a Professor of psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until 1974.
- While those who didn’t may be left with feeling of guilt
4. Industry vs Inferiority - 6-12 years Two types of possible conditioning:
- Focus- Mastery and productivity (COMPETENCE) A. Operant conditioning
- School and peers a major role in this stage - There is reinforcement of the behaviour by a reward or a punishment.
- “Operant” refers to the way which behaviour operates in the environment.
- Those who do well in socializing and in school will emerge from this stage as
Two principal terms influence operant conditioning:
feeling competent a. Reinforcements (positive or negative): increases the rate of behavior
- Those who aren’t successful may end up feeling inferior and lack self-confidence. b. Punishments (positive or negative): decrease the rate of behavior
5. Identity vs Role Confusion - 12-20 years(adolescence) B. Classical or respondent Conditioning
- Focus-Formation of identity and coherent self-concept(FIDELITY) - is where the behaviour becomes a reflex response to a stimulus.
- Handling this conflict well leads to a strong sense of personal identity - Even though there was no food in sight, his dogs still drooled and was reacting to the lab
- Those who struggle may be left feeling confused about who they are and what coats as every time the person feeds the dogs, he was wearing a lab coat.
they want to do in their life. Ivan Pavlov (September 14, 1849 – February 27, 1936)
6. Intimacy vc Isolation - 20-40 years (early adulthood) – He was interested in studying reflexes
- Focus- Achievement of an intimate relationship and career direction (LOVE) - Russian Psychologist
- Forming strong bonds with other people particularly romantic relationships - Known for his development of concept of Conditional Reflex
- If succeeded they develop strong and lasting relationships  3. Cognitive Theory
- If failed, they can end up feeling isolated and lonely.  is a theory of psychology that attempts to explain human behaviour by
7. Generativity vs Stagnation - 40-65 years (adulthood) understanding the thought processes
Focus- Fulfillment through creative, productive activity that contributes to future  “Information processing” a commonly used description of the mental processes,
generations (CARE) comparing the human mind to a computer
The Cognitive Development Theory
Developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1990) - Through play and imagination, a child’s conceptual abilities are stretched and leads to
- He proposed that there are four distinct, increasingly sophisticated stages development.
of mental representation that children must pass through on their way to  Language
adulthood. - It is essential to the development of thinking
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development - That the school needs to provide opportunities to develop this third stage of speech
 Sensorimotor - Birth to 2 years which is inner speech
- this period involve children figuring out how to make use of their bodies - it is the stage which is responsible for all higher levels of functioning.
- They do this by experiencing everything with their five senses hence, This Theory:
“sensory”  Highlights how children incorporate culture into their reasoning, social
- learning to crawl and then walk, point and the grasp, hence, “motion” interaction, and self-understanding.
 Pre-operational - 2 to 7 year  explains why children growing up in different societies are likely to have
- Children start use mental symbols to understand and to interact with the significantly different skills
world  Focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation through tools
- begin to learn language and to engage in pretend play such as language and social interaction.
 Operational - 7 to 11 years  working with adults and more skilled peers is essential for children to acquire
- Children gain the ability to think logically to solve problems and to organize the ways of thinking, knowing, and behaving that make up a community’s
information they learn. However, they remain limited to considering only culture.
concrete, not abstract information. IV. Children with Special Needs
 Formal Operational - 11 years onward  Global Development Delay – Typically presents with a delay in multiple
- Adolescents learn how to think more abstractly to solve problems and to developmental areas, areas of delay may include speech, language, social, cognition
thinks symbolically. play and motor skills.
 4. Sociocultural Theory/Cultural Contextual Theory  Mental Retardation – characterized by severe delayed development in the
Lev Semanovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) acquisition of cognitive, language, motor or social skills.
 Russian psychologist  Down syndrome – a form of mental retardation from genetic abnormality, an extra
 One of the first developmentalists who considered the influence of a child’s social twenty first chromosomes.
and cultural context.  Autism – is a very serious lifelong developmental disorder characterized by severe
 Children are endowed of “elementary functions” impairment in the development of verbal and non-verbal communication skills,
(Perception, memory, attention, language) that’s transformed into higher mental marked impairment in reciprocal social interaction (a lack of responsiveness or
functions through interaction with others.
interest in people) and almost non-existent imaginative ability.
His theory focusing on the sociocultural aspect contributed ideas to help teachers in
 Specific Learning Disability – a severe learning problem due to a disorder in one or
education. Some of these are:
more of the basic psychological processes involved in acquiring, organizing or
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). expressing information that manifests itself in school as an impaired ability to listen,
- The concept is the level of difficulty at which problems are too hard for children reason, speak, read, write or spell.
