Design Guides For Offshore Structures, Volume 1 - Welded Tubular Joints
Design Guides For Offshore Structures, Volume 1 - Welded Tubular Joints
Design Guides For Offshore Structures, Volume 1 - Welded Tubular Joints
welded
tubular
joints
ARSEM
Association de Recherche sur
les Structures MBtalliques Marines
1987
ISBN 2-7108-0530-8
Printed in France
by lmprimerie Chirat, 42540 Saint-Just-la-Pendue
Foreword
"Design G u i d e s f o r O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s "
In t h e p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s , t h e p e t r o l e u m a n d a l l i e d i n d u s t r i e s . h a v e
c o n s i d e r a b l y b r o a d e n e d t h e i r f i e l d o f a c t i v i t y t o i n c l u d e t h e seas a n d
o c e a n s of t h e e n t i r e world, giving b i r t h to a n e w body o f discipline,
c a l l i n g o n t h e c o m p e t e n c e s o f m a r i n e e n g i n e e r i n g a s w e l l as c i v i l
engineering. T h e characteristics of t h e n e w s t r u c t u r e s designed to
s u p p o r t miscellaneous specific e q u i p m e n t o f p e t r o l e u m production,
w h e t h e r f i x e d or f l o a t i n g , or s t e e l o r c o n c r e t e , f o r e a s y or d i f f i c u l t seas,
e n t a i l e d a n improvement, indeed a basic c h a n g e in traditional concepts.
On t h e i n i t i a t i v e of I n s t i t u t FranGais du P 6 t r o l e ( I F P ) a n d I n s t i t u t
FranGais d e R e c h e r c h e p o u r 1'Exploitation d e la Mer ( I F R E M E R ) , f o u r
r e s e a r c h a s s o c i a t i o n s w e r e set up jointly by I F P a n d I F R E M E R , a l r e a d y
m e n t i o n e d , t h e oil c o m p a n i e s Elf A q u i t a i n e a n d T o t a l C o m p a g n i e
Fransaise des Pbtroles, along with contractors and consulting engineers
in t h e p e t r o l e u m e q u i p m e n t and s e r v i c e s i n d u s t r y , a n d v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h
i n s t i t u t i o n s and l a b o r a t o r i e s s u c h a s C E B T P , C T I C M a n d B u r e a u Veritas:
.A s s o c i a t i o n
d e R e c h e r c h e s u r l e B e t o n e n M e r (ARBEM) w a s
f o r m e d in 1978. I t s . f u n c t i o n is t o i m p r o v e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e
b e h a v i o r of o f f s h o r e c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s , f o r b e t t e r p r e d i c t i o n a n d
a safer g u a r a n t e e of t h e p e r m a n e n c e a n d s a f e t y of these kinds of
structure.
A liaison c o m m i t t e e ( C L A R O M , C o n s e i l d e L i a i s o n d e s A s s o c i a t i o n s
d e R e c h e r c h e s u r l e s O u v r a g e s e n M e r ) w a s f o r m e d in 1 9 8 2 t o h a r m o n i z e
t h e o v e r a l l e f f o r t of these a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d t o p r o m o t e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of their a c t i v i t i e s in F r a n c e a n d a b r o a d . A p u b l i c a t i o n s c o m m i t t e e w a s
set up within t h i s f r a m e w o r k , g r o u p i n g t h e Project M a n a g e r s of t h e f o u r
a s s o c i a t i o n s , w h o s e p u b l i c a t i o n s should h a v e a d e c i s i v e i m p a c t on
d e v e l o p m e n t s in e n g i n e e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s .
E a c h o f t h e D e s i g n G u i d e s in p r e p a r a t i o n c o n c e r n s a s p e c i f i c
s u b j e c t . Based on s t a t e - o f - a r t knowledge, they offer consulting
e n g i n e e r s a n d t e c h n i c i a n s , b u i l d e r s a n d o p e r a t o r s , knowhow, a n d r e c o m -
m e n d a t i o n s f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e s a f e t y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s , while c u t t i n g
costs.
T h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are n o t m e a n t t o s e r v e as r e g u l a t i o n s , which
m u s t in a n y e v e n t be e s t a b l i s h e d by q u a l i f i e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e classi-
fication societies, national regulations and international conventions.
FOREWORD VII
W e wish t h e n e w c o l l e c t i o n of Design G u i d e s f o r O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s
t o be useful a b o v e a l l t o t h e e n g i n e e r s and t e c h n i c i a n s f a c e d with t h e
many p r o b l e m s raised by t h e e x p l o r a t i o n a n d production of s u b s e a
hydrocarbon fields, and, in g e n e r a l , t o a l l t h o s e c o n c e r n e d with t h e
design of o f f s h o r e structures.
Pierre Willm
Scientific Director of Marine Engineering at
Institut FranCais du PBtrole
Chairman of the Publications Committee on
"Design Guides for Offshore Structures"
Preface
T h e s e r e s e a r c h e s a r e c o n d u c t e d as p a r t of a F r e n c h n a t i o n a l
r e s e a r c h program' c o o r d i n a t e d by C o r n i t 6 d ' E t u d e s P g t r o l i s r e s Marines.
T h e f i r s t phase of t h i s work, which e x t e n d e d f r o m 1 9 7 7 t o 1979, w a s
i n t e n d e d t o i m p r o v e knowledge a b o u t t h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o r of welded
t u b u l a r j o i n t s s u b j e c t e d t o r a n d o m l o a d s d u e t o n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s (wave,
wind, c u r r e n t ) . I t comprises t w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y parts, one theoretical
and t h e second experimental:
(1) t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p a r t w a s e n t r u s t e d t o L a b o r a t o i r e d e M6canique
d e s Solides a t t h e E c o l e P o l y t e c h n i q u e (LMS).
(2) t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r t w a s e n t r u s t e d t o I n s t i t u t d e R e c h e r c h e s d e
la Sidgrurgie (IRSID).
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e F r e n c h c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a vast
E u r o p e a n r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on f a t i g u e in welded o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s ,
co-funded by t h e C o m m i s s i o n of E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t i e s (ECSC) a n d t h e
m e m b e r c o u n t r i e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e program: U n i t e d Kingdom, F e d e r a l
Republic of G e r m a n y , N e t h e r l a n d s , D e n m a r k a n d Italy. Norway joined
t h e p r o g r a m subsequently.
T h e r e s u l t s of t h i s high q u a l i t y work w e r e p r e s e n t e d a t t w o
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e s , o n e held in C a m b r i d g e ( U n i t e d Kingdom) f r o m
27 t o 2 9 N o v e m b e r 1978, a n d t h e s e c o n d in Paris ( F r a n c e ) f r o m 5 t o
8 O c t o b e r 1981.
T h e s e c o n d phase of t h i s p r o j e c t , which w a s c o n d u c t e d f r o m 1 9 8 0 t o
1982, and w a s based on t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l knowledge gained
during t h e f i r s t phase, w a s i n t e n d e d t o g i v e t h e designers, builders and
u s e r s of welded s t e e l o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s p r a c t i c a l r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
c o n c e r n i n g t h e f a t i g u e design of these structures, obviously correspon-
ding t o t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t a t t h e t i m e .
X PREFACE
T h i s o b j e c t i v e led i t s a u t h o r s t o g o beyond t h e s t r i c t f r a m e w o r k of
t h e p r o b l e m s r a i s e d within t h e "European P r o g r a m on F a t i g u e in Welded
O f f s h o r e Structures", t o d e a l with o t h e r p r o b l e m s likely t o i n f l u e n c e t h e
dimensioning of a joint, o r t o a f f e c t t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of a welded
joint.
T o d e r i v e a b e t t e r o v e r a l l v i e w of t h e p a r a m e t e r s o r f a c t o r s likely
t o a f f e c t t h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o r of t h e s t r u c t u r e s , it w a s d e c i d e d t o
d e v o t e a n u m b e r of s e c t i o n s to:
(a) c o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n , w i t h a g e n e r a l r e v i e w of t h e techniques,
p r o b l e m s a n d e f f e c t s on f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h .
(b) s t e e l g r a d e s e l e c t i o n m e t h o d s and welding, t o highlight s p e c i f i c
c o n s t r u c t i o n problems, e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d in
welding v e r y t h i c k m a t e r i a l s .
(c) m i s c e l l a n e o u s a p p r o a c h e s in s t r u c t u r a l analysis, t o pinpoint t h e
h y p o t h e s e s and, a b o v e all, t o e m p h a s i z e t h e i r "deterministic",
"probabilistic" o r "random" c h a r a c t e r .
(d) static s t r e n g t h of t u b u l a r joints, b e c a u s e , in t h e chronology of
e n g i n e e r i n g design c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e s e r u l e s are t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e
t o j o i n t dimensioning.
ARSEM r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s a r e i n i t i a t e d by t h e I n s t i t u t F r a n q a i s du
P d t r o l e (IFP) w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e I n s t i t u t F r a n s a i s d e R e c h e r c h e
p o u r 1'Exploitation d e la M e r ( I F R E M E R ) a n d c o n d u c t e d c h i e f l y by LMS,
IRSID, C e n t r e T e c h n i q u e I n d u s t r i e l d e la C o n s t r u c t i o n M e t a l l i q u e
(CTICM) a n d B u r e a u Veritas.
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of ARSEM w a s as f o l l o w s on 1 J a n u a r y 1985:
. Bouygues O f f s h o r e (BOS),
. Bureau V e r i t a s (BV),
.C e n t r e T e c h n i q u e I n d u s t r i e l d e la Construction Metallique
(CTICM),
. C o m p a g n i e F r a n s a i s e d ' E n t r e p r i s e s M g t a l l i q u e s (CFEM),
. C o m p a g n i e FranGaise d e s P e t r o l e s (CFP),
. E n t r e p o s e GTM p o u r l e s t r a v a u x P e t r o l i e r s M a r i t i m e s (ETPM),
. I n s t i t u t F r a n s a i s du P d t r o l e (IFP),
. I n s t i t u t F r a n s a i s d e R e c h e r c h e p o u r 1'Exploitation d e la Mer
(IFREMER)
. I n s t i t u t d e R e c h e r c h e s d e la S i d d r u r g i e F r a n s a i s e (IRSID),
. L a b o r a t o i r e d e M g c a n i q u e d e s S o l i d e s (LMS), E c o l e P o l y t e c h n i q u e ,
. S a m b r e et Meuse ( p l a n t s a n d s t e e l w o r k s ) ,
. S o c i 6 t 6 F r a n s a i s e d ' E t u d e s d ' l n s t a l l a t i o n s S i d g r u r g i q u e s (SOFRESID),
. S o c i b t 6 N a t i o n a l e Elf A q u i t a i n e ( P r o d u c t i o n ) (SNEA-PI,
. Union Sidgrurgique du N o r d e t d e I'Est d e l a F r a n c e (USINOR).
Contents
Foreword .................................................................................. V
Pte f a c e .................................................................................... IX
PART I
SCOPE AND
FIELD OF APPLICATION
OF THE GUIDE
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................
1.1 Purpose of t h e Guide ...........................................................
1.2 Definitions and notations .....................................................
1.3 Classification of tubular joints .............................................
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL GUIDELINES ON JOINT DETAILS ............................. 17
2.1 G e o m e t r i c conditions for t h e preparation. c u t t i n g and
b u t t welding of t u b e s in fabricating a joint .......................... 19
2.2 Conditions governing t h e preparation of t u b e edges
and weld profile .................................................................. 22
CHAPTER 3
STEEL GRADE CHOICE FOR WELDED STEEL STRUCTURES ..... 25
3.1. Introduction ....................................................................... 25
3.2 .
Properties of s t e e l s A s e l e c t i v e review ............................... 28
3.3 Product control a t t h e s t e e l supplier .................................... 32
3.4 Classification by category of welded s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s ...... 34
3.5 Method for selecting s t e e l grades ......................................... 36
3.6 P l a t e forming ...................................................................... 43
XVIII CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4
CORROSION PROTECTION ......................................................... 63
4.1 Corrosion and f a t i g u e ............................................................ 63
4.2 Marine corrosion .................................................................... 64
4.3 P r o t e c t i v e s y s t e m s ................................................................. 66
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 68
PART II
ANALYS IS
OF THE STATIC STRENGTH
OF TUBULAR JOINTS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 73
1.1 Load c a l c u l a t i o n s ................................................................... 74
1.2 S t a t i c s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s ......................................................... 75
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 77
CHAPTER 2
DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES OF CLIMATIC
A N D OCEANOGRAPHIC PARAMETERS ....................................... 79
2.1 Wave ..................................................................................... 79
2.2 Wind. current. e a r t h q u a k e s . t i d e s ............................................ 95
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 96
CHAPTER 3
DETERMINATION OF LOAD CASES REQUIRING
VERIFICATION ............................................................................ 99
3.1 N o r m a l conditions .................................................................. 100
3.2 E x t r e m e conditions ................................................................. 100
3.3 T e m p o r a r y conditions ............................................................. 101
CHAPTER 4
ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS F O R WELDED
TUBULAR JOINTS ....................................................................... 103
4.1 P r o c e d u r e f o r establishing u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s
f o r welded t u b u l a r joints s u b j e c t t o simple loads .................... 103
CONTENTS XIX
4.2 Design u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s f o r
welded t u b u l a r j o i n t s .............................................................. 112
4.3 U l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of w e l d e d t u b u l a r
joints under complex loads ..................................................... 117
References .................................................................................. 119
PART 111
FATIGUE ANALYSIS
OF TUBULAR JOINTS
CHAPTER 1
CONCEPTS ................................................................................. 129
1.1 F a t i g u e a n a l y s i s of t u b u l a r joints ............................................ 129
1.2 D e f i n i t i o n of design s t r e s s a n d s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n
f a c t o r f o r a given loading ....................................................... 130
1.3 D e f i n i t i o n of t h e design stress r a n g e ....................................... 134
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 135
CHAPTER 2
ACTIONS A N D L O A D S ................................................................ 137
2.1 A c t i o n s t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t ............................................ 139
2.2 Load c a l c u l a t i o n s ................................................................... 154
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 167
CHAPTER 3
DETERMINATION OF T H E S T R E S S C O N C E N T R A T I O N
F A C T O R IN SIMPLE G E O M E T R Y J O I N T S .................................... 171
3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................................... 171
3.2 P a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s .............................................................. 172
3.3 N u m e r i c a l m e t h o d .................................................................. 180
3.4 E x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d ............................................................. 188
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 195
CHAPTER 4
DETERMINATION OF T H E S T R E S S C O N C E N T R A T I O N
F A C T O R IN J O I N T S OF C O M P L E X G E O M E T R Y .......................... 199
4.1 K a n d KT j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p .................................................. 200
4.2 J o i n t s w i t h s e v e r a l b r a c e s ....................................................... 201
4.3 S t i f f e n e d j o i n t s ...................................................................... 204
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 210
xx CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5
DEFINITION O F THE REFERENCE S-N CURVE ........................... 213
5.1 D e f i n i t i o n s and b a s e s of t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of t h e S-N c u r v e .................................................................... 213
5.2 R e f e r e n c e S-N c u r v e and validity c o n d i t i o n s ............................ 214
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 218
CHAPTER 6
MODIFICATIONS O F THE REFERENCE S-N CURVE ..................... 219
6.1 S c a l e e f f e c t .......................................................................... 219
6.2 E f f e c t of corrosion ................................................................ 222
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 223
CHAPTER 7
FATIGUE STRENGTH IMPROVING TECHNIQUES .......................... 225
7.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................................... 225
7.2 A c c e p t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n f o r a c o n t r o l l e d profile weld ................ 227
7.3 I m p r o v e m e n t of t h e weld t o e by t h e use of s u i t a b l e
welding p r o c e d u r e s ................................................................. 228
7.4 Weld t o e r e m e l t i n g ................................................................ 229
7.5 Weld t o e grinding o r machining ............................................... 231
7.6 S u p e r f i c i a l p r e s t r e s s ............................................................... 232
7.7 S t r e s s relieving h e a t t r e a t m e n t ............................................... 234
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 236
CHAPTER 8
CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE ............................................... 239
8.1 Methodology .......................................................................... 240
8.2 C u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e rule ......................................................... 243
8.3 Relationship b e t w e e n f a t i g u e l i f e and d a m a g e f a c t o r ............... 246
8.4 S t r e s s processing .................................................................... 247
R e f e r e n c e s .................................................................................. 253
CHAPTER 9
FATIGUE LIFE CALCULATION BY FRACTURE MECHANICS ....... 255
9.1 G e n e r a l ................................................................................. 255
9.2 C r a c k propagation l a w and p r o c e d u r e f o r
calculating fatigue life ........................................................... 257
9.3 D e t a i l e d analysis by a n u m e r i c a l model .................................. 261
References .................................................................................. 264
CONTENTS xXI
ANNEXE A.
Correspondence between French and foreign s t e e l s
.........................................................
for heavy s h e e t metal 269
ANNEXE B.
French Standards for steel tubes .......................................... 293
ANNEXE C.
Stress concentration factors in tubular joints, EPR,
DnV and Lloyd's parametric formulas ................................... 315
PART I
SCOPE AND
FIELD OF APPLICATION
OF THE GUIDE
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Construction c o d e s f o r o f f s h o r e structures r e q u i r e t w o t y p e s of
analysis:
T u b u l a r j o i n t s by r e a s o n of t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n , necessarily display
g e o m e t r i c d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s which a r e t h e s i t e s of s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in
z o n e s l o c a t e d precisely in t h e neighborhood of t h e welds. F a t i g u e c r a c k s
a r e liable t o b e i n i t i a t e d and p r o p a g a t e d in these zones.
As a r u l e , it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y the c o n d i t i o n s
or a r e a s f o r w h i c h e a c h t y p e o f a n a l y s i s g o v e r n s t h e
d e s i g n o f the s t r u c t u r e . T h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r l s a t t e n t i o n
i s therefore d r a w n t o the f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k s :
( a ) C u m u l a t i v e f a t i g u e damage c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t u b u l a r
j o i n t s s h o u l d be p r e c e d e d b y a check on the
punching s h e a r s t r e n g t h under e x t r e m e l o a d s (see
P a r t 11).
( b ) As a p a r t of the f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s o f t h e j o i n t s o f
a n offshore s t r u c t u r e , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o a n a l y z e
systematically all the j o i n t s f o r w h i c h the
f r a c t u r e o f a member t e r m i n a t i n g a t t h i s j o i n t i s
liable to jeopardize the stability of the
s t r u c t u r e , e i t h e r d u e t o a loss of e q u i l i b r i u m , or
b e c a u s e o f a l o w reserve c a p a c i t y t o a c c o m o d a t e a
redistribution of forces (this involves an
a s s e s s m e n t o f the e f f e c t o f " r e d u n d a n c y " , f o l l o w i n g
t h e f r a c t u r e o f the e n d o f a member t e r m i n a t i n g i n
a joint).
Example :
Unless the s t r u c t u r e i s s u b j e c t e d t o l o a d i n g s w h i c h a r e
o n l y s l i g h t l y v a r i a b l e , a l l the l e g j o i n t s o f a j a c k e t
m u s t be a n a l y z e d f o r f a t i g u e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e j o i n t s f o r m i n g p a r t o f the s t r u c t u r e ' s s t a b i l i t y
system (bracing).
1.2.1 TERMINOLOGY
F i g u r e 1.1 g i v e s t h e s t a n d a r d t e r m s e n c o u n t e r e d in a t u b u l a r joint.
I
Chord
(Receiving or continuous tubular member)
Brace
(Welded or "received"
tubular member)
Saddle -
I
F i g . 1.1. B r a c e - c h o r d c o n n e c t i o n .
1.2.2 NOTATIONS
Fig. 1.2.
L = chord s t u b length,
D = chord outside d i a m e t e r ,
T = c h o r d thickness,
d = b r a c e outside d i a m e t e r ,
t = b r a c e thickness,
g = t h e o r e t i c a l gap,
e = e c c e n t r i c i t y (positive in Fig. 1.2, n e g a t i v e otherwise),
o = a c u t e a n g l e defining t h e b r a c e inclinaticn,
a = 2L/D chord s t u b slenderness ratio,
B = d/D b r a c e t o chord d i a m e t e r ratio,
Y = D / 2 T p a r a m e t e r defining t h e s l e n d e r n e s s of t h e c h o r d wall,
- i =t / T b r a c e t h i c k n e s s t o chord t h i c k n e s s r a t i o ,
5 = g / D r e l a t i v e gap.
In t h e c a s e of t w o o r m o r e b r a c e s , t h e y a r e i d e n t i f i e d by a subscript.
T h e l e n g t h L i s u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e the stress c o n c e n t r a -
tion f a c t o r g i v e n b y p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s f o r T and Y
j o i n t s w i t h the b r a c e l o a d e d a x i a l l y .
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the p a r a m e t e r a = 2 L / D i n the p a r a -
metric formulas i s primarly necessary for experimental
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e way i n w h i c h L i s s e l e c t e d i n a r e a l
s t r u c t u r e h a s never been f u l l y c l a r i f i e d . H o w e v e r , t h i s
p a r a m e t e r exerts o n l y a s l i g h t i n f l u e n c e on the c a l c u l a -
tion o f the stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r (SCFJ b y
p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o u s e the s t u b l e n g t h
a s t h e v a l u e o f L , a s d e f i n e d i n Section 2 . l a .
I. 1 INTRODUCTION 7
A. T and Y joints
I /
.-.
Fig. 1.3.
B. X joints
Fig. 1.4.
8 INTRODUCTION I. 1
C. N, K and KT j o i n t s
T h e s e j o i n t s h a v e t w o (or t h r e e ) b r a c e s welded t o t h e c h o r d in t h e
s a m e p l a n e (Fig. 1.5).
----
I
N Joint KT Joint
Fig. i.5.
Eccentricity
Fig. 1.6.
T h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r which t h e s e c o n d a r y m o m e n t d u e t o e c c e n t r i c i t y
should b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in c a l c u l a t i n g t h e stresses a r e d e f i n e d in
S e c t i o n 2 . 1 ~ . T h e o v e r l a p j o i n t is t r e a t e d a s a c o m p l e x joint.
A s a rule, t h e c e n t r o i d a l a x e s of a l l c o n n e c t i n g
members should meet a t t h e same p o i n t . For c o n s t r u c t i o n
r e a s o n s , however f see S e c t i o n 2 . 1 I , t h i s convergence i s
n o t a l w a y s f e a s i b l e , or e v e n p r e f e r a b l e .
I. 1 INTRODUCTION 9
G a p and o v e r l a p
Overlap is s t a t e d t o e x i s t if t w o b r a c e s i n t e r s e c t b e f o r e joining t h e
chord, and a g a p e x i s t s in t h e o p p o s i t e c a s e (Fig. 1.7).
I
I Real gap
I
!
-------
I
I t
Fig. 1.7.
T y p i c a l v a l u e s of g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s
T a b l e 1.1 g i v e s t h e v a l u e s of t h e g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s c o m m o n l y
e n c o u n t e r e d in u n s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s of o f f s h o r e p e t r o l e u m s t r u c t u r e s . I t is
r e c o m m e n d e d t o a d o p t v a l u e s lying in t h e t y p i c a l range.
T a b l e 1.1.
F o r c o m p l e x g e o m e t r y joints, t h e only m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e t o a n a l y z e
t h e l o c a l s t a t e of t h e stresses are:
(a) O v e r l a p joints.
I. 1 INTRODUCTION 11
(b) J o i n t s f o r w h i c h s e v e r a l t u b e c o n n e c t i o n s e x i s t o n t h e s a m e
c h o r d , l o c a t e d in o n e or m o r e p l a n e s ( o t h e r t h a n t h o s e d e f i n e d in
S e c t i o n 1.3.1).
(c) S t i f f e n e d joints.
For s i m p l e g e o m e t r y j o i n t s a n d f o r c e r t a i n l o a d i n g
applications, the stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r c a n be
c a l c u l a t e d b y s i m p l e p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s . Moreover, t h e
g e o m e t r y a n d l o a d i n g mode a r e s u c h t h a t the p o s i t i o n o f
the hot s p o t c a n be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y .
T h i s i s not g e n e r a l l y t r u e o f c o m p l e x g e o m e t r y j o i n t s .
A s i m i l a r comment c a n be made a b o u t t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f
the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f j o i n t s of s i m p l e a n d o f c o m p l e x
geometry .
A. Overlap joints
A n o v e r l a p j o i n t is a j o i n t f o r w h i c h a t l e a s t t w o b r a c e s i n t e r s e c t
b e f o r e joining t h e main chord.
N o p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s c u r r e n t l y e x i s t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e stress
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r in K j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p . T h e p o s i t i o n of t h e h o t
s p o t v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h l o a d e d b r a c e is b e i n g
considered.
A s a r u l e , if t h e o v e r l a p p i n g b r a c e o n l y i s a x i a l l y l o a d e d , t h e h o t
s p o t o c c u r s a t t h e t o p o f t h e o v e r l a p . If t h e t h r o u g h b r a c e o n l y i s a x i a l l y
loaded, t h e h o t s p o t is usually l o c a t e d s o m e w h e r e in t h e chord/b.race
j u n c t i o n z o n e , b u t v e r y r a r e l y a t t h e s a d d l e or c r o w n p o i n t s .
Chord /
Fig. 1.8.
12 INTRODUCTION I. 1
O v e r l a p m a y o c c u r if t h e b r a c e s a n d c h o r d are i n t h e s a m e p l a n e
(Fig. 1.81, o r if t h e b r a c e s a n d c h o r d are in d i f f e r e n t p l a n e s ( F i g . 1.9).
19 I
Noncontinuous
brace
-@-?-
Chord
! 1 Continuous
brace
1
F i g . 1.9.
T h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y or d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f a b r a c e
are d e f i n e d in S e c t i o n 2 . 1 ~ .
T h e o v e r l a p p i n g of one t u b e on a n o t h e r i m p r o v e s the
b e n d i n g r i g i d i t y o f the c h o r d w a l l . T h i s l o c a l s t i f f e n i n g
o f the chord w a l l is d u e t o the p r e s e n c e o f a c o n t i n u o u s
b r a c e l c h o r d j u n c t i o n zone ( F i g . 1 . l o ) .
Chord
I
F i g . 1.10
I. 1 INTRODUCTION 13
/=p&
a t t e m p t s t o define the e x t e n t t o which t h e s t r e s s concentration c a n be
determined.
AA
,
. . . -
/ j I section BB
I I
Fig. 1 . 1 1 .
Case of complex l o a d i n g s ( s i m u l t a n e o u s p r e s e n c e of a
normal force and bending moments) :
A clear d e f i n i t i o n o f the s t r e s s concentration f a c t o r
cannot be given for complex loadings. Part 111, i n Section
3.2.2, describes a s a f e method f o r calculating the
variation i n design s t r e s s .
C. Joints with s t i f f e n e r s
Detall E
I
I
1- or
I
Bevel
I
Fig. 1.12.
I. 1 INTRODUCTION 15
I n n o n - o f f s h o r e t u b u l a r structures, t h e u s e of t u b e s of
small diameter prevents t h e u s e of i n t e r n a l s t i f f e n e r s .
I n t h i s e x t e r n a l s t i f f e n i n g method, w h i l e t h e punching
s t r e n g t h is s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved, n o improvement i n
f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h is a c h i e v e d . F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h may even
t e n d t o d r o p s h a r p l y , due t o t h e p r e m a t u r e a p p e a r a n c e o f
f a t i g u e c r a c k s i n t h e c r i t i c a l stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n z o n e s
(Fig. 1.13).
E x p e r i m e n t a l tests h a v e r e v e a l e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
f a t i g u e c r a c k s o c c u r r i n g a t t h e weld a t t a c h i n g t h e s e
s t i f f e n e r s , s o t h a t a t t e n t i o n m u s t be p a i d n o t o n l y t o t h e
e x e c u t i o n of t h e w e l d s , b u t a l s o t o c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l o c a l
stresses i n t h e neighborhood of t h e s e w e l d s c o n n e c t i n g
them t o t h e main e l e m e n t s , c h o r d s and b r a c e s .
16 INTRODUCTION I. 1
F i g . 1.13
A s a r u l e , on f i x e d structures, i t i s impossible t o
inspect and repair internal s t i f f e n e r s i n a structure i n
service.
CHAPTER 2
General Guidelines
on Joint Details
S e c t i o n 2.2 in p a r t i c u l a r sets f o r t h p r e c i s e r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g
t h e weld p r o f i l e in t h e neighborhood of t h e toes. T h e f a t i g u e s e r v i c e
l i f e is p a r t l y conditioned by t h e r e a l l o c a l profile r a d i u s a t t h e weld t o e s
a t t h e junction of t h e weld a n d t h e wall of t h e chord and brace. P r o p e r
e x e c u t i o n of t h i s d e t a i l s e r v e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e t i m e b e f o r e crack
initiation.
The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f a n offshore s t r u c t u r e j o i n t i s
v e r y s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the p r e p a r a t i o n , f a b r i c a t i o n
a n d f i n i s h e d c o n d i t i o n o f the t u b e s t o be a s s e m b l e d , a n d
a l s o the q u a l i t y control o f the w e l d s .
( a ) Tube c u t t i n g and e d g e b e v e l l i n g .
( b ) T u b e connection a n d t a c k w e l d i n g .
( c ) Weld geometry and d i m e n s i o n s .
18 GENERAL GUIDELINES O N JOINT DETAILS 1.2
Fig. 2.1.
20 G E N E R A L GUIDELINES O N J O I N T S DETAILS 1.2
T h e s a m e r u l e a p p l i e s if a d i f f e r e n t s t e e l g r a d e is used f o r t h e c h o r d -
s t u b t h a n f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e chord.
(c) In a j o i n t of t w o o r m o r e b r a c e s w i t h a c h o r d , t h e d i s t a n c e f
b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s of t h e c e n t e r l i n e s of t h e s e b r a c e s w i t h
t h e c h o r d c e n t e r l i n e should n o t e x c e e d o n e q u a r t e r of t h e c h o r d
diameter. W h e r e t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t c a n n o t be achieved f o r
construction reasons, t h e secondary m o m e n t resulting f r o m
e c c e n t r i c i t y should b e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e s t r u c t u r a l analysis
(Fig. 2.1).
(e) F o r K j o i n t s w i t h overlap:
. T h e s i z i n g of t h e o v e r l a p (i.e. of t h e weld b e t w e e n t w o b r a c e s )
should be s u c h a s t o w i t h s t a n d a t l e a s t 50% of t h e c o m p o n e n t
of t h e a x i a l f o r c e N p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e c h o r d c e n t e r l i n e
(Fig. 2.2).
. T h e t h i c k e r o r m o r e highly s t r e s s e d b r a c e ( t h r o u g h b r a c e ) is
w e l d e d continuously t o t h e chord: t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h i s b r a c e
should n e v e r e x c e e d t h e c h o r d t h i c k n e s s .
I. 2 GENERAL GUIDELINES O N JOINTS DETAILS 21
Section AA
I
Dlscontlnuous / /' )I
Fig. 2.2.
(f) T h e b u t t j o i n t d i s t a n c e s i n c l u d e s bevels in t h e c a s e of t h e
jointing of t u b e s of d i f f e r e n t thicknesses. T u b e s generally h a v e
t h e s a m e o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r in o f f s h o r e p e t r o l e u m s t r u c t u r e s .
Fig. 2.3 g i v e s t h e b u t t welding c o n d i t i o n s f o r t u b e s of d i f f e r e n t
thicknesses and t h e s a m e o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r .
Chord
ffq C
9 '
With bevel
Without bevel
Detall E
< 2mm
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Fig. 2.4.
1.2 G E N E R A L GUIDELINES O N JOINTS DETAILS 23
T h e t o l e r a n c e of t h e b e v e l a n g l e (v)(V = Y - a ) is 2 5 " . If t h e c u t is
r e c l o s e d d u e t o d i f f e r e n t i a l s h r i n k a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e welding
o p e r a t i o n , t h e cut c a n b e re-opened by a r c gouging, t o s a t i s f y t h e g r o o v e
c o n d i t i o n s shown in Fig. 2.5.
C
4 c
Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.6.
24 G E N E R A L GUIDELINES O N JOINTS DETAILS 1.2
3.1 INTRODUCTION
T h e s t e e l g r a d e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a welded c o m p o n e n t
of a n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e depend largely on t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s
c o m p o n e n t in t h e s a f e t y of t h e structure. Methods for checking t h e
s t r e n g t h of s t r u c t u r e s , which r e f e r t o t h e m e t a l ' s yield s t r e n g t h ,
implicitly a s s u m e t h a t t h e m a x i m u m s t r e n g t h of t h e c o m p o n e n t s is
synonymous with d u c t i l e failure. T h e r e f o r e i t is a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e
s u r e t h a t b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e c a n n o t o c c u r during t h e l i f e t i m e of t h e
s t r u c t u r e . To do this, t h e d e s i g n e r m u s t c h e c k t h a t :
T h e conditions t o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in s e l e c t i n g s t e e l quality a r e
all t h o s e which m a y e x e r t a d e t r i m e n t a l effect on t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
c o m p o n e n t s with r e s p e c t t o b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e . T h e s e a r e a s s o c i a t e d with:
(a) T h e s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s t r u c t u r e : t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e
e x t e n t t o which f a t i g u e t y p e loading occurs.
(b) T h e design of the structure: thickness of parts and stress
magnitudes.
26 S T E E L G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
(c) E x e c u t i o n p r o c e d u r e s : t h e i n e v i t a b l e p r e s e n c e of c e r t a i n d e f e c t s in
w e l d e d joints.
I t is a t l o w s e r v i c e t e m p e r a t u r e s t h a t t h e risk of b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e is
t h e g r e a t e s t . T h e u n f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t of t h e f o r c e s i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e i r
magnitude and loading rate.
E x p e r i e n c e , a n d m o r e recently, c e r t a i n f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s m e t h o d s ,
h a v e h e l p e d t o e s t a b l i s h c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e v a l u e s of these
d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s a n d t h e o c c u r r e n c e of b r i t t l e fracture. These
c o r r e l a t i o n s p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s of m e t h o d s for s e l e c t i n g s t e e l q u a l i t i e s
d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 3.5.
E x t r e m e 1 y s i m p l e s t e e l selection c r i t e r i a f o r the
d e s i g n o f s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l t y p e h a v e been
employed f o r a v e r y l o n g t i m e . The t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
s e r v e d a s a d e s i g n b a s i s , w h i l e the m i n i m u m e l o n g a t i o n a t
r u p t u r e g u a r a n t e e d the d u c t i l i t y o f the m a t e r i a l . T h i s l e d
t o the d e v e l o p m e n t of adaptations t h a t w e r e made
i n e v i t a b l e b y t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f the j o i n t d e s i g n m e t h o d s .
