Baroque

The Baroque (UK: /bəˈrɒk/, US: /bəˈroʊk/; French: [baʁɔk])

is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, and The Baroque
other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century
until the 1740s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese
empires including the Iberian Peninsula it continued, together
with new styles, until the first decade of the 19th century. It
followed Renaissance art and Mannerism and preceded the
Rococo (in the past often referred to as "late Baroque