to solve alone but not to hard when given support from adults or more  ADHD – with a persistent pattern of problems in the areas of inattention,
competent peers. hyperactivity, and impulsivity that is more frequent and severe than a typically
 The role of play observed in individual at a comparable level of development and also significantly
-Teachers need to provide children many opportunities to play. inappropriate for their age levels.
 Conduct Disorder – characterized by a persistent pattern of behavior that intrudes  Serious Emotional Disturbance – includes individuals with a condition in one or
and violates the basic rights of others without concern or fear of implications. more of the following areas during an extended period of time:
 Oppositional Defiant Disorder – characterized by patterns of negativistic, hostile and a. inability to learn, not due to intellectual, sensory or health problem
defiant behaviours with peers as well as adults and with argumentative behaviours b. inability to build or maintain social relationships
toward adults. It is less serious than conduct disorder because of the absence of c. inappropriate behavior
serious behaviors that violate the basic rights of others. d. depression or unhappiness
 Traumatic Brain Injury/TBI – an insult to the brain, not a degenerative or congenital e. tendency to develop fears or physical symptoms associated with school and
nature but caused by an external physical force, that may produce a diminished or personal problems
altered state of consciousness, which results in impairment of cognitive abilities or  Other health impairments – means having limited strength, vitality or alertness
physical functioning. including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli that results in limited
 Cerebral Palsy – a term used to describe a group of chronic conditions affecting body alertness with respect to the educational environment that is due to chronic or acute
movements and muscle coordination. health problems such as:Asthma, attention deficit disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a
 Tourette syndrome – an inherited neurological disorder that develops in childhood heart condition, haemophilia, leukemia etc.
characterized by tics – involuntary, rapid, sudden, repetitive muscle movements or  Role of Heredity and Environment
vocalizations and often accompanied by other disorders (e.g, ADHD, OCD), lack of Behavior genetics - is the scientific study of how genetic inheritance (gentype) and
impulse control and other behavioural problems. environmental experiences
 Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – is a disorder in which people have recurring jointly influence physical and behavioral development (phenotype).
unwanted thoughts, ideas, sensations (obsessions) that make them feel driven to do Some Characteristics Influenced by Hereditary and Environment
something repetitively(compulsions) the repetitive behaviours such as hand washing,
checking on things or cleaning, can significantly interfere with a person’s daily  Physical and Psychological Traits - not only monozygotic twins generally look alike,
activities and social interactions. they are also more concordant than dizygotic twins in their risk for such medical
disorders.
 Hearing Impairments – also referred to as hard of hearing or deaf.
 Visual Impairments – a loss of vision that even when corrected affects educational  Obesity - is a multifactorial condition, as 80% of the risk of obesity is genetic, the
performance. It may be mild to moderate to severe in nature. Learners who are blind kind and amount of food eaten in a particular home, social or ethnic group if exercise
that are able to read print and usually learn to read and write using braille. is encouraged, can increase or decrease the likelihood that a person can become
 Deaf Blindness – individuals in this category have moderate to severe impairments obese.
in both vision and hearing.  Intelligence and school achievement - heredity exerts a strong influence on general
 Communication disorder - a disorder of articulation, fluency, voice, or language that intelligence and also on specific abilities. An enriched or impoverished environment
adversely affects educational performance; or a severe communication deficit that can substantially affect the development and expression of innate ability.
may require the use of an augmentative or alternative communication system such  Personality—certain aspects of personality appear to be inherited at least in past.
as sign language communication boards or electronic devices.  Temperament - appears largely to be born, it may respond to special or parental
 Multiple Disabilities – these include individuals with two or more disabling handling.
conditions; this category usually includes mental retardation as one of the categories  Psychopathology - there is a strong evidence for strong hereditary influence on such
and is usually used when disorders are serious and interrelated to such an extent conditions as schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, and depression. However, heredity
that it is difficult to identify the primary area of disability. Does not include deaf- alone does not produce such disorder, as inherent tendency can be triggered by
blindness. environmental factors.
 Orthopaedic impairment – associated with physical conditions that seriously impair
mobility or motor activity.
 Schizophrenia - is a disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality and by such Parietal - allows an infant to receive touch sensations and spatial information, which
symptoms as hallucinations and delusions, has a strong genetic component. This facilitates eye-hand coordination
increase risk comes from shared genes, not sharing environments.
Temporal - helps with hearing and language
 Autism—a severe disorder o brain functioning. Autism runs in families and seems to