F o r t u n a t e l y the v a s t b o d y o f r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d h a s
c u l m i n a t e d i n a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e , a t l e a s t f o r the m o s t
c o m m o n l y u s e d s t e e l s , a l l the d a t a are a v a i l a b l e t o b u i l d
quality structures. H o w e v e r , the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f the
v a r i o u s d o c u m e n t s and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s s o m e t i m e s r e f l e c t the
d i v e r s i t y a n d the u n e v e n v a l u e o f the w o r k u n d e r t a k e n , a n d
a r e mired i n a c e r t a i n c o m p l e x i t y , redundancy, and i n d e e d ,
s o m e t i m e s , cer t a i n d i s p u t a bl e a s p e c t s wh i ch p e r p e t ua t e
r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t a r e no l o n g e r i n t u n e w i t h the g r o w t h o f
know1e d g e .
I. 3 STEEL GRADE CHOICE F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 27
This S e c t i o n r e v i e w s a n u m b e r of c o n c e p t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s
of s t e e l s ( t h e b a s e m a t e r i a l ) a n d t h e welding of t h e s e s t e e l s .
A. S t r u c t u r a l steel g r a d e s
T h e g r a d e of a s t e e l -
i n t h e sense of t h e s t a n d a r d s defining t h e
g r a d e s and q u a l i t i e s of s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s - r e f e r s t o t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e metal: yield s t r e n g t h , t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h a n d elongation.
In F r e n c h s t a n d a r d s , t h e g r a d e is e x p r e s s e d by a n index e q u a l t o t h e
minimum g u a r a n t e e d yield stress R,G, usually e x p r e s s e d in m e g a p a s c a l s
(MPa), e q u i v a l e n t t o N e w t o n s p e r s q u a r e m i l l i m e t r e (N/mrnz).
Reference: [ 3 . 1 ] .
B. Steel quality: f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s
T h e quality of a s t e e l -
in t h e sense of t h e s t a n d a r d s defining steel
g r a d e s and q u a l i t i e s - e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n s its f r a c t u r e toughness, in
o t h e r words its ability t o r e s i s t b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e .
Reference: [ 3.21.
C. Quality criteria
T h e f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s of a s t e e l is d e t e r m i n e d by a n i m p a c t bend
test on a n o t c h e d specimen. T h e test r e s u l t is e x p r e s s e d , with a n
indication of test t e m p e r a t u r e , by t h e f r a c t u r e e n e r g y (in joules) o r t h e
e n e r g y absorbed p e r unit a r e a (in joules/cm*). In t h e l a t t e r case, t h e
r e s u l t is c a l l e d t h e r e s i l i e n c e of t h e m e t a l , w h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r in known
as t h e f r a c t u r e toughness.
I. 3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 29
This r e s u l t d e p e n d s on t h e t y p e s of s p e c i m e n a n d n o t c h employed.
In t h i s guide, reference is m a d e exclusively t o t h e test on a V-notch
s p e c i m e n ( C h a r p y V test s p e c i m e n ) .
3.2.2 WELDING
A. Weldability
T h e weldability of a s t e e l is a c o m p l e x p r o p e r t y which d e p e n d s a s
m u c h on t h e m a t e r i a l ' s i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t i e s a s on t h e s h a p e of t h e p a r t s
a n d t h e way i n which welding o p e r a t i o n s are c o n d u c t e d . T h i s is why t h e y
can only b e c h e c k e d a f t e r c o m p l e t e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h e
welding p r o c e d u r e s , a n d only on s a m p l e s p r e p a r e d w i t h t h e s t e e l
e m p l o y e d which r e p r o d u c e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n d e t a i l s s e l e c t e d (dimensional
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , r e s t r a i n t c o n d i t i o n s of t h e p a r t s , a n d welding p r o c e d u r e s
s p e c i f i e d in fabrication).
B. Weldability criteria, c o l d c r a c k i n g
(a) C a r b o n equivalent.
(b) Weld hardness.
Carbon e q u i V a len t
Many e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r m u l a s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e
the maximum h a r d n e s s o f the h e a t a f f e c t e d zone ( H A Z ) o r
the b a s e m e t a l c o l d c r a c k i n g s e n s i t i v i t y . T h e best k n o w n
f o r m u l a i s the one recommended b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t e o f W e l d i n g ( I I W ) , w h i c h was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r
steels w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c a r b o n content, i . e . i n the
neighborhood of 0.40%).
T h e carbon e q u i v a l e n t c a l c u l a t e d b y the e q u a t i o n r e c o m -
m e n d e d b y the I I W
Mn C r + Mo + V + Ni + Cu
C e = C + - +
6 5 15
i s a f i r s t a p p r o a c h t o d e a l i n g w i t h the risk o f f i n d i n g
c o n s t i t u e n t s sensitive t o e m b r i t t l e m e n t i n the HAZ u n d e r
the e f f e c t o f w e l d i n g . O b v i o u s l y the p r e s e n c e o f these
c o n s t i t u e n t s d e p e n d s on the steel c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t many
other f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d , w h o s e e f f e c t s c a n n o t be
i d e n t i f i e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y the c o n d i t i o n s i m p o s e d on
composition alone.
I t i s c l e a r t h a t , a l l other t h i n g s r e m a i n i n g e q u a l ,
v a r i a t i o n s i n c o m p o s i t i o n c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d . Y e t the
results anticipated from this expedient are on1 y
m e a n i n g f u l f o r the t y p e o f steel f o r w h i c h t h e y h a v e been
established. T h i s i s why i t i s a l w a y s s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d
a s i n g l e v a l u e o f C e i m p o s e d i n s o m e c a s e s on a w h o l e
r a n g e o f s t e e l s w h o s e o n l y common f e a t u r e i s t h e i r mecha-
n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , b u t which d i f f e r i n c o m p o s i t i o n and
structure. Note t h a t a l o w v a l u e o f C e d o e s n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t one is on the s a f e s i d e .
1.3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E FOR WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 31
We1d hardness
I n t h e p a s t , w e l d h a r d n e s s was u s e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e the
h a r d n e s s - c o o l i n g p a r a m e t e r c u r v e s i n a s i m p l e w a y . Here
a l s o , the i m p o s i t i o n o f a s i n g l e h a r d n e s s v a l u e f o r s t e e l s
w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o m p o s i t i o n s a n d s t r u c t u r e s i s no l o n g e r
j u s t i f i e d , and one c a n o n l y h o p e t h a t t h i s p r a c t i c e w i l l
be a b a n d o n e d . I t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t t o e x p e c t t o o b t a i n l o w
h a r d n e s s e s t o g e t h e r w i t h h i g h resilence.
C. L a m e l l a r t e a r i n g
T h e s e n s i t i v i t y of a s t e e l t o t h i s d e f e c t is e v a l u a t e d by m e a s u r i n g t h e
r e d u c t i o n in area during a t e n s i l e test on a t h r o u g h t h i c k n e s s s p e c i m e n
(see S e c t i o n 3.7.5).
Reference: [ 3 . 1 9 ] .
D. Steel s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g a n d a g e i n g
Ageing is a l s o a c c e l e r a t e d by an increase i n t e m p e r a t u r e , a s in s t e e l
p l a t e s t h a t a r e work h a r d e n e d during m e c h a n i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , and t h e n
r a i s e d t o e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s by welding operations.
S e c t i o n 3.6 r e v i e w s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g p l a t e m e t a l shaping.
Reference: [ 3.51.
32 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 1.3
If t h e o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e c o n c e r n e d h a s t o b e "classed" o r "certified"
by a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n Society, o r built u n d e r t h e supervision of a n
i n s p e c t i o n a g e n c y d e s i g n a t e d by t h e c l i e n t o r by t h e c o u n t r y in whose
t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s t h e structure will be p l a c e d , c o n t r o l s a t t h e s t e e l
production p l a n t m u s t be planned a t t h e t i m e of ordering, i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t r e g u l a t i o n s and r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
S o c i e t y o r of t h e i n s p e c t i o n a g e n c y responsible f o r supervising
construction.
.T h e n a m e o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n S o c i e t y o r t h e i n s p e c t i o n a g e n c y
responsible f o r w o r k s inspection.
.Q u a n t i t y ( n u m b e r of p i e c e s o r weight).
. S h a p e of t h e product.
.Nominal dimensions.
.Dimensional t o l e r a n c e s .
.S t e e l g r a d e s and qualities.
.A g r e e d u t i l i z a t i o n g u a r a n t e e s .
.T e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s .
. H e a t t r e a t m e n t conditions.
. S u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t and finishing conditions.
. T y p e s and c o n d i t i o n s of i n s p e c t i o n t o b e p e r f o r m e d on e a c h b a t c h ,
and t h e t y p e s of c o n t r o l d o c u m e n t t o be furnished.
.P r o d u c t m a r k i n g conditions, finishing, packaging, loading and
s h i p m e n t c o n d i t i o n s and t h e destination.
T h e f o r e g o i n g d e t a i l s c a n be d e f i n e d b y reference t o :
( a ) Standards.
f b ) R e g u l a t i o n s [ 3.10,
3 . 7 , 3.81 or d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a -
tions o f o i l companies [ 3 . 6 , 3 . 1 5 1 .
A f t e r i n s p e c t i o n b y the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n S o c i e t y or t h e
i n s p e c t i o n agency, the p r o d u c t s a r e s t a m p e d a n d a n
inspection c e r t i f i c a t e is prepared in conditions similar
t o those l i s t e d i n the relevant S e c t i o n s o f the R u l e s f o r
M a t e r i a l s o f Bureau V e r i t a s [ 3 . 1 0 ] .
1.3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 33
N F A 03-116 ( S t e e l products),
N F A 49-001 ( S t e e l pipes and tubular products).
34 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
3.4 CLASSIFICATION BY C A T E G O R Y OF
WELDED S T R U C T U R A L ELEMENTS
(1) S p e c i a l c a t e g o r y .
( 2 ) First category.
(3) Second c a t e g o r y .
T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e distinguished by t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s in t e r m s of t h e s a f e g u a r d i n g of h u m a n lives a n d e c o n o m i c
losses t h a t could r e s u l t f r o m t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e s t r u c t u r e o r of o n e of
i t s components.
Special c a t e g o r y e l e m e n t s
E l e m e n t s in t h i s c a t e g o r y a r e t h o s e highly s t r e s s e d f i r s t c a t e g o r y
s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s whose c o m p l i c a t e d s h a p e s a n d s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s
i n c u r u n c e r t a i n i t i e s in t e r m s of design, c o n s t r u c t i o n o r inspection.
First c a t e g o r y e l e m e n t s
T h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y includes s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s whose f a i l u r e i n c u r s
t h e risk of c o l l a p s e of t h e s t r u c t u r e , o r whose f a i l u r e could c a u s e t h e
disabling of t h e p l a t f o r m .
Second c a te gory e l e m e n t s
In p r e p a r i n g working drawings, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o n o t e t h e
r e l e v a n t c a t e g o r y f o r each s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t a n d e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e
joints. Similarly, i t is i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e d r a w i n g s t o mention, w i t h a
n o t a t i o n as c o m p l e t e as possible, a l l d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c h o i c e of t h e
s t e e l q u a l i t y a n d t h e f a b r i c a t l o n c o n d i t i o n s including:
(a) D e s i g n a t i o n of t h e s t e e l grade.
(b) C h a r p y V test c o n d i t i o n s ( d i r e c t i o n of s a m p l i n g of test s p e c i m e n s ,
i m p a c t test t e m p e r a t u r e s , v a l u e of f r a c t u r e e n e r g y ) .
I. 3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 35
a n d if applicable:
(a) G u a r a n t e e d r e d u c t i o n i n a r e a in t h e s h o r t t r a n s v e r s e direction.
(b) G u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e toughness a f t e r a g e i n g test.
(c P r e h e a t c on di t i o ns.
(d) S t r e s s r e l i e f h e a t t r e a t m e n t .
Special category:
( a ) J a c k e t l e g j o i n t s ( m a i n c h o r d s t u b a n d brace s t u b ) .
(b) Joints t h a t are highly stressed b y concentrated
loads (such as l i f t i n g , or a t t h e t i m e o f
launching).
( c ) J o i n t s l o c a t e d i n the s p l a s h zone.
( d ) P a r t s c o n n e c t i n g the d e c k t o h i g h l y s t r e s s e d l e g s .
First c a t e g o r y :
( a ) J o i n t s o f u p r i g h t s a n d d i a g o n a l s not f o r m i n g p a r t
o f the j a c k e t l e g s .
(b) Joints o f s u p p o r t and g u i d e s t r u c t u r e s f o r the
risers a n d c o n d u c t o r p i p e s ( g r i d s ) .
( c ) B r a c e s o f the j a c k e t a n d d e c k .
Second ca t e g o r y :
Note t h a t j o i n t s o f " j a c k e t " structures are never
c l a s s e d i n the s e c o n d c a t e g o r y .
36 STEEL GRADE CHOICE FOR WELDED STRUCTURES I. 3
- .
S t a n d a r d N F A 3 6 - 2 1 2 c u r r e n t l y a t the p u b l i c e n q u i r y
s t a g e and i n t e n d e d t o s u p p l e m e n t S t a n d a r d s N F A 35-501 and
N F A 36-210 r e l a t e d t o s t r u c t u r a l steels f o r r o u t i n e u s e ,
concerns the d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e g r a d e s a n d q u a l i t i e s o f
p l a t e f o r the f a b r i c a t i o n o f o f f s h o r e c o m p o n e n t s d e s i g n e d
t o w i t h s t a n d e s p e c i a l l y severe o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s (North
Sea f o r e x a m p l e ) .
T h i s s t a n d a r d d e f i n e s a number o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
( a ) The guaranteed mechanical properties ( tensile
s t r e n g t h , bend test, f r a c t u r e toughness, r e d u c t i o n
i n a r e a a c r o s s the thickness, i n t e r n a l s o u n d n e s s ) .
( b ) Guarantees of l a d l e chemical c o m p o s i t i o n a n d carbon
e q u i v a l e n t v a l u e s of t h e p r o d u c t f o r the q u a l i t i e s
o f g r a d e PF36.
For t h e submerged p a r t , t h e d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e i s t a k e n by
c o n v e n t i o n a s 0°C. In t e m p e r a t e a n d w a r m zones, h o w e v e r , i t is
a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e i s t h e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e
c o l d e s t d a y of t h e year in t h e area w h e r e t h e s t r u c t u r e will b e used.
T 2 l5O C G u l f of Guinea
D
Persian Gulf
t a k e T = 15OC
D Indonesia
R e d Sea
(1) In t h e North S e a , t h e D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y
r e c o m m e n d s u s i n g the service t e m p e r a t u r e s of - 1 O O C
for the a t m o s p h e r i c zone a n d +4OC for the s u b m e r g e d
zone.
( 2 ) C l i m a t e s r e l a t e d t o seas close t o the A r c t i c Ocean
( N o r t h of the 6 5 t h p a r a l l e l ) a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n
this t a b l e .
T h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e s e l e c t i o n m e t h o d c o n s i s t s in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e a t which t h e e n e r g y a b s o r b e d KV d u r i n g a n i m p a c t test on
a V n o t c h s p e c i m e n will h a v e t h e m i n i m u m c o n v e n t i o n a l v a l u e s set by
t h e t a b l e b e l o w (in joules).
38 S T E E L G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
Individual 18 ( L ) 18 ( L ) 18 (L)
minimum value 14 (TI
I1 S t e e l s f o r which 300 M P a I R e G 2 4 2 0 M P a
r
Mean minimum 34 (L) 34 (L) 34 ( L )
value for 3 2 4 (TI
tests ( J )
(L) T e s t s p e c i m e n t a k e n p a r a l l e l t o t h e rolling d i r e c t i o n .
(TI T e s t s p e c i m e n t a k e n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e rolling d i r e c t i o n .
Note:
(1) T h e v a l u e s given i n these t a b l e s c o n c e r n finished p r o d u c t s a f t e r
f a b r i c a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 3.7.3).
(2) F o r joints, it is r e c o m m e n d e d t o r e c o r d t h e v a l u e s of t h e fracture
e n e r g y o n test s p e c i m e n s t a k e n i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e ( t h r o u g h
thickness) direction.
The m i n i m u m C h a r p y V f r a c t u r e e n e r g i e s g i v e n i n t h e
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e those a p p e a r i n g i n the R u l e s f o r
M a t e r i a l s o f B u r e a u Veritrls 1980 E d i t i o n , C h a p t e r 2 ,
Section 2 . 2 ( u p d a t e N o 1 , J a n u a r y 1 9 8 3 ) . T h e steels h a v e
been d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o the m i n i m u m
g u a r a n t e e d v a l u e r e q u i r e d . Some r e g u l a t i o n s a n d recommen-
d a t i o n s [ 3 . 8 ] p r o p o s e r e t a i n i n g the s a m e m i n i m u m e n e r g y
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f steel g r a d e , b u t r e q u i r e a l o w e r i m p a c t
test temperature for grades w i t h h i g h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
( Rec 320 MPa) .
1.3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 39
3.5.3 TEST T E M P E R A T U R E
T h e test t e m p e r a t u r e on a V n o t c h s p e c i m e n i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e
g e n e r a l d i a g r a m s given below. T h e s e d i a g r a m s , which h e l p t o s e l e c t
steel g r a d e s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of o f f s h o r e p e t r o l e u m s t r u c t u r e s , g i v e
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t which t h e C h a r p y V f r a c t u r e e n e r g y v a l u e s m u s t be
g u a r a n t e e d t o ensure, in principle, a s u f f i c i e n t l y l o w probability of
f r a c t u r e of a s t r u c t u r e in s e r v i c e . F o r a g i v e n m i n i m u m f r a c t u r e e n e r g y
(see S e c t i o n 3.521, t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d s on t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e
and t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e s t e e l p r o d u c t e m p l o y e d ( t u b e , p l a t e , etc.)
( D i a g r a m s I, I1 a n d II&
Special Category
As welded condltlon without post-weld heat treatment for steels wlth Re, < 420 Nlmm’
For To < -2OOC the steel grade should be decided In consultatlon wlth the classlflcatlon society
+ 30
+ 20
Thickness In mm
Thickness in mm
2nd Category
For steels with Re, ri 420 N/mm*
For To < -2OOC the steel grade should be decided In consultatlon wlth the classlflcatlon eoclety
10 20 30 40 50 80 70 80 80 100 110
Thlckness In mm
Dlagram 111 (extract from reference 13.10D
1.3 STEEL G R A D E CHOICE F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 41
The j u s t i f i c a t i o n s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r 1 y i n g the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m s g i v e n i n the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
are g i v e n i n R e f . [ 3 . 9 1 and i n d o c u m e n t N F A 3 6 - 0 1 0 . These
d i a g r a m s h a v e been a d a p t e d t o the choice o f steel
q u a l i t i e s o f the s t r u c t u r e s o f o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s i n
u p d a t e N o 1 , A u g u s t 1 9 8 2 o f the R e g u l a t i o n s o f B u r e a u
V e r i t a s f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f
o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s , C h a p t e r 5.
T h i s g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h , w h i c h serves t o d e t e r m i n e the
choice o f steel q u a l i t i e s d e p e n d s on many p a r a m e t e r s , and
it i s important t o k e e p i n mind t h a t , f o r a welded
s t r u c t u r e , o n l y a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f steel g r a d e s s h o u l d be
considered, w h i c h p o s s e s s c l e a r l y d e f i n e d p r o p e r t i e s and
are j u s t i f i a b l y appropriate.
T h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n d i a g r a m s I a n d 11 i d e n t i f i e s the
d i f f e r e n c e i n r e q u i r e m e n t s r e l a t i v e t o the s p e c i a l
c a t e g o r y b e t w e e n a steel i n the a s w e l d e d s t a t e and a
w e l d e d steel w i t h a stress r e l i e f h e a t t r e a t m e n t . For
c o n v e n t i o n a l l o w a l l o y c a r b o n s t e e l s , the stress r e l i e v i n g
h e a t t r e a t m e n t h a s the e f f e c t o f s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c i n g
the r e s i d u a l stresses. T h i s i s why the r e q u i r e m e n t s
c o n c e r n i n g the i m p a c t t e s t t e m p e r a t u r e a r e l e s s severe i n
this c a s e .
( a ) By a d j u s t i n g the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n by the
addition of microalloy elements.
( b ) By q u e n c h i n g and t e m p e r i n g t r e a t m e n t .
( c ) By s i n g l e controlled r o l l i n g .
( d ) By d i f f e r e n t sorts o f controlled t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l
roll i n g .
I t should be noted t h a t d u r i n g w e l d i n g , or d u r i n g
stress re1 i e f h e a t t r e a t m e n t , the m i c r o s t r u c f u r e ( a n d / o r
t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ) o f the b a s e m e t a l may be d e s t r o y e d , so
t h a t the f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s of these t y p e s o f steel
decreases s i g n i f i c a n t l y . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o make s u r e
t h a t the conditions p e r t a i n i n g t o the f a b r i c a t i o n o f
steels o b t a i n e d b y s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e s a r e c o m p l i e d w i t h b y
the steel m a k e r s .
42 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
"The a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n r e a l s i z e s and c a l c u l a t e d s i z e s
o f d e f e c t s i s n o t e x c e l l e n t , a n d t h i s c o n c e p t o f the COD
p r o v i d e s a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n o f n o n - f r a c t u r e f o r the
time being only. A l t h o u g h i t errs on the s a f e s i d e , the
d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n the m e t h o d and t e s t r e s u l t s r e a c h
v a l u e s w h i c h a r e too g r e a t f o r t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s t o be
universally acceptable."
1.3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 43
3.6 P L A T E FORMING
T h e a g e i n g of s t e e l o c c u r s a f t e r c o l d work hardening. I t r e s u l t s i n
t h e p r o g r e s s i v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of i t s toughness. Ageing c a n b e
a c c e l e r a t e d if work hardening is followed by m o d e r a t e heating. This is
t o be f e a r e d , e s p e c i a l l y f o r s t e e l s t h a t a r e cold f o r m e d and t h e n weld
fabricated.
T h e c o l d f o r m i n g c o n d i t i o n s of p l a t e s used t o build o f f s h o r e
s t r u c t u r e s m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e s u b j e c t e d t o a q u a l i f i c a t i o n procedure.
T h e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e f o r s t e e l s f o r
which R,G < 4 2 0 MPa a r e r e v i e w e d below:
C a l c u l a t e t h e s t r a i n r a t i o by t h e equation:
A% = x 100
d; + t
~
where
t = p l a t e thickness,
di = inside d i a m e t e r .
If A% 6 5%: no q u a l i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e is required.
If A% >5%:
.
F o r m a test coupon in t h e planned f a b r i c a t i o n conditions.
.
F r o m t h e test coupon, m a c h i n e s p e c i m e n s w i t h a V n o t c h ,
s u b j e c t t h e m t o s i m u l a t e d a g e i n g by h e a t i n g a t 2 5 0 ° C f o r 1 h.
.
If t h e f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s r e m a i n s a t l e a s t e q u a l t o t h e minimum
v a l u e i m p o s e d by t h e R e g u l a t i o n o r by t h e Building C o d e , no
h e a t t r e a t m e n t is necessary.
.
If not, p r o c e e d w i t h stress r e l i e v i n g h e a t t r e a t m e n t and, on t h e
s a m p l e , c h e c k t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s of t h e m e t a l a f t e r
f o r m i n g and t r e a t m e n t is a t l e a s t e q u a l t o t h e m i n i m u m f r a c t u r e
t o u g h n e s s imposed by t h e R e g u l a t i o n o r by t h e Building C o d e .
T h e steel m i l l t h a t h a s d e l i v e r e d steel p r o d u c t s
( p l a t e ) m u s t i n f o r m the c u s t o m e r o f the u p p e r a n d l o w e r
t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t e s t o be m a i n t a i n e d f o r h o t f o r m i n g a n d
any h e a t treatment.
A f t e r h o t f o r m i n g a n d a n y h e a t t r e a t m e n t , the p l a t e
m u s t conserve i t s g u a r a n t e e d m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . In
p a r t i c u l a r , the f r a c t u r e e n e r g y on a C h a r p y V t e s t
s p e c i m e n m u s t r e m a i n h i g h e r t h a n the g u a r a n t e e d v a l u e f o r
the p l a t e steel g r a d e before f o r m i n g ( s e e Section 3 . 5 . 2 ) .
I. 3 STEEL G R A D E CHOICE F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 45
3.7 WELDING
Cold c r a c k i n g is by f a r t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t y p e of d e f e c t in t h e
welding of s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l s , t o t h e point w h e r e t h e c o n c e p t of
weldability of t h e s e s t e e l s is o f t e n a s s i m i l a t e d with t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o
t h i s defect. This is why t h e p r e c a u t i o n s t o be observed t o e l i m i n a t e
t h e risk of cold c r a c k i n g occupy a p r e d o m i n a n t p l a c e in t h e definition
of t h e weldability of s t e e l s f o r o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s .
I t is e s s e n t i a l t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e welding behavior of s t e e l s
d e p e n d s closely on t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n and s t r u c t u r e . T h e welding
conditions and p r e c i s e v a l u e s of t h e p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e a d j u s t m e n t of
welding e q u i p m e n t must b e d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h t y p e of welded joint
and e a c h s t e e l supply. In t h i s r e s p e c t one c a n n o t rely on g e n e r a l ,
s i m p l e rules, o r discard c o m p l i a n c e with t h e qualification r u l e s of t h e
welding procedures.
A. General recommendations
T h e c r a c k t e s t i n g m e t h o d using i m p l a n t s o f f e r s q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a on
t h e following points:
46 S T E E L G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e cold c r a c k i n g
s e n s i t i v i t y of w e l d a b l e s t e e l s , using d i f f e r e n t v a r i a n t s of t h e i m p l a n t
test ( c i r c u l a r o r h e l i c o i d a l n o t c h ) i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e following t w o
French s t a n d a r d s :
N F A 89-100: C o l d c r a c k i n g test m e t h o d s using i m p l a n t s .
N F A 03-185: C o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e
c o l d c r a c k i n g s e n s i t i v i t y of w e l d a b l e s t e e l s by t h e
c r a c k i n g test on h e l i c o i d a l n o t c h implants.
In t h e a b s e n c e of a s p e c i f i c d o c u m e n t f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s , t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s r e c o g n i z e d by t h e C o m m i s s i o n
d ' A g r 6 m e n t de5 A c i e r s S o u d a b l e s ( A p p r o v a l C o m m i s s i o n f o r Weldable
S t e e l s ) a n d c o m p i l e d in t h e d o c u m e n t :
can p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k t o d e t e r m i n e d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s on t h e
w e l d a b i l i t y of steels f o r o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s .
(a) T h e r e c o m m e n d e d r a n g e d e f i n i n g a l l t h e welding c o n d i t i o n s
which, a p a r t f r o m s p e c i f i c cases, should help t o e l i m i n a t e t h e
risk of c o l d c r a c k i n g .
(b) T h e r a n g e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o welding c o n d i t i o n s leading t o t h e
s a m e r e s u l t if t h e welding o p e r a t i o n i n c l u d e s preheating.
(c) T h e r a n g e including a l l t h e welding c o n d i t i o n s g e n e r a l l y advised
a g a i n s t , b u t in which t h e w e l d e r find himself o p e r a t i n g if h e
plans t o proceed with both preheating and postheating i n
c o n d i t i o n s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e s t e e l producer.
T h e o r d i n a t e of these charts is t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e m e m b e r s t o be
w e l d e d ( t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e c h o r d wall f o r a t u b u l a r j o i n t a n d t h e
t h i c k n e s s a t t h e j o i n t f o r t w o b u t t welded tubes). T h e abscissa is t h e
e q u i v a l e n t welding e n e r g y d e f i n e d by t h e e q u a t i o n :
T h e v a l u e of t h e f a c t o r k d e p e n d s on t h e t y p e of w e l d e d joint. I t is
given by T a b l e 3.2 of t h e c o m m e n t a r y f o r s o m e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s
c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n t u b u l a r joints. The thermal efficiency
d e p e n d s on t h e welding procedure. I t is c o n v e n t i o n a l l y t a k e n as 1 f o r
welding w i t h c o a t e d e l e c t r o d e s a n d flux welding, a n d 0.7 f o r MIG
welding.
60 UI
E (nominal) = -
1000 v
w h e r e E is in ( k J / c m ) , a n d U a n d I a r e t h e welding v o l t a g e and
a m p e r a g e in v o l t s and a m p e r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d V i s t h e welding s p e e d
in c m / m i n . If t h e p a r a m e t e r s U, I a n d V a r e unknown, t h e nominal
e n e r g y m a y b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e e l e c t r o d e d i a m e t e r a n d t h e l e n g t h of
weld d e p o s i t e d a f t e r having c o n s u m e d 10 c m of e l e c t r o d e . R e f e r t o
T a b l e 3.1.
48 S T E E L G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
T a b l e 3.1.
L e n g t h of w e l d (in c m ) c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 10 c m of e l e c t r o d e
c o n s u m e d a s a f u n c t i o n of e l e c t r o d e d i a m e t e r a n d n o m i n a l
welding energy; f l a t position (nominal e l e c t r o d e
e f f i c i e n c y : 100-1 15%)
(a) T o f i n d t h e w e l d i n g e n e r g y r e q u i r e d , b y f i r s t s e l e c t i n g t h e t y p e of
electrode, t h e preheating conditions and t h e s t e e l grade, and then,
w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e p a r t t o b e a s s e m b l e d
determining t h e minimum allowable value of t h e equivalent
energy.
(b) To c h e c k t h e s i t u a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e w e l d a b i l i t y r a n g e , b y
verifying, with r e f e r e n c e to t h e thickness, t h e equivalent energy
a n d t h e c h o i c e of e l e c t r o d e s , w h e t h e r t h e o p e r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e in
a r e c o m m e n d e d r a n g e or w h e t h e r t h e w e l d i n g c o n d i t i o n s h a v e t o
b e altered.
1.3 STEEL GR ADE CHOICE FOR WELDED STRUCTURES 49
.m
Partial penetration V butt joint
0.58 0.60 0.63 0.67
Tubular j o i n t s
1 270'
k =
1 + 0.5(t/T)'
X
360' - CU,
(with a i n degrees)
T h e following f a c t o r s c o n d i t i o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of postheating:
(a) P r e h e a t i n g a n d i t s m a i n t e n a n c e a f t e r welding.
(b) T h e e n v i r o n m e n t ( t e m p e r a t u r e , wind, humidity).
(c) E n e r g y of t h e welding passes.
(d) F r e q u e n c y of e x e c u t i o n of s u c c e s s i v e welding passes.
( e l H e a t c a p a c i t y of t h e welded m e m b e r s .
Preheating and m a i n t e n a n c e of t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g
w e l d i n g , a s w e l l a s p o s t h e a t i n g , p r o v i d e the m e a n s t o
a d j u s t t h e w e l d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e c y c l e , t o e n s u r e t h a t the
c r i t i c a l c o o l i n g r a t e i s not r e a c h e d . I f the h e a t i n p u t
d u e t o w e l d i n g a n d the f o r m of t h e m e m b e r s a r e s u c h t h a t
the c r i t i c a l c o o l i n g r a t e i s a l w a y s r e a c h e d b y " n a t u r a l "
c o o l i n g , the f o l l o w i n g a1 t e r n a t i v e s a r e a v a i l a b l e :
( a ) P r e h e a t i n g t h a t i n c r e a s e s t h e a m o u n t of h e a t t o be
d i s s i p a t e d a n d hence r e d u c e s the c o o l i n g r a t e .
( b ) Postheating w h i c h s l o w s down c o o l i n g , e n s u r e s the
d i f f u s i o n of h y d r o g e n , a n d d e l a y s the f o r m a t i o n of
stress i n the j o i n t ( r e s i d u a l stresses, stresses
a r i s i n g form r e s t r a i n t c o n d i t i o n s ) .
T h e weld z o n e c o n s i s t s of t h e z o n e t a k e n up by t h e d e p o s i t e d f i l l e r
m e t a l as w e l l as t h e a d j a c e n t z o n e s c a l l e d t h e h e a t a f f e c t e d z o n e s
(HAZ). F r e n c h r e g u l a t i o n s [ 3.10, 3.11 ] and d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s [3.6,
3.15 ] r e q u i r e t h e s a m e minimum fracture e n e r g y in t h e welded z o n e as
t h a t imposed f o r t h e s t e e l ( b a s e m e t a l ) (see S e c t i o n 3.5.2). The
t e m p e r a t u r e a t which t h e C h a r p y V i m p a c t v a l u e in t h e welded j o i n t
1.3 STEEL GRADE CHOICE F O R WELDED STRUCTURES 51
( m e l t e d zone, h e a t a f f e c t e d z o n e ) m u s t b e g u a r a n t e e d is d e t e r m i n e d
from t h e s a m e general diagrams a s those employed t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
t e s t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e b a s e m e t a l steel.
I t i s important t o n o t e t h a t t h e ordering o f s t e e l s
a l w a y s precedes f a b r i c a t i o n , and t h a t welding procedures
and methods, a s well a s t h e d i f f e r e n t heat treatments
subsequent t o f a b r i c a t i o n operations, are not a l w a y s
defined a t the time o f ordering. We t h e r e f o r e wish t o
d r a w t h e b u y e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e importance o f c l e a r l y
d e f i n i n g the s p e c i f i c requirements t h a t the planned
s t r u c t u r e has t o meet, a t the time the s t e e l s are being
ordered, and t h i s i n c l o s e l i a i s o n with t h e steelmaker.
C e r t a i n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s [ 3.7, 3.8 ] e s s e n t i a l l y c o v e r i n g s t r u c t u r e s
built in t h e N o r t h S e a , r e q u i r e d stress relieving heat t r e a t m e n t if t h e
t u b e wall t h i c k n e s s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e weld dimension e x c e e d e d 50 m m f o r
t h e p a r t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e in t h e splash z o n e a n d 6 3 m m f o r t h e p a r t s of
t h e s t r u c t u r e in t h e a t m o s p h e r i c zone.
C a s e a (Fig. 3.1):
T h e b r a c e t h i c k n e s s joined by t h e weld is g r e a t e r t h a n 40 mm. This
case c o r r e s p o n d s t o a weld l o c a t e d in a stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n zone.
52 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 1.3
Heat treatment
required:
. Weld A
. Weld D
( w h e n t > 50 m m ,
D see case b)
Stub wall
No heat treatment
required:
. Weld B
30 mm . Weld C
Stiffener
rrclch
Fig. 3.1.
C a s e b (Fig. 3.2):
T h e t u b e t h i c k n e s s joined by t h e weld is g r e a t e r t h a n 50 m m , e.g.
longitudinal weld of a welded t u b e a n d b u t t weld f o r t u b e b u t t welding
(or t u b e / s t u b junction). This c a s e c o r r e s p o n d s t o w e l d s f a r f r o m t h e
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n zones.
