South African Journal of Education, Volume 35, Number 1, February 2015 1

Art. # 948, 8 pages, http://www.sajournalofeducation.co.za

A comparative analysis of South African Life Sciences and Biology

textbooks for inclusion of the nature of science

Umesh Ramnarain and Keshni Padayachee

Department of Science and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg, South
Africa [email protected]

This study reports on the analysis of South African Life Sciences and Biology textbooks for the inclusion of the nature of
science using a conceptual framework developed by Chiappetta, Fillman and Sethna (1991). In particular, we investigated
the differences between the representation of the nature of science in Biology textbooks that were written for a previous
curriculum and the new Life Sciences textbooks that are in accord with the National Curriculum Statement. The analysis
reflects that both Life Sciences and Biology textbooks still overwhelmingly represent the theme “Science as a body of
knowledge” according to this framework. Despite significant curriculum reform that underlines a more balanced perspective
of science encompassing the acquisition of knowledge through inquiry, the limited coverage given to the themes “The
investigative nature of science”, “Science as a way of thinking” and “The interaction of science, technology and society”
does not reflect this reform.

Keywords: Biology textbooks; Life Sciences textbooks; nature of science; school science curriculum; science textbook
analysis

Introduction
The value of textbooks in driving the teaching of science has been well-documented. The importance given to
the textbook is encapsulated by Abd-El-Khalick, Waters and Le (2008:836), who remark that in the large
majority of classrooms, textbooks become “the classroom, and determine what is taught and learned about
science in these classrooms”. Textbooks help translate the intentions of the curriculum into classroom practice
by reflecting the goals of science learning, such as understanding the nature of science (NOS) and science
content; developing inquiry skills; and understanding the interrelationship of science, technology, the
environment and society (Albach & Kelly, 1998). The quality of textbooks, therefore, has a great impact on the
quality of instruction (Lemmer, Edwards & Rapule, 2008). Furthermore, the availability of high quality
textbooks is one of the critical factors in the successful implementation of curriculum reform (Swanepoel,
2010).
In South Africa, curriculum reform in school science has affirmed the prominence that ought to be given to
the NOS in the teaching of school science subjects. Due to the value of the textbook in driving curriculum
reform, this article reports on the analysis of South African Life Sciences and Biology textbooks for the
inclusion of the NOS. In particular, we investigated the differences between the coverage given to the NOS in
Biology textbooks that were written for the previous National Assembly Training and Education Department
(NATED) 550 curriculum, and the new Life Sciences textbooks that are in accord with the National
Curriculum Statement (NCS).
The construct “nature of science” has been advocated as an important educational outcome by various
school science curricula worldwide. Lederman (2007:831), in fact, states that one would be hard pressed to find
rhetoric arguing against its importance as a “prized educational outcome”. Driver, Leach, Millar and Scott
(1996) maintain that the NOS is a critical component of scientific literacy. While support for the NOS has been
overwhelming in the science education community, there is some dissonance in the literature as to what it means
(Laugksch, 2000). However, a review of the literature by Schwartz and Lederman (2002) shows that there is an
acceptable level of agreement on what it entails. Lederman (2007:833) identifies the basic tenets of the nature of
scientific knowledge as follows:
It is tentative (subject to change), empirically based (based on and/or derived from observations of the natural world),
and subjective (involves personal background, biases and/or is theory laden); necessarily involves human inferences,
imagination, and creativity (involves the invention of explanations; and is socially and culturally embedded). Two
additional important aspects are the distinction between observations and inferences, and the functions of, and
relationships between, scientific theories and laws.
In South Africa, the publication of the NCS for Life Sciences, a subject taught to students in the Further Education
and Training phase (Grades 10–12) (Department of Education, 2003), marked a significant departure from the
previous apartheid-era curriculum (NATED 550). NATED 550 had a narrow conception of scientific literacy that
depicted science as a static body of knowledge. The subject Life Sciences was previously known as Biology, and the
Biology syllabus required students to “learn chunks of biological facts that they had to regurgitate in tests and
examinations” (Le Grange, 2008:94). Furthermore, Le Grange (2008) maintains that the school subject, Biology
focused mainly on the study of plant and animal life, with the artificial separation of fact and value. This focus led to
the privileging of factual knowledge over values under the influence of positivism.
2 Ramnarain, Padayachee