have strong genetic basis. Environmental factors such as exposure to certain viruses Frontal - permitting such higher-level functions such as speech and reasoning
or chemical may trigger inherited tendency toward autism.
Neurons - send and receive information
Physical Development
Glial cells - support and protect neurons
Physical and motor development
Myelination - enables the signal to travel faster and more smoothly permitting the
 Physical change – occur from birth to two years are rapid and amazing achievement of mature functioning
 Monitoring growth – critical during infancy
1. Vulnerability to growth problems and diseases Sense of touch - the first sense to develop
2. Regular monthly visit pediatrician to spot what is wrong
Visual pathways - slower to mature, begins at birth, and continue to the first five months
3. A need to meet the recommended schedule of immunizations
of life
 Average new-born – weighs just over 7 pounds
 Not all parts of an infant’s body grow at the same time Hearing - may begin to myelinated as early as the fifth month until age 4
Major principles governing growth Hippocampus - structure deep in the temporal lobe that plays a key role in memory until
 Cephalocaudal – states that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head least age 70
and upper body parts and proceeds to the rest of the body.
Reflex Behavior - are automatic, involuntary, innate responses to stimulation
 Proximodistal – development proceeds from the center of the body outward
 Hierarchical integration – simple skills developed separately and independently
 Independence of the systems – different body systems grow at different rates.
Brain and reflex behavior Early sensory development
Cerebellum - part of the brain responsible for such basic bodily functions as breathing, Touch and pain – are the sense to develop and for the first several months it is
heart rate, body temperature, and sleep-wake cycle the most mature sensory system.
Hearing – is functional at birth
Left Hemisphere - mainly concerned with language and logical thinking Smell and taste – begin to develop in the womb
Sight – vision is the last developed sense at birth
Right Hemisphere - visual and spacial functions Binocular vision - usually does not develop until four to five months
Corpus Callosum - a band of tissue joined the hemisphere which allows them to share
information and coordinate commands.
Cognitive Development
Occipital - processes visual information
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Gestalt psychology
- Means shape, form, essence, or whole
1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence - These individuals are often good with directions as
- Unified whole
well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures. - “The whole is different from the sum of its part”
2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence - These individuals are typically very good at
writing stories, memorizing information, and reading.
Gestalt Principles
3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence - These individuals tend to think
Law of proximity – objects near each other tend to be grouped together
conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.
Law of similarity – similar items tend to be grouped together
4. Bodily-Kinesthetics Intelligence - Those who have high bodily-kinesthetics Law of closure – objects grouped together are seen as whole
intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing actions, and Law of good continuation – lines are seen as following the smoothest path
Law of pragnanz - stimulus will be organized into as good as figure as possible
physical control.
Law of figure/ground - stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground
5. Musical Intelligence - They have a strong appreciation for music and are often
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
good at musical composition and performance.
Albert Bandura
6. Interpersonal Intelligence - These individuals are skilled at assessing the
emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them. - Canadian-American psychologist
- Proposed the learning is derived from one’s interaction with the environment
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence - Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal
- Proposed that people can also learn by observing other people
intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and
motivations.
Social Learning Theory
8. Naturalistic Intelligence - These individuals are said to be highly aware of even
subtle changes to their environments. Observational learning – who witnessed aggressive behaviour by adults also
demonstrated aggressive behaviour
 Live model
 Symbolic model
Gestalt Theory  Verbal instructional model
Intrinsic reinforcement - internal State of mind and motivation are as important
Founders
a factor influencing your learning
 Wolfgang Kohler Learning independent of behavior change - Learning doesn’t necessarily come
 Max Wertheimer – father or gestalt pyschology only when someone’s behaviour is permanently changed
 Kurt Koffka  Observation
 Imitation
 Modelling (or learning in other words)
 3. Recall prior learning - achieve by asking questions about the previous
experience
Factors that ensure success in learning 4. Present stimulus - achieve by providing examples
5. Guide learning - achieve by using model varied learning such as role playing
Attention - Relatable behaviour increases likelihood of us paying good attention
6. Elicit performance - achieve by using recall strategies
Retention - Rehearsal is one way of retaining information
7. Provide feedback - achieve by using corrective and remedial feedback
Reproduction - Depends on how physically and mentally prepared the observer is
8. Assess performance - achieve by conducting a post-test to check for mastery of
Motivation - Reinforcement and punishment become important aspects
content or skills
9. Enhance retention/transfer - achieve by creating concept maps or outlines