Heat treatment
required:
Brace
.Weld B
wall t < 40mm
___-
N o heat t r e a t m e n t
required:
.Weld A
Stub wall 50 mm (when t > 4 0 mm,
- .- -
see c a s e a)
Fig. 3.2.
Fracture toughness t e s t s a r e c o n d u c t e d on w e l d s
e x e c u t e d on t e s t s p e c i m e n s , i n o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a t
a r e a b s o l u t e l y i d e n t i c a l t o the p r o c e d u r e a d o p t e d f o r
b u i l d i n g the s t r u c t u r e : the m i n i m u m i m p a c t e n e r g y level
m u s t be s a t i s f i e d both i n the HA2 a n d i n the f i l l e r m e t a l
( s e e P a r t 111, Section 3 . 5 . 2 ) . F o r a j o i n t , when the
stress r e l i e v i n g o f the c o m p l e t e member i s c a l l e d f o r ,
o n l y overall t r e a t m e n t i n the f u r n a c e i s a c c e p t a b l e .
1.3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 53
The weld
Case b qualificatlon
T > 40mm procedure Generally
Weld at a Weld sltuated In requires good for T < 40 mm
distance from a stress fracture PWHT is
stress concentration toughness at unnecessary
concentration properties for all
zones
f +
Charpy V
Notch tests
ul
.-c
C
4
c
-
TJ
5
Thickness
(mm) ',g~
c
Dry basic
electrodes only
Rutile
basic
electrodes
b
5 7 10 20 30 50 E equivalent
(kJlcm)
Conditions for welding . E 24-2- E 24-3. E 24-4steels
Fig. 3.3.
Preheating
temperature (OC)
Conditions for welding ~ E 28-2. E 28-3- E 28-4steels Conditions for welding - E 36-3- E 36-4steels
Fig. 3.4. Pig. 3.5.
I. 3 STEEL G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 55
Preheating
Thickness Temperature ("C)
(kJlcm)
Conditions for welding . E 355 steel Conditions for welding . E 375. Type 1 steel
Thickness Thickness
Preheating Preheating
Temperature ("C) Temperature ("C)
80
50
30
20
15
10
9
8
5 7 10 20 30 50 E equivalente
(kJlcm)
Conditions for welding . E 375. Type II steel Condltlons for welding . E 420 steel
L a m e l l a r t e a r i n g c a n b e a v o i d e d by imposing s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s on
t h e v a l u e of r e d u c t i o n i n a r e a in t h e "short" t r a n v e r s e d i r e c t i o n ( t e n s i l e
test s p e c i m e n t a k e n a c r o s s t h e t h i c k n e s s , o r t h e "2" d i r e c t i o n ) , of t h e
b a s e p r o d u c t ( p l a t e o r tube). A s a r u l e , f o r t h e "special category",
q u a l i t y 235 is i m p o s e d a c c o r d i n g t o S t a n d a r d N F A 36-202. Certain
p r e c a u t i o n s m a y a l s o b e o b s e r v e d during f a b r i c a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e ,
welding o n t o a p r i o r weld build u p o n a s e n s t i v e p l a t e .
Due t o h i g h s t a t i c or f a t i g u e f o r c e s , tubular j o i n t s i n
o f f s h o r e petroleum structures are o f t e n made w i t h very
thick tubes ( 5 0 t o 80 mm).
Table 3.3.
S t e e l s with R e min. g u a r a n t e e d < 300 N / m m z
T a b l e 3.4.
S t e e l s w i t h 300 5 R e mip. g u a r a n t e e d 6 4 2 0 N / m m 2
2
et FP II
EH 32, EH 36 Bureau Verltas
E 420 FP NF A 36-201
E 36-4 N F A 35-501
A 52 FP NF A 36-205
X A 52 AP NF A 36-205
X E 355 R I NF A 36-201
et R II
E 355 FP I NF A 36-201
et FP II
DH 32, DH 36 Bureau Veritas
X
.. E 420 R NF A 35-501
X X E 420 FP NF A 36-201
0 X I X A 52 AP NF A 36-205
X A 52 CP NF A 36-205
X X E 355 R I NF A 36-201
I I et R I1
I X
.. I AH 32, AH 36 Bureau Veritas
I X I X E 420 R NF A 36-201
+ 20 X X A 52 CP NF-A 36-205
( a ) P r o p e r t i e s : Re and R .
( b ) Guarantees of resistance against the risk of
brittle f r a c t u r e .
Remarks :
1 . C e r t a i n steel q u a l i t i e s , w h i l e t h e y d o not o f f e r a
f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s g u a r a n t e e ( e . g . ASTM A 3 6 , ASTM A 5 7 2 ,
Q u a l i t y A o f B u r e a u V e r i t a s ) h a v e nevertheless been
s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e the r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g c h e m i c a l
composition should normally help satisfy minimum
g u a r a n t e e s a t + 2OOC. Hence i n t h e c a s e of B u r e a u V e r i t a s
Q u a l i t y A , the C h a r p y V t e s t s c o n d u c t e d a t + 2OoC b y steel
m i l l s t h a t h a v e a p p l i e d f o r the a p p r o v a l of t h i s g r a d e
h a v e a l w a y s r e p o r t e d f r a c t u r e e n e r g i e s over 27 J .
1.3 S T E E L G R A D E C H O I C E F O R WELDED S T R U C T U R E S 59
3 . Certain s t e e l q u a l i t i e s w i t h g u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e
t o u g h n e s s a t a g i v e n t e m p e r a t u r e t h a v e been t r e a t e d a s
q u a l i t i e s w i t h g u a r a n t e e s a t a t e m p e r a t u r e t - 2OoC, d u e
t o the h i g h e n e r g y v a l u e s f i x e d f o r t e m p e r a t u r e t . I n
f a c t , the f o l l o w i n g Energy-Temperature e q u i v a l e n c e s a r e
a c c e p t a b 1e :
4 8 J a t o ° C or 4 0 J a t - 2O0C or 27 J a t - 4 O o C
5 6 J a t O°C or 4 8 J a t - 2'O0C or 4 0 J a t - 4OoC
o r 27 J a t - 5OoC
H o w e v e r , these e q u i v a l e n c e s c a n only be t a k e n i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i f the g u a r a n t e e d e n e r g i e s a r e g i v e n a t
t e m p e r a t u r e s of a t l e a s t - 2OOC.
4 . C e r t a i n s t e e l q u a l i t i e s , ASTM i n p a r t i c u l a r , e x h i b i t
h i g h maximum C contents ( e . 9 . ASTM A 3 6 , A 5 7 3 , A 7 0 9 ,
e t c . ) w i t h v a l u e s over 0 . 2 0 % i n p a r t i c u l a r . I t i s up t o
the b u i l d e r t o l i m i t these contents b y s u p p l e m e n t a r y
r e q u i r e m e n t s , s h o u l d he f e e l t h i s n e c e s s a r y .
N o s p e c i f i c s t a n d a r d e x i s t s c o v e r i n g t h e p r e c i s e a s p e c t of t h e use of
s t e e l t u b e s f o r o f f s h o r e p e t r o l e u m s t r u c t u r e s . S t a n d a r d s are m e n t i o n e d in
t h e c o m m e n t s a n d a n a l y z e d in A n n e x B, f o r s e v e r a l g r a d e s a n d q u a l i t i e s
of steel t u b e s a v a i l a b l e on t h e F r e n c h m a r k e t a n d o f f e r i n g a d e q u a t e
gu a r a n t e es. Su p ple m e n t a r y r e q u i r e m e n ts re l a t e d t o g r a d e s a n d qualities,
f a b r i c a t i o n , state of d e l i v e r y , i n s p e c t i o n , p a c k a g i n g a n d a c c e p t a n c e m u s t
be specified t o t h e manufacturer.
T h e f o l l o w i n g N F s t a n d a r d s a r e a n a l y z e d i n Annex B :
REFERENCES
3.9 Sanz, G., Risque de rupture fragile, Essai de mise a u point d'une
mCthode q u a n t i t a t i v e d e choix d e s qualit65 d'aciers vis-5-vis d u
risque de rupture fragile, AFNOR/IRSID, 1981.
I t m u s t be k e p t in mind t h a t e f f e c t i v e corrosion p r o t e c t i o n of a n
o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y considerably l i m i t s t h e h a r m f u l e f f e c t s
on t h e behavior of t h e structure d u e t o fatigue. T h e basic principle of
preventing corrosion-fatigue is t o e m p l o y t h e m e a n s t h a t a r e generally
used a g a i n s t corrosion.
L i k e a l l s t r u c t u r e s exposed t o t h e m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t , o f f s h o r e
s t r u c t u r e s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s u b s t a n t i a l a t t a c k of m a r i n e corrosion. T h e
e f f e c t s of corrosion, which a r e t h e m s e l v e s serious, a l s o play a non-
negligeable r o l e on t h e f a t i g u e behavior of welded t u b u l a r joints. T h e
t e r m corrosion f a t i g u e e m b o d i e s f a t i g u e p r o c e s s e s which t a k e p l a c e in
t h e c o r r o s i v e environment. T h e d a m a g e observed in corrosion-fatigue is
o f t e n g r e a t e r t h a n t h e sum of t h e d a m a g e s c a u s e d by corrosion and by
f a t i g u e considered s e p a r a t e l y .
A. Cathodic protection
T h e p r i m a r y m e a n s e m p l o y e d t o p r e v e n t t h e c o r r o s i o n of s t r u c t u r e s
a b o v e sea level, which e x p l o i t s t h e e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r of
c o r r o s i o n by s e a w a t e r , c o n s i s t s in l o w e r i n g t h e e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l p o t e n t i a l
of t h e s t e e l b e l o w a v a l u e a t which t h e a n o d i c r e a c t i o n of iron
dissolution is p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e d , in f a v o r of t h e c a t h o d i c r e a c t i o n of
t h e r e d u c t i o n of dissolved oxygen. T h i s p r o c e s s is c a l l e d c a t h o d i c
protection. C a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d f o r high s t r e n g t h
steels.
O f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s a r e a l w a y s provided w i t h c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n .
T h e i m p r e s s e d c u r r e n t s y s t e m is used f a i r l y o f t e n on mobile units, b u t
l e s s f r e q u e n t l y on s t a t i o n a r y p l a t f o r m s , e s p e c i a l l y in rough s e a s f o r
which p r o b l e m s of s y s t e m r o b u s t n e s s a r i s e . A s a rule, p l a t i n i z e d
t i t a n i u m o r p l a t i n i z e d niobium i s used f o r o v e r f l o w i m p r e s s e d c u r r e n t
anodes. M o r e f r e q u e n t l y , ' s t a t i o n a r y p l a t f o r m s a r e p r o t e c t e d by
s a c r i f i c i a l a n o d e s using a l u m i n i u m a l l o y s a c t i v a t e d w i t h indium o r
m e r c u r y t o p r e v e n t passivation.
In r a r e c a s e s i n which t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e i s c o a t e d , z i n c a l l o y s a r e
o f t e n p r e f e r a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d m o r e r e l i a b l e in c a s e of
low stresses.
In both c a s e s , t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e s t r u c t u r e c a n n o t f a l l b e l o w t h a t of
t h e s a c r i f i c i a l anodes, or a b o u t - 1.050 V/Ag - Ag C1, p r e v e n t i n g a n y
e x c e s s of c a t h o d i c p o l a r i z a t i o n a n d h e n c e a n y l i b e r a t i o n of h y d r o g e n ( a n d
t h e p o t e n t i a l h a r m f u l e f f e c t s t h a t t h i s m a y c a u s e on c e r t a i n steels,
including t h a t of f a t i g u e behavior).
W i t h a n i m p r e s s e d current s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , i t is necessary to
m o n i t o r t h e a n o d e d e p l e t i o n rate t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s risk.
B. C o a t i n g s
In a d d i t i o n t o a c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n m e t h o d s , t h e use of m i s c e l l a n e o u s
c o a t i n g s , which i s o l a t e t h e s t e e l f r o m t h e c o r r o s i v e e n v i r o n m e n t is f a i r l y
w i d e s p r e a d f o r o f f s h o r e structures. T h e a t m o s p h e r i c s u r f a c e s of t h e
s t r u c t u r e s are p r o t e c t e d by s y s t e m s of m a r i n e p a i n t s a b o u t 250 p thick.
A p a r t f r o m s p e c i a l s y s t e m s e m p l o y e d f o r s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e s (high
t e m p e r a t u r e , non-skid c o a t i n g , etc.) t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d s y s t e m involves
a z i n c e t h y l s i l i c a t e p r i m e r c o v e r e d by a n e p o x y r e s i n s e a l c o a t a f t e r
p r e p a r a t i o n by a bonding c o a t . T h e finish uses a c r y l i c or p o l y u r e t h a n e
b a s e m a t e r i a l s . S o m e i t e m s , s u c h as ladders, r a i l i n g s a n d g r a t i n g s , a r e
galvanized.
1.4 CORROSION PROTECTION 67
S y s t e m s consisting of a z i n c e t h y l s i l i c a t e p r i m e r c o v e r e d with t w o O K
t h r e e c o a t s of epoxy p i t c h and possibly with o n e anti-fouling finish, are
g e n e r a l l y applied t o p r o t e c t t h e splash zone. T h i c k e r c o a t i n g s (epoxy
w i t h filler, solvent-fray p o l y u r e t h a n e ) a r e c u r r e n t l y being investigated.
Cladding by "Monelll p l a t e is s o m e t i m e s a l s o employed. In t h e s u b m e r g e d
zone, p a i n t s y s t e m s using t w o c o a t s o f epoxy p i t c h a r e employed, e i t h e r
f o r t h e e n t i r e s u r f a c e , o r m o r e usually t o c o a t s p e c i f i c z o n e s s u c h a s t h e
p a r t in c o n t a c t with mud ( t o p r e v e n t b a c t e r i a l corrosion), and
increasingly, c e r t a i n p a r t s t h a t a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e
c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n c u r r e n t (joints, c o n d u c t o r pipes, etc.).
REFERENCES
4.10 Davis, J.G., Doremus, G.L. and Graham, F.W., The influence of
environmental conditions on t h e design of cathodic protection
s y s t e m s for marine s t r u c t u r e s , O T C 1971, P a p e r No. 1.
4.12 Mackay, W.B., North Sea offshore cathodic protection, OTC 1974,
P a p e r No. 1957.
W otks:
4.19 Fink, F.W. and Boyd, W.F., The Corrosion of Metals in Marine
Environments, Defense Metals Information C e n t r e , R e p o r t 245,
Battelle, 1970.
( a ) T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n or f o r e c a s t i n g of m a x i m u m loads t h a t will be
e x e r t e d on a given j o i n t d u r i n g t h e l i f e of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
(b) T h e e x i s t e n c e of u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s t h a t s e r v e t o
c o n f i r m t h a t these m a x i m u m loads will n o t c a u s e t h e f a i l u r e of
t h e joint.
74 INTRODUCTION 11.1
1.2 STATIC S T R E N G T H F O R M U L A S
U l t i m a t e static s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s are b a s e d on t h e s t a t i s t i c a l
t r e a t m e n t of test results. T h e tests a r e c o n d u c t e d on s i m p l e j o i n t s (X,
T, Y, N a n d K) a n d on N a n d K j o i n t s w i t h overlap. In a l l c a s e s , a
single t y p e of loading is applied ( a x i a l load, in-plane bending,
out-of-plane bending) a n d t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y simple.
Hydraullc
Jack
Free
I t m u s t b e k e p t in mind t h a t a w e l d e d t u b u l a r j o i n t of a r e a l
s t r u c t u r e d o e s n o t normally c o n f o r m t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s s t a t e d above.
What is involved is a c o m b i n a t i o n of load as well a s f a r m o r e c o m p l e x
boundary conditions. T h e g e o m e t r y itself m a y d e v i a t e f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d
case a n a l y z e d as is t h e c a s e of a j o i n t w i t h s e v e r a l b r a c e c o n n e c t i o n s or
a s t i f f e n e d joint. T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are i l l u s t r a t e d by Fig. 1.2, which
s h o w s a s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of an e x p e r i m e n t a l test rig f o r an N joint.
Tubular j o i n t s d i s p l a y a s t a t i c s t r e n g t h c a p a c i t y f a r
beyond the l o a d t h a t p r o d u c e s i n i t i a l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n i n
the a s s e m b l y . T h e r a t i o o f the u l t i m a t e l o a d c a u s i n g the
c o l l a p s e o f the a s s e m b l y t o the " e l a s t i c l o a d " may v a r y
f r o m 2.5 t o 8 [ 1.1 1 . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of k n o w l e d g e ,
a t h e o r e t i c a l ( a n a l y t i c a l ) e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c or n u m e r i c a l
76 INTRODUCTION 11.1
a p p r o a c h i s not a d e q u a t e a s a b a s i s f o r r e g u l a t i o n s or
formulas. I n f a c t , these a p p r o a c h e s a r e not y e t
s u f f i c i e n t l y d e v e l o p e d a n d t e s t s h a v e not y e t been
conceived w i t h a v i e w t o r e c o r d i n g the m e a s u r e m e n t
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the c o l l a p s e c r i t e r i a a d o p t e d i n these
approaches. Hence t h e y c a n n o t serve t o v a l i d a t e a
numerical model.
1 1-0"
Separrllon 01 the
brace member
brace member
( a ) T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t e s t c o l l a p s e c r i t e r i a , corres-
p o n d i n g t o a given i n s t a n t e i t h e r i n p h a s e 2 , or i n
phase 3 ( F i g . 1.3).
( b ) Measurement o f the u l t i m a t e l o a d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
this criteria.
( c ) S t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f the t e s t r e s u l t s , i n w h i c h
the t e s t u l t i m a t e l o a d ( P , ) i s " e x p l a i n e d " b y the
v a r i a b l e s or g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s o f the j o i n t a n d
b y the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f the m a t e r i a l
employed:
U
Pu = f ( D , T , t , L , ~ , $ , y , T , O , a
Y'OU
11.1 INTRODUCTION 77
REFERENCES
1.1 Marshall, P.W. and Toprac, A.A.M., Basis f o r tubular joint design,
Welding Journal, Welding R e s e a r c h Supplement, pp. 192-201,
May 1 9 7 4 .
2.1 WAVE
2.1.1 DEFINITION
fHExrm
H:xl) = 1 - (I
kxrm
Fig. 2.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e c r e s t - t o - t h r o u g h e x t r e m e
v a l u e H o v e r T y e a r s - Hext(T).
80 DETERMINATION O F EXTREME VALUES 11.2
n + m b ( a n x + b,)]"
lim = i m Prob(Xext < a x + bn) = G(x)
1n-+ (2)
n
(3.1)
F r e c h e t ' s L a w ( o r t y p e 11):
11.2 DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES 81
Weibull's L a w ( o r t y p e 111):
H e n c e t h i s t h e o r e m d o e s n o t c o n f i r m t h a t XeXt(,,) = m a x ( X i , ...
Xn)
o b e y s a d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w of e x t r e m e v a l u e s w h e n n t e n d s t o w a r d s infinity,
b u t t h a t it d o e s s o f o r a c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n
'ext (n)-bn
a
n
T h e problem finally r e d u c e s t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t y p e of l i m i t
distribution (I, I1 o r 111) a n d t h e e x p r e s s i o n s giving a n and bn. T h e
foregoing s t a t e m e n t d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e s e r i e s a n a n d bn are
c o n v e r g e n t . H e n c e i t is t h e e x p r e s s i o n of these series as a f u n c t i o n of n
t h a t is used in f o r m u l a (4). S i n c e t h i s is used w i t h f i x e d n (100 or 500
f o r example), i t is a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o s p e c i f y t h e e r r o r c o m m i t t e d when
[F(a,x + b,)]"
X
lirn e x t ( n ) - bn lim
n +OD Prob( a <xl = n + o oProb(Xe x t l n ) < an x + bn ) =
n
--x
lim -e
- n+03 [ F X ( a n x + bnIln = Afxl = e
-1 1
b = F ( 1 - - )
n n
-1 1 -1 1
a = F (I - - ) - F ( I - - )
n ne n
a
n
= 3,52[[1n(ne)I 1/1.43 - [lnfn)1
l /1.43]
For a v a l u e of n e q u a l t o 1 0 0 , the d i r e c t a n d
a p p r o x i m a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e the f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s w i t h
r e s p e c t t o the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t the e x t r e m e v a l u e o b s e r v e d
i n 100 r e p e t i t i o n s i s l e s s than 1 2 :
( a ) Direct c a l c u l a t i o n :
F
*ex t I 1 00
( 1 2 ) = [Fx(12)]100 =I -
12
e- 3 . 5 2
1.43 00
=
= 0.733
blOO = 1 0 . 2 4
l2 - blOO
= 1.17 and
a
100
a = 1.51
100
F
'ext (100)
(12) .( l2 - blOO
100
)= e-e
-1.17
= 0.733
a s y m p t o t i c l a w s o f t y p e I , 11, a n d I I I . O n the w h o l e , i t
may be s t a t e d t h a t the t y p e o f l i m i t d i s t r i b u t i o n d e p e n d s
on the b e h a v i o r f o r l a r g e x v a l u e s of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
d e n s i t y f ( x ) = d F ( x ) of t h e p a r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n .
dx
T h e c o n c e p t of c o n v e r g e n c e r a t e a l s o serves t o a s s e s s
the error c o m m i t t e d , f o r a given n , i f Fn i s r e p l a c e d b y
its limit distribution. For e x a m p l e , note the f o l l o w i n g
results [2.1.3]:
( a ) I f F i s a G u a s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n , the a p p r o x i m a t i o n
o f Fn b y G ( G u m b e l ) i s o f the order l n ( n ) .
(b) I f F i s a n e x p o n e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , the a p p r o x i -
m a t i o n o f Fn b y G ( G u m b e l ) i s of t h e order l / n .
( c ) I f F i s a P a r e t o d i s t r i b u t i o n , the a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f
Fn i s o f the ordre l / ( n C ) w h e r e c i s g r e a t e r t h a n
1.
T w o guidelines e x i s t c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a probability
distribution of an e x t r e m e v a l u e r e l a t i n g t o t h e w a v e e n v i r o n m e n t
parameter.
B. T h e s e c o n d guideline c o n s i s t s of s e l e c t i n g t h e h i g h e s t observed
v a l u e s of H by choosing a t h r e s h o l d whose i n f l u e n c e on t h e e x t r e m e
design p a r a m e t e r s finally s e l e c t e d m u s t b e c l a r i f i e d . This approach
e m p l o y s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s r e c a l l e d in S e c t i o n 2.1.2 ( e v a l u a t i o n of
a s y m p t o t i c l a w s of t y p e s I, I1 a n d 111).
I t r e m a i n s necessary to:
(a) S t i p u l a t e t h e t h e o r i e s o r t h e o r e t i c a l e l e m e n t s t h a t a r e employed,
w i t h a n a i m t o w a r d s verifying t h e h y p o t h e s e s underlying t h e m .
84 DETERMINATION OF E X T R E M E VALUES 11.2
Added t o t h i s , is t h e p r o b l e m of t h e q u a l i t y of t h e d a t a c o m p i l e d , a n d
h e n c e , in c a s e of i m p e r f e c t i o n of t h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n s y s t e m , t h e
possible n e e d t o resort t o e r r o r d e t e c t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t c o r r e c t i o n
techniques. I n a p p r o a c h B, m e a s u r e m e n t c o r r e c t i o n c a n b e r e f l e c t e d
d i r e c t l y on t h e e x t r e m e p a r a m e t e r s s e l e c t e d , a n d h e n c e w i t h o u t having
t o r e p e a t t h e e n t i r e c o m p u t a t i o n p r o c e d u r e ( T a b l e 2.1).
T a b l e 2.1.
C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t w o a p p r o a c h e s for t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e x t r e m e p r o j e c t design w a v e p a r a m e t e r s
relative to crest-to-trough height H
An i l l u s t r a t i o n of a p p r o a c h A: the DnV r e g u l a t i o n .
The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the l o n g - t e r m m o d e l o f H i s
a c h i e v e d b y c o m b i n i n g the l o n g - t e r m d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w o f
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s o f a s h o r t - t e r m s e a s t a t e
w i t h the H d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a g i v e n s t a t e o f the s e a :
F ( H * ) = Prob(HSH*) =
H
I t consists o f a t w o p a r a m e t e r W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n .
A s s u m i n g the f o r m a l f r a m e w o r k o f the t h e o r y o f e x t r e m e
v a l u e s d e f i n e d i n Section 2 . 1 . 2 , the series X I , ... .
. ,Xn o f
n observations in this c a s e i s t h a t of n waves occurring
during a given interval T. This is actually an estimation
o f this number o f waves. U s i n g E q u a t i o n I l l , the
following equations are obtained:
f
H e x t( n )
(H*) = -& (FH
extfn)
(H*9 = n F H ( H * )n-1 f H ( H * )
(8)
N d
Mode H e x t ( n ) i s d e f i n e d b y -
dH* ( f H e x t ( n )
( H * ) ) = 0 and
i s hence a s o l u t i o n o f :
The s o l u t i o n of Equation ( 9 ) i s g e n e r a l l y d i f f i c u l t to
obtain analytically. However, for a p a r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n
w h o s e t a i l i s o f the e x p o n e n t i a l t y p e , one c a n u s e the
a s y m p t o t i c p r o p e r t y o f the mode Z e x t f n ) o f the l a w
(Xext(n), Ffx)"). T h i s property is expressed a s follows:
- -n1
N
' e x t (n )
= xe where F(X ) = 1
e
(large n)
T h e resolution o f ( 9 ) f o r a h i g h v a l u e o f n r e d u c e s t o
u s i n g the p r o p e r t y (10) f o r the l o n g - t e r m d i s t r i b u t i o n
f u n c t i o n o f H d e f i n e d i n ( 6 ) ( W e i b u l l ' s l a w , hence a n
exponential t a i l ) .
86 DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES 11.2
This gives:
By a s s u m i n g t h a t the a n n u a l n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l w a v e s
i s 0 . 5 x l o 7 , the w a v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o N y e a r s ( f i f t y -
y e a r or one h u n d r e d - y e a r , e t c . ) i s g i v e n b y :
= C €illd [ 1 5 . 4 2 + l n ( N ) ] 1I D (121
HextfNJ C
T h e f o r e g o i n g a p p r o a c h r a i s e s the f o l l o w i n g p r o b l e m s :
( a ) T h e a s s u m p t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n the obser-
vations X I . . .,x n, i n v o l v i n g i n d i v i d u a l w a v e s , i s
o b v i o u s l y not s a t i s f i e d .
( b ) T h e u s e o f E q u a t i o n ( 1 ) F x ~ ~ ~ = ( [ F~ x f~x J I( n ~ t o)
o b t a i n the e x t r e m e v a l u e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a s a m p l e
o f n o b s e r v a t i o n s w o u l d be s t , r i c t l y correct i f the
d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n o f the p a r e n t l a w w a s k n o w n
(Fx(x)). H o w e v e r , since i t i s n o t k n o w n , i t i s
d e t e r m i n e d b y c o m b i n i n g s t a t i st i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s
with mathematical values re1 y i n g on s p e c i f i c
assumptions. T h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n the m o d e l may
t h e r e f o r e g i v e r i s e t o s u b s t a n t i a l errors i n the
extreme parameters estimated.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the d e f i n i t i o n o f the e x t r e m e p a r a m e t e r s
g i v e n i n Section 2 . 1 . 1 a s s u m e s t h a t one c a n c a l c u l a t e the
mode and dispersion characteristics o f the e x t r e m e
d i s t r i b u t i o n w h o s e d e n s i t y i s g i v e n b y the E q u a t i o n ( 8 ) .
T h i s e q u a t i o n serves t o c a l c u l a t e the d i s p e r s i o n c h a r a c t e -
ristics n u m e r i c a l 1y , but the advantage offered b y
a s y m p t o t i c m e t h o d s i s t o p r o v i d e a s i m p l e e x p r e s s i o n of
these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d a b o v e a l l , the f a c t t h a t t h e y
a r e f a r l e s s d e p e n d e n t on a n y m o d e l l i n g errors i n Fx(x).
These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s h o w the d r a w b a c k s o f m o d e l l i n g
the c r e s t - t o - t r o u g h h e i g h t f r o m a l l the i n d i v i d u a l w a v e s .
I n b r i e f , the e s s e n t i a l c r i t i c i s m of a p p r o a c h A r e s i d e s i n
the f a c t t h a t the h i g h v a l u e s o b s e r v e d a r e i g n o r e d ,
b e c a u s e the l o n g - t e r m m o d e l o f H g i v e s p r i o r i t y t o the
c e n t r a l v a l u e s o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Reference GZ.21 g i v e s a n e x a m p l e t a k e n f r o m a w o r k b y
Gumbel w h i c h i l l u s t r a t e s the d a n g e r s i n c u r r e d b y the
improprer u s e o f the statistics o f e x t r e m e s . We shall
11.2 DETERMINATION OF E X T R E M E VALUES 87
I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t the p a r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w i s a
l o g i s t i c form F(x) = 1 ) w i t h a mean E ( X ) = 3
1 +[exp(-nx/fi)]
and v a r i a n c e V ( X ) = 2.25. The d e v i a t i o n b e t w e e n the
l o g i s t i c l a w and t h e n o r m a l l a w N ( 0 , l ) i s v e r y s m a l l since
s u p x [ F ~ x )- @ ( X ) ] r= 0 . 2 2 8 .
I f the s t a t i s t i c i a n m o d e l s X b y a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
he does not c o m m i t a l a r g e error i n e v a l u a t i n g the c e n t r a l
p a r t o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n . I t c a n even be a s s u m e d t h a t the
m o d e l a d o p t e d h a s e x a c t l y the s a m e mean a n d t h e same
v a r i a n c e a s the l o g i s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n N ( 3 , 2 . 2 5 ) . I f a
c e r t a i n decision i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t
the maximum X e x t ( l O O ) on a s a m p l e o f 100 o b s e r v a t i o n s i s
l o w e r t h a n a g i v e n h i g h v a l u e , 7.62 f o r example, i t i s
necessary to calculate Prob(Xext(lOO) < 7.62). However,
a c c o r d i n g t o the n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n :
w h e r e a s the e x a c t l o g i s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n gives:
T h e m o d e l l i n g error b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e , i s l i a b l e t o
l e a d t o the a d o p t i o n o f a decision t h a t w o u l d h a v e been
d i s c a r d e d i f the e x a c t l o g i s t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n h a d been
known.
Asymptotic methods
These m e t h o d s consist i n s e l e c t i n g the h i g h e s t v a l u e s
o f the s a m p l e , w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t the v a l u e s
observed here a r e no l o n g e r i n d i v i d u a l w a v e s b u t maximum
v a l u e s recorded over a p e r i o d o f T y e a r s . U s e c o u l d be
m a d e , f o r e x a m p l e , o f maximum c r e s t - t o - t r o u g h h e i g h t s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2 0 recordings covering a p e r i o d o f To
years. A f t e r m a k i n g t h i s selection, one c a n u s e the
88 DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES 11.2
t h e o r y d e v e l o p e d i n Section 2 . 1 . 2 , t o g e t h e r w i t h a m e t h o d
f o r f o r e c a s t i n g the e x t r e m e p a r a m e t e r s r e l a t i v e t o a very
broad p e r i o d o f T y e a r s ( T > To).
F i g . 2 . 2 . Possible i n f l u e n c e o f m o d e l l i n g u n c e r t a i n t y
on the e x t r e m e v a l u e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
D i a g r a m 1 , i n Section 2 . 1 . 4 , p r e s e n t s the c o m p u t a t i o n
s y s t e m a p p l i c a b l e t o the t w o c a s e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . The
r e a d e r s h o u l d r e f e r t o the s p e c i a l i z e d 1 i t e r a t u r e [ 2 . 6 1
for a d e t a i l e d examination of this methodology. A few
r e m a r k s a r e p r e s e n t e d here t o j u s t i f y the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
i n Section 2 . 1 . 4 .
Remark 1:
Working w i t h d i s t r i b u t i o n t a i l ( Y = X f o r X > u )
r e d u c e s the d e g r e e o f d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n the o b s e r v a t i o n s
y l , y2,. .. yn a n d hence the i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s d e p e n d e n c e
on the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d . For the North S e a , f o r e x a m p l e ,
i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o l i m i t the e x a m i n a t i o n t o the r e c o r d i n g s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s e a s t a t e s w i t h the maximum v a l u e s f o r
the s i g n i f i c a n t h e i g h t s g r e a t e r than 5 m, and t h u s w o r k on
a number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s o f a b o u t 100.
11.2 DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES 89
R e m a r k 2:
R e m a r k 3:
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 h
Remark 4 :
T h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n the a d j u s t m e n t o f a n e x t r e m e
v a l u e d i s t r i b u t i o n over T* y e a r s ( G T * ) a n d the a s s e s s m e n t
o f the r e l a t i v e b e h a v i o r i n T y e a r s ( G T I h i g h l i g h t s the
f a c t t h a t the a s y m p t o t i c l a w o b t a i n e d i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
the i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t i m e , a n d t h a t the p a s s a g e t o a
d u r a t i o n of T y e a r s i s a m a t t e r of p r e d i c t i o n . A p p r o a c h A
m a k e s no d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n these t w o s t e p s , w h e r e a s the
long-term distribution of short-term parameters is
a c t u a l 1 y e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m r e c o r d i n g s covering f a i r 1 y short
periods. T h e H113-T s c a t t e r d i a g r a m concerning the I n d i a
s t a t i o n [ 2 . 5 ] i s o b t a i n e d f r o m 2 , 4 0 0 r e c o r d i n g s o f 12 m i n
e a c h selected f r o m a p o p u l a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e recordings
m e a s u r e d over 13 y e a r s f r o m 1 9 5 2 o n w a r d s .
2.1.4 R E C O M M E N D ATIONS
A p p r o a c h A r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a l l t h e individual waves, h e n c e
of a v e r y l a r g e v o l u m e of d a t a . T h e "modelling" a p p r o a c h , which is
t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e b e s t , is r a r e l y p r a c t i c a b l e b e c a u s e t h e d a t a which
provide a basis f o r i t ( a n n u a l m a x i m a o v e r a long period) a r e a c t u a l l y
only a v a i l a b l e in e x c e p t i o n a l cases.