Mnguni (2013:2) cites Cotti and Schiro (2004) in Khalick et al. (2008) in their analysis of high school
describing this emphasis as “the scholar academic Chemistry books used over four decades in the
ideology that deals with disciplining students by United States (US), rated them poorly in their
transmitting discipline specific knowledge”. representations of the NOS. More specifically,
The view of science depicted by the previous McComas (2003) found, in his analysis of US
NATED 550 curriculum was, therefore, incom- Biology textbooks, that the distinction between
patible with the tenets of the NOS as underlined by laws and theories (aspects of NOS) was not evi-
Lederman (2007). The NCS for Life Sciences states dent. He recommended that authors take more care
that “through the study of the Life Sciences, learn- to provide accurate and complete definitions coup-
ers can develop an understanding of the nature of led with useful examples. In South Africa, limited
science” (Department of Education, 2003:9). This analysis of science textbooks has been undertaken,
curriculum goal is in line with the tenets of the specifically analysis of the textbooks that have
NOS encapsulated by Lederman (2007). accompanied recent curriculum reform for their
For an emerging economy such as South inclusion of the NOS.
Africa to grow, higher-order intellectual skills The role of the textbook as a resource in
should be strongly emphasised. Whereas skills in advancing the tenets of the NOS is especially
set tasks were valued in the past, today each worker critical in the South African context. Studies on
is expected to think critically, solve abstract prob- teacher understanding of the NOS in this country
lems and generate new ideas for improvement have revealed that teachers have an inadequate
(Castells, 2005). To enhance the transfer of these understanding of the NOS. A study conducted by
learnt skills to other environments, learners should Dekkers and Mnisi (2003) in the Limpopo Province
be exposed to multiple contextual situations in found that the majority of teachers surveyed
which they engage with socio-scientific challenges believed common myths about the NOS, as iden-
such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus tified by McComas (1998). For example, teachers
(HIV)/AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syn- believed that “hypotheses become theories that in
drome), and environmental management (Mnguni, turn become laws” and that “scientific laws and
2013). Lederman (2007) maintains that creativity other such ideas are absolute.” A study by Linne-
and imagination play an important role in science, man, Lynch, Kurup and Bantwini (2003) with
and regards this as a tenet of the NOS. This sug- teachers in the Eastern Cape arrived at a similar
gests that a science curriculum that places a high finding. Given this scenario, a shift in the practice
imperative on the NOS will inculcate in learners of teachers can be supported through the develop-
some of the higher-order skills required by the ment of textbooks that reflect a more balanced cov-
workforce of an emerging economy. erage of the NOS.
Despite the strong NCS focus on the NOS, It is against this background that we
teachers received little support when it comes to investigated the way in which South African Life
how to develop materials that would facilitate a Sciences and Biology textbooks depict the NOS.
legitimate view of the NOS. This lack of guidance Furthermore, we wanted to know how the coverage
on how to design curriculum materials opened the of the NOS in the current Life Sciences textbooks
door for a plethora of textbooks entering the differed from that in the Biology textbooks that
market. Owing to their limited capacity to design were used in the previous NATED 550 curriculum.
curriculum material, teachers relied heavily on the Accordingly, the following research questions were
textbook as a vehicle for implementing the in- formulated:
tended curriculum (Malcolm & Alant, 2004). This 1) To what extent do South African Life Sciences and
scenario accompanying curriculum reform in South Biology textbooks depict the nature of science?
Africa was not unexpected, because in order “to 2) How do Life Sciences and Biology textbooks
achieve large-scale reform, you cannot depend on compare in the extent to which they cover the
nature of science?
people’s capacity to bring about substantial change
in the short run, so you need to propel the process Conceptual Framework for Textbook Analysis
with high quality teaching and training materials”
A critical aspect of any analysis of information is
(Fullan, 2001:79). It therefore becomes pivotal for
the conceptual framework used to guide the in-
teachers and curriculum planners to be aware of the
quiry. We adopted a conceptual framework dev-
quality of textbooks.
eloped by Chiappetta et al. (1991) for analysing
Despite the curriculum emphasis on learners themes in the NOS. This framework has been
acquiring an understanding of the NOS, and the employed extensively by researchers in their
key role of the textbook in supporting teachers to analysis of textbooks (Abd-El-Khalick, 2002; Chi-
address this emphasis, analyses in other countries appetta & Fillman, 2007; Chiappetta et al., 1991).
of science textbooks show that certain aspects of This framework addresses the four themes de-
the NOS are not sufficiently addressed (Abd-El- scribed below.
Khalick et al., 2008; Chiappetta & Fillman, 2007; 1) Science as a body of knowledge: This theme re-flects
Lumpe & Beck, 1996; McComas, 2003). Abd-El- science as a body of knowledge such as the
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 35, Number 1, February 2015 3