Gagne’s Condition of Learning

Robert Mills Gagne Bruner’s Theory of Learning

- An American educational psychologist Jerome Bruner

- His theory describes that through analysis of perceived behaviour, necessary
- An American psychologist
components to acquire a specific skill can be identified.

Scaffolding - carefully programmed guidance; reducing the amount of assistance as the

Five categories of learning
student progresses through task learning. 
Intellectual learning – knowing how something must be done
 Discrimination
 Concrete concept Spiral curriculum - curriculum design in which key concepts are presented repeatedly
 Define concept throughout the curriculum, but with deepening layers of complexity, or in different
 Rule
applications.
 Problem solving
Verbal skills – student’s linguistic abilities 3 stages of representation
Cognitive strategies - mechanism for students to gain control over the processes
Motor skills - improvement in the smoothness of an action, the timing, and the Enactive representation (action-based) – when one learns something by doing
motion as a result of practice. Iconic representation (image-based) – the use of pictorial image
Attitude - Internal conditions that can't always be seen Symbolic representation (language-based) – process of mentally representing
objects and experience through symbols
Ausubel Theory
The 9 levels of learning
David Ausubel
1. Gain attention - achieved by mentioning the students by name
2. Identify objectives - achieve by describing the required performance or criteria
 - Believed that an understanding of concepts, principles and ideas is achieved
through deductive reasoning.
Theories

1. Meaningful verbal learning - meaning is created through some forms of

representational equivalence between language and mental context
Reception – activating a sensory receptor by a stimuli
Discovery – concept formation and problem solving
2. Subsumption theory - focuses on how individuals acquire and learn large chunks
of information through visual means or text materials
Correlative - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is
already known
Derivative - new material or relationships can be derived from the existing
structure
3. Motivation theory - the cognitive drives achievement motivation, self-improving
internal driving force, and the subsidiary internal driving composition
4 key principles of subsumption theory

1. Learners should be presented with the most general concepts first, and then their
analysis.
2. The instructional materials should include new, as well as previously acquired
information.
3. Existing cognitive structures should be developed but merely reorganized within
the learners' memory.
4. The role of the instructor is to bridge the gap between what's already known and
what is about to learned.

4 types of advanced organizers

 Expository – provides a description of new knowledge

 Narrative -presents new information in a story format
 Skimming – flick through the information
 Graphic – includes pictographs, descriptive or concept patterns and concept maps