T h e "distribution tail" h a s t h e m e r i t of m a k i n g s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t
possible, e v e n if t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a are n o t v e r y abundant. In f a c t , t h e
basic i d e a is t o c l a r i f y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t e x t r e m e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d in
t h e observation. A s m a l l v o l u m e of d a t a would t h e r e f o r e a l l o w a
p r e d i c t i o n of e x t r e m e v a l u e s o v e r a period of T y e a r s , while inducing t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t should be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h i s prediction. T h e rarer t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n in volume, t h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
11.2 DETERMINATION OF E X T R E M E VALUES 91
Diagram 1
Calculation flow-chart f o r t h e u s e of a s y m p t o t i c methods
Maximum annual va lue s o v e r T years Maximum r e c o r d e d v a l u e s ( I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
( n = T1)
1
tim e : To y e a r s ) x i ,... x m - 1 = u,x,,x,+l ,...,
xp
( i n a s c e n d i n g o r d e r of magnitude).
Maximum r e c o r d e d v a l u e s g r e a t e r t h a n a
threshold v a l u e U.
yn = xm,y2 = xm+1,...yn = xP (n -
p-m+l)
T h e v a r i a b l e Y = X f o r X > u Is t a k e n i n t o
consideration.
"F-J EXTRAPOLATION
F R E = GA: t h i s gi ve s n obs e rva tions of
t h e a s y m p t o t i c di s t r ibution of e x t r e m e
v a lues r e l a t i v e t o a give n y e a r (GTL
Ca lc u l a t i o n
func t i o n F R E
of
- an e m p i r i c a l distribution
FY n w h e r e F Y is t h e
distcibution f u n c t i o n of t h e p a r e n t law Y.
1
Adjus t m e n t of a d i s t r i b u t i o n function Hn t o
FY,, using a c a t a l o g u e of a v a i l a b l e distribution
l a w s a n d c a l i b r a t i o n tests (Hn is a n e s t i m a t e
1 of FY).
Direct adjustment of G1 by a
d lstr i but i on l a w of t y p e I, 11 or Ill.
Appro x i m a t i o n of FY n (G a s y m p t o t i c law) by
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e field of a t t r a c t i o n of
y-b
( H ~ ) ,of t y p e I, 11, HI. [ F Y ( ~ ) P = G ~ (+O )
I I
I
t
T* -
T* = 1 modelling
To e x t r a p o l a t i o n
I
t
PREDICTION OVER T YEARS ( T > T*): d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n
o p t i m a l as ym pt ot ic a lly inva ria nt quasi-linear predictor.
I GT* G T w he re T - a T*
GT: a s y m p t o t i c d is tribution la w of e x t r e m e va lue s o v e r s T y e a r s
(unknown)
G T e s t i m a t e d by [GT*]a: f o r e x a m le, t h e m ode of [GT*Ia is a n
o p t i m a l e s t i m a t e of t h e m ode of G .F.
92 DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES 11.2
I Approach A 1
,IFW
A ,Parent I Fw
~ W I i' .I 01
for non obwwed tells
Poor mod.lllng
01 O b w m d
hlgh value0
w
t Mode of the asymptollc law
pig. 2.4. Illustration of d i f f e r e n c e s between
t h e t w o 'procedures given in Section 2.1.
A r a n g e of periods is a s s o c i a t e d with t h e e x t r e m e p r o j e c t p a r a m e t e r s
defined according t o t h e procedure r e c o m m e n d e d in Section 2.1.4. In
f a c t , in a given s e a s t a t e , a continuous distribution of periods is obtained
f o r a given height, and d i f f e r e n t meteorological conditions may give rise
t o s e a s t a t e s with i d e n t i c a l e x t r e m e wave heights, b u t with d i f f e r e n t
associated periods.
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , in t h e N o r t h S e a , f o r a 30 m p r o j e c t wave, t h e
range of a s s o c i a t e d periods lies b e t w e e n 1 2 and 18 s. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of t h e r a n g e of periods a s s o c i a t e d with p r o j e c t design e x t r e m e
p a r a m e t e r s is based on o n e of t h e following:
11.2 DETERMINATION O F EXTREME VALUES 93
UPEkIUENTAL
a.248 wave1
I I 0.-
M odel ( 1 3 ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g a r e l a t i o n of
the s i n u s o i d a l t y p e b e t w e e n the s i g n a l 51 and the s e c o n d
d e r i v a t i v e of t h e p e a k 5,. I n other w o r d s , s t a r t i n g w i t h
the j o i n t s i g n a l d e n s i t y p ( 5
1:
5,) g i v e n b y C a r t w r i g h t a n d
L o n g u e t - H i g g i n s , a s i n u s o i d w i t h a m p l i t u d e 5, a n d p e r i o d T
g i v e n b y T = 2 IT J - 5,/5, is a s s o c i a t e d t o every w a v e
amplitude 6,.
T h i s a p p r o a c h i s o n l y s t r i c t l y v a l i d for a zero v a l u e
of the b a n d w i d t h p a r a m e t e r ( E = 0 ) .
11.2 DETERMINATION OF EXTREME VALUES 95
E a c h of these f o r c e s s h a l l b e d e a l t w i t h by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m o s t
u n f a v o r a b l e case, in o t h e r words, t h e o n e leading t o t h e highest f o r c e s
a c t i n g on a given joint.
T h e a c t i o n of wind on t h e s t r u c t u r e c o n c e r n s its a t m o s p h e r i c p a r t , as
w e l l as t h e e m e r g e d s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s (decks, drilling d e r r i c k s , etc.).
Modelling of t h e wind V(M,t) a t a given p o i n t and a g i v e n i n s t a n t is
s p e c i f i c t o t h i s t y p e of a c t i o n , a n d involves t h e m e a n v e l o c i t y V(M) (over
a t i m e i n t e r v a l g e n e r a l l y lying b e t w e e n 10 min a n d 1 hour) as-well a s
A V(M,t) which r e p r e s e n t s t h e rapid f l u c t u a t i o n of V(M,t) a b o u t V(M):
T h e m e a n v e l o c i t y j ( M ) a t h e i g h t Z m a y b e e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n
of t h e m e a n v e l o c i t y V(MR) a t a reference p o i n t of t h e h e i g h t
ZR = 10 m (33 f e e t ) by a p o w e r l a w s u c h t h a t :
C o m b i n e d w i t h t h e t h e o r y of e x t r e m e v a l u e s and t h e methodology
p r e s e n t e d in S e c t i o n 2.1, t h e s p e c i f i c modelling m a y c u l m i n a t e in a new
a p p r o a c h f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t r e m e wind velocities, liable t o o c c u r a t
a given site a n d a t a given height. Unlike t h e case of e x t r e m e v a l u e s of
t h e c r e s t - t o - t r o u g h w a v e h e i g h t H, no s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y is a v a i l a b l e a t
t h e p r e s e n t t i m e lying within t h i s f r a m e w o r k . T h e l a c k of d a t a
c o n c e r n i n g m a x i m u m wind v e l o c i t y v a l u e s a t sea p a r t l y e x p l a i n s t h i s
deficiency.
REFERENCES
T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f w e l d e d tubular j o i n t s m u s t b e
c o n d u c t e d f o r a l l o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s likely to b e e n c o u n t e r e d during t h e
l i f e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . T h e l o a d cases d i f f e r e s s e n t i a l l y in t h e s e v e r i t y o f
t h e f o r c e s a p p l i e d to t h e s t r u c t u r e by t h e e n v i r o n m e n t (wind, w a v e ,
etc.).
100 DETERMINATION OF LOAD CASES 11.3
Remarks:
where
is a p a r t i a l s a f e t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e material,
is a p a r t i a l s a f e t y c o e f f i c i e n t which t a k e s account of t h e
t y p e of structure and i t s behavior, a s well a s t h e degree
t o which i t is c r i t i c a l t h a t a c e r t a i n limit s t a t e is
reached,
a is a coefficient, equal t o 0.55, specific t o t h e LRFD
method,
B is "calibrated" t o obtain t h e s a m e level of s a f e t y a s t h a t
of existing codes. For welded tubular joints, t h e mean
value of B is normally taken a s 4.5,
Qm,Qk a r e t h e mean and characteristic values of t h e loads
respectively,
A. S e v e r a l e x i s t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s r e l y on the c o n c e p t of
p u n c h i n g shear ( F i g . 4 . 3 ) . I n t h i s a p p r o a c h , one v e r i f i e s
t h a t t h e v a l u e of t h e p u n c h i n g s h e a r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the
u l t i m a t e l o a d i s l o w e r t h a n the a d m i s s i b l e p u n c h i n g s h e a r ,
the l a t t e r being d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t e s t r e s u l t s .
f sin 0
V 5 V where V
t
= - a + -f b
P P P T ka kb
F
and V = Q Q Q, Y
P 9 P 0 . 9 yo.'
( a ) k a a n d kb a r e l e n g t h a n d cross-section f a c t o r s
r e l a t e d t o the intersection of the t u b e s m a k i n g u p
the a s s e m b l y .
( b ) F y i s the y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f the chord s t e e l . I t i s
t a k e n a s 213 0 , i f t h i s v a l u e is l e s s t h a n Uy.
( c ) Q p i s the p l a s t i c reserve f a c t o r t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f
the favorable i n t e r a c t i o n i n the event t h a t t w o or
11.4 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 107
more t y p e s o f l o a d a r e a p p l i e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o
the j o i n t .
(a) Qq i s a f a c t o r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the g e o m e t r y and
type of loading.
T h e p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d here i n the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
appears more valid i n s o f a r a s it r e q u i r e s f e w e r
a s s u m p t i o n s on the stress d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i c h i s f a r m o r e
c o m p l e x than the d i s t r i b u t i o n a d o p t e d i n t h e p u n c h i n g
shear approach.
Table 4.1.
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f j o i n t s b y t y p e o f geometry
a n d t y p e o f l o a d [ 4.791 .
Ou t - o f - p l ane
bending 1 2 2 4 - - - - 18
Total 184 14 414 97 139 4 1 2 864
T h e mode o f l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n o f K a n d N j o i n t s i s
varied. As a r u l e , a b r a c e w a s l o a d e d i n tension or
c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d the l o a d on the other b r a c e c o r r e s p o n d e d
to a reaction. I f the l o a d was a p p l i e d i n tension, the
u l t i m a t e l o a d on t h e other b r a c e ( c o m p r e s s e d ) w a s o f t e n
c a l c u l a t e d f r o m the u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e l o a d m e a s u r e d ,
a s s u m i n g a c e r t a i n l o a d t r a n s m i s s i o n mode. I n some c a s e s ,
both b r a c e s w e r e l o a d e d d i r e c t 1 y . S t a t i s t i c a l treatment
does not a c c o u n t f o r t h i s h e t e r o g e n e i t y , w h i c h may be
considqred a s p a r t 1 y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the random r e s i d u e .
108 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 11.4
C. F o r m u l a s f o r m e a n u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f w e l d e d
t u b u l a r j o i n t s under s i m p l e l o a d s ( a x i a l l o a d i n g o f K and
N joints).
T h e f o r m u l a s g i v e n i n [ 4 . 6 6 , 4 . 6 7 , 4 . 7 5 a n d 4 . 7 6 1 are
the o n l y ones b a s e d on t h e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n m e t h o d , a n d
c o r r e s p o n d t o the l o w e s t s c a t t e r o f the t e s t r e s u l t s .
T h e y are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4 . 2 w i t h their r a n g e o f
v a l i d i t y Dv. T h e f u n c t i o n s f'l t o f 7 a r e r e l a t e d t o the
following general equation:
T h e m i n i m u m a n d maximum v a l u e s o f the d i f f e r e n t
p a r a m e t e r s a r e not s u f f i c i e n t t o d e t e r m i n e the v a l i d i t y
r a n g e , w h i c h i s o n l y p a r t of the m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e
e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t a i n i n g the t e s t results (Fig. 4.4).
30.00-
18.00.
6.000. - -____
0.
0. 1.10
0 min
0.20
=
0.30
0.19
0.b 0.k
= 1.0
1.00
I,
F i g . 4 . 4 . P l o t of B versus y f o r 418 K a n d
N tubular joints.
Table 4 . 2 .
Formulas f o r t h e mean u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h ( t e s t s ) R
ml T)
0.19-1.0
7.5-51
30"-90"
- 1 5 t o *3
n
0.56-0.94
Size 76 74 418
Mean v a l u e of
ratio 1.005 1.0053 1.0024
'ultfes.)lRm(~)
Standard
d e v i a t i o n of
t h e above 0.109 0.103 0.108
ratio
r
110 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 11.4
In p r i n c i p l e , s t a t i c s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s cannot be
a p p l i e d ( f r o m the s t a t i s t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t ) o u t s i d e the
v a l i d i ' t y r a n g e thus d e f i n e d . T h e extension o f t h e i r
a p p l i c a t i o n beyond this range i s o n l y j u s t i f i e d b y a
h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g the p h y s i c a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e j o i n t s
i n the extension r a n g e .
F i g u r e 4 . 5 p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e way i n w h i c h
f l ( $ )i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t e s t r e s u l t s ( T a n d Y j o i n t s ) :
0. L b
0. 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Pu = 4.76 (1 + 4.93 8
'
) (,)'0"6' (fi)
Sin e
F i g . 4.5. Formula f o r u l t i m a t e s t a t i c
s t r e n g t h ( t e s t s ) f o r T and Y j o i n t s
i n compression (see T a b l e 4 . 2 ) .
D. The u s e o f a s e m i - p r o b a b i l i s t i c approach r e q u i r e s
the k n o w l e d g e o f the d i s c r e p a n c i e s t h a t may e x i s t b e t w e e n
the nominal values and the actual values after
fabrication.
T a b l e 4 . 3 g i v e s the e v a l u a t i o n s o f these d e v i a t i o n s f o r
the v a r i a b l e s D , T , a y a n d o y / a u L 4 . 6 7 , 4 . 7 6 1 .
11.4 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 111
Table 4.3.
Means and c o e f f i c i e n t o f variation (COV)
of basic variables
Nominal
Hot finished tubes Cold finished tubes
value
Coefficient Coefficient
Mean Mean
of variation of variation
1.0 D 0.005
('I 1 . 0 Dn 0.004
I 'I
Dn
1.0 T 0.05 1.0 Tn 0.05
Tn n*
a (21 0.121
1.18 0 0.075 2.35(DTI 0 0.11
Y Y
w
r.y
Type of joint
1.0 1.0
UN
with or without overlap 1 I
T h e f o r m u l a s recommended w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m mean
s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s ( s e e Section 4 . 1 ) on the b a s i s o f t h e
f o l 1o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s :
-
( 1 - 1.64VR)
Rk = R m ( A )
ym yc = 1.25
In f a c t , t h e mean s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s ( t e s t s ) w e r e
d e v e l o p e d f r o m m e a s u r e d (5 v a l u e s w h e r e a s the d e s i g n
s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a s employ the guaranteed minimal y i e l d
strength .
T h e v a l u e o f 1 . 2 5 f o r the p r o d u c t o f the p a r t i a l
.coefficients ym yc, w h i c h i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , t a k e s
a c c o u n t o f u n c e r t a i n t i e s inherent i n the m e t h o d e m p l o y e d .
In f a c t :
Displacement
F i g . 4 . 7 . I l l u s t r a t i o n of t w o t y p e s o f l o a d -
d i s p l a c e m e n t c u r v e observed f o r K j o i n t s .
114 ULTIMATE STATIC S T R E N G T H F O R M U L A S 11.4
( a ) For X j o i n t s ( c o m p r e s s i o n ) V R = 0.169.
( b ) For T a n d Y j o i n t s ( c o m p r e s s i o n ) V R = 0 . 1 5 5 .
( c ) K a n d N j o i n t s ( a x i a l ) VR = 0.197.
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f variation V R o f K a n d N j o i n t s
d e p e n d s on t h e g e o m e t r y o f the j o i n t . The v a l u e 0.197
corresponds t o the maximum v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d i n the
v a l i d i t y domain ( - 2 0 5 g / T 5 50 and 2 0 I D / T 5 1 0 0 ) .
Reference c4.78 ] g i v e s s i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n u l t i m a t e
strength formulas. T h e f o r m u l a s d i f f e r f r o m those
recommended here f o r the f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s :
Remark :
T h e mean f o r m u l a s R m ( ~ )i n T a b l e 4 . 2 , see S e c t i o n 4 . 1 ,
are p e r i o d i c a l l y a d j u s t e d . T h e m o s t recent a d j u s t m e n t s
c o n c e r n i n g the f o r m u l a s a d o p t e d i n t h i s e d i t i o n o f the
g u i d e can be f o u n d i n E4.75, . 4 . 7 6 , 4 . 7 7 1 . These studies
a r e too recent f o r a v a l u e j u d g e m e n t o f t h e i r relevance.
I n f a c t , t h e y are m e r e l y s m a l l m o d i f i c a t i o n s , w h i l e the
s a m e theoretical a p p r o a c h a s the one a d o p t e d here i s
maintained.
T h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t e s t r e s u l t s s h o w s t h a t the
u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f X , T and Y j o i n t s under
tensile l o a d i s g r e a t e r than t h a t o f l o a d s o f i d e n t i c a l
geometry under compression. H o w e v e r , the w i d e scatter o f
the r e s u l t s p r e v e n t s a d j u s t m e n t o f f o r m u l a s a s reliable a s
11.4 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 115
Table 4.4.
Design ultimate s t a t i c strength formulas for
tubular joints under bending loads
Type of Formulae
stress
My = 4.27 8 d y f oay TZ
Sin 9
Valid for T, Y and X joints
bhz = 2.02
1-0.812 8’
f oay T2
Sin 9
Valid for T, Y, X. K. N joints
I
The formulas given in Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 concern hot formed
tubular joints. Similar formulas c a n be developed for cold formed joints.
I t suffices t o r e c a l c u l a t e t h e "mean" u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h properties
( R m ( ~ )and V R ) taking f o r o and O y / O u t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s values of
cold formed tubular s e c t i o n s [Table 4.4). The design s t r e n g t h s obtained
a r e g r e a t e r than those corresponding t o hot formed t u b e s . Consequently,
i t is recommend,ed t o u s e formulas for hot formed tubes, whatever t h e
tube forming method. For cold formed tubes, this recommendation is
conservative.
( a ) For X j o i n t s ( c o m p r e s s i o n ) V R = 0 . 1 8 6 .
( b ) For T a n d Y j o i n t s ( c o m p r e s s i o n ) V R = 0 . 1 7 4 .
( c ) For K a n d N j o i n t s ( a x i a l ) V R = 0 . 2 0 0 .
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a . r i a t i o n o f K j o i n t s d e p e n d s on t h e
j o i n t geometry. The v a l u e 0 . 2 0 0 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e
maximum v a l u e c a l c u l a t e d i n the v a l i d i t y r a n g e : ( - 2 0 2 g / T 6 5 0
a n d 20 5 D / T 2 100).
11.4 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 117
N M MZ
- X +&+,61
where
N = design (load f a c t o r e d ) a x i a l load e x e r t e d on t h e b r a c e ,
X
M = in-plane bending m o m e n t e x e r t e d on t h e b r a c e ,
Y
MZ = out-of-plane bending m o m e n t e x e r t e d on t h e b r a c e ,
A
Nx = design a x i a l u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h d e t e r m i n e d in S e c t i o n 4.2,
&l = ultimate in-plane bending moment strength determined in
S e c t i o n 4.2,
&lZ = u l t i m a t e out-of-plane bending m o m e n t s t r e n g t h d e t e r m i n e d in
S e c t i o n 4.2.
V e r y f e w s t a t i c s t r e n g t h t e s t s have been c o n d u c t e d on
welded t u b u l a r j o i n t s under complex l o a d s . Only a few
t e s t s have been p e r f o r m e d [ 4 . 6 0 ] , i n w h i c h i n - p l a n e
b e n d i n g a n d a x i a l l o a d s are s u p e r i m p o s e d f o r T j o i n t s .
For three v a l u e s o f the p a r a m e t e r B, t h e r e s u l t s a p p e a r t o
c o r r e s p o n d t o the l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n r u l e ( F i g . 4 . 8 ) .
1.00
0.80
Nx
T
N, 0.60
1 0.40
0.20
0 0.20
-
0.40 0.60
M,/M,
0.80 1.00 0 0.20
-
0.40
F i g . 4 . 8 . S t a t i c t e s t r e s u l t s for T j o i n t s
0.60
M,IM,
0.80 1.00
-Nx A
Nx Rule includino a plastic
reserve factor
interaction
rule
b
M, I M,
F i g . 4 . 9 . L i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n r u l e and r u l e
i n c l u d i n g a p l a s t i c reserve f a c t o r .
11.4 ULTIMATE STATIC STRENGTH FORMULAS 119
REFERENCES
F o r m u l a d e v e l o p m e n t methodology
4.5 E C C S R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n , ECCS-EG-76-1E,
Europe a r i C o n v e n t i o n f o r C o n s t r u c t i o n a 1 St e e 1work , 19 7 8.
C o d e s and r e g u l a t i o n s
4.8 C o d e of P r a c t i c e f o r F i x e d O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s , British S t a n d a r d s
Institution, BS 6235:1982.
4.11 C o n s t r u c t i o n m e t a l l i q u e , A s s e m b l a g e s s o u d e s d e profils c r e u x
circulaires a v e c ddcoupes d'intersection, Conception e t vdrification
d e s assemblages, AFNOR, N F P 22-250, J u n e 1978.
4.12 R e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e S t r u c t u r a l Design of F i x e d S t r u c t u r e s on t h e
Norwegian C o n t i n e n t a l Shelf, Norwegian P e t r o l e u m D i r e c t o r a t e ,
1977.
R e p o r t s on test r e s u l t s
4.29 D e v e l o p m e n t of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m f o r f a t i g u e design of t u b u l a r
j o i n t s f o r f l o a t i n g o f f s h o r e structures, Mitsui Engineering and
Shipbuilding Co. Ltd., Unpublished R e p o r t , 1 9 7 8 (in Japanese).
4.37 S a m m e t , H., D i e F e s t i g k e i t K n o t e n b l e c h l o s e r R o h r v e r b i n d u n g e n i m
S t a h l b a u , S c h w e i s s t e c h n i k , Z e i t s c h r i f t fijr alle G e b i e t e d e r
Schweiss-, Schneid- und L o t t e c h n i k , 13, 1963.
4.43 T o p r a c , A.A., An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of w e l d e d s t e e l p i p e c o n n e c t i o n s ,
Welding R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l Bulletin, No.71, A u g u s t 1961.
4.52 Z i m m e r m a n , W., T e s t s on p a n e l p o i n t t y p e j o i n t s of l a r g e d i a m e t e r ,
I n s t i t u t O t t o G r a f , S t u t t g a r t , S e p t e m b e r 1965.
4.53 S t u d y on t u b u l a r j o i n t s used f o r m a r i n e s t r u c t u r e s , T h e S o c i e t y of
S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n of J a p a n , M a r c h 1972.
4.54 F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of K, T a n d Y-joints in t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s ,
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e of I s h i k a w a j i m a - H a r i m a H e a v y I n d u s t r i e s C o .
Ltd., Unpublished R e p o r t , M a r c h 1 9 7 8 (in J a p a n e s e ) .
T h e f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s o f w e l d e d t u b u l a r j o i n t s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of
s u i t a b l e S-N c u r v e s , w h i c h r e l a t e t h e d e s i g n s t r e s s r a n g e to t h e n u m b e r
of c y c l e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g f a i l u r e . T h e c o n c e p t o f s t r e s s r a n g e is d e f i n e d
in C h a p t e r 2. A p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of f a i l u r e i s g i v e n in C h a p t e r 6.
Hence
SCF = K
G
T h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d with varying
d i f f i c u l t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a s e e x a m i n e d , e i t h e r by c a l c u l a t i o n o r by
test (see C h a p t e r 3).
T h e p r o c e d u r e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g n o m i n a l stresses
1. D e t e r m i n e t h e s t r e s s e s a t t h e m e m b e r e n d s by l i n e a r e l a s t i c
s t r u c t u r a l analysis. T h e s t r u c t u r a l j o i n t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e i n t e r -
s e c t i o n s of t h e c e n t r o i d a l a x e s (Fig. 1.1).
By l e s s c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s , using t h e design l o a d s t h u s s e l e c t e d
a n d t h e knowledge of t h e e x t e r n a l l o a d s d i r e c t l y applied t o t h e m e m b e r ,
o n e can c a l c u l a t e t h e l o a d s r e l a t e d t o t h e i m a g i n a r y c o n n e c t i o n s u r f a c e
(Fig. 1.2).
111.1 CONCEPTS 131
tNX
Fig. 1.3.
It is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e v a l u e o f t h i s l o c a l s t r e s s
partly conditions the j o i n t f a t i g u e l i f e . This local
stress a f f e c t s the c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n p e r i o d i n p a r t i c u l a r .
A s a r u l e , hot s p o t s a r e f o u n d on the o u t e r s k i n o f t h e
chord. For a s i m p l e l o a d i n g , a n d d e p e n d i n g on the l o a d i n g ,
the hot s p o t may be e i t h e r i n the n e i g h b o r h o o d o f the
s a d d l e p o i n t or of the c r o w n p o i n t ( F i g . 1 . 4 ) .
Crown
Hot spot locallon
Brace loadlng type
Element A X I load
~ I In plane bendlng IOutol plane bendlng
Chord 0 I e I 0
Brace X + X
Fig. 1.4.
111.1 CONCEPTS 133
For a c o m p l e x l o a d i n g , the p o s i t i o n o f the hot s p o t can
be d e t e r m i n e d w i t h v a r y i n g d i f f i c u l t y d e p e n d i n g on the
a n a l y t i c a l method employed (see C h a p t e r 3 ) . In a complex
j o i n t , f o r e x a m p l e , w i t h several b r a c e s , the n u m b e r o f
n o m i n a l stresses i s e q u a l t o the n u m b e r of w e l d e d t u b e s
(braces).
F i g u r e s 1 . 5 a n d 1 . 6 i l l u s t r a t e the d e s i g n stress ( o r
g e o m e t r i c s t r e s s ) a t the w e l d t o e o f a b r a c e - c h o r d
j u n c t i o n , f o r the c a s e of the T j o i n t u n d e r a x i a l l o a d i n
the b r a c e . T h e stress d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t i n g a r o u n d the
w e l d on the c h o r d s i z e a n d on the b r a c e s i d e i s i n d i c a t e d
i n Fig. 1.7.
4--
-
__
I Chord
l -
Brace
! __ n
Fig. 1.7.
134 CONCEPTS 111.1
When t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r weld is
e v a l u a t e d , t h e g e o m e t r i c stress r a n g e ( w i t h t i m e ) c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e
nominal stress r a n g e is t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . I t c a n be e x p r e s s e d as
follows:
S C F i X = T h e v a l u e of t h e S C F f o r a n a x i a l load N X c a l c u l a t e d a t
t h e h o t s p o t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o c o m p l e x loading,
S C F k y = T h e v a l u e of t h e S C F f o r t h e in-plane bending load M y , a t
t h e h o t s p o t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o m p l e x loading,
SCF& = T h e v a l u e of t h e S C F f o r t h e out-of-plane bending load Mz,
a t t h e s p o t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o m p l e x loading.
T h e v a l u e o f S C F A , SCF&, S C F i z a r e not g e n e r a l l y
k n o w n a t e a c h p o i n t of the w e l d t o e , nor a t the h o t s p o t
p o s i t i o n under complex loading. I n t h i s c a s e , one c a n
take known values of the S C F a t t h e hot s p o t s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s i m p l e l o a d i n g s ( s e e Section 3 . 2 . 3 ) a n d
the f o r m u l a t h a t g i v e s A U G t a k e s on a s y m b o l i c c h a r a c t e r .
T h i s i s b e c a u s e i n p r i n c i p l e , i t i s incorrect t o a d d
maximum stresses w h i c h d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r a t the
same p o i n t . Section 3 . 2 . 3 g i v e s the a r g u m e n t u n d e r 1y i n g
the s c a l a r a n d a d d i t i v e c h a r a c t e r of t h e t e r m s t h a t a r e
a d d e d t o e a c h o t h e r t o e v a l u a t e AaG.
111.1 CONCEPTS 135
REFERENCE
peak I
ith cycle
Fig. 2.1.
138 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 111.2
T h e load h i s t o g r a m is d e t e r m i n e d in 3 s t e p s :
(1) Modelling of a c t i o n s .
(2) C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e of these actions.
( 3 ) C a l c u l a t i o n of l o a d s in t h e s t r u c t u r e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e actions.
The c o n c e p t o f stress c y c l e p r e s e n t s no d i f f i c u l t i e s o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i f t h e stress h i s t o r y r e v e a l s a s many p e a k s
( o r t r o u g h s ) a s p a s s a g e s t h r o u g h t h e mean s t r e s s . I n s o m e
c a s e s ( f o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e stress h i s t o r y r e p r e s e n t s a
trajectory of a wide band random process (see
Section 2 . 1 . 4 . B ) ) , there a r e f a r m o r e p e a k s ( o r t r o u g h s )
t h a n p a s s a g e s t h r o u g h the mean v a l u e , so t h a t a n u m e r i c a l
c o u n t i n g m e t h o d m u s t be resorted t o . Various counting
m e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e , a n d t h e choice b e t w e e n t h e m w i l l be
d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 8 ( c u m u l a t i v e damage).
The a c c u r a c y of t h e o v e r a l l f a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n d e p e n d s
on t h a t o f the d i f f e r e n t s t e p s . T h i s i m p l i e s a d e g r e e of
r e f i n e m e n t ( a n d g e n e r a l l y a n order o f m a g n i t u d e o f t h e
c o s t o f c o m p u t a t i o n s ) t h a t i s c o m p a r a b l e for e a c h s t e p .
T a b l e s 2 . 1 a n d 2 . 2 s u m m a r i s e the c o m p a t i b i l i t y of t h e
different approaches.
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 139
2.1 ACTIONS TO BE T A K E N I N T O A C C O U N T
Any a c t i o n producing s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s in t h e j o i n t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n
during t h e p h a s e s of t r a n s p o r t , i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n of t h e
s t r u c t u r e , m u s t be t a k e n i n t o account in c a l c u l a t i n g d a m a g e . The
following m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e considered:
( a ) Variable, c y c l i c and r e p e t i t i v e a c t i o n s .
(b) Non-cyclic f o r c e s l i a b l e t o a l t e r t h e s t r e s s e s induced by c y c l i c
f o r c e s.
(a) Waves:
.
Hydrodynamic drag and inertia forces.
.
V a r i a t i o n s i n h y d r o s t a t i c t h r u s t in the splash zone, wave
breaking, s l a m m i n g .
(b) Wind ( d y n a m i c forces).
(c) Ice i m p a c t .
T h e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s l o c a t e d in t h e neigborhood of t h e f r e e
s u r f a c e a r e s u b j e c t t o v a r i a t i o n s in h y d r o s t a t i c t h r u s t d u e t o t h e
f l u c t u a t i o n i n t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e f r e e s u r f a c e , a n d m a y e v e n be f r e e of
t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e . T h i s m e c h a n i s m p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e d a m a g e .
F a t i g u e a n a l y s i s m u s t be c o n d u c t e d on j o i n t s l o c a t e d i n
the p l a n e o f a c o n d u c t o r p i p e s u p p o r t g r i d s i t u a t e d i n the
s p l a s h zone.
S l a m m i n g o c c u r s on members o f the s t r u c t u r e w h i c h a r e
slightly tilted to horizontal a n d l o c a t e d i n the
n e i g h b o r h o o d o f the f r e e s u r f a c e .
T h e b r e a k i n g w a v e i n d u c e s forces t h a t may be s e v e r a l
t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n those d e t e r m i n e d b y s t a n d a r d w a v e
theories. I t i s m a i n l y the v e r t i c a l members t h a t a r e
sensitive t o t h i s f a c t o r .
2.1.2 WIND
Wind is d e s c r i b e d by:
F o r c e r t a i n f l o a t i n g s t r u c t u r e s , t h e wind g e n e r a t e s a d y n a m i c
excitation. F o r f a t i g u e calculations, a s p e c t r a l approach c a n be
employed.
As a r u l e , d y n a m i c l o a d s d u e t o w i n d a r e s l i g h t i n
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h those d u e t o w a v e s . T h e m o d e l l i n g a d o p t e d
m u s t be based on the s i t e d a t a .
2.1.3 ICE
In c e r t a i n g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s , s t r e s s e s induced by i c e i m p a c t should b e
t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h i s i m p a c t .
111.2 ACTIONS A N D L O A D S 141
F o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e s u b m e r g e d p a r t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e are c a l c u l a t e d
by o n e of t h e t w o following methods:
(1) I n t e g r a t i o n of t h e fluid p r e s s u r e , b a s e d on t h e c a l c u l a t e d p o t e n t i a l
a n d using t h e d i f f r a c t i o n theory.
(2) Morison f o r m u l a , based on t h e k i n e m a t i c s of t h e u n d i s t u r b e d fluid
a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l c o e f f i c i e n t s [2.1 t o 2.61.
T h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n these t w o a p p r o a c h e s is based on t h e c o m p a r i s o n
of t h e d i m e n s i o n s of t h e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s c o n c e r n e d a n d t h e wave-
length. T o apply Morison's f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e c r i t e r i o n o f t e n used is
A / D > 8 in which A is t h e w a v e l e n g t h a n d D i s t h e s m a l l e s t dimension of
t h e member.
(a) S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a a v a i l a b l e ( l o n g - t e r m s t a t i s t i c s ) covering:
. Periods.
. Heights.
. Propagation directions.
(b) T h e m e t h o d e n v i s a g e d f o r load c a l c u l a t i o n s .
The s c a t t e r r e l a t i o n a s s o c i a t i n g t h e w a v e l e n g t h I\ t o
the p e r i o d T i s i n d i c a t e d i n S e c t i o n 2.1.4C.
A. Deterministic wave
(a) A i r y w a v e theory.
( b ) Stokes wave theory, 5th order.
ECnoidal wave
2 Stokes wave, superior order'
3 Stokes wave, 3rd order
@Stokes wave, 2nd order H: Wave amplitude
@Airy wave T: Period
* Skjelbrela theory D: Water depth
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
m..:
7 1
10.1
:0.01
:0.001
: o.Ooo1
: 0.00001
1
Long waves -
Equivalent relative depth D/T2 (ftl - 1
1
Fig. 2.2.
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 143
If t h e r a t i o of w a v e h e i g h t t o w a t e r d e p t h is t o o high, t h e following
models are m o r e realistic:
(a) C n o i a a l w a v e theory.
(b) C u r r e n t f u n c t i o n theory.
I n c a l c u l a t i n g the f l u i d a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e convection
terms (non-linear i n r e l a t i o n t o wave height H ) may. be
non-negligible i f H is n o t s m a l l compared t o t h e wave-
length A .
B. R a n d o m wave
T h e following is o f t e n a d o p t e d f o r a n a n a l y t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of Wrl:
w h e r e f ( 0 ) is t h e non-null d i r e c t i o n f u n c t i o n within a n a n g u l a r s e g m e n t
I.