facts, concepts, principles, laws, theories and thinking, reasoning and reflection, where the stu-
models. dent is told how the specific enterprise operates.
2) The investigative nature of science: This theme 4) Interaction of science, technology and society:
re-flects the active aspect of inquiry and learning, This theme pertains to the application of science
which involves the student in the methods and and how technology helps or hinders humankind.
processes of science such as observing, measuring, Each of the above themes in the NOS is elaborated
classifying, inferring, recording data and making on in greater detail through categories; this formed
calculations. the basis for an analytical framework. The frame-
3) Science as a way of thinking: This theme represents work is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Analytical framework for the NOS

NOS Theme Descriptor: NOS Categories
1. Science as a body of knowledge a) Knowledge presented as facts, concepts, laws, and principles
b) Hypotheses, theories, and models
c) Factual recall of information
2. The investigative nature of science a) Learns through the use of materials
b) Learns through the use of tables and charts
c) Makes calculations
d) Reasons out an answer
e) Participates in thought experiments
f) Gets information from the internet
g) Uses scientific observation and inference
h) Analyses and interprets data
3. Science as a way of thinking a) Description of how a scientist discovered or experimented
b) Historical development of an idea
c) Empirical basis of science
d) Use of assumptions
e) Inductive or deductive reasoning
f) Cause and effect relationship
g) Evidence and/or proof
h) Presentation of scientific method(s) or problem solving
i) Scepticism and criticism
j) Human imagination and creativity
k) Characteristics of scientists (subjectivity and bias)
l) Various ways of understanding the natural world
4. Interaction of science, technology and society a) Usefulness of science and technology
b) Negative effects of science and technology
c) Discussion of social issues related to science and technology
d) Careers in science and technology
e) Contribution of diversity
f) Societal or cultural influences
g) Public or peer collaboration
h) Limitations of science
i) Ethics in science
Source: Adapted from Chiappetta & Fillman (2007)

Methodology ular in the NATED 550 curriculum.

A content analysis of three Grade Ten Life We analysed the textbooks by applying the
Sciences textbooks and three Biology textbooks validated framework of Chiappetta et al. (1991).
was undertaken. Krippendorff (2004:18) defines We first calculated 10% of pages for each textbook,
this approach as “a research technique for making as recommended by Chiappetta and Fillman (2007).
replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other We then applied a sliding scale, based on the
meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use”. proportion of pages allocated per content area, to
Books that were extensively used in classrooms calculate the number of pages to be analysed for
throughout South Africa were targeted for analysis. each content area (Chiappetta & Fillman, 2007).
The selection of these books was based on infor- The pages were then selected randomly by number
mation about schoolbook orders provided by the generation from each content area. The four core
Department of Basic Education. The three books content areas examined were: tissues, cells and
chosen for Life Sciences had the highest number of molecular studies; structures and control processes;
orders, and they collectively constituted close to environmental studies; and diversity, change and
70% of all book orders for Grade Ten. Similarly, continuity. The composition of each content area is
the Biology books chosen were the three most pop- shown in Table 2.
4 Ramnarain, Padayachee

Table 2 Core content areas in textbooks

Core content area Topics
Tissues, cells and molecular studies Cell structure
Cell division and mitosis
Tissues
Related diseases, e.g. cancer
Structures and control processes Energy release
Food production
Human nutrition and related diseases and allergies
Gaseous exchange and related diseases and allergies
Environmental studies Biosphere, biomes and ecosystems
Living and non-living resources
Diversity, change and continuity Biodiversity of plants and animals and conservation
Significance and value of biodiversity to ecosystem function and human survival
Threats to biodiversity
Parasitism and diseases, e.g. bilharzia