101,02 Among t h e m o s t widely used are t h e following:
144 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 111.2
f ( 0 ) = C c0s4 (0-0 )
m
for 0between Om - _TI and Om
TI
+T [ 2 . 181
TI TI
f ( 0 ) = C (10s' (0-0rn ) for 0 between 0m - -
2
and 0 + -
m 2
[ 2. 191
0 -0
m
f(0) = C c 0 s 4 (-)
2
for 0 between 0
m
- 51 and 0 +
m
TI [ 2.201
A r o u t i n e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s in defining a unidirectional s p e c t r u m
(f(0) = 6(0-Om), w h e r e 6 i s t h e D i r a c ditribution). G ( w ) is t h e n uni-
m
d i r e c t i o n a l s p e c t r a l density f u n c t i o n and = J,, Grl(w). I t m u s t be con-
f i r m e d t h a t t h e use of t h e unidirectional s p e c t r u m e n s u r e s s a f e t y in
c o m p a r i s o n with t h e use of t h e d i r e c t i o n a l s p e c t r u m f o r t h e joint
concerned. T h e following d e v e l o p m e n t s c o n c e r n a u n i d i r e c t i o n a l
s p e c t r u m . T h e s p e c t r a l w i d t h p a r a m e t e r E s e r v e s t o a s s e s s t h e s h a p e of
t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e free s u r f a c e (Fig. 2.3).
-. 0 Narrow spectrum
[ -1 Wide spectrum
Fig. 2.3.
Expression of t h e m o s t usual u n i d i r e c t i o n a l s p e c t r a :
I
Pierson-Moskowitz:
A = 0.0081 g2
G,,(W) = -
wA5 e - 5 B = 0.74 g4f/w4
W = wind s p e e d a t a height of 18 m.
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 145
4m3 ii2
A = - 1/ 3
*;
O = O if W > W
b m
y varies b e t w e e n 1 and 7.
The Jonswap spectrum, t h e result o f measurements conducted in t h e
North S e a , is ideal f o r the s e a during formation and near t h e c o a s t .
y, t).
The e l e v a t i o n o f f r e e s u r f a c e s i s d e n o t e d ~ ( x ,
T h e s t o c h a s t i c f i e l d q ( x , y , t ) i n d e x e d t o R 3 is homoge-
neous, c e n t r e d , s t a t i o n a r y in t i m e , e r g o d i c , Gaussian, of
t h e 2nd o r d e r , a n d w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s q u a d r a t i c m e a n .
Aqll i s the v e c t o r i a l s p e c t r a l p r o c e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
q ( x , y , t ) , w i t h a likelihood
a n d w h e r e the v a r i a n c e o f is:
The e l e v a t i o n o f the f r e e s u r f a c e q ( x , y , t ) i s e a s i l y
i n t e r p r e t e d a s the s u m o f a n i n f i n i t y o f e l e m e n t a r y ( A i r y )
s i n u s o i d a l waves w i t h c i r c u l a r f r e q u e n c y w , direction 0 ,
o f a m p l i t u d e / W,, (0 ,w ) / 2 d Odw, a n d w i t h a random p h a s e
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d over [ 0 ,2 TI 1 . Hence w a v e
t r a j e c t o r i e s c a n be g e n e r a t e d b y s u m m a t i o n over a n u m b e r
o f elementary waves. T h i s c a n a l s o be done b y s m o o t h i n g a
G a u s s i a n w h i t e noise.
T h e e s t i m a t i o n o f the d e p e n d e n c e of W , ( O , w ) on 0 f r o m
site data i s often d e l i c a t e .
One h a s :
The s p e c t r a l m o m e n t s ( m =
k
w k G,,(w) d w ) serve t o
e x p r e s s the f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s concerning the e l e v a t i o n o f
the free s u r f a c e :
( a ) Mean f r e q u e n c y o f p a s s a g e s t h r o u g h zero a t p o s i t i v e
steepness:
( b ) Mean f r e q u e n c y o f p e a k s :
( c ) Mean a p p a r e n t p e r i o d :
-
T = 2n
11 m4
111.2 ACTIONS AND LOADS 147
I d ) Spectral width:
m m
1 4
The p e a k p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d b y :
1
f(xl=-
Jhrmo
Narrow band s p e c t r u m :
- - X'
2m
0
E-0 f(x)- ;
X
e (Rayleigh's law)
0
Wide band s p e c t r u m :
E - 1 f(x)-- '
- e
2m
0
(Gauss's law)
( a ) Mean t r o u g h = %
(b) Significant height ( o r Hs) L
- 4%.
113
More g e n e r a l l y , we h a v e :
148 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 111.2
E 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
C(EI 2.00 2.00 1.99 1.98 1.96 1.93 1.89 1.83 1.74 1.57 1.09
-
H is defined as the mean of the crest-to-trough
heights.
-
H 1 / 3 i s d e f i n e d a s the mean o f the u p p e r t h i r d o f t h e
crest- to- t r o u g h h e i g h t s .
Modified Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum:
T h i s v a l u e o f E j u s t i f i e s a p o s t e r i o r i the e x p r e s s i o n
-
of A a n d B a s a f o n c t i o n o f F 1 / 3 a n d ?i,
H l / 3 = 4 6 , w h i c h i s correct f o r E 0.5.
since we o b t a i n
JONSWAP s p e c t r u m :
om r e p r e s e n t s the c i r c u l a r f r e q u e n c y f o r w h i c h G,-,(w) is
a maximum.
f
./
4
\
\
I \ Jonsw ap
I ;t
Fig. 2.4.
111.2 ACTIONS A N D L O A D S 149
y i s a d i m e n s i o n l e s s p a r a m e t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g the r a t i o
of the p e a k of the JONSWAP s p e c t r u m t o t h e p e a k o f the
P i e r s o n - M o s k o w i t z s p e c t r u m w i t h the same a n d ?; both
p e a k s a p p e a r i n g a t the s a m e a n q u l a r f r e q u e n c y ( F i q . 4).2'.
T h e d a t a r e q u i r e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e l o n g - t e r m d e p e n d on t h e c h o i c e
d e s c r i b e d a b o v e b e t w e e n t h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c w a v e a n d t h e r a n d o m wave.
A p a r t f r o m t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of individual w a v e s by a periodic d e t e r m i -
n i s t i c w a v e model, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t h e
r e f e r e n c e i n t e r v a l of t h e height, period a n d p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n of t h e
individual waves. A p a r t f r o m t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of s h o r t - t e r m sea s t a t e s by
a r a n d o m w a v e model, i t i s necessary t o know t h e l o n g - t e r m d i s t r i b u t i o n
of t h e s h o r t - t e r m p a r a m e t e r s (in g e n e r a l g1/3, ?,.,and 0, r2.11, 2.21,
2.221 ).
T h e short-term d e s c r i p t i o n w h e t h e r d e t e r m i n i s t i c or
r a n d o m , d e p e n d s on the choice o f the l o n g - t e r m a p p r o a c h ,
w h i c h i t s e l f d e p e n d s on the a v a i l a b l e s i t e d a t a .
Random wave
C o m p l e t e knowledge of t h e w a v e s o v e r t h e r e f e r e n c e period is
o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e d a t a of t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l j o i n t l a w of s h o r t - t e r m
p a r a m e t e r s fi1/3, T,., a n d om. These d a t a a r e not always available for
t h e N o r t h S e a r e g i o n s o r e l s e w h e r e . I n a d d i t i o n , many r e c o r d s d e a l w i t h
t h e "visual" p a r a m e t e r s H v a n d Tv.
T o use a n a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l a w H1/3, o n e c a n
a d o p t a t h r e e - p a r a m e t e r s Weibull l a w [ 2.131 :
150 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 111.2
T h i s m a k e s i t n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e Ho, H , a n d y f r o m s i t e d a t a . It
i s o f t e n a s s u m e d t h a t Ho = 0, l e a v i n g t w o p a r a m e t e r s .
*!a
(05
10 0
05
00
I 5
I 0
75
70
E I5
2-
I::
f 50
"
E 45
0
c
s
v)
'O
I5
I0
25
ID
15
10
05
Fig. 2.5.
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 151
Individual w a v e s
T w o a p p r o a c h e s c a n b e distinguished:
(1) S t a t i s t i c a l a p p r o a c h .
T h e i d e a l case is o n e in w h i c h r e c o r d s a r e a v a i l a b l e o v e r a
sufficiently long t i m e interval, f o r t h e height and period of individual
waves, as well as t h e i r propagation direction.
(2) P r o b a b i l i s t i c a p p r o a c h .
T h i s c o n s i s t s in c o m b i n i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a v e h e i g h t s f o r a sea
state c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y G1/3 a n d T,-, w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 8113 a n d T,-,
o v e r t h e r e f e r e n c e period. T h i s g i v e s t h e distribution o f t h e individual
w a v e h e i g h t s o v e r t h e r e f e r e n c e p e r i o d . In c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e s u l t
i s c l o s e t o a W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n [ 2.131.
w h e r e H a n d y are c o n s t a n t s r e l a t e d t o t h e s i t e .
1
152 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 111.2
ln(N) = ln(No) - H*
-
This a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t a l l o w t o a s s o c i a t e a period w i t h t h e w a v e
height t h u s determined. A r e a l i s t i c period c a n be found by c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e wave camber (ratio H / A , where H is t h e height and A t h e
w a v e l e n g t h . T h e c a m b e r is t y p i c a l l y 1/15. As a rule, a c a m b e r n e a r t h e
u p p e r t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t is s e l e c t e d ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o w a v e breaking).
H o w e v e r , m o r e s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e o b t a i n e d if o n e s e l e c t s a w a v e
period c l o s e t o t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of t h e s t r u c t u r e , o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g
t o a m a x i m u m hydrodynamic e x c i t a t i o n , a r i s i n g f r o m t h e g e o m e t r i c a l
c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r e .
F i g u r e 2.6 g i v e s e x a m p l e s of m a x i m u m c a m b e r s f o r individual w a v e s
a t a N o r t h S e a location.
16
H (m)
14
12
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
T (sec)
Fig. 2.6.
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 153
_ -- 2 nD
tanh -
'
T 2n A
g = gravitational acceleration.
2nD
A t e x t r e m e d e p t h ( t a n h (-) a p p r o a c h i n g 1):
A
A = 1 . 5 6 T' ( A en m, T i n s ) .
D. D e v e l o p m e n t of a stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n h i s t o g r a m
When t h e w a v e is d e s c r i b e d by s h o r t - t e r m s e a s t a t e s , t h e stress r a n g e
h i s t o g r a m r e s u l t s e i t h e r f r o m t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a c y c l e c o u n t i n g
t e c h n i q u e t o t h e r e s u l t s of a s i m u l a t i o n , o r f r o m a n a n a l y t i c a l
c a l c u l a t i o n a f t e r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s p e c t r a l method (if t h e p r o c e s s
can be c o n s i d e r e d t o be of n a r r o w band width). A t l e a s t t e n s h o r t - t e r m
sea states need t o b e considered.
W h e n t h e w a v e is d e s c r i b e d by individual w a v e s f o r which a h i s t o g r a m
of h e i g h t s and a height-period s c a t t e r d i a g r a m a r e g e n e r a l l y available,
t h e stress r a n g e h i s t o g r a m is o b t a i n e d p o i n t by point, e a c h point
requiring t h e analysis of t h e s t r e s s e s in t h e s t r u c t u r e s u b j e c t t o a given
wave. T h e following guidelines can be provided on t h e n u m b e r of these
c a l c u l a t i o n s likely t o yield a f i n a l r e s u l t of s u f f i c i e n t a c c u r a c y :
T h e k n o w l e d g e of m e m b e r f o r c e s ( m o m e n t s , a x i a l a n d s h e a r f o r c e s )
r e q u i r e s c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s of s t r u c t u r a l j o i n t s u n d e r t h e
a c t i o n of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e j o i n t s a n d t o t h e
d i s c r e t i s e d e l e m e n t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e . Once t h e n o d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s a r e
known, t h e n o m i n a l stresses a r e c a l c u l a t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g e a c h m e m b e r
of t h e j o i n t individually.
F o r a l i n e a r e l a s t i c c a l c u l a t i o n , if F i s t h e v e c t o r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
e x t e r n a l f o r c e s applied t o t h e j o i n t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e v e c t o r X of
nodal d i s p l a c e m e n t s is t h e s o l u t i o n to:
KX = F(X,X,X,t,D,D,D)
w h e r e K i s t h e s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x of t h e s t r u c t u r e , t t h e t i m e , and D t h e
o v e r a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t v e c t o r of t h e s t r u c t u r e . F is o b t a i n e d by modelling
t h e f o r c e s , a s d i s c u s s e d in S e c t i o n 2.1. I t s f o r m c l o s e l y d e p e n d s on t h e
t y p e of s t r u c t u r e c o n s i d e r e d .
F i x e d s t r u c t u r e s : O v e r a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e a r e nil,
hence F = F(X,X,X,t). If t h e f l u i d - s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n is ignored, F is
w r i t t e n : -M X -Ck + F'(t).
Mobile s t r u c t u r e s : o v e r a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t s of t h e s t r u c t u r e o c c u r . In
m o s t c a s e s , X i s s u p p l a n t e d by D t o calculate F = F(t,D,D,D).
C a l c u l a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t in t h r e e s t e p s :
F r o m t h i s s t a n d p o i n t , T a b l e s 2.1 a n d 2.2 p r e s e n t t h e o v e r a l l f a t i g u e
c a l c u l a t i o n f o r these t w o t y p e s o f structure.
T h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n t h a t h a s t o b e s o l v e d is finally o n e of t h e
f ol low in g t h r e e types:
(1) Q u a s i - s t a t i c b e h a v i o r K X = F(t).
(2) L i n e a r b e h a v i o r MX + Ck + K X = F(t).
(3) Non-linear b e h a v i o r K X = F(t,X,X,X).
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 155
Static a n a l y s i s
T i m e domain analysis
T h e load c a s e s are o b t a i n e d by c a r r y i n g o u t a s i m u l a t i o n of t h e w a v e
f o r f a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n , i.e. by g e n e r a t i n g t h e fluid k i n e m a t i c s f o r e a c h
c a l c u l a t i o n i n s t a n t , with t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m these
kinematics.
Nodal d i s p l a c e m e n t s a r e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e equation:
MX + CX + KX = F(t)
w h e r e X a n d F ( t ) a r e c o l u m n - v e c t o r s of dimension n.
A. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m o d e s of u n d a m p e d s y s t e m s
T h e s e a r e non-null s o l u t i o n s to:
-w2MX + KX = 0
E a c h n a t u r a l m o d e is a s s o c i a t e d with a n a t u r a l period Ti = -
2* for
which d e t [K - W f M I = 0. Wi
w h e r e X i y n a n d Xkt a r e t h e d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o d e s i
a n d Ki(w) i s t h e d y n a m i c a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r f o r m o d e i.
B. Static calculations
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n must be r e p e a t e d f o r a l l t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n s t a n t s , t h e
s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x having b e e n i n v e r s e d only o n c e a t t h e o u t s e t . T h e c a s e
of t h e s t a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of a f i x e d s t r u c t u r e under d e t e r m i n i s t i c w a v e s
is d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l in S e c t i o n 2.2.5.
C. Dynamic calculations
(1) F r e q u e n c y resolution in s p a t i a l c o o r d i n a t e s :
T h i s m e t h o d can be u s e d i f the e x c i t a t i o n i s p e r i o d i c
and d e t e r m i n i s t i c . I t c a n a l s o serve t o c a l c u l a t e the
nodal f o r c e l n o d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t transfer f u n c t i o n , and
hence serves a s a b a s i s f o r s p e c t r a l c a l c u l a t i o n s ( s e e
Section 2 . 2 . 3 0 ) . I t o f f e r s the a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g p r e c i s e
( i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the l i n e a r b e h a v i o r o f the s t r u c t u r e ) .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , the c a l c u l a t e d r e s p o n s e i n c l u d e s l o c a l
d i s p l a c e m e n t s , a s o p p o s e d t o d i s p l a c e m e n t s i n v o l v i n g the
e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s of
the l o a d s i n a j o i n t . However, l i k e a l l r e s o l u t i o n
m e t h o d s i n s p a t i a l c o o r d i n a t e s , i t r a i s e s the p r o b l e m o f
the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the d a m p i n g m a t r i x . As a r u l e , since
damping i s d e f i n e d b y a critical damping r a t e f o r e a c h
m o d e , one m u s t a t f i r s t e x t r a c t the n a t u r a l m o d e s i n o r d e r
t o c a l c u l a t e the d a m p i n g m a t r i x .
T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o d e s p r e s e n t e d in S e c t i o n 2.2.3A a r e mutually
orthogonal. H e n c e i t is i m p o r t a n t t o r e w r i t e t h e nodal d i s p l a c e m e n t
e q u a t i o n on t h e basis of t h e n a t u r a l modes.
158 ACTIONS A N D L O A D S 111.2
T h i s gives:
x = c Y;
i
w h e r e @i are v e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o d e s (i = 1 t o n)
a n d Yi t h e m o d a l c o o r d i n a t e s f o r nodal d i s p l a c e m e n t s . The new
unknowns Yi a r e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e s y s t e m of n e q u a t i o n s :
= ' 0 . F(t), i = 1 t o n
1
a n d t h e o r t h o g o n a l i t y of t h e mode:
M oi Yi + c t @ . C 0 . Y . + t @.K @ . =
1 J J 1 J
j
T h e m e t h o d is i n t e r e s t i n g if t h e m a t r i x C i s s u c h t h a t @i C @j = 0
when j # i. One t h e n o b t a i n s n d e c o u p l e d l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s , whose
r e s o l u t i o n is trivial. T h i s s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i l s , for e x a m p l e , if d a m p i n g is
e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of c r i t i c a l d a m p i n g rate p e r mode, which is r o u t i n e
practice.
( 3 ) Modal s u p e r p o s i t i o n + s t a t i c response.
T h e p u r e s u p e r p o s i t i o n m e t h o d is i m p r o v e d a t l i t t l e e x p e n s e b y t a k i n g
a c c o u n t of t h e s t a t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e r e s p o n s e a c c o r d i n g t o m o d e s
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 159
T h e f o r e g o i n g m o d a l s u p e r p o s i t i o n m e t h o d g i v e s the
f o l l o w i n g d y n a m i c c o n t r i b u t i o n f o r the M c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
modes t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t :
M
X(t) = Xs(t) + (Ki(w)-l)@iYis(t) =
i=l
T h e f o r e g o i n g m e t h o d s are u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e f r e e s u r f a c e
e l e v a t i o n - j o i n t stress a m p l i t u d e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n . T h i s t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n
c a n b e used:
( a ) In d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a l c u l a t i o n s .
( b ) In s t o c h a s t i c c a l c u l a t i o n s , t o y i e l d t h e s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f
t h e stress by:
T h i s a p p r o a c h a s s u m e s t h a t the e x c i t a t i o n f o r c e F ( t ) i s
l i n e a r i n r e l a t i o n t o the wave h e i g h t . T h i s restriction
i s sometimes d i s c a r d e d and a p s e u d o - t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n
c a l c u l a t e d w i t h e a c h e l e m e n t a r y wave m o d e l l e d b y a
160 ACTIONS AND LOADS 111.2
t h e r e s u l t , a n d t h e m e t h o d is h e n c e g e n e r a l l y i t e r a t i v e (it c o n v e r g e s
rapidly). A t each i t e r a t i o n s t e p , o n e of t h e m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e
l i n e a r e q u a t i o n is employed. A discussion of t h i s t e c h n i q u e c a n b e found
in Ref.[ 2.281 .
When the l i n e a r i s e d e q u a t i o n i s t r e a t e d b y the modal
s u p e r p o s i t i o n m e t h o d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a p p r o x i m a t e the
m a t r i x A b y a d i a g o n a l m a t r i x i n the modal b a s e .
B. S i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
O n e o b t a i n s a history of t h e r e s p o n s e t h a t is employed:
The m e t h o d c a n be u s e d f o r s t o c h a s t i c c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n
f a c t , b a s e d on a s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n o f t h e f r e e
s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n , one c a n m o d e l a r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e
p r o c e s s b y summating a l a r g e number o f s i n u s o i d a l
elementary waves. One c a n a l s o p r o c e e d b y s m o o t h i n g a
G a u s s i a n w h i t e noise. I n a n y c a s e t h e m e t h o d i s e x t r e m e l y
cost1 y .
T h e h i s t o g r a m of w a v e h e i g h t s is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s i t e d a t a . We
shall c o n s i d e r h e r e t h e c a s e which a s s u m e s t h e log-linear law:
ln(N) = ln(N )
H ln(N )
- - 0
O *o
No = t o t a l n u m b e r of w a v e s o v e r t h e r e f e r e n c e period,
N = n u m b e r of w a v e s with h e i g h t g r e a t e r t h a n H,
Fig. 2.7.
With t h i s hypothesis, i t is a s s u m e d t h a t H a n d A D a r e r e l a t e d by a
s i m p l e a n a l y t i c a l e q u a t i o n ( A D is t h e s t a t i c stress range):
S
AD = K Aus
K = - a + bH
1 + cH
w h e r e a, b, c are three c o n s t a n t s d e p e n d i n g on t h e j o i n t c o n s i d e r e d , t o
111.2 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 163
be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e r e s u l t s of t h r e e d y n a m i c calculations. This
g i v e s t h e h i s t o g r a m of t h e nominal s t r e s s r a n g e s in t h e j o i n t considered,
in t h e following form:
S i n c e i t is i m p l i c i t y a s s u m e d t h a t a s t r e s s c y c l e is c a u s e d by t h e
p a s s a g e of a w a v e , No r e p r e s e n t s t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of stress c y c l e s and
N t h e n u m b e r of stress c y c l e s f o r which t h e stress r a n g e is g r e a t e r t h a n
no.
W h e n d y n a m i c a n a l y s e s are n o t c o n d u c t e d ( o v e r a l l d y n a m i c ampli-
f i c a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a s s u m e d t o b e l), t w o s t a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
sufficient. To e s t i m a t e c o r r e c t l y t h e s t r e s s r a n g e in a j o i n t during a
c y c l e , a t l e a s t six d i f f e r e n t w a v e positions m u s t be e x a m i n e d in
succession. This m e a n s t h a t t w e l v e s t a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e a c t u a l l y
performed.
T h i s m e t h o d can be u s e d wh e n d y n a m i c e f f e c t s are s l i g h t
( t h e n a t u r a l p e r i o d of the s t r u c t u r e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y l o w e r
than t h e w a v e p e r i o d s ) . I t a p p l i e s t o a h i s t o g r a m of w a v e
h e i g t h s of a n y f o r m .
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t K d e c r e a s e s w i t h the p e r i o d and t e n d s
toward 1 for h i g h p e r i o d s ( F i g . 2 . 8 ) .
F i g . 2.8.
164 ACTIONS A N D LOADS 111.2
T a b l e 2.1.
Mobile structures
Wave Deterministic
Wave
processlng
Motlon
analysis
I
Transfer
function
Simulation
Motlon
analysls results TF-motlons Motlon spectrum
Force analysis
results
Structural
TF-forces
Statlc
analysls 1 Static
analysis
I,
PL,i
Force spectrum Force history
Statlc
analysls
11
analysls
Stress
processlng 1
I SCF I
Damage
lndlvldual wave
Short term
I damage
Cumulatlve Statistics
damage
Cumulatlve
damage
166 ACTIONS AND LOADS 111.2
T a b l e 2.2.
d-y,
Fixed structures
Simulation Simulation
I 1 '7"'I
Mod:
:%$ analysis (three
dimensional
co-ordinates)
Dynamic
stepwise
analysis
Stress
processing
Stress
soectrum
Damage
Cumulative
damage
*] Cumulative
111.2 ACTIONS AND LOADS 167
REFERENCES
2.30 Godeau, A.J. and Deleuil, G.E., Dynamic response and fatigue
analysis of fixed offshore s t r u c t u r e s , OTC, paper No.2260, 1975.
CHAPTER 3
Determination
of the Stress Concentration Factor
in Simple Geometry Joints
3.1 INTRODUCTION
T h e n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d in which t h e S C F of a joint is d e t e r m i n e d by
m e a n s .of a n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n , s u c h a s t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t s method.
The e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d in which t h e S C F is d e t e r m i n e d by m e a n s
of m e a s u r e m e n t s of d e f o r m a t i o n s in a l a b o r a t o r y model ( i r r e s p e c t i v e of
scale).
172 DETERMINATION OF S C F 111.3
T h e S C F can b e c a l c u l a t e d using t h e p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s a v a i l a b l e in
t h e t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e [ 3.1 t o 3.111. I t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o use t h e
following t h r e e g r o u p s of r e c e n t l y published p a r a m e t r i c formulas:
( a ) F o r m u l a s of Exxon p r o d u c t i o n R e s e a r c h ( E P R ) [3.6].
(b) F o r m u l a s of Lloyd's R e g i s t e r of SHipping (Lloyd's) [ 3.71.
(c) F o r m u l a s o f D e t N o r s k e Veritas (DnV) [3.8].
T h e p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d b y c u r v e
f i t t i n g the v a l u e s o f the S C F a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s o f the j o i n t , the SCF v a l u e s b e i n g
o b t a i n e d either b y e x p e r i m e n t a l a n a l y s e s , or b y n u m e r i c a l
finite element analyses. T h u s the p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s
p r o v i d e v a l u e s o f t h e S C F a s a f u n c t i o n of v a r i o u s
geometric parameters.
3.2.1 VALIDITY OF P A R A M E T R I C F O R M U L A S
T h e f o r m u l a s a r e g i v e n in A n n e x C, t h e d o m a i n s of a p p l i c a t i o n a n d
t h e validity l i m i t s f o r each group, a s a n n o u n c e d by t h e i r a u t h o r s , being
given i n T a b l e 3.1. a n d T a b l e 3.2. r e s p e c t i v e l y .
T h r e e t y p e s of s i m p l e load a r e c o v e r e d s e p a r a t e l y by these f o r m u l a s ,
n a m e l y a x i a l load, in-plane bending, a n d out-of-plane bending. F r o m t h e
g e o m e t r i c s t a n d p o i n t , t h e DnV f o r m u l a s d e a l w i t h T j o i n t s only, while
t h e E P R f o r m u l a s c o v e r s T, Y , K, N a n d K T joints, a n d t h e Lloyd's
f o r m u l a s cover T, Y , X, K, N a n d KT joints.
T h e t h r e e g r o u p s of p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s yield t h e s a m e o r d e r of
m a g n i t u d e of t h e S C F , so t h a t it is n o t possible t o r e c o m m e n d o n e g r o u p
o f f o r m u l a s o v e r a n o t h e r . H o w e v e r , t h e Lloyd's f o r m u l a s c o v e r a w i d e r
r a n g e of g e o m e t r y a n d loading.
N o t e t h a t t h e u s e o f these f o r m u l a s o u t s i d e t h e v a l i d i t y l i m i t s f
which t h e y h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e i r a u t h o r s is l i a b l e t o i n t r o d u
substantial errors.
111.3 DETERMINATION OF S C F 173
T a b l e 3.1.
Domain of a p p l i c a t i o n of EPR, DnV a n d
Lloyd's f o r m u l a s
LoadITy pe
I Axial
I In-plane
I Out-of-plane
I
of J o i n t load
1 1
bending bending
EPR EPR EPR
T DnV DnV DnV
Lloyd's Lloyd's Lloyd's
EPR EPR EPR
Y
Lloyd's Lloyd's Lloyd's
X Lloyd's Lloyd's Lloyd's
EPR EPR Lloyd's
K, N Lloyd's Lloyd's
EPR
Lloyd's I Lloyd's I Lloyd's
A s y s t e m a t i c c o m p a r i s o n w a s u n d e r t a k e n b e t w e e n the
p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s a n d the t e s t r e s u l t s a n d r e s u l t s f r o m
finite element analyses. The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e
d r a w n f r o m these c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s [ 3 . 9 ] :
174 D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF SCF 111.3
( a ) D e v i a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e b e t w e e n the SCF v a l u e s
compared t o t e s t r e s u l t s and f i n i t e e l e m e n t r e s u l t s
o f a r o u n d ~ 2 . 0f o r v a l u e s o f g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s
w h i c h a r e w i t h i n the v a l i d i t y l i m i t s o f the
parametric formulas:
- +2.0
S C F - S~ C ~F -~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~
(b) I f these p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s a r e a p p l i e d o u t s i d e
the v a l i d i t y l i m i t s , t h e p o s s i b l e m a r g i n o f error
i s much g r e a t e r a n d may r e a c h 2 4 . 0 i n some c a s e s :
- +4.0
S C F - S~ C ~F -~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~
It i s o b v i o u s t h a t these p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s a r e
i n c a p a b l e o f s o l v i n g the c a s e o f c o m p l e x g e o m e t r y j o i n t s .
For these c a s e s , d u e t o t h e l a c k o f a p p r o p r i a t e p a r a m e t r i c
f o r m u l a s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o resort t o a n u m b e r o f s i m p l i -
fications i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e SCF ( s e e
Section 3 . 2 . 3 ) .
T h e EPR a n d L l o y d ' s p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s f o r K a n d K T
j o i n t s d o n o t cover o v e r l a p j o i n t s i n w h i c h 5 ( = g / D ) i s
negative. An a n a l y s i s b y t h e m e t h o d o f f i n i t e e l e m e n t s
a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r an o v e r l a p
j o i n t , the S C F c a n be e v a l u a t e d f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y b y
t a k i n g 5 = + 0 . 0 1 i n the p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s [ 3 . 1 0 ] .
J o i n t s w i t h the p a r a m e t e r 6 ( = d / D ) e q u a l t o 1 .O a r e
o f t e n u s e d i n b r a c i n g , or i n the riser g u i d e g r i d s . Due
t o the c o n d i t i o n s inherent i n f a b r i c a t i o n ( w e l d i n g ) , the
intersection o f the o u t e r s u r f a c e s o f the t w o t u b e s d o e s
not c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l intersection ( F i g . 3 . 1 ) .
O n l y the L l o y d ' s f o r m u l a s c o n s i d e r a v a l u e o f 6 = 1 . 0 ,
b u t i n t h i s c a s e , L l o y d ' s recommends t a k i n g 8 = 0.98 t o
c a l c u l a t e the SCF [ 3 . 7 1 .
Fig. 3.1.
111.3 DETERMINATION OF S C F 175
3.2.2 I N F L U E N C E OF G E O M E T R I C P A R A M E T E R S
O N DESIGN STRESS ( 0 ~ )
(a) By r e d u c i n g t h e S C F of t h e joint.
(b) By r e d u c i n g t h e nominal stress in t h e b r a c e .
An e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e i n f l u e n c e of g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s on t h e S C F
a n d on t h e nominal s t r e s s s e r v e s t o c l a s s i f y t h e possible c h a n g e s in t h e
j o i n t g e o m e t r y a s follows, by d e c r e a s i n g o r d e r of effectiveness:
(1) R e d u c t i o n in y a n d T by i n c r e a s i n g t h e c h o r d t h i c k n e s s (TI.
( 2 ) I n c r e a s e inB by i n c r e a s i n g t h e b r a c e d i a m t e r (d).
( 3 ) I n c r e a s e in B and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e d u c t i o n in y by reducing the
c h o r d d i a m e t e r (D).
T h e designer's a t t e n t i o n is d r a w n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s r a i s e d by
t h e use of l a r g e wall t h i c k n e s s e s ( C h a p t e r 3 Part I).
Inf1 uence of t h i c k n e s s
Valldlty Iln
SCF 'I1 SCF
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 7 - 0 0.1, 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.0 0.9 1.0-r
Influence of 7 on SCF (chord). T jolnt. axIaI load .
Influence of I on SCF (chord) T lolnl, axlal load
F i g . 3.2. F i g . 3.3.
DnV ( l / T ) 2 - 24 ( 1i T ) l43
. ( 1/ T ) . ~I 3
f a v o r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o f an i n c r e a s e i n T on the S C F and
hence OA AaG m o r e than o f f s e t s t h i s f i r s t e f f e c t ,
r e s u l t i n g i n a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n the service l i f e
a s T increases. T h i s e x p l a i n s the i m p o r t a n c e o f j o i n t s
with stubs.
b y i n c r e a s i n g the j o i n t r i g i d i t y , or b y d e c r e a s i n g the
n o m i n a l stress i n the brace ( i f d i s m o d i f i e d ) . T o r e d u c e
the v a l u e o f AUG, i t i s m o r e e f f e c t i v e t o increase the
v a l u e o f d (brace d i a m e t e r ) than t o r e d u c e D ( c h o r d
diameter).
J o i n t service 1 ife
w h e r e A F r e p r e s e n t s t h e v a r i a t i o n i n a g i v e n a x i a l or
bending l o a d . T h e e x p r e s s i o n d o e s not a c c o u n t f o r a l o a d
combination.
T a b l e 3.4 g i v e s the c o e f f i c i e n t s a , b a n d c a c c o r d i n g
t o the t y p e o f l o a d , a s w e l l a s the r e l a t i v e variation i n
N f o r a v a r i a t i o n o f +lo% i n each o f the p a r a m e t e r s B , d ,
T , for m = -3.
Table 3.4.
Load a b b I n f l u e n c e I n f 1u e n c e l n f 1u e n c e
of B of d of T I 1 )
(%) (%) I%!
Axial
2.0 0.0 2.0 +77 +77 + 65
1o a d
I n - p l ane
0.5 1.0 1.45 +15 +53 +40
bending
Out-of-
plane 0.5 1.0 2.0 +15 +53 + 65
bending
T h e above r e s u l t s f r o m s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s a n d i t s o n l y
p u r p o s e i s t o c l e a r l y h i g h l i g h t the p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h e x e r t
the g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on f a t i g u e l i f e . I t d o e s not
r e p l a c e the p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s a n d i s i n t e n d e d o n l y a s an
178 DETERMINATION OF SCF 111.3
a i d t o h e l p t h e d e s i g n e r t o o p t i r n i s e the j o i n t g e o m e t r y i n
terms of fatigue strength.
T h e p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s c o n c e r n t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e SCF f o r each
t y p e of s i m p l e loading. T h e design s t r e s s r a n g e f o r a c o m p l e x loading
( c o m b i n e d loads) can be e v a l u a t e d by t h e following equation:
AOG = SCF
Ax
. A 0Ax + SCF
FY
. A 0FY + SCFFz . 2
where
S C F A ~= stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r a x i a l loading,
S C F F ~= stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r a n in-plane bending load in
t h e joint,
S C F F ~= s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r an out-of-plane bending load
in t h e joint,
A U A ~ = a x i a l nominal s t r e s s r a n g e in t h e b r a c e ,
A ~ F= nominal
~ j o i n t in-plane bending s t r e s s r a n g e in t h e b r a c e ,
A ~ F= nominal
~ j o i n t out-fo-plane bending s t r e s s r a n g e in t h e brace.
T h e i n f l u e n c e t h a t an a x i a l load in t h e c h o r d m a y e x e r t on t h e SCF is
g e n e r a l l y s l i g h t , a n d is t h e r e f o r e ignored in t h e f o r m u l a . H o w e v e r , f o r
j o i n t s in which t h e nominal a x i a l s t r e s s in t h e c h o r d is of t h e s a m e o r d e r
of m a g n i t u d e a s t h e n o m i n a l s t r e s s in t h e b r a c e a n d w h e r e t h e h o t s p o t
on t h e chord o c c u r s n e a r t h e c r o w n point, t h e v a l u e of t h e nominal a x i a l
s t r e s s r a n g e i n t h e c h o r d m u s t be a d d e d t o t h e g e o m e t r i c stress r a n g e in
t h e chord c a l c u l a t e d by t h e proposed m e t h o d .
T h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e e x a c t S C F u n d e r
combined l o a d i n g a r e v e r y l i m i t e d . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , the
S C F v a l u e s f o r s i m p l e l o a d i n g s c a n be c o m b i n e d l i n e a r l y
o n l y i f the p r i n c i p a l stress i s a maximum ( o ~ a) t the s a m e
h o t s p o t a n d i n the s a m e d i r e c t i o n for e a c h of the s i m p l e
1o a d i n g s .
T h e m a j o r d r a w b a c k o f p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s i s they
p r o v i d e o n l y the v a l u e of t h e g e o m e t r i c stress a t t h e hot
spot, for a given simple loading. T h e stress d i s t r i b u t i o n
111.3 D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF SCF 179
For t h i s r e a s o n the f o r m u l a i s l a r g e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e . A
m o r e a c c u r a t e v a l u e o f oG c a n be o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g t h e
a p p r o a c h p r o p o s e d i n Section 3 . 3 .
SCF
1
FEM . analysis results
T joint loading upon the brace
- L.&k
a = 5.3; 6 = 0.65; y = 10.0; r = 0.71
Axial load-
.i
z
Brace Chord
-*
0 15O 30° 45O 60° 750 900
Crown point Saddle polnt
Fig. 3.4.
180 DETERMINATION OF S C F 111.3
3.3.1 GENERAL
T h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e SCF in s i m p l e g e o m e t r y j o i n t s r a i s e s a n u m b e r
of d e l i c a t e questions, which a r e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w w i t h i n d i c a t i o n s being
provided on t h e c h o i c e s t o be made.
A n u m b e r o f a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d
t o s t u d y the stress d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v e r y s i m p l e t u b u l a r
j o i n t s ( s u c h a s T j o i n t s ) w i t h s p e c i f i c l o a d s [3.13, 3.13,
3.14 ] . These a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s , w h i c h r e s u l t s f r o m
v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , are f a r f r o m o f f e r i n g the
g e n e r a l v a l i d i t y a n d f l e x i b i l i t y of u s e a s p r o v i d e d b y the
f i n i t e element method.
In a c t u a l f a c t , t u b u l a r j o i n t s a r e c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s . From
a modelling s t a n d p o i n t , an a t t e m p t is m a d e t o t a k e account of t h i s
r e a l i t y , so as t o l o c a t e t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a s a c c u r a t e l y as
possible. T h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d is e x c e l l e n t f o r t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t
of s p e c i f i c g e o m e t r i c d e t a i l s s u c h a s s h e l l s a n d s t i f f e n e r s , which may
play a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n r e d u c i n g t h e stresses, b u t m a y a l s o m a k e i t
m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o locate t h e h o t spot.
F o r m o r e or less c o m p l e x t u b u l a r joints, a p r e l i m i n a r y c a l c u l a t i o n by
classic a n a l y t i c a l m e t h o d s a r e r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e boundary
c o n d i t i o n s in t e r m s of forces a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t s .
To d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e brace-chord junction,
t h e t u b e lengths beyond t h e junction a r e d e t e r m i n e d t o ensure t h a t t h e
c a l c u l a t e d S C F is u n a f f e c t e d by t h e boundary conditions, in t h e sense of
t h e application of t h e Saint Venant principle. I t is recommended t o u s e
t h e following minimum lengths (Fig. 3.5):
Fig. 3.5.
T h e t u b u l a r j o i n t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r m s p a r t o f the
structure. Before " d e t a c h i n g " t h i s t u b u l a r j o i n t f r o m the
rest o f the s t r u c t u r e f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f the
stress d i s t r i b u t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e the
l o a d s a c t i n g on the d i f f e r e n t e n d s of the t u b u l a r j o i n t ,
for d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b l e w a v e a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s .
182 DETERMINATION OF S C F 111.3
I t is d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o m m e n d t h e u s e of a s p e c i f i c c o m p u t a t i o n
s o f t w a r e . H o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r e m a r k s e x p r e s s e d in t h e c o m m e n t s ,
i t is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e use of a s o f t w a r e t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s of s t r e s s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n is c o n s i d e r a b l y f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e "utilities"
a v a i l a b l e f o r j o i n t meshing and f o r providing a f a s t , c l e a r analysis of t h e
desired results, n a m e l y :
(a) L o c a t i o n of t h e h o t spot.
(b) Magnitude of t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
F r o m t h e purely g e o m e t r i c s t a n d p o i n t , t w o t y p e s of f i n i t e e l e m e n t s
a r e normally used: f l a t e l e m e n t s f o r which t h e m e m b r a n e and bending
e f f e c t s a r e s u p e r i m p o s e d [ 3.171 , a n d s i n g l e o r double c u r v a t u r e
e l e m e n t s ( s u p e r p a r a m e t r i c and s u b p a r a m e t r i c e l e m e n t s [ 3.181, e l e m e n t s
by Visser L3.191, etc.
111.3 DETERMINATION OF SCF 183
T h e use of a n y o f t h e s e t y p e s of e l e m e n t l e a d s t o c o m p a r a b l e results,
provided care is t a k e n in t h e mesh c o n f i g u r a t i o n . T h e u s e of t h e f l a t
e l e m e n t c e r t a i n l y r e q u i r e s a r e l a t i v e l y f i n e meshing f o r an accurate
m a t c h i n g of t h e c u r v e d s u r f a c e s of t h e t u b e s making up t h e t u b u l a r
joint.
In s e l e c t i n g t h e mesh dimension, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o o b s e r v e t h e
following r u l e s [ 3.201:
(a) F o r t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t s in t h e neighborhood of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of
t h e tubes:
. T h e dimension of t h e s i d e of t h e e l e m e n t p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o n c u r v e of t h e t w o t u b e s ( d e n o t e d m o r e on Fig. 3.6)
m u s t be s u c h t h a t t h e l e n g t h a t o t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y of t h e
e l e m e n t is l o c a t e d no f u r t h e r t h a n 0.4T f r o m t h e "imaginary"
weld t o e p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e m e a n s u r f a c e s . T h e lower of t h e
t w o v a l u e s m a n d e is t h e n used.
. T h e dimension b of t h e e l e m e n t whose s i d e l i e s on t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o n c u r v e of t h e T o r Y j o i n t m u s t b e l e s s t h a n 1 / 2 4 of
t h e l e n g t h o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n curve.
(b) W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e dimension of t h e mesh s i d e s f a r f r o m t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o n zone:
. T h e m a x i m u m dimension of t h e s i d e s of t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t m u s t
n o t e x c e e d t h e half-radius of t h e t u b e on which it is l o c a t e d .
. The passage f r o m t h e s m a l l e s t f i n i t e e l e m e n t s t o t h e largest
m u s t t a k e p l a c e gradually.
Fig. 3.6.
F i g u r e 3.7 s h o w s d e t a i l s of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t w o tubes. T o m e s h
t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h i s t y p e of joint, t h e following m e t h o d is proposed
[ 3.23, 3.24 3:
Fig. 3.7.
m
Zone whose behavlour
w
F i g . 3.8.
F i g . 3.9.
( a ) F o r t h e chord: t h e v a l u e of t h e m a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s i s
e x t r a p o l a t e d o r i n t e r p o l a t e d t o t h e weld toe (see Fig. 3.10).
(b) F o r t h e brace: t h e v a l u e of t h e m a x i m u m main s t r e s s is a l s o
e x t r a p o l a t e d o r i n t e r p o l a t e d t o t h e weld t o e (see Fig. 3.11).
A c c o r d i n g t o a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of f i n i t e e l e m e n t a n a l y s e s a n d
e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e v a l u e t h u s c a l c u l a t e d is low.
I
If t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m g i v e s the v a l u e s o f the
p r i n c i p a l stresses a t t h e G a u s s p o i n t s , i t i s a l w a y s
p o s s i b l e t o r e l a t e these v a l u e s t o the centre o f g r a v i t y
o f the f i n i t e e l e m e n t . As a r u l e , computer programs g i v e
the v a l u e s a t the centre o f g r a v i t y d i r e c t l y .
I t h a s been o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n
v a l u e s a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e m e a n s u r f a c e s o f the
t u b e s ( p o i n t I i n F i g . 3 . 1 2 ) c a l c u l a t e d b y the f i n i t e
e l e m e n t m e t h o d a r e g r e a t e r t h a n those o b t a i n e d a t the w e l d
toes ( c h o r d s i d e a n d b r a c e s i d e ) , a c c o r d i n g t o the
e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d o l o g y d i s c u s s e d i n Section 3 . 4 . To
correct the v a l u e o b t a i n e d b y f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d , i t i s
p r o p o s e d t o e s t i m a t e t h i s v a l u e a t a p o i n t other t h a n the
intersection o f t h e mean s u r f a c e s .
A l l t h e p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s d e v e l o p e d b y EPR a n d DnV
[3.6, 3 . 6 ] a r e b a s e d on the r e s u l t s o f a n a n a l y s e s w i t h
finite elements. The a u t h o r s o f these f o r m u l a s h a v e
111.3 DETERMINATION OF SCF 187
e s t i m a t e d t h e v a l u e s of t h e SCF a t the h o t s p o t p o i n t s
s h o w n i n F i g . 3 . 1 3 f o r EPR a n d F i g . 3 . 1 2 for D n V .
Note t h a t t h e v a l u e s g i v e n b y the e x t r a p o l a t i o n s
c o n s i d e r e d , e i t h e r b y DnV o r b y EPR, d o not a l w a y s
c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s on a c t u a l j o i n t s .
S i g n i f i c a n t d i s c r e p a n c i e s have been o b s e r v e d , w h i c h a p p e a r
t o d e p e n d on the g e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s . When e s t a b l i s h i n g
t h e i r p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s , DnV s u b s e q u e n t l y r e d u c e d b y 25%
t h e v a l u e o f t h e brace SCF g i v e n b y the f i n i t e e l e m e n t
a n a l y s e s r e s u l t s for t h i s reason [ 3 . 8 ] .
$,
*. I 1
Hot spot-brace
H
$
,iot spot-chord
Hot spotchord
Gaussian point
In t h e f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s o f t h e j o i n t , t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f l o a d ( a x i a l
l o a d , i n - p l a n e b e n d i n g , o u t - o f - p l a n e b e n d i n g ) i n t h e c h o r d a n d in t h e
b r a c e ( s e e S e c t i o n 1.2) m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d in c o m b i n a t i o n in c a l c u l a t i n g
t h e d e s i g n stress b y t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d .
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d g e n e r a l l y followed c o n s i s t s i n applying
s i m p l e loads t o t h e j o i n t m o d e l t o b e analysed. F o r e a c h of these loads,
t h e position and value of t h e stress a t t h e h o t s p o t is d e t e r m i n e d , f r o m
t h e d a t a supplied by e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e s t r a i n g a u g e s [3.25 t o 3.281.
T h e model analysed m a y b e of s t e e l o r of a n o t h e r m a t e r i a l ( a c r y l i c ,
plycarbonate) exhibiting mechanical properties that allow the
m e a s u r e m e n t of s t e e p s t r a i n g r a d i e n t s f o r a l i n e a r e l a s t i c state.
T o a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e position of t h e h o t s p o t , i t is n e c e s s a r y
t o a n a l y s e s e v e r a l a r e a s around t h e weld, on t h e b r a c e s i d e and on t h e
c h o r d side.
F i g u r e 3.14 s h o w s in d e t a i l t h e e x t r a p o l a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n t h e
value of t h e g e o m e t r i c stress UG. T h e f i g u r e s h o w s how t o c o n s t r u c t t h e
e x t r a p o l a t i o n line passing t h r o u g h p o i n t s Ai and Bi, f o r t h e saddle and
c r o w n points.
F o r c e r t a i n g e o m e t r i e s a n d c e r t a i n loads, t h e h o t s p o t is n o t
necessarily l o c a t e d on l i n e s 1, 2, 3 a n d 4 shown in t h e figure. Based on
t h e s a m e principles s t a t e d above, i t is possible t o a n a l y s e along t h e line
of i n t e r s e c t i o n of a n y p l a n e passing through 00' a n d t h e o u t e r walls of
t h e tubes.
111.3 DETERMINATION O F SCF 189
I Chord
Fig. 3.14.
190 DETERMINATION OF S C F 111.3
T h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r is w r i t t e n :
U
G
SCF = -
U
n
where un is t h e nominal stress (see S e c t i o n 1.2).
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r ( S C F ) a t t h e h o t
s p o t f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s given by e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e s t r a i n g a u g e s
r e q u i r e s t h e knowledge of t h e t w o principal s t r a i n s €1 a n d €2. T h e v a l u e
of t h e m a x i m u m principal s t r e s s is given by t h e formula:
If no d a t a is a v a i l a b l e on t h e v a l u e of € 2 , t h e following c a n be used
as a c l o s e approximation:
SCF = 1 . 15 SNCF
w h e r e S N C F is t h e s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r a t t h e h o t spot. I t is
d e t e r m i n e d in a s i m i l a r m a n n e r t o t h e S C F , by l i n e a r e x t r a p o l a t i o n of
t h e v a l u e s of E 1 a t points Ai and Bi. T h e d e f o r m a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n
f a c t o r is w r i t t e n :
€G
SNCF = -
‘n
L I
tN
Sequence
Sequence repealed
1500
- repeated
4 tlmes
5 llrnes
_v__
1330 1330
lo00
500
Fig. 3.15.
Hot
F i g . 3.16.
T h e m e t h o d c a n be u s e d not o n l y t o d e t e r m i n e the S C F i n
a j o i n t , b u t a l s o t o e x a m i n e the i n f l u e n c e o f the w e l d
p r o f i l e F i g . 3.1 7 ) .
As a r u l e , n e i t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a s s e s nor the l o c a l
e f f e c t s ( u n d e r c u t s , v a r i a t i o n i n p r o f i l e a l o n g the w e l d ,
etc.) a r e modelled. The f i g u r e s s h o w t h e i n f l u e n c e o f the
w e l d t o e p r o f i l e on the local stresses a t the w e l d toe
[3.29, 3.311. For f a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n s , the v a l u e of the
g e o m e t r i c stress ( s e e C h a p t e r 1 ) i s u s e d r a t h e r t h a n the
v a l u e o f t h i s l o c a l stress.
F i g . 3.17.
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of c o m p l e x l o a d s o f t e n r a i s e s t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s in
t h e laboratory. T h e p r o b l e m c a n b e s o l v e d by c o n s i d e r i n g e a c h t y p e of
s i m p l e load s e p a r a t e l y . If t h e e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r o f t h e s t r u c t u r e is
g u a r a n t e e d , cases of c o m b i n e d l o a d s c a n b e d e a l t w i t h by s u p e r i m p o s i n g
t h e measurements.
194 D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF SCF 111.3
Due t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g a t t h e t e c h n i c a l
l e v e l ( e q u i p m e n t , b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ) a n d a l s o f r o m the
economic s t a n d p o i n t , the t r e a t m e n t o f complex l o a d i n g
c a s e s on the b a s i s o f s t r a i n g a u g e m e a s u r e m e n t s i s r a r e l y
feasible. The technique o f superimposing simple loads i s
therefore o f t e n a d o p t e d , b u t since o n l y p a r t i a l d a t a a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r e a c h s i m p l e l o a d c a s e , the m e t h o d i s not
always capable o f s o l v i n g complex load c a s e s ( f o r example,
i f the h o t s p o t f o r the c o m p l e x l o a d l i e s n e i t h e r a t the
c r o w n p o i n t nor a t the s a d d l e p o i n t ) .
111.3 DETERMINATION OF S C F 195
REFERENCES
3.1 1 R y a n , I., C o m p a r a i s o n s d e s d i v e r s e s f o r m u l e s p a r a m g t r i q u e s d e
coefficients d e concentration d e contraintes, CTICM Report
No.10.002-2, April 1981.
196 DETERMINATION OF S C F 111.3
3.20 R e c h o , N. a n d B r o z z e t t i , J., C o n c e n t r a t i o n d e c o n t r a i n t e s d a n s
les p i q u a g e s d e t u b e s d u e 2 d e s s o l l i c i t a t i o n s axiales, C T I C M
R e p o r t No.10-002-6, M a y 1982.
3.21 U n i t e d Kingdom O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , F i n a l R e p o r t
t o ECSC, A g r e e m e n t No.7210 KB/8/801, D e p a r t m e n t of Energy,
U n i t e d Kingdom, April 1981.
3.28 U n i t e d Kingdom O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , F i n a l R e p o r t
t o ECSC, A g r e e m e n t No.7210 KB/8/801 f o r period 1 J u n e 1 9 7 7 t o
31 May 1979, Vol.1 U K O S R P , D e p a r t m e n t of Energy, U n i t e d
Kingdom, April 1 9 8 1 (British p r o g r a m m e ) .
3.29 F e s s l e r , H. a n d S t a n l e y , P., P h o t o e l a s t i c a n a l y s i s of t u b u l a r
T-joints, U K O S R P I n t e r i m T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t 2/02, D e p a r t m e n t of
Energy, U n i t e d K i n g d o m , A u g u s t 1977.
In t h i s C h a p t e r , w e s h a l l d e a l with t h e problem of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
S C F i n t h r e e t y p e s of j o i n t s of c o m p l e x g e o m e t r y , r o u t i n e l y used in t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s :
Given t h e c o m p l e x i t y of these j o i n t s f r o m t h e g e o m e t r i c s t a n d p o i n t ,
no p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s e x i s t which d i r e c t l y give t h e v a l u e of t h e SCF.
With f e w e x c e p t i o n s , i t s e e m s highly i m p r o b a b l e t h a t p a r a m e t r i c
f o r m u l a s will be developed, e v e n in t h e f u t u r e . T h e analysis of these
c o m p l e x - g e o m e t r y j o i n t s primarily r e q u i r e s n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s by
f i n i t e elements.
The p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s p u b l i s h e d i n the t e c h n i c a l
1i t e r a t u r e cover s i m p l e t u b u l a r j o i n t g e o m e t r i e s a n d
l o a d i n g modes. V e r y f e w r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e on t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n j o i n t s w i t h
c o m p l e x g e o m e t r y , w h e t h e r these r e s u l t s h a v e been o b t a i n e d
n u m e r i c a l l y ( f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d ) or e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .
200 DETERMINATION OF SCF 111.4
K a n d K T j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p a r e o f t e n used to:
( a ) M e e t t h e g e o m e t r i c r e q u i r e m e n t s imposed on t h e j o i n t ( o t h e r
b r a c e s , etc.).
(b) Exploit t h e f a c t t h a t t h e static s t r e n g t h of t h e j o i n t with o v e r l a p
is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f an e q u i v a l e n t j o i n t w i t h o u t o v e r l a p ( s e e
C h a p t e r 2).
( c ) R e d u c e t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y of t h e l o a d s applied in t h e braces.
(d) R e d u c e t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e joint.
In fact, v e r y f e w e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d n u m e r i c a l a n a l y s e s h a v e been
c o n d u c t e d on s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p [4.1 t o 4.51 .
T h e s e a n a l y s e s h a v e not c o n f i r m e d t h a t a j o i n t with o v e r l a p o f f e r s t h e
a d v a n t a g e of a l o w e r s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h a n t h e e q u i v a l e n t j o i n t
w i t h o u t o v e r l a p [ 4.2, 4.41.
*i S.cll+ AA
Fig. 4.1.
111.4 DETERMINATION O F S C F 20 1
Brace I
Fig. 4.2.
Antl-symmetrlcal
loadlng loading
Fig. 4.3.
0.205 6 B 5 0.457
13.13 I y 6 42.00
0.365 I ‘ro 5 0.8
0.5 6 I 0.8
0.672 I p 5 1.5
T h e e f f e c t d u e t o loading of t h e c h o r d is negligible in c o m p a r i s o n
with t h e S C F a t t h e h o t spot. H o w e v e r , t h i s load h a s t h e e f f e c t of
i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e b r a c e , which is g e n e r a l l y lower
t h a n t h a t e x i s t i n g on t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of t h e chord.
T h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e r a t i o of t h e b r a c e d i a m e t e r s p = d o / d l is g r e a t e r
f o r a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l loading t h a n f o r s y m m e t r i c a l loading ( n o t e t h a t this
effect is negligible if only o n e b r a c e is loaded).
T h e e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e c o m m e n t s s h o w s t h a t t h e f a t i g u e
c a l c u l a t i o n based on t h e s e p a r a t e analysis of t h e S C F in e a c h of t h e
b r a c e s (ignoring t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e o t h e r ) d o e s n o t necessarily
g u a r a n t e e s a f e t y in c o m p a r i s o n with a f a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n based on a
global d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e S C F f o r t h e g e o m e t r i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n and t h e
loading of t h e j o i n t analyzed.
t o d e t e r m i n e the SCF g r a p h i c a l l y a t p o i n t s 1 , 2 , 3 a n d 4 ,
f o r d i f f e r e n t stress ratios R .
T h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n h e l p s t o v i s u a l i s e d i r e c t l y the error
c o m m i t t e d when the S C F i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r each brace w h i l e
i g n o r i n g the existence of the other, instead of
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e SCF b y t a k i n g a c c o u n t of both l o a d e d
braces.
SCF
Notation 4 5.46
01
6.72
8.13
Fig. 4.4.
L e t u s c o n s i d e r the e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 4 . 4 :
( a ) O n l y one l o a d e d brace
R = 0 : SCF = 6 .
( b ) Both braces loaded symmetrically,
R = 1 : SCF = 5 . 4 6 .
( c ) B o t h braces l o a d e d a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l l y ,
R = -1 : SCF = 8 . 1 3 .
For a g i v e n g e o m e t r i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n , F i g . 4 . 2 serves t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e SCF f o r a n y l o a d i n g case. I f we c o n s i d e r
the case o f R = - 0 . 5 : the SCF = 7 , t h i s v a l u e b e i n g
g r e a t e r than 6 . 0 0 ( f o r a s i n g l e l o a d e d brace).
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
T h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n u n s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s a r e s o m e t i m e s so high
t h a t v e r y t h i c k t u b e s a r e n e e d e d t o g u a r a n t e e t h e r e q u i s i t e f a t i g u e life.
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h t h i c k n e s s ( s e e C h a p t e r 3,
Part I), m a n y e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m s h a v e o p t e d f o r t h e u s e o f s t i f f e n e r s ,
e i t h e r to r e d u c e t h e t u b e t h i c k n e s s (of t h e c h o r d especially) in t h e
s t i f f e n e d j o i n t f o r a g i v e n AOG, or t o r e d u c e AOG b y a b o u t a f a c t o r o f
t h r e e for t h e s a m e tube thickness with t h e most interesting consequence
o f a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e in f a t i g u e life.
T w o t y p e s of s t i f f e n i n g normally exist, e i t h e r by a n n u l a r s t i f f e n e r s
( e x t e r n a l or i n t e r n a l ) , or b y l o n g i t u d i n a l s t i f f e n e r s ( s e e F i g . 4.5). The
rest o f t h i s S e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s j o i n t s s t i f f e n e d b y i n t e r n a l a n n u l a r
s t i f f e n e r s only.
T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s t i f f e n i n g d e p e n d s on t h e following:
Brace Longltudlnal
stiffeners
Chord
w
-Ring st if feners
Fig. 4.5.
The a d v e n t o f s t i f f e n e r s i n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s i s
r e l a t i v e l y recent, a n d f e w i n v e s t i g a t i o n s e x i s t on t h i s
subject. S t i f f e n e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s d e p e n d s on the l o a d i n g
applied. For e x a m p l e , a s i n g l e c e n t r a l a n n u l a r s t i f f e n e r
h a s p r a c t i c a l l y no e f f e c t on the S C F o f a T j o i n t s u b j e c t
t o a n i n - p l a n e b e n d i n g l o a d . H o w e v e r , the s a m e s t i f f e n e r
r e d u c e s the SCF b y a f a c t o r o f n e a r l y three i n the same
j o i n t subjected to axial loading.
111.4 DETERMINATION OF S C F 205
A l i m i t e x i s t s t o the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t i f f e n i n g , both
concerning the c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f a s t i f f e n e r and the number
o f s t i f f e n e r s employed. This l i m i t i s naturally
associated with t h e loading a p p l i e d . F i g . 4.6 shows
schematically t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e S S C F ( s t i f f e n e d
j o i n t s t r e s s concentration f a c t o r ) and I ( s t i f f e n e r moment
o f i n e r t i a ) and n (number of s t i f f e n e r s ) .
SCF
SCFSt
I n
1. b 1. b
0. 0.
Fig. 4.6.
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e S S C F is d e t e r m i n e d e i t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l l y o r
by a n u m e r i c a l m e t h o d [ 4.9, 4.10, 4.11 and 4.121. In o t h e r words, no
p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s are a v a i l a b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e SSCF. A limited
n u m b e r of S S C F m e a s u r e m e n t s e x i s t on w e l d - f a b r i c a t e d j o i n t s s t i f f e n e d
by i n t e r n a l a n n u l a r s t i f f e n e r s . Fig. 4.7 s h o w s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e S S C F in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h S C F m e a s u r e m e n t s found
in t h e technical literature [ 4.13 3 . A p a r t f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l
m e a s u r e m e n t s , c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e S S C F by f i n i t e e l e m e n t s e x i s t f o r t h e
s a m e joints, c o n f i r m i n g these m e a s u r e m e n t s in m o s t cases.
4 SCFs, (tests)
10
CurveSCFs, = SCF
_ _ _ _ _ _ _dEnve'ope
_ _ _- - - - - - - - -
t +
* *
SCF (tests)
b
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Fig. 4.7.
206 DETERMINATION OF S C F 111.4
N
--b
1o2 1o3 1o4 1o5 106
Fig. 4.8.
N o t e t h a t t h e o r d i n a t e c o r r e s p o n d s t h e p r o d u c t of t h e S C F multiplied
by t h e nominal s t r e s s range.
111.4 DETERMINATION OF S C F 207
These 1 8 t e s t r e s u l t s on s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s cover a
r e s t r i c t e d v a l i d i t y range and do not provide grounds t o
a s s e r t p o s i t i v e l y t h a t the S-N curve ( s e e Chapter 5 ) i s
valid f o r large numbers o f c y c l e s . Furthermore, the f a c t
should be noted t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h o t spot i n
s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s i s not the same a s i n u n s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s .
I n f a c t , t h e crack does not n e c e s s a r i l y s t a r t a t the toe
o f t h e brace-chord weld. I t may i n i t i a t e a t t h e t o e s o f
t h e welds connecting the s t i f f e n e r s .
4.3.4 E F F E C T S OF STIFFENING
A p a r t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t it d e p e n d s on t h e i n e r t i a a n d position of t h e
s t i f f e n e r s , t h e effect of s t i f f e n i n g i s c l o s e l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e t y p e of
loading applied. In a c t u a l f a c t , a s t i f f e n e r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y :
H o w e v e r , in t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of t h e a r t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i f y
each of these t w o effects. S o m e a u t h o r s p r o p o s e e s t i m a t i n g t h e S S C F
f r o m p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s by a l t e r i n g t h e p a r a m e t e r T = t / T t o a c c o u n t
f o r t h e e f f e c t of t h e l o c a l a d d i t i o n of m a t e r i a l a n d t h e p a r a m e t e r
y = D / 2 T t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e f f e c t of l o c a l i n c r e a s e in i n e r t i a of t h e
chord.
T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s only o f f e r an o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e of t h e SSCF. F o r
t h e t i m e being, t h e v a l u e s o f t h e S S C F being low, a n a s s e s s m e n t of t h e
a c c u r a c y of t h i s a p p r o a c h is n o t possible.
For a s t i f f e n e r a c t i n g on a l e n g t h P , defined
subsequently ( s e e F i g . 4 . 1 0 ) , t h e parameter T~~ is
defined by:
S. PT
I - ~ . ~ ~ / 1 2
F i g . 4.9.
F i g . 4.10.
111.4 DETERMINATION OF SCF 209
Based
p r o p o s e t a k i n g K2 = I3&ln
on c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s , c e r t a i n authors
with:
[ 4.153
Q = 1.00 f o r the a x i a l l o a d ,
n = 0.85 f o r o u t - o f - p l a n e b e n d i n g l o a d ,
11 = 0.30 f o r i n - p l a n e b e n d i n g l o a d .
I t r e m a i n s t o d e f i n e P , the l e n g t h o f t h e c h o r d on
w h i c h the s t i f f e n e r a c t s . F o l l o w i n g c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h the
experimental r e s u l t s t h e s a m e a u t h o r s [ 4.153 p r o p o s e
t a k i n g P = 1.56 /%, w h e r e R i s the r a d i u s and T i t s
thickness. I n t h e reference q u o t e d , i t i s p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t f o r a n n u l a r s t i f f e n e r s , P = d g i v e s s l i g h t l y more
c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t s (see F i g . 4.11).
SCFst (test)
SCFst (tests) = SCFst (Lloyd’s)
?A
6 .-
5 -.
SCFst (Lloyd’s)
( 1 ) R’: m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient
F i g . 4.11.
T h e m e t h o d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e SSCF f r o m m o d i f i e d
p a r a m e t e r s T~~ , y e q a n d f r o m s t a n d a r d p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a s
h a s o n l y been c o n f i r m e d f o r a n u m b e r o f s p e c i f i c c a s e s .
A l t h o u g h i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r the t i m e b e i n g t o j u d g e i t s
v a l i d i t y , i t c a n nevertheless be u s e d f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y
project design.
F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 g i v e s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the m e a s u r e d
SSCF and the S S C F c a l c u l a t e d b y L l o y d ’ s p a r a m e t r i c
f o r m u l a s [ 3 . 7 ] b y the a p p r o a c h d i s c u s s e d a b o v e w i t h :
( a ) P = 1 . 5 6 E, i f P i s l e s s t h a n the d i s t a n c e
between two stiffeners.
( b ) I f not P = d .
210 DETERMINATION O F S C F 111.4
REFERENCES
By the u s e o f s p e c i f i c i n s p e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , t h e
t h r o u g h c r a c k c a n be d e t e c t e d i n a r e a l s t r u c t u r e . Thanks
t o s t r u c t u r a l r e d u n d a n c e s , the a p p e a r a n c e o f a t h r o u g h
c r a c k i n a n y j o i n t o f a " j a c k e t " i n no way s i g n i f i e s the
c o l l a p s e o f the s t r u c t u r e , b u t i t nevertheless c o n s i t u t e s
a p r i m a r y u n d e r m i n i n g o f the i n t e g r i t y o f the s t r u c t u r e .
T h e s t r u c t u r e may no l o n g e r be a b l e t o p e r f o r m the
f u n c t i o n s f o r w h i c h i t h a s been d e s i g n e d w i t h the s a m e
d e g r e e of s a f e t y .
214 DEFINITION OF T H E R E F E R E N C E S-N C U R V E 111.5
T h e r e f e r e n c e S-N c u r v e is e x p r e s s e d a s follows:
(a) For N =
< Nc
= lo7:
l o g N = 12.29 - 3.00 l o g S
l o g N = 15.82 - 5.00 l o g S
S
M Pa
loo0
100
10
10' 1o5 108 1o8
+
10' N
cycles
This c u r v e c o r r e s p o n d s to:
T h e v a l u e s o f N3 v a r y i n t h e s a m p l e b e t w e e n lo4 cycles
and 3 x lo7 cycles.
All the t e s t s o f g r o u p 1 w e r e p e r f o r m e d on s m a l l
j o i n t s , w i t h c h o r d d i a m e t e r s b e t w e e n 168 a n d 170 mm. In
these c o n d i t i o n s , the w e l d i s n o t t o the r i g h t s c a l e . For
these r e a s o n s , g r o u p 1 , n o t b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
joint dimensions used in offshore s t r u c t u r e s , was
d i s c a r d e d f o r e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e reference S-N c u r v e .
Therefore, the r e m a i n i n g t w o g r o u p s , 2 a n d 3 , o n l y w e r e
used for this purpose. The f o r e g o i n g t a b l e s h o w s t h a t
group 2 and group 3 d i s p l a y c l o s e l y comparable s l o p e s .
T h i s s l o p e was imposed f o r g r o u p 4 . The r e s u l t s of
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s w i t h the i m p o s e d s l o p e o f -3.00 a r e
g i v e n i n the T a b l e 5 . 2 .
216 DEFINITION O F T H E R E F E R E N C E S-N C U R V E 111.5
Table 5.1.
Croup
T
(mml
mean
Size I Mean o f
regression( I IStdndard
deviation I st. a t 1 s t 1 ca 1
tests
70-80 76 6 1 \ N o t s i g n i f i c a n t
Table 5.2.
Slope A = -3 imposed
2
6.3 22
C h o i c e of c h a n g e i n s l o p e
O t h e r S - N curves
Other S - N c u r v e s e x i s t , i n c l u d i n g those i n R e f s . [ 5 . 5
t o 5 . 1 1 3 . I t i s the d e s i g n e r ' s d u t y t o m a k e s u r e o f t h e
consistency a s r e g a r d s the s a f e t y o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s when
one o f these c u r v e s is u s e d i n s t e a d o f the one recommended
i n this g u i d e .
218 DEFINITION O F THE REFERENCE S-N CURVE 111.5
REFERENCES
T h e s c a l e e f f e c t h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c h o r d t h i c k n e s s T. T h e
stress v a r i a t i o n S c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e S-N curve (see C h a p t e r 5 ) i s
therefore modified a s a f u n c t i o n of T by t h e following equation:
T 0.29
s=s* -
18
(T in nun>
F i g u r e 6.1 g i v e s t h e v a r i a t i o n in A(T) a s a f u n c t i o n of T.
A*
16 .
---_--__
-- 15.82
15.82
15 -
'4.74
14 - I
I
13 -
12.29
-------____
I
12 -
11.64
11 -
10
Table 6 . 1 .