In the analysis we first highlighted the units of example, in the book Approaching Life
analysis. The units of analysis included complete Sciences, 54% of units were considered to be
paragraphs, activities, worked examples, figures related to the NOS theme “Science as a body of
with captions, tables with captions, charts with knowledge”. The calculation of percentage
captions, and marginal comments. The units were coverage of the four themes was regarded as a valid
coded independently according to the NOS cate- means of com-parison, as it addressed the
gories set out in Table 1. This entailed studying a implications of text-books having different physical
unit, and identifying the theme and category to features such as page orientation, page size, and
which the unit could best be related. A deductive font type and size.
process was therefore followed in coding the units Figure 1 shows a visual comparison of the
from the textbooks according to the Chiappetta et Life Sciences and Biology textbooks for the
al. (1991) framework. Examples of units that cor- representation of the NOS themes.
responded to the themes and categories are pre- We now discuss these results in terms of the
sented in the results section. After the coders com- four themes of the NOS.
pleted assigning each unit of analysis to a category
in one of the four themes of the NOS, the reliability Theme I: Science as a Body of Knowledge
in the coding of the units was determined by the The results show that the Life Sciences textbooks
use of Cohen’s kappa statistic. Cohen’s kappa is strongly manifest the theme “Science as a body of
calculated as follows: k = (po − pc) / (1 − pc), Knowledge”, with 54% of the units of measure-
where po is the proportion of ratings in which the ment devoted to this theme. The coverage in all
two judges agree, and pc is the proportion of ra- three Biology textbooks is even more heavily
tings for which agreement is expected by chance. dominated by this theme, with 84% of all units
Ethical clearance for this research was granted by being coded to this theme. A deeper analysis show-
the University of Johannesburg at which the first ed that for the Life Sciences textbooks, 194 of the
author is employed. 227 units of analysis that were classified according
to this theme corresponded to the category “Know-
Results ledge presented as facts, concepts, laws and
The following pseudonyms are used for the three Life principles”. A similar observation was made from
Sciences textbooks that were analysed: App- the coding of the Biology textbooks, with 92% of
roaching Life Sciences, The Basics of Life all units coded to this theme being categorised as
Sciences, and Curiosity in Life Sciences; and for “Knowledge presented as facts, concepts, laws and
the Biology textbooks, Diverse Biology: An principles”. The following two units extracted from
Exploration of Biology and Classroom Biology. In Approaching Life Sciences and Classroom
total, 724 text-book units were coded to a particular Biology exemplify the coverage in this category:
category presented in Table 1. Between the coders Living organisms are found in oceans, lakes and
there was agreement in coding 556 of these units, and rivers (hydrosphere), as well as in the air or atmos-
this meant there was a 77% agreement in this process. phere. There is life on the surface of the Earth as
The calculated kappa value was 0.7. According to well as in the soil, under the surface of the Earth
Landis and Koch (1977), kappa values from 0.61 to (lithosphere). All these parts of the Earth where
organisms live are part of the Biosphere. (App-
0.80 indicate a substantial level of agreement in roaching Life Sciences)
coding. Coding differences were resolved through
discussion. Consensus was eventually reached. These organelles (ribosomes) are extremely
small granules scattered in the cytoplasm of
Table 3 shows the results on the coding of
units for each of the six analysed textbooks. For all cells. They occur singly or on the external
surface of the endoplasmic reticulum or in
groups in the cyto-plasm where they are
known as polyribosomes.
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 35, Number 1, February 2015 5

They contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) hence their enhance this knowledge acquisition. This was evi-
name, and enzymes connected with protein syn- dent in diagrams from Curiosity in Life Sciences
thesis. Ribosomes are the chief manufacturers of all on the formation of proteins from amino acids,
cell proteins. (Classroom Biology)
which showed the linking together of amino acids
The above unit from Approaching Life Sciences in long chains to form proteins.
describes the biosphere of Earth. This unit corres- It would appear that a strong goal in the
ponds to the category “Knowledge presented as teaching of science from the perspective of both
facts, concepts, laws and principles”, because the Life Sciences and Biology textbook authors, is for
paragraph presents facts on the habitat of living learners to acquire scientific knowledge. With re-
organisms. A similar focus is noted in the unit from gard to curriculum reform, it is clear from the
Classroom Biology, where facts are presented on extensive coverage given to this theme that a strong
the ribosome. goal in the learning of science remains the acqui-
In promoting the theme “Science as a body of sition of knowledge. This focus coheres well with
knowledge”, there appears to be a belief that scien- the curriculum imperative in the more recent
tific knowledge can be acquired and understood by Curriculum and Assessment Performance State-
learners when presented through clear and coherent ment (CAPS) for Life Sciences expressed through
explanations (Chiappetta & Fillman, 2007). The Specific Aim 1, which specifies the construction of
visual representation of concepts is often used to ideas and concepts.

Table 3 The percentage of coverage of the four themes of the NOS in three Life Sciences and three
Biology textbooks
NOS Themes Approaching The basics of Curiosity in Diverse An exploration Classroom
Life Sciences Life Sciences Life Sciences Biology of Biology Biology
Science as a body of 54 63 44 76 94 81
knowledge
The investigative 27 22 33 12 6 19
nature of science
Science as a way of 8 5 8 0 0 0
thinking
Interaction of 11 10 15 12 0 0
science, technology
and society

Figure 1 A comparison of the Life Sciences and Biology textbooks used in this study

Theme II: The Investigative Nature of Science closely with Specific Aim 2 on planning and
The investigative approach to the teaching and carrying out of scientific investigations. A com-
learning of science is portrayed moderately by all parison of the textbooks of the two subjects
three Life Sciences textbooks as evidenced by the suggests that the increased percentage coverage of
28% coding of units to the theme “The invest- this theme in the Life Sciences textbooks reflects
igative nature of science”. This coverage is even attempts by textbook authors to address the
more limited in the three Biology textbooks, where investigative approach to learning. However, the
only 12% of units were devoted to this theme. In scope given to this theme in the Life Sciences
terms of the CAPS, it is clear that this theme aligns textbooks suggests that this learning outcome is not
6 Ramnarain, Padayachee