Cenerd-
T Mean h e
Standard Lued Mean - 2
regression
Group mean d e v i a t t o n standard qenerahsed sJ7c
thickness of
constant devidtmn standard
deviauon ddta
Al *2 A3 Al A2
18 12.84 -3.00 0.25 o.275 12.29 -3.00 18
T h i s thickness e f f e c t w a s e x t e n d e d t o t h e values of N
g r e a t e r than lo7.
Fig. 6.2.
222 MODIFICATIONS O F THE REFERENCE S-N CURVE 111.6
S
MPa t
100
A s f o r j o i n t s s u b j e c t t o large members o f c y c l e s
N > l o 7 , the few t e s t s conducted appear t o i n d i c a t e t h a t
the bend characterising t h e change o f slope i n the S - N
curve does not e x i s t i n a corrosive environment.
111.6 MODIFICATIONS OF THE R E F E R E N C E S-N CURVE 223
REFERENCES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
T h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h analysis of t h e s t r u c t u r e h e l p s t o i d e n t i f y a
n u m b e r of c r i t i c a l joints. T o e n h a n c e t h e possibility of good f a t i g u e
b e h a v i o r f o r these joints, t h e following i m p r o v e m e n t a n d finishing
t e c h n i q u e s need t o b e considered:
Possibies cracks
Fig. 7.1.
226 FATIGUE STRENGTH IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 111.7
By m e a n s of t h e f i r s t three t e c h n i q u e s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s set by t h e
a c c e p t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e x e c u t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l l e d
profile weld c a n be m e t ( s e e S e c t i o n 7.2). H a m m e r and s h o t p e e n i n g only
slightly a l t e r t h e s h a p e of t h e profile.
On t u b u l a r joints, t h e f i r s t welding r u n s c a n be p r e f e r e n t i a l z o n e s of
f a t i g u e crack initiation. T r e a t m e n t by a n i m p r o v e m e n t t e c h n i q u e must
a b o v e all a t t e m p t t o c o v e r t h e weld t o e region (see Fig. 7.1).
rhc7 Detail A
lnfill and
Sealing run finishing runs 0 wire 1 mm
may not pass
Butter weld
Fig. 7.2.
T h e w e l d toe i s a s e n s i t i v e zone i n w h i c h d e f e c t s s u c h
a s u n d e r c u t s may o c c u r , a s w e l l a s a notch e f f e c t . These
d e f e c t s r e d u c e or even n u l l i f y t h e p a r t o f service l i f e
COrKeSpOnding t o the c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n p e r i o d ( F i g . 7 . 3 ) .
A A' A
V I
Fig. 7.3.
228 FATIGUE STRENGTH IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 111.7
T h e use of s p e c i a l e l e c t r o d e s h e l p s t o g u a r a n t e e a progressive
t r a n s i t i o n of t h e c o n n e c t i o n g e o m e t r y a t t h e weld t o e , a n d t h u s r e d u c e s
t h e local stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T w o t e c h n i q u e s a r e c o m m o n l y employed:
(1) T h e u s e of a s p e c i a l e l e c t r o d e w i t h i m p r o v e d f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
(2) E x e c u t i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l run with a s p e c i a l e l e c t r o d e with
improved flow characteristics.
Both t e c h n i q u e s h a v e been u s e d m a i n l y i n J a p a n [ 7 . 6 t o
7.9 1. The first technique ( u s e o f improved f l o w
e l e c t r o d e s ) d e m a n d e s no a d d i t i o n a l w o r k a f t e r w e l d i n g . I t
i s the choice o f t h e e l e c t r o d e , w i t h a s u i t a b l e c o a t i n g ,
t h a t serves to obtain a very progressive geomtric
t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n the w e l d a n d the t u b e w a l l , a t l e a s t
f 0 r . a f l a t position weld. T h i s i s d u e t o t h e good f l o w
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the f i l l e r m e t a l .
I t i s i m p r o b a b l e t h a t the good r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r a
h o r i z o n t a l or f l a t p o s i t i o n w e l d a r e v a l i d f o r a l l w e l d i n g
positions.
111.7 FATIGUE S T R E N G T H IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 229
T h e t e c h n i q u e c o n s i s t s of t h e r e m e l t i n g of t h e weld t r a n s i t i o n z o n e s
by m e a n s of a TIG torch. T h i s r e s u l t s in a d e c r e a s e in t h e l o c a l
c o n c e n t r a t i o n by f l a t t e n i n g t h e weld p r o f i l e a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n , a n d
e l i m i n a t i o n by fusion of t h e weld t o e d e f e c t s [ 7.10 t o 7.161.
S u r f a c e c l e a n i n g h e l p s t o e l i m i n a t e s c a l e , s l a g and o t h e r i m p u r i t i e s
liable t o c a u s e s m a l l n o t c h e s o r u n d e r c u t s d i r e c t l y a t t h e n e w
transitions. I t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o p e r f o r m p r e l i m i n a r y tests t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m a l p r o t e c t i o n g a s f l o w r a t e . This h e l p s t o provide a
s t a b l e a r c ( a n u n s t a b l e arc m a y cause d e f e c t s , s u c h a s h o l e s i n t h e weld,
o r o x i d a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r o d e s [ 7.171 1.
A p r o p e r l y s p r e a d s t a b l e arc, c o v e r i n g a w i d e a r e a , i s
n e c e s s a r y f o r the m e t a l t o be r e m e l t e d i n a w i d e e n o u g h
zone a n d t o o b t a i n s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o f i l e s . T h e i m p r o v e m e n t
d e p e n d s on the p o s i t i o n o f t h e torch a n d the best r e s u l t s
are o b t a i n e d w h e n t h e a r c i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s the b a s e
m e t a l a t a d i s t a n c e o f 0.5 t o 1 . 5 mm f r o m the w e l d t o e .
I n some steels, T I G d r e s s i n g c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e i n
h a r d n e s s i n t h e h e a t a f f e c t e d zone ( H A Z ) . Hardnesses of
a r o u n d 400 HV a r e o f t e n o b t a i n e d . Certain regulations do
not a l l o w h a r d n e s s e s over 250 HV i n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s
( s e e C h a p t e r 3 , P a r t I ) . A s e c o n d r u n , 3 t o 4 mm f r o m t h e
f i r s t , c a u s e s t e m p e r i n g of the m a r t e n s i t i c zone f o r m e d b y
the f i r s t r u n , a n d may restore the h a r d n e s s o f the w e l d
toe down t o a n a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l .
230 FATIGUE STRENGTH IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 111.7
U s e of t h i s t e c h n i q u e a l s o i n c u r s t h e risk of an u n f a v o r a b l e i n c r e a s e
i n t h e h a r d n e s s of t h e s t e e l in t h e weld zone, b u t n o t a s much a s would
TIG dressing.
P l a s m a d r e s s i n g e m p l o y s a torch a n d e l e c t r o d e t h a t a r e
d i f f e r e n t f r o m those u s e d for T I G d r e s s i n g [ 7 . 1 8 , 7 . 1 9 1 .
T h e e n e r g y i n p u t r a t e i s a b o u t 5 0 t o 100% g r e a t e r f o r
plasma d r e s s i n g t h a n f o r TIG d r e s s i n g .
111.7 FATIGUE S T R E N G T H IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 231
T h e care t a k e n in e x e c u t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n l a r g e l y c o n d i t i o n s t h e
r e s u l t s obtained.
W i t h d i s c g r i n d i n g , the g r i n d i n g d i s c g r a i n s l e a v e
m a c h i n i n g s c r a t c h e s p a r a l l e l t o the w e l d . These s c r a t c h e s
a r e p o t e n t i a l i n i t i a t i o n sites and i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o
e l i m i n a t e them w i t h a small b u r r g r i n d e r .
I f a r o t a r y b u r r g r i n d e r i s u s e d , the g r o u n d s u r f a c e i s
o f t e n m a r k e d b y c h i p s a d h e r i n g t o t h e c u t t e r , a n d t h i s may
have an unfavorable effect in terms o f crack i n i t i a t i o n .
232 FATIGUE S T R E N G T H IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 111.7
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of high c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l stresses in a s u p e r f i c i a l
l a y e r of t h e m e t a l a r o u n d t h e weld t o e i s a c h i e v e d e i t h e r by h a m m e r
peening or by s h o t peening a t t h e weld t o e .
T h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h i s p r e s t r e s s i n g may r a i s e s o m e
p r o b l e m s i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o offshore s t r u c t u r e s . For
many s t r u c t u r e s , i n f a c t , the l o a d i n g i s s u c h t h a t the
y i e l d stress i s r e a c h e d l o c a l 1 y ( s t r e s s concentration).
Offshore s t r u c t u r e s a r e s u b j e c t t o l o a d i n g histories t h a t
a r e o f v a r i a b l e a m p l i t u d e and a r e a l s o random. I t is
p o s s i b l e t h a t h i g h a m p l i t u d e c y c l e s may p r o g r e s s i v e l y
a l t e r the r e s i d u a l stress f i e l d i n t r o d u c e d b y hammer or
shot p e e n i n g . I f s o , the b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o f s u c h
m e c h a n i c a l s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s i s l i k e l y t o be j e o p a r d i z e d ,
even i f the m a j o r i t y o f t h e stress c y c l e s a r e o f l o w
amplitude.
T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h a m m e r penning d e p e n d s on t h e n u m b e r of
p a s s e s a n d t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n . An i d e n t a t i o n d e p t h of
0.6 m m , o b t a i n e d in f o u r p a s s e s of t h e h a m m e r , i s g e n e r a l l y a i m e d at,
which o f f e r s a good c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t r e a t m e n t t i m e a n d
effectiveness.
O u t s i d e of l a b o r a t o r y conditions, t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of i m p l e m e n t i n g t h i s
technique make t h e results rather haphazard.
A f t e r hammer p e e n i n g , the d e f e c t s a r e e m b e d d e d i n a
l a y e r o f work hardened m a t e r i a l i n w h i c h h i g h r e s i d u a l
c o m p r e s s i v e stresses e x i s t , i n d u c e d b y the h a m m e r i n g
operation. E x c e s s i v e 1 y r a p i d hammering i s 1 i a b l e t o g i v e
r i s e t o a work h a r d e n e d zone i n s u f f i c i e n t l y d e e p t o
enclose a l l the d e f e c t s i n the r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i v e stress
field.
111.7 FATIGUE STRENGTH IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 233
T e s t s h a v e s h o w n t h a t a s m a l l ? a r t o f the i m p r o v e m e n t
i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o b t a i n e d b y hammer p e e n i n g d e r i v e s
f r o m a c h a n g e i n the w e l d toe g e o m e t r y ( t h e t r a n s i t i o n i s
b e t t e r ) a n d a c h a n g e i n the f o r m o f the e x i s t i n g d e f e c t s .
Hammer p e e n i n g w i t h t h e h a r d steel h e m i s p h e r i c a l h e a d
tool c a u s e s d e e p e r i d e n t a t i o n t h a n w i t h the n e e d l e d e v i c e .
T h i s may e x p l a i n a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n f a t i g u e l i f e i f the
f i r s t procedure i s employed. Hammer p e e n i n g o f t e n
a c h i e v e s a g r e a t e r improvement i n f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h t h a n
T I G , p l a s m a and shot p e e n i n g t e c h n i q u e s .
T h e a i m is t o i n t r o d u c e c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n t o a
s u p e r f i c i a l l a y e r i n s u c h a m a n n e r a s t h a t t h e stress levels, t h e s t r e s s
d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n and t h e d e p t h of t h e s t r e s s e d l a y e r a r e reproducible.
In o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h i s , i t is necessary t o c o n t r o l a l l of t h e p a r a m e t e r s
of t h e process: t h e d i a m e t e r and h a r d n e s s of t h e s h o t , t h e b o m b a r d m e n t
t i m e and e n e r g y , t h e t r a v e l s p e e d of t h e gun, t h e angle of t h e gun t o
t h e s u r f a c e being t r e a t e d , t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e n o z z l e t o t h e surface and
t h e n o z z l e d i a m e t e r [ 7.26 t o 7.291.
T h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r which s t r e s s relieving h e a t t r e a t m e n t p r o v e s
necessary a r e s p e c i f i e d i n S e c t i o n 3.7.4, P a r t I. T h e s t r e s s relieving
h e a t t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m m u s t b e c o v e r e d by a q u a l i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e t o
m a k e s u r e of a s u f f i c i e n t r e l a x a t i o n of r e s i d u a l stresses a n d t h e
g u a r a n t e e s r e l a t e d t o s t e e l p r o p e r t i e s . I t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o set u p t h e
s t r e s s relieving h e a t t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m and t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e
jointly w i t h t h e s t e e l m a k e r and t h e i n s p e c t i o n organisation.
T h e following f a c t o r s m u s t be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s [ 7.30 t o 7.31 1:
(a) I t is p r e f e r e a b l e t o t r e a t t h e j o i n t e n t i r e l y in a stress relieving
f u r n a c e , b u t if t h i s is unfeasible, t h e weld c o n n e c t i o n z o n e s c a n
b e t r e a t e d individually.
(b) T h e l a y o u t of h e a t i n g e l e m e n t s and insulation m u s t b e s u c h t h a t
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e distribution profile m u s t b e m o r e o r less
s y m m e t r i c a l a b o u t t h e c e n t r a l a x i s of t h e weld a n d u n i f o r m along
i t s circumference.
T h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t r e l i e s on the
r e l a x a t i o n o f the t e n s i l e stress i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e w e l d i n g
p r o c e s s i n the u s u a l c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n zone, i n other
w o r d s , the w e l d toe.
It i s when a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e stress c y c l e s
c o r r e s p o n d t o c o m p r e s s i v e stresses t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t
i m p r o v e m e n t c a n be a n t i c i p a t e d f r o m a s u i t a b l e t r e a t m e n t .
For a j o i n t o f a n offshore s t r u c t u r e , the l o a d i n g
c o n d i t i o n s a r e so v a r i a b l e a n d c o m p l e x t h a t i t i s r a r e l y
p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e the e x a c t l o a d i n g c y c l e t h r o u g h o u t
f a t i g u e l i f e ( f o r e a c h s e a s t a t e , for e x a m p l e ) .
P u b l i s h e d r e s u l t s r e v e a l a s u b s t a n t i a l s c a t t e r i n the
d e g r e e o f i m p r o v e m e n t t h a t c a n be e x p e c t e d . T h i s probably
s t e m s f r o m d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the stress r e l i e v i n g h e a t
t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s a n d b e t w e e n the steel g r a d e s [ 7 . 3 2 t o
7.341. For e x a m p l e , the f o l l o w i n g stress r e l i e v i n g h e a t
t r e a t e m e n t w a s a p p l i e d b y IRSID t o the French j o i n t s
(E36-4, 2-35 s t e e l ) o f the ECSC p r o g r a m m e :
111.7 FATIGUE STRENGTH IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 235
P o s t - w e l d h e a t t r e a t m e n t o f the j o i n t a t 580°C; t h i s
t e m p e r a t u r e w a s r e a c h e d a t a t e m p e r a t u r e b u i l d - u p rate
of 5 0 ° C / h , a n d then h e l d for a p e r i o d o f 100 t o
200 m i n , d e p e n d i n g on thickness.
Due t o the u n c e r t a i n t i e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e I u n c e r t a i n t y
c o n c e r n i n g l o a d i n g c y c l e s , v a r i e t y o f p r o c e d u r e s ) , the
b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t of h e a t t r e a t m e n t c a n on1 y be d e t e r m i n e d
q u a 1 i t a t i vel y .
236 F A T I G U E S T R E N G T H IMPROVING T E C H N I Q U E 111.7
REFERENCES
7.32 Sanz, G., Lieurade, H. and Ggrald, J., F a t i g u e tests on Ten Full
Scale Tubular Joints, ECSC/IRSID C o n f e r e n c e , S t e e l in Marine
Structures, Paris, O c t o b e r 1981.
T h i s C h a p t e r is d e v o t e d t o t h e problem of f a t i g u e , in o t h e r words,
d a m a g e i n c u r r e d in a welded j o i n t s by s u c c e s s i v e s t r e s s cycles.
To assess t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of a joint, t h e d e s i g n e r h a s t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e j o i n t f a t i g u e life, b a s e d on stresses applied t o t h e joint in
t i m e (see C h a p t e r 2), i n c r e a s e d by t h e stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s (see
C h a p t e r s 3 and 4 ) a n d on t h e r e l e v a n t f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o r S-N c u r v e ( s e e
C h a p t e r s 5 and 6). This c a l c u l a t i o n is t r e a t e d in t h i s C h a p t e r .
240 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 111.8
8.1 METHODOLOGY
T h e t e c h n i q u e s discussed h e r e s e r v e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f a t i g u e life of a
j o i n t s u b j e c t t o known loads in t i m e . In addition, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a l l o w s
o n e t o d e t e r m i n e a value D c a l l e d t h e d a m a g e f a c t o r , which d e p e n d s on
t i m e , and is by d e f i n i t i o n 1 f o r t h e c a l c u l a t e d f a t i g u e life.
1. F a t i g u e life is an o b s e r v a b l e q u a n t i t y . I t is a s s u m e d t h a t a f t e r t h e
c a l c u l a t e d f a t i g u e l i f e has e l a p s e d , t h e j o i n t f a i l s by t h e through
c r a c k i n g c r i t e r i o n d e f i n e d in C h a p t e r 5.
T h e d a m a g e f a c t o r D is by d e f i n i t i o n 0 if t h e j o i n t h a s n o t y e t b e e n
s u b j e c t e d t o loads, and 1 if t h e j o i n t has failed. B e t w e e n these t w o
limits, i t is d e f i n e d by m e a n s of a c u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e r u l e w r i t t e n as
follows:
where
n(S) is t h e n u m b e r of c y c l e s a t a stress r a n g e of S applied t o t h e
j o i n t up t o t h e t i m e T c o n s i d e r e d , a n d
N(S) is t h e n u m b e r of c y c l e s a t a s t r e s s r a n g e of S c a u s i n g f a i l u r e of
t h e joint, which is intact b e f o r e t h e application.
n(S) is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e r e s u l t s of l o a d c a l c u l a t i o n s and of t h e
stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s , d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r s 2, 3 a n d 4.
(a) A h i s t o g r a m of s t r e s s r a n g e s S of t h e g e o m e t r i c s t r e s s U G (Fig.
8.1).
111.8 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 24 1
Depending on e a c h s p e c i f i c c a s e , n(S) is t h e n r e a d , c a l c u l a t e d o r
counted.
n Jr
Dlscrete histogram
- 1
Cumulative
S S
8.2 CUMULATIVE D A M A G E R U L E
T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n is a d a p t e d t o f a t i g u e tests i n which a s p e c i m e n is
s u b j e c t e d t o a loading c o n s i s t i n g of a n u m b e r of b l o c k s of c y c l e s of
c o n s t a n t stress r a n g e , t h e i t h block b e i n g d e f i n e d by t h e n u m b e r ni of
c y c l e s o f s t r e s s r a n g e Si (Fig. 8.4).
T h e d a m a g e f a c t o r is t h e n w r i t t e n :
n.
w h e r e Ni i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m Si by m e a n s of t h e S-N c u r v e .
Fig. 8.4.
8.2.2 C O N T I N U O U S F O R M U L A T I O N OF T H E
PALMGREN-MINER R U L E
w h e r e n(S)dS i s t h e n u m b e r of c y c l e s of stress r a n g e s b e t w e e n S a n d
S + dS during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t i m e T.
I n a constant a m p l i t u d e c y c l i c l o a d i n g t e s t , t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e P l a m g r e n - M i n e r r u l e , w h i c h i s r e d u c e d
to D = ! ! a s s u m e s t h a t the damage f a c t o r increases l i n e a r l y
N
w i t h the n u m b e r of c y c l e s a p p l i e d [ 8 . 1 , 8 . 2 , 8 . 3 1 .
244 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 111.8
I n a f a t i g u e t e s t by b l o c k s , t h e application o f t h i s
r u l e a l s o assumes t h a t the damage f a c t o r i s obtained by
adding the e f f e c t s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b l o c k s , without taking
account o f any i n t e r a c t i o n . This implies i n p a r t i c u l a r
t h a t t h e order o f application o f t h e blocks i s of no
importance f o r t h e f a t i g u e behavior o f t h e member. This
gives a continuous formulation o f t h e r u l e f o r any
loading case (each block c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i n g l e c y c l e ) .
nt + 3 = 1 at failure
w
F i g . 8.5. Palmgren-Miner r u l e .
111.8 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 245
s1 f concave
I t should be n o t e d t h a t l o n g - t e r m s t a t i s t i c s c o n c e r n i n g f o r c e s (height-
period r e l a t i o n of individual waves, s i g n i f i c a n t h e i g h t - m e a n a p p a r e n t
period r e l a t i o n of s h o r t - t e r m s e a s t a t e s , etc.) m u s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r a
s u f f i c i e n t l y long period (see S e c t i o n 2.1).
T h e d a m a g e f a c t o r D c a n nevertheless b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r a n y
c a l c u l a t i o n T. F o r a n y o t h e r t i m e t, b e c a u s e of t h e l i n e a r i t y of t h e
c u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e r u l e a d o p t e d , w e have:
T
T h e j o i n t f a t i g u e life, i.e. t h e t i m e t f o r which D ( t ) = 1, is h e n c e -
D(t)
i r r e s p e c t i v e of t i m e T.
111.8 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 247
P Ni - Ni+l
D =c with N = 0
i= 1 N ( S*) P+ 1
then:
248 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 111.8
M M
c f . t =
1
c t
i
= T
i= I i=I
and t h e p a r a m e t e r ~i of s p e c t r a l width i:
€
i
= 1 --m . m.
1 1
0 4
I 2
D(T) =
M
c -2-
ti ,/ mi2
S e
-S / 8 m i
0
dS
TI N(S)
i= 1 1
0 0
with
03
x-1 -u
rixi = Jo u e du ( t h e gamma f u n c t i o n )
I t is a s s u m e d h e r e t h a t M g e o m e t r i c stress t r a j e c t o r i e s a r e available,
each t r a j e c t o r y corresponding t o a s t e a d y s t a t e process. This g e o m e t r i c
s t r e s s p r o c e s s may b e Gaussian (wide-band) o r non-Gaussian (if t h e
behavior of t h e s t r u c t u r e is nonlinear).
E a c h s h o r t - t e r m state is c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a t i m e of o c c u r r e n c e t j
during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t i m e T, o r s i m i l a r l y by a t i m e t a n d a n u m b e r of
o c c u r r e n c e s f J. during t i m e T.
T h e d u r a t i o n of e a c h t r a j e c t o r y , which is i n d e p e n d e n t in principle of t
o r tj, m u s t b e s u f f i c i e n t l y long t o g u a r a n t e e s t e a d y s t a t e conditions. I t
is a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o s i m u l a t e e a c h s h o r t - t e r m s t r e s s s t a t e by m e a n s of
several t r a j e c t o r i e s t h a t a r e not inter-correlated.
250 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 111.8
F o r each a v a i l a b l e t r a j e c t o r y ( j = 1 t o MI, t h e u s e of a c o u n t i n g
m e t h o d h e l p s t o d e t e r m i n e , f o r e a c h s e g m e n t Si, S'i, t h e mean n u m b e r
of s t r e s s c y c l e s p e r unit t i m e w i t h a stress r a n g e b e t w e e n Si and S'i, o r
nij.
M M
n. = C f j t nij = C t n
1
j= j ij
j= 1
R e f e r t o S e c t i o n 8.4.1 f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e d a m a g e f a c t o r D(T)
f r o m t h i s histogram.
Counting m e t h o d s
T h e c h o i c e of a c o u n t i n g m e t h o d d e p e n d s on t h e way in which t h e
s t r e s s c y c l e s a r e defined. S t a r t i n g w i t h a d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c y c l e t h a t is
s p e c i f i c t o it, e a c h m e t h o d p r o c e e d s t o e s t i m a t e t h e n u m b e r of these
c y c l e s and t h e i r r a n g e S, f o r a t i m e t of t h e t r a j e c t o r y analysed.
The very c o n c e p t o f a c y c l e r a i s e s t h e p r o b l e m o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i f t h e p r o c e s s i s not s i n u s o i d a l a n d o f
constant amplitude in time. This explains the
p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f counting methods.
To use t h i s m e t h o d , it is t h e r e f o r e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r ni
a p p e a r i n g in t h e expression of D in S e c t i o n 8.4.1 m a y b e f r a c t i o n a l (i.e.
h a l f - c y c l e s are counted).
111.8 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 25 1
Peak c o u n t i n g m e t h o d (b)
R a n g e c o u n t i n g m e t h o d (c)
A c y c l e period is d e f i n e d by t h e t i m e b e t w e e n t w o p a s s a g e s through
z e r o with positive slope. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g stress r a n g e S is t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m a x i m u m and minimum g e o m e t r i c s t r e s s during
t h i s t i m e i n t e r v a l (Fig. 8.9).
252 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 111.8
4
1st cycle
-
r.
r
2ndcycle
I
Je-I
3rd cycle
Whatever t h e m e t h o d a d o p t e d , all t h e c y c l e s m u s t be t a k e n i n t o
a c c o u n t , including t h e s m a l l e s t , b e c a u s e t h e S-N c u r v e defined in
C h a p t e r s 5 and 6 d o e s n o t e x h i b i t a n e n d u r a n c e limit.
When t h e n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s through t h e m e a n v a l u e is p r a c t i c a l l y
e q u a l t o t h e n u m b e r of e x t r e m e s , m e t h o d s (b) a n d ( c ) a r e i d e a l f o r
counting. If n o t ( a s in t h e c a s e of many l o c a l e x t r e m e s ) , it is b e t t e r t o
u s e m e t h o d (a).
111.8 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE 253
REFERENCES
9.1 GENERAL
( a ) T h e s i z e of t h e i n i t i a l d e f e c t , c o n s i d e r e d a s a r e a l c r a c k , is
known.
(b) An a t t e m p t is m a d e t o a s s e s s t h e i n f l u e n c e on f a t i g u e l i f e of t h e
v a r i a t i o n in d i f f e r e n t design p a r a m e t e r s ( j o i n t g e o m e t r y , wall
t h i c k n e s s , etc.).
( c ) I t is necessary t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of f a t i g u e life t o t h e
s i z e of a d e f e c t .
I f t h e c r a c k reaches a c r i t i c a l d e p t h ( o r f o r m ) ,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p r e d e t e r m i n e d f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , the
number o f c y c l e s c a l c u l a t e d and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h this
c r i t i c a l c r a c k d i m e n s i o n i s c a l l e d the " n u m b e r o f c y c l e s
t o f a i l u r e " or " f a t i g u e l i f e " .
Through crack
Fig. 9.1.
9.2 C R A C K P R O P A G A T I O N LAW A N D P R O C E D U R E
F O R CALCULATING FATIGUE LIFE
T h e c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n l a w g e n e r a l l y a d o p t e d is t h e following ( P a r i s
Law):
da
-
dN
= C(AK - A K ~ ) ~
where
AK = t h e s t r e s s intensity f a c t o r r a n g e ( s i f ) which d e p e n d s on t h e
load r a n g e applied, on t h e global j o i n t g e o m e t r y , on t h e l o c a l
g e o m e t r y a t t h e j u n c t i o n and t h e crack g e o m e t r y ,
AK = "threshold" of AK"( 2 , below which no significant crack
p r o p a g a t i o n is observed,
a = crack d e p t h ,
N = t h e n u m e r of c y c l e s ,
d a / d N is t h e c r a c k s p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e ,
C a n d m a r e t w o c o n s t a n t s depending on t h e m a t e r i a l in which
t h e c r a c k is propagating.
In t h e welded z o n e , t h e v a l u e s of C a n d m a r e considerably
scattered. In addition, t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g C a n d m a r e n o t known
a c c u r a t e l y ( r e s i d u a l stresses, load f r e q u e n c y , c o r r o s i v e environment). In
t h e a b s e n c e of s p e c i f i c f i x e d o r known values, it is r e c o m m e n d e d t o t a k e
t h e following m e a n values:
c = 2.52. 10-5
( u n i t s daN, mm).
(67Im
where
= f a t i g u e life f o r initiation of t h e c r a c k of s i z e ai,
NI
N R = f a t i g u e life r e l a t i v e t o conventional failure of a joint b y t h e
through c r a c k criterion.
Crack front
/beach marking
Fig. 9.2.
On the w h o l e , the c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n l a w t a k e s a c c o u n t
o f the d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s a c t i n g on f a t i g u e l i f e . T h i s
law i s written:
where
G represents:
( a ) The g l o b a l g e o m e t r y o f the j o i n t .
( b ) The local geometry a t the joint, profile and
transition (weld connecting the b r a c e t o the
chord).
( c ) T h e " v e r y l o c a l " g e o m e t r y o f the c r a c k ( i t s
d i r e c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p a l stresses,
i t s form, etc.).
CRS r e p r e s e n t s :
( a ) T h e a p p l i e d stress r a n g e .
( b ) The r a t i o R = omin/omax.
M represents the influence of the environment
I t e m p e r a t u r e , corrosion, e t c . ) .
Q r e p r e s e n t s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the b a s e m e t a l
Inon-propagation threshold, yield strength, ultimate
strength, elongation a t rupture, etc.).
T h e p r o p a g a t i o n l a w d e f i n e d i n the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
r e m a i n s d e b a t a b l e e s p e c i a l l y since i n r e a l i t y , the c r a c k
p r o p a g a t e s i n the w e l d e d zone t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y
c o n s i d e r a b l e h e t e r o g e n e i t y , a n d w h e r e the r e s i d u a l w e l d i n g
stresses a r e c o m p l e x .
However, s p e c i f i c a n a l y s e s c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h i s l a w
h a v e s h o w n t h a t the l a w , a l b e i t i m p e r f e c t , y i e l d s r e s u l t s
t h a t show good a g r e e m e n t w i t h test r e s u l t s .
D i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s may be involved i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n
o f N R b y t h i s m o d e l , b u t i f o n l y the p a r a m e t e r T ( c h o r d
thickness) i s i s o l a t e d , the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n c a n be
confirmed r 9 . 5 , 9.61:
m/2-1
T h i s i s only v a l i d for:
a .
(a) 2 constant.
t
( b ) G e o m e t r i c p a r a m e t e r s a, B, y a n d T constant.
I c ) AK, = 0.
maximum p r i n c i p a l stress on the o u t e r s u r f a c e
= -1.
l d ) maximum p r i n c i p a l stress on the inner s u r f a c e
R e s e a r c h i s u n d e r way t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e of
s p e c i f i c w e l d i m p r o v e m e n t t r e a t m e n t s on f a t i g u e l i f e ( s e e
C h a p t e r 7 ) , a n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l a w s g o v e r n i n g the
initiation of a crack. The results .of these
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e l i k e l y to l e a d t o new developments i n
the r u l e s f o r f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s o f w e l d e d j o i n t s , a n d
towards a broader use of f r a c t u r e mechanics.
111.9 F R A C T U R E MECHANICS CALCULATIONS 26 1
General presentation
As a p a r t of t h e F r e n c h r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on f a t i g u e p r o c e s s e s i n
welded t u b u l a r j o i n t s of o f f s h o r e s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s , a t h e o r e t i c a l model t o
f o r e c a s t t h e f a t i g u e l i f e t a k i n g a c c o u n t of t h e stress r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
during c r a c k i n g h a s been developed. I t a l l o w s a c o n s t r u c t i v e and
quantitative consideration of the different causes (geometric,
m e c h a n i c a l ) which may i n f l u e n c e t h e f a t i g u e behavior of welded joints.
One c a u s e is t h e s c a l e effect whose m a n i f e s t a t i o n s a r e c o m p l e x , b u t in
which t h e s i z e p a r a m e t e r c e r t a i n l y p l a y s a n e s s e n t i a l role.
Remarks:
I t should be n o t e d t h a t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n
d e m a n d s a c h o i c e of assumptions, s o m e of which d e p e n d on t h e s t r u c t u r e
i n v e s t i g a t e d . In p a r t i c u l a r , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e p a r a m e t e r s involved in t h e
basic assumptions, it is n e c e s s a r y t o i d e n t i f y t h e p r o p a g a t i o n law a n d t h e
l o c a l value of t h e f a c t o r AK. This i n t r o d u c e s a n u m b e r of physical
p a r a m e t e r s whose d e t e r m i n a t i o n is c e r t a i n l y n o t unique.
T h e c a l c u l a t e d f a t i g u e l i f e d e p e n d s on t h e c h o i c e s and a s s u m p t i o n s
made. The calculation results c a n n o t be examined without a critical
analysis of these c h o i c e s and assumptions.
General remarks :
T h i s m o d e l w a s i n i t i a l l y i n t e n d e d t o e n a b l e the inter-
p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n the ECSC's " O f f s h o r e
T e c h n o l o g y " p r o g r a m m e , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r , on the b a s i s of
f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s , t o r e l a t e t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n the
e x p e r i m e n t s on t e s t s p e c i m e n s w i t h t h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o r o f
l a r g e welded t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s .
More r e c e n t l y , a n a p p r o a c h [ 9 . 7 1 u s i n g t h i s m o d e l w a s
a d o p t e d t o p r o v i d e a number o f i n d i c a t i o n s o f the risks o f
brittle f r a c t u r e i n t u b u l a r j o i n t s . T h e stress i n t e n s i t y
f a c t o r g r a d u a l 1 y t e n d s t o w a r d s a s u b s t a n t i a l 1y u n i f o r m
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g the c r a c k f r o n t , a n d i t s v a l u e d o e s n o t
262 F R A C T U R E MECHANICS CALCULATIONS 111.9
Another p o s s i b i l i t y c o n s i s t s o f focusing a t t e n t i o n
e x c l u s i v e l y on the central zone opposite the hot s p o t , and
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n i t i a t i o n time and number o f c y c l e s
corresponding t o the through crack. This i s carried out
f o r d i f f e r e n t loading l e v e l s selected automatically by the
program, and hence allows t h e point-by-point p l o t o f an
S-N curve, i n which S denotes the s t r e s s a t the hot spot
and N the number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , treated here a s a
through crack. N a t u r a l l y , the second a1 t e r n a t i v e , l i k e
the f i r s t , b e n e f i t s from t h e representation - i n terms of
t h e local e f f e c t and the s t r e s s attenuation curve - o f the
stress redistribution. The local e f f e c t concerns the
i n i t i a t i o n phase and i n d i c a t e s a reorganisation on a
l i m i t e d s c a l e , t h a t o f t h e weld, a s opposed t o the actual
r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , which deals with t h e t r a n s f e r , a t the
s c a l e o f t h e j o i n t , o f t h e f o r c e s towards the s e c t i o n s
whose r i g i d i t y has not y e t been a f f e c t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
264 F R A C T U R E MECHANICS CALCULATIONS 111.9
REFERENCES
9.7 Amiot, P., Radenkovic, D., Sanz, G. and Willm, P., L i f e prediction
for tubular joints in offshore structures, 4th International
Symposium of t h e J a p a n Welding S o c i e t y , N o v e m b e r 1982.