being adequately addressed. evidence and proof. A few units related to the
For the Life Sciences textbooks, the units empirical NOS. The following is an example of a
coded to the theme “The investigative nature of unit from Approaching Life Sciences that
science” were overwhelmingly situated in the cate- addresses the empirical NOS:
gory “Learns through the use of materials” (107 of Measuring pH
120 units). An activity in The basics of Life Collect a water sample. Add a few drops of
Sciences on the use of yeast to show alcoholic universal indicator. Compare the colour of the
water with the code on the indicator bottle. The pH
fermentation falls within this category. In this
for healthy, unpolluted water will be between 6.5
coded unit, learners are presented with a diagram of and 8.5. Interpret your results using the table on
the apparatus and then instructed to set up the app- your right. (Approaching Life Sciences)
aratus. They are then given a procedure for
conducting the investigation. The intention of this Theme IV: Interaction of Science, Society and
activity is to engage the learners in a hands-on Technology
learning situation in the manipulation of objects. In The average percentage coverage of units for all
this and other units coded to this category, em- three Life Sciences books given to this theme was
phasis is placed on the development of procedural only 12%. The average coverage of this theme in
skills in handling the apparatus and making ob- the Biology textbooks was four percent. Despite the
servations. However, the textbooks do not facilitate curriculum imperative as specified in Learning
the development of other process skills such as Outcome Three of the NCS for learners to under-
hypothesising, planning an investigation, making stand the interrelationship between science, society
an inference, analysing data, and reflecting on and technology, it would appear that the Life
findings. This would suggest that the textbooks Sciences textbooks have not, in any significant
support learners in having only limited autonomy measure, increased the coverage given to this
in scientific investigations. In other units, where theme.
this theme is addressed, the focus is on learners All six textbooks represented this theme to
conducting investigations, with little or no scope approximately the same degree. The great majority
being given to the design of investigations. of units coded for this theme were located in the
The analysis suggests an emphasis on learners category “Usefulness of science and technology”.
doing practical work in confirming a given concept, Units coded to this category exemplified the
law or principle that had been previously learned, applications of science and technology in society.
rather than learners being given the opportunity to Examples of such units from Curiosity in Life
investigate their own ideas. Sciences and An exploration of Biology are:
Biological washing powders contain enzymes that
Theme III: Science as a Way of Thinking can act on protein-based stains. The enzyme found
The theme “Science as a way of thinking” is poorly in these washing powders is a protease that breaks
represented in all six textbooks. For the Life down proteins in the stain, producing smaller
molecules that can then be removed by the deter-
Sciences textbooks, an average of 7% of units was gent in the washing powder. (Curiosity in Life
coded to this theme. This theme was not addressed Sciences)
in any of the three Biology textbooks. Both sets of Farmers can practice good farming methods to
textbook authors do not convey, to any great extent, control soil erosion by contour ploughing and
how the scientific enterprise operates. In the Life planting. They can also leave a strip of natural bush
Sciences textbooks, where text was devoted to this or grassland on each side of a stream or river and
theme, the focus was given to the category “De- not planting crops right up to the river banks. (An
scribes how a scientist discovered or experi- exploration of Biology)
mented”. The following example of such a unit is The first excerpt explains the role of enzymes in
taken from Approaching Life Sciences: washing powders and indicates its potential use in
In 1771, Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) placed a society, while the second describes good farming
green plant into air in which a candle had burned practices that can guide farmers in overcoming soil
out and found that ten days later another candle erosion.
could be burned in the same air. He reported that he
had ‘accidently hit upon a method of restoring air Discussion
that has been injured by the burning of candles’. He
then tried the same experiment with a mouse and
The analysis of the textbooks for the four themes
found that the mouse lived in the same air. reflects that both Life Sciences and Biology
(Approaching Life Sciences) textbooks still overwhelmingly represent the theme
The objective of this unit is to show how Priestley “Science as a body of knowledge”. Significant
experimented on the purification of air using green curriculum reform underlines a more balanced
plants. There was little or no evidence of the other perspective of science encompassing the acqui-
categories in this theme. For example, little ma- sition of knowledge through inquiry, the develop-
terial highlighted the empirical NOS, the inductive ment of scientific thinking and the interaction bet-
and deductive NOS, and the relationship between ween science, society and technology. The cover-
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 35, Number 1, February 2015 7

age in the Life Sciences textbooks does not reflect Furthermore, Abd-El-Khalick (2012) posits
this. A comparison of the Biology textbooks of the that NOS cannot be learned implicitly through
previous curriculum and the Life Sciences text- engagement in doing science but “should rather be
books of the reformed curriculum revealed only planned for instead of being anticipated as a side
minimal shifts towards addressing the other themes effect or secondary product” (Akindehin, 1988:73).
in the NOS. This finding correlates well with We contend that a textbook that depicts a balanced
studies in other countries on the analysis of science perspective on the NOS can be employed as a re-
textbooks against the background of curriculum source that teachers can use in consciously add-
reform. A study by Lumpe and Beck (1996) ex- ressing the goal of enhancing learners’ conceptions
amined seven Biology textbooks using the same of NOS.
framework by Chiappetta et al. (1991). They We maintain that for there to be a radical shift
concluded that the textbooks did not reflect the towards a more balanced representation of the NOS
intended science education reform. Similarly, a in textbooks, publishers need to revisit the mandate
study by Abd-El-Khalick (2002) reported that four given to textbook writers. In South Africa, new
popular science textbooks used in the US were textbooks are first screened by a panel chosen by
devoid of important elements that define the NOS. the Department of Basic Education before being
In view of the critical role played by the approved for the list of books that schools can order
textbook in driving the teaching of science, the from. In the review process, the panel eva-luates
findings of this study raise concerns about the the books against criteria drawn up by the
extent to which curriculum imperatives are being department. To improve the chances of approval,
translated into practice. The findings suggest that publishers instruct writers to ensure that books
the use of the textbook as a resource is under- adhere to these criteria. Given this scenario, it is
mining the advancement of the tenets of the NOS. likely that a change in the textbooks being pro-
A direct implication of this finding is that learners duced can be effected should the department reflect
are not given the opportunity to acquire skills in these selection criteria a more balanced per-
associated with activities that underlie the NOS. As spective on the NOS.
pointed out earlier, growth in an emerging eco-
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