Acknowledgements
Mr. B r o z z e t t i ( l e a d e r ) CTICM
Mr. A n d r B a u Bureau Veritas
Mr. B a s t e n a i r e IRSID
Mr. C a b i r a n SNEA(P)
Mr. F o u c r i a t SOFRESID
Mr. G B r a l d SNEA(P)
Mr. G o y e t CTICM
Mr. H u t h e r Bureau Veritas
Mr. L i e u r a d e IRSID
Mr. P u t o t IFP
Mr Recho CTICM
Mr. R y a n CTICM
T h i s Working G r o u p w a s f o r m e d within t h e N a v a l T e c h n i c a l C o m m i t t e e ,
O f f s h o r e C o m m i s s i o n of B u r e a u V e r i t a s .
Mrs. H a r n a g e a - S i r i a n u ( C T I C M ) d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l t h a n k s f o r h e r
assistance in t h e preparation of this Guide and for arranging its
presentation.
T h e a d v i c e o f C T I C M , in t h e p e r s o n o f Mr. I v o r R y a n , o n t e c h n i c a l
m a t t e r s in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o E n g l i s h o f t h e G u i d e i s a c k n o w l e d g e d .
ANNEXES
NOTICE CONCERNING
ANNEXES A AND B
( P a r t I, C h a p t e r 3)
T h e s e a n n e x e s a r e d e v o t e d t o t h e p r o b l e m s of e q u i v a l e n c e s b e t w e e n
f o r e i g n a n d f r e n c h steel g r a d e s . This q u e s t i o n is of t h e g r e a t e s t c o n c e r n
t o u s e r s and a r i s e s m o r e and m o r e f r e q u e n t l y .
T h e g r o w t h of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e , a n d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of F r e n c h
industry t o intensify its export efforts, a r e causing manufacturers t o
work a c c o r d i n g t o f o r e i g n drawings, r e q u i r e m e n t s , s t a n d a r d s and c o d e s ,
with naturally define foreign steel grades.
T w o a l t e r n a t i v e s s a r e t h e r e f o r e available:
(1) A d o p t t h e f o r e i g n g r a d e s p e c i f i e d , i n c u r r i n g t h e risk of
p r o c u r e m e n t d if f i c u 1ties.
(2) A t t e m p t t o u s e a F r e n c h g r a d e , r a i s i n g t h e p r o b l e m of
e qu iv a l e nce.
H o w e v e r , t h e r e a d e r s ' s a t t e n t i o n is d r a w n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e based on g u a r a n t e e d v a l u e s of f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s is only
a p p r o x i m a t e a n d given f o r i n f o r m a t i o n . F o r t h e s a m e s t r e n g t h r a n g e s , in
f a c t , t h e g u a r a n t e e d yield s t r e n g t h s m a y vary. Similarly, f o r t h e s a m e
q u a l i t y indexes, t h e p u r i t i e s m a y be d i f f e r e n t . M o r e v o v e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y
in t h e c a s e of ASTM S t a n d a r d s , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e m a y d i f f e r a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e s h a p e of t h e p r o d u c t a n d m a y a l s o v a r y w i t h t h e p a r a m e t e r s e l e c t e d :
c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d e s p e c i a l l y c a r b o n c o n t e n t , yield s t r e n g t h and
f r a c t u r e toughness. Standards also do not always indicate guarantees
a g a i n s t b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e ( g u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e toughness). Besides, t h e
s p e c i m e n s a m p l i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s
a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l in a l l t h e S t a n d a r d s , and t h i s a f f e c t s t h e g u a r a n t e e d
properties.
I t i s t h e r e f o r e vitally i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e u s e r t o r e f e r a l w a y s t o t h e
o r i g i n a l S t a n d a r d arid t o c o n s u l t t h e s t e e l c o m p a n i e s o r c o m p e t e n t
o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r details.
268 NOTICE CONCERNING ANNEXES A A N D B
B e f o r e d e c i d i n g o n a g r a d e , e s p e c i a l l y if a s m a l l q u a n t i t y is
involved, it is r e c o m m e n d e d t o f i n d o u t a b o u t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h e
product and t h e minimum quantities.
ANNEXE A
Correspondence
between French and Foreign Steels
for Heavy Metal Plate
T h i s a n n e x e g i v e s t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s for:
( a ) T y p e E24 s t e e l s w i t h g u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s a t -40, -20,
0 a n d +20"C.
(b) T y p e E28 s t e e l s w i t h g u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s a t -40, -20,
0 a n d +20"C.
( c ) T y p e E36 s t e e l s w i t h g u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s a t -40, -20,
0 a n d +20"C.
(d) T y p e E420 s t e e l s w i t h g u a r a n t e e d f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s a t -40, -20
a n d 0°C.
I t also indicates:
( a ) T h i c k n e s s r a n g e s s p e c i f i e d by d i f f e r e n t S t a n d a r d s .
(b) S p e c i f i c i n s p e c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s s e t . b y t h e s e S t a n d a r d s .
T h e p r o p e r t i e s g i v e n a r e t h o s e a p p e a r i n g in t h e S t a n d a r d s i n f o r c e
o n 31 D e c e m b e r 1982.
-
Standard KV(L) KV(T
Residuals R
‘max . 2 (J) (J)
(%I (N/mm
--
min. min
a BV
Grade E < 53 0.18 235 100 - 49c 27
> 50 0.18 225/215/20! 390 - 480 27
370 - 470
o NF A 36 205 < 110 0.16 Cr < 0.25 235/215/ 360 - 430 27 16
A 37 FP No < 0.07 205/19!
Ni < 0.30
Cu < 0.30
BS 4360
gr E
0.16 260/245/ 100 - 480 27 ai
240/22! -50°C
, ASTM
A 131 gr CS 0.16 235 100 - 490 27* 19*
gr E 0.18 235 100 - 490 27 19
-
:v(L)
Standard
‘max . (J)
~~
-
min.
NF A 35-501
E 24-4 6 150 0.16 2351 21 5 1205 340-460 27
i9511a5
NF A 36-205
A 37 FP < 110 0.16 CrtO .25 23512151205 360-430 32
AP UotO.07 195
Ni<O. 30
Cu<O .30
DIN 17100
S t 37-3 N 4 100 0.17 23512251215 340-470 27
BS 4360
gr 40 D 1.16 ( 2 ) 26012451240 400-480 27
225
--
KV(L) KV(T1
Standard Residuals
(J) (J)
(%I
-- min. min.
. ENF A 35-501
24-3 \< 1'50 0.16 3512151205r 340-460 27
w1a5
. Grade
BV (1)
B
c
>
50
50
0.21
0.21
235
2512151205
400-490
390-4ao
27
27
. NF AP
A 36-20!
A 37 (1 10 0.16 Cr < 0.25 3512151
370-470
360-430 32 21
CP Ho < 0.07 051195 27 16
Ni 4 0.30
Cu 4 0.30
. DIN37-3
St
17100
u $100 0.17 3512251215 340-470 27
. Asln
A 131 gr B 0.21 235 400-490 27 19-
gr D 0.21 235 400-490 27 a t 19 a*
-10'c -loo'
A 516 gr 65 < 13 0.24 1
13to 50 0.26 240 450-585 p (2)
50 to 100 0.28 1
A 573 gr 65 < 13
I 3 to 38
0.24
0.26
240 450-530 1(2)
A 709
gr 36 T 2 6 19 0.25
19to 38 0.25
250 400-550 20
58 to 64 0.26
i 4 to 100 0.27
--
( 1 ) For Bureau Veritas grade D, a fracture toughness of 475 is
guaranteed at O ' C , which is comparable with a grade with a
guaranteed fracture toughness at -2OOC.
( 2 ) Specific requirements.
Standard Residuals Re .
min.
(%I (N/mm
2
. ENF 24-235-501
A
NJI 6 30 0.17 235 340-460
30to 150 0.19 Z 15/205/ 340-460
1951185
. Grade
BV
A 6 50 C42.5k 235 400-490
. NP 37 36-205
A
A
CP 4 110 0.16 C r < 0.25 235I215l 360-430
10 < 0.07 2051195
Si G 0.30
:u < 0.30
. DIN
R
17100
37-2
St 4 40 0.17 2351225 340-470
40 to 100 0.20 215 340-470
. BSgr 4360
40 B 6 100 0,20 230 I 2 25 1 400-480
2201210
ASTH
A 36 6
19 to 38
38to 64
64 to 100
19 0.25
0.25
0.26
0.27
1 250 ,400-550
~~
+I
-
KV(L)
Standard Residuals Re .
Cmax. min. (J)
(%I
-
2
(N/m ) min.
. NF AE 35-50'
28-4 < 150 0.18 75/255/245/ 400-540 16
351225
. NF A 36-20!
A 47 FP < 110 0.20 Cr < 0.25 9512751265 4 7 0-540 40
Mo 4 0.10
Ni < 0.30
Cu < 0.30
, BS 4360
gr 43 E 4 110 0.16 801270 I 430-51 0 !7 at
551240 -50" c
( 1 ) Nb < 0.05
-
:v(L)
Standard Residuals
'mu. (J)
(%I
-
min.
. NF AE 35-501
28-4 < 150 0.18 7512551245 1 400-540 27
351225
. NF A 36-205
A 48 FP < 110 0.20 Cr 6 0.25 470-540 48
AP Mo 6 0.10 40
Ni 4 0.30
Cu 4 0.30
. DIN 17100
St 44-3 R < 100 0.20 75126512551 4 10-540 27
61235
. BS 4360
gr 43 D < 100 0.16 (1) 30 I 2 7 0 / 430-5 10 27
551240
gr 43 E 4 100 0.16 90/270/ 430-510 61
55 I 2 4 0
. A5TM
A 633 gr A < 100 0,18 ( 2 ) 290 430-5 7 0 54
(3)
( 1 ) Nb 0.003-0.10 V - 0.003-0.10
( 2 ) Nb < 0.05
1.1
-
:v(
L)
Standard Residuals Re . R
Cmax. min. 2 (J)
(%I (N/mm
2
1
(N/m )
mlp.
. NP E A 35-50
28-3 6 150 0.18 27512551245 400-480 27
235 f 225
. NFA A 36-20
48 AP < 110 0.20 Ct < 0.25 2951275/265 470-550 42
CP Mo < 0.10 40
Ni < 0.30
Cu < 0.30.
. DIN 17100
S t 44-3-u 6 100 0,20 275/265 1255 4 10-540 27
245 1235
+I
-
:v(L)
Standard Residuals
‘max . (J)
(%)
-
min.
. NP AE 35-50
28-2 < 150 0.20 !75/ 2 5 5 / 2 4 5 / 400-540 27
!35 f 225
. NF AA 4836-20:
CP < 110 0.20 Cr < 0.25 !95f 2751265 470-550 42
Ho < 0.10
Ni < 0.30
Cu < 0.30
. DIN44-2
St
17100
4 40 0.21 !75f 265 4 10-540 27
40 to 100 0.22 !55f 2451235 4 10-540 27
. AASTM <
572 gr 4: 150 0.21 290 > 4!5
~~ ~
-
KV(T
Standard Residuals
‘ma. (J)
(XI
-min
. NFE 36-4
A 35-50
30 0.20 355 490-630 27
30 to 150 0.22 32513 15/30. 490-630 27
. NFA 52A FP36-20! c 110 0.20 C r s 0.25 355 1335 132. 5 10-620 40 21
i40 d 0.10
N i < 0.40
Cu < 0.30
. Grade
BV
< 50 0.18 0 ) Cr c 0.20 355 49 0-6 20 34
EH 36 > 50 0.20 0 ) Ho 4 0.08 335132513 1. 480-6 10 34
gi G 0.40 470-600
Cu < 0.35
. BgrS 4360
50 E
4 16 0.18 (4) 355 4901-620 11 at
-350c
16 to 63 0.20 (4) 3451340 490-620 lr 27 8
-50O c
.AA.S.T.M.
131 grEH 3 0.18 0 ) idem B . V . 360 490-620 34 23
(1) Nb --
0.010-0.060
-
--
(2) Nb 0.0104.060 V 0.020-0.10
[3)
14)
Nb
Nb
0.020-0.050
0.003-0.10
V
V -
0.0504.10
0.003-0.15
,5)
[6)
Nb (. 0.05
gr C : Nb
: 7 ) Only gr D.
-
0.01-0.05
v 4 0.10
--
Standard
KV(L KV(T
Residuals
(J) (J)
--
(%)
min min
NF A 35-501
E 36-4 6 30 0.20 355 490-630 42
30 to 150 0.22 325131 51301 490-630 42
NF A 36-20!
A 52 FP 6 110 0.20 Cr < 0.25 35513351321 5 10-620 48 27
Ap Mo < 0.10 40 21
Ni < 0.40
Cu < 0.30
NF A 36-201
E 355 R I < 35 0.18 (1: Cr 4 0.25 355 480-6 10 40 20
35 to 100 0.20 ( 1 : Mo 4 0.10
Ni < 0.30 3351325 480-6 10 40 20
Cu 6 0.35
E 355 R I1 < 35 0.16 ( 2 ;
} idem 355 48-10 40 20
35 to 100 0.18 (21 3351325 48- 10 40 20
E 355 FP I 4 35
35 to 100
0.18 (11
0.20 (11 } idem 355
3351325
480-6 10
480-6 10
48
48
27
27
E 355 FP I1 4 35
35 to 100
0.16 ( 2 )
0.18 (21
} idem 355
3351325
480-6 10
480-6 10
48
48
27
27
BV
Grade & 50 0.18 (3) Cr < 0.20 355 4 90-6 20 34
DH 36 Mo 6 0.08
Ni 5 0.40
> 50 0.20 ( 3 ) Cu 4 0.35 33513251315 480-610 34
470-600
D I N 17100
S t 52-3 N < 30 0.20 355 490-630 27
30 to 100 0.22 )45/335/ 490-630 27
5251315
-
...I.. .
KV(L) KV(T]
Standard Residuals R
'ma. 2 (J) (J)
(%I
-
(N/m )
min. min.
. BS 4360
gr 50 D & 16 0.18 (41 355 4 9 0-6 20 41
16 to 40 0.20 (4) 345 490-620 41
gr 50 E < 16 0.18 ( 4 ) . 355 490-620 47 at
-30" C
16 to 63 0.20 (4) 1451340 4901620 47 at
-30' C
. ASTM
A 131
gr DH 36 0.18 (5) Cr S 360 490-620 34 23
MO < 0.08
Ni < 0.4C
Cu S 0.35
A 537 cl 1 < 38 0.24 Cr 4 0.25 345 485-620 supple-
MO < 0.08
Ni < 0.25
38 to 100 0.24 Cu < 0.35 310 450-585
A 633
gr Cand < 100 0.20 ( 6 ) idem ( 7 ) 451315 480-620 41
450-590
(8)
-
---
( 1 ) Nb 0.010-0,060
( 2 ) Nb
( 3 ) Nb
(4) Nb
--
0.010~0.060
0.020-0.050
0.003-0.10
V
V
V
0.02-0.10
0.050-0.10
0.003-0.10 (0.15 for gr 50 E)
( 5 ) Nb <0.05
( 6 ) gr C : N b
( 7 ) Only gr D.
-
0.01-0.05
v < 0.10
( 8 ) Only after agreement when ordering.
Values variable according to the thickness ranges specified by the standards.
ANNEXE A. F R E N C H AND FOREIGN STEELS 281
*I
--
KV(L: KV(T
Standard e Residuals R
‘max. Remin.
(mnl 2 (J) (J)
- (XI
(N/m
2
1
(N/m 1
--
min. min
. NF A 35-50
E 36-3 < 16 0.20 355 490-63( 27
16 to 150 0.22 335f315130 490-63( 27
. NF A 36-20
A 52 AP < 110 0.20 Cr <
0.25 3551335 13 1 5 1 0-62( 42 27
CP lb <
0.10 40 21
N i 4 0.30
Cu 4 0.30
. NFE A 36-20
355 R . 1 6 35 0.18 ( 1 : Cr < 0.25 355 480-61( 42
,{!;iiH
27
--
...I . . .
-
KV(L
Standard e Residuals
'rnax.
(nun) (J)
(XI
-min.
. DIN52-3
St
17100
U
\
. BS 4360
gr 50 C C 16 0.20 (4 355 490-630 41 at
-5' c
16 to 100 0.22 (4 l45/340/325 490-630 41 at
-5' c
. ASTM
A 131
gr AH 36 0.18 (3 Cr < 0.25 360 490-620 34
Mo < 0.08
Ni < 0.40
Cu < 0.35
A 709
gr 50 T 2 < 50 0.23 345 > 450 20
gr 50 T 3 6 50 0.23 345 > 450 20 at
- 10'
Standard Residuals
‘max .
(XI
, NFA. 36-205
A 52 CP < 110 0.20 Cr < 0.25 35513351325 510-620 27
Ho 6 0.10
N i < 0.30
Cu 4 0.30
BS 4368
gr 50 B < 16 0 . 2 0 (1) 355 490-620
16 to 100 0.22 ( 1 ) 345 1340I 3 2 5 490-620
ASTM
A 441 < 100 0.22 ( 2 ) 34513 151290 c 4851460
A 572 gr.50 < 50 0.23 345 a 450
*I
--
KV(L KV(1
Standard Residuals Re .
'ma. min.
(J)
(XI
(N/m2
--
min, rnir
. ENPA 36-20
420 I FP 6 80 0.20 ( 1 Cr 6 0.25 420/410/40( 530-670 40 20
Mo < 0.10
N i 6 0.30
Cu 6 0.35
. BSgr 4360
55 E d 100 0.22 ( 2 : 45014301 550-700 7 at
415/410 50.C
. Asm
A 633 gr E s 100 0.22 ( 3 ) 415 550-690 4 (41 27 (4
( 2 ) Nb
--
( 1 ) Nb 0.010
0.003 --0.060
0.10
-
v 0.02 0.12
V -0.003 0.20 --
( 3 ) Nb d 0.05 -
( 4 ) Only after agreement when ordering.
I*)
-KV(T
Standard Residuals Re . R
cnlax. min.
(J)
- -
2
(%I 2 (N/m 1
(N/m ) min
NF A 36-201
E 420 I R 6 80 0.20 (1, Cr 4 0.25 420/410/400 530-670 20
Eb 4 0.10
Ni 4 0.30
Cu 6 0.35
E 420 I1 R 6 80 0.22 Cr < 0.40 42014101400 530470 20
Eb 4 0.40
Ni .g 0.70
Cu < 0.60
. AAsm
633 gr E & 100 0.22(3) 415 550-690. 41
(4)
( 1 ) Nb
( 2 ) Nb 0
0.010-0.060
0.003-0.10 V
-
v 0.02-0.12
0.003-0.20
( 3 ) Nb 4 0.05 -
( 4 ) Only after agreement when ordering..
.I
--
Standard KV(L: KV(T
Residuals Re . R
‘ma. min.
--
(J) (J)
(XI 2 ( N/mm2 1
(N/mm min. min
_____
--
( 1 ) Nb 0,010-0,060 v - 0.02-0.12
( 2 ) Nb - 0.003-0.10 V 0.003-0.20
Guaranteed fracture
Test Values ol toughness
:emperature R 2 Grades Reference
P 0.2 (J/crn Standards
("C) 2
(N/mm 1
220 NF A 49-211
235 TS S
275 Q 10.2t0610
---- ---------
- 45% 290 TU E 290 b, NF A 49-411
TSS
0 60.3t0406.4
240 NF A 49-230
TSS
Q 13.5t0406.4
---.
240 TS 42 BT NF A 49-240
TS-ERW
b 13.5tob06.4
Guaranteed f r a c t u r e
Test Values of toughness
emperature R Grades ReferenAe
p 0.2
StandMs
("C)
- Transverse 1 I
I mean
-ind
220 I 35 28
275
235 I: I9
19
48 "
40 32
I I
TU E 290b, NP A 49-411
-
- 20. c
255
295
35
35
50
26
26
37
I*
" "
*I I1 "
"
E30.$-
T S m TV E24. NP A 49-501
E26.4 .hot f i n i s h e i
021.3-1220
350
050.25-400.
-
26 TS E 24.4 NP A 49-541
Scold finishe
26 TS E 28.4
021.3-1620
022 140 -
035.20-180.
100
A N N E X E A. F R E N C H A N D F O R E I G N S T E E L S 289
Guaranteed f r a c t u r e
Test Values 0 : toughness
cemperature R Grades Reference
P 0.2 ( J/cm2 1
("C) Standards
2
(N/mm
- Lengthwise Transverse
220 35 28 PU 37 b l
11 11
235 'I 42 b l NP A 49-211
275 11 11
'' 48 b l
- --
29 5 35 28
I-- --
235 35 26
11 11 I1 11 11
255
E 30.3
-
11 11 11 II II
29 5
-I _------- -.----
235 35 26 Q E 24.3 NP A 49-541
'
-- -
11 11
E 28.3
275
------------
220 70 50 rs E 220 N F A 49-400-T
-
ooc
-----.
250
290
P
11
11
I__
11
11
E 250
E 290
--------.-------
I' @ 17.2-406.4
ERW
225 35 ps 37 CP NF A 49-252 - TS
245 35 '' 42 CP .use :+<35OoC
285 50 'I 48 CP ERW.81683-406,
SAW.0168~3-1220
----. --- -- --I---- --.---------
225 35 26 I3 37 CP NFA49-253-TS
245 35 26 42 CP use ,+>35OoC
'' 48 CP SAW:8457-1220
---- 285
-- 50 ---38
220 40 30 Tu 37 c NP A 49-213
235 40 30 42 c TSSd 17.2-80
275 50 35 48 c
--
290 ANNEXE A. F R E N C H A N D F O R E I G N STEELS
2
TABLE 1 . S t e e l s withR rnin. guaranteed C300 N/rnrn
p'0.2
Test
temperaturc
("C)
Values of
R
P 0.2
2
--
Guaranteed f r a c t u r e
toughness
(J/cm
2 1 Grades Reference
Stemdards
3
(N/m 1 Len@ i w i s e Transverse
I mean ind
225 40 26 TS 37 CP
245 40 30 NP A 49-252
285 60 35
-- ------
225 40 30 26
245 40 30 30 NP A 49-253
-
+ 20°C 285 60 45 35
---I--
235 60
v
45
255 60 45
295 60 45
A N N E X E A. F R E N C H A N D FOREIGN STEELS 29 1
I
TABLE 2. S t e e l s with 300 N/mm 2 <RP o.2 min. guaranteed 4 420 N/mm 2
Guaranteed f r a c t u r e
Test Values of toughness
emperature R Grades Reference
p 0.2 (J/c:) Standards
("C) 2
(N/W Lengthwise m
Transverse
I I mean ind I mean 1 ind
!,
-
- 45.C
320
360
415
40
40
40
TUE 320
TUE 360
TUE 415 "
NF
NF
NF
A 49-411
A 49-411
A 49-411
-
- 2O0C
320
360
415
-------------
40
40
40
32
32
NF A 49-411
11
91
11
11
NF A 49-41 1
---------
26 I I bandTS E36.3 NF A 49-501
&-A 49-400
~- -
NF A 49-401
----------
NF A 49-252
I 335 1 50 NF A 49-253
~~
NP A 49-252
-- --------
NF A 49-253
----------
NF A 49-501
ANNEXE B
French Standards
for Steel Tubes
TYPE E 2 4 STEELS WITH GUARANTEED FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AT -45OC
Mea KCV
I Reference standard
Diameter D
(mm)
Cmax
(as cast)*
Residuals
(X)
(J/ m 2,
engthwise Transverse D
z
2
NF A 49-21 I 10.2 ( I .6-2.3) m
- Tss - 610 (10-40) x
m
TU 37 b, 360-480
TU 42 b, 410-530 pl
7J
0 21.3 x 2.3 m
to 1220 (10-40) 320-460 z
0 n
to
22 x 2.3
350 ( 8-12)
z
v,
050 x 25 x 2.6 c3
t o 400 - 300 (8-12) D
2
U
0 21.3 x 2.3 D
to 1620 (10-16) n
U
0 22 x 2.3 cn
to
035
140 ( 4-5 )
x 20 x 2.5
360
:
n
to 180 x 100 x 3 cn
c3
n
m
Hollow sections r
according to 360-460 4
IS0 R 657 C
m
m
cn
h,
v)
v,
TYPE E24 STEELS WITH GUARANTEED FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AT O°C
Diameter D
(mm)
CmaJc
(as cast).
~~~
Residuals R
PO.2
nin.
{N/m )
7
(N/N )
KCV
"21
Lengthwist Transverse
10.2 (1.6-2.3)
to 610 (10 40) -
0.18 220
0.22 235
.-------------I
0 21.3 x 2.3
1220 (10-40)
0 22 x 2,3
or E 24.3
to 350 (8 12) - TU 0.18
0 5 0 x 25 x 2.6 TS 0.16
.------------------
to 400
.I-----------
-
300 (8-12)
--
I NF A 49-400
TS E 220
TS E 250
17.2 x 2.3
t o 406.4 (6.3-8,8)
0.15
0.16
220
250
35
35
TYPE E24 STEELS WITH GUARANTEED FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AT O°C
0 21.3 x 2.3
to 1620 (10-16)
0 22 x 2.3
to 140 (4 -5) 0.17
0 21.3 x 2.3
to 1220 (10-40) I
A N N E X E B. F R E N C H S T A N D A R D S F O R S T E E L TUBES 299
I
3t I a , L I
- , PQ, I
b f f l I
> 0 3 I
I 4J I
I .c I
a I >+J I h
I I
I I
I 1
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I I
l n I v) I v)
m 1 d I m
c u t cu I cu
1
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
-
I - c u I
I O h 0 0 I
h 1 la-c'ocu, I
.
I
I
m . m
0 0
I 2
0 1 m m I 0
i m m I
I
I I
I
I I
I I
TYPE E 2 8 STEELS WITH GUARANTEED FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AT 4 5 O C 0
0
0
r R e f e r e n c e standard
Diameter D
(mm)
'max
(as c a s t ) *
Residuals
(%I
R
PO.2
(N/m
ain.
1
Wean KCV
(J/cm2)
D
2
z
7m
N F A 49-211 10.2 (1.6 - 2.3)
610 (10 - 40 ) P
T
n
m
z
r)
60.3 (2.9 - 11) z
406.4 (8.8 - 40) cn
4
D
I
0.21 290 420-540 z
U
40 P
I
73
Pr D I N 17 178 ( t - 4OoC)
-TS-
D I N 2458 3n
T St E 255 (1.0463) 0.16 255 360-480 20 cn
c3
T S t E 285 (1.0488) 0.16 285 390-5 10 20 m
m
r
4
C
I Pr D I N 17 179
-TSS-
31 20
D
m
cn
c
cu.
0
N W
YC. 00
00
cu.9:
NO I
I
2 :
0
. I
I
1
.
ww
c- I
I
. I
0 0 ;
wc uc
o c
rn I
cl I . . .
w - +
--
I 1
w
z
I 1 I
I I I I
I I - 1 I
-0 I n - I o m I I
%
w
U
*d 1 - 0
I -d
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 1 I l l I I
I I
E
I
90
-c
I Q1c9
l N W
I
I
I
I
I
P I
I I
I I
I I
I I
2 w2 i
:too
ow I I
I I
e I I
I I
I I
I I
I h C
I I 1-0
m a 0
N I nN I
I m m e -
--
n i I h + O C
I - 0 1 - 1 .
co1- m I 7..
u e l d N
n
I I 1
w
4 .- I h
1 -
wc
w i t n co I mm I m u
7 I e N l L m a IL - 0
3 1 a 1 - NN I - N O
2 t ; u c W
:a ww : O wL4
L i k v, I L I L
l Z I- in QC, ~n Q +
! Cnv, I IAU
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I
I I
I
I m m i
0 I m m 1 0
------------------ 2 I
0
m . m
0 I
I
.
h I >+J I a
I .c I
I 4J I
I 0 3 >
I l f f b
I PQ, , -
I a , L I 3t
I
299 A N N E X E B. F R E N C H S T A N D A R D S F O R S T E E L TUBES
A N N E X E B. F R E N C H S T A N D A R D S F O R S T E E L TUBES 299
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A N N E X E B. F R E N C H S T A N D A R D S F O R STEEL TUBES 305
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Pr D I N 1 7 178
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T S t E 355 (1.0566
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A N N E X E B. F R E N C H S T A N D A R D S F O R STEEL TUBES 309
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314 A N N E X E B. F R E N C H S T A N D A R D S F O R S T E E L TUBES
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ANNEXE c
Stress Concentration Factors
in Tubular Joints
Parametric Formulas
EPR, DnV, Lloyd’s
316 A N N E X E C. SCF IN T U B U L A R J O I N T S
DEFINITIONS A N D N O T A T I O N S
' Chord
i (receiving or continuous
tubular member)
Brace -
(welded o r 'received'
* \
tubular rnemeri
Saddle point.
Fig. 1.2.
L = c h o r d s t u b length,
D = chord outside d i a m e t e r ,
T = chord t h i c k n e s s ,
d = b r a c e outside diameter,
t = brace thickness,
g = t h e o r e t i c a l gap,
e = e c c e n t r i c i t y (positive i n Fig. 1.2, n e g a t i v e o t h e r w i s e ) ,
o = a c u t e a n g l e defining t h e b r a c e inclination,
a = 2L/D chord s t u b slenderness ratio,
B = d/D b r a c e t o chord d i a m e t e r ratio,
Y = D/2T p a r a m e t e r defining t h e s l e n d e r n e s s of t h e c h o r d wall,
T = t / T b r a c e thickness t o chord t h i c k n e s s ratio,
5 = g / D r e l a t i v e gap.
In t h e c a s e of t w o o r m o r e b r a c e s , t h e y a r e i d e n t i r i e d by a subscript.
ANNEXE C. SCF IN TUBULAR JOINTS 317
T and Y j o i n t s
Theoretical
N, K and KT j o i n t s
318 A N N E X E C. SCF IN T U B U L A R J O I N T S
SCF Validity
CHORD
0,057 =-1.28'
SCF = 1.981.a
0,808 T1.333.sinl.694e
.Y
BRACE
CHORD
-0.04
SCF = 0.702 .B
0.6 T0.86.sin0.57e
.Y *
BRACE
-0.38
SCF = 1.301.8
0.23 T0.38.sin0.21e 6.6 5 a 5 40
.Y * 0.3 5 8 5 0.8
8.3 5 y S 33.3
CHORD 0.3 5 8 5 0.55 0.2 2 T 5 0.8
0.787 0,Ol 5 5 5 1.0
SCF = 1.024.8 oo s eos goo
1.014 T0,889.sin1.557e
.Y
EPR FORMULAS
A N N E X E C. SCF IN T U B U L A R JOINTS 319
SCF Validity
CHOYD
-0,059 0.666
SCF = 1.506.B .Y
1.104 0,067. sin1.521e
.T .c
CHOIiD
0.06 0,38
SCF = 1.822 .$ .y
6.6 6 u 6 40
0.3 5 6 5 0.8
8.3 5 y 5 33.3
CHORD 0.2 6 T 5 0.8
0.12 0,lO 0.01 5 5 5 1.0
SCF = 1.832 . 6 .y oo 5 eos goo
0.68 0.126.sin0.5e
.T .(C1+L2)
BRACE 00 2 eo s 450
-0.36 0.10
SCF = 6.056.6 .Y
0.68 +5 )0.126 0.5*
.T .(C1 .sin
CHORD
SCF = (1.44-3.72.(6-0,47)2) .yoeE
CHORD
1 .T 1.37ma0.06,sin1,6940 7.0 6 a 6 40
0.255 5 6 5 0.9
BRACE 10 6 y S 30
SCF = (1.00-1,78.(6-0.5) 2 ).y 0.76 0.4 6 T 6 1.0
0" 6 0"s 90"
Axial load
.T0.57.a0,12.sin1.94e
T, Y
A
BRACE
.-:-. BRACE
SCF = (0.95-0.65(fl-0.41)2)
In-plane
bending load .T0.29.sin0.210
CHORD
SCF = (1.01-3.36. (8-0.64) 2 ) .y 0.9 Term a of E P R
added by DnV
.T 1.18.sin1.557e Term sin 8 o f EPR
added by C T I C M
BRACE
DnV FORMULAS
A N N E X E C . SCF IN T U B U L A R JOINTS 321
E F S p = SCF
at saddle point
Axial load
-
SCFCp = SCF
at crown poirtt
CHORD
r. Y K3
S C F C p = 0.75.y .
0.60 T0.8
8 <a<40
X KT
.(1.6.6°*2s-0,7.6~).sin (1.5-1 .66Ie 0.13 5 6 5 1.0
12 < y < 32
&
?. .-. BRACE
0.0
0.25
30'
< f < 1.0
< 0
5 5
< 90'
CHORD
T.Y
5
A
SCFSp= 6.(1.6-1.158 ).Y..C
. s i n ( 1 .35+B2 Ie , K F S p = SCF
at saddle point
BRACE
LLOYD'S FORMULAS
322 A N N E X E C. SCF IN T U B U L A R J O I N T S
Load-Geometry Va 1 i di ty
CHORD
SCFSp= 1.7.~.~.8.(2.42-2.28.8 2.2
. s i n 8' :( 1 5-14 .481e
BRACE
. s i n 8'.(15-14.481e
Out-of-plane
bending load -
SCFSp = SCF
at saddle point
CENTRAL CHORD M 1=M2=M3
e2>e1 e2>e3 e1=e3
-
SCFCp = SCF
KT at crown point
.(i.o+2.0(e2/el)0 . 3
.(sinB1/sine2) (1.35+6* 1
* (0.016.y.B) (5+0.45)
1
. (1.0-0.1 (1.0+45) 2
-
CHORD
; p2 ~~.sin8~/sin0~
el L e2
SCFSp = (S C F ~ p
JOINT e = el
1
.(1.0-(0.012.y) (0.67.5+0.4)
,(sin8,/sine2) (0.1-0.7B’)
1
BRACE
SCFSp = 1 .O + 0.63. S C ~ ~ p . c H o R D
I Axial load
S C F =~ 1~.O + 0.63. SCFCp.C,,OnD
CHORD 81 82 M 1 = M2
KN SCFSp = 1
(S C F ~ p
y.~o~me=e~
Ml
)&@$
. .-.
M2 f l
.(elle2f”33.
.(1.0+(0.016.y.6)
(sine2/sine1)(1.35+B2 1
(5+0.45)
CFSp = SCF
1 at saddle point
.(1.0-0,l (1.0+45) -
SCFCp = SCF
at crown point
Out-of-plane BiIACE
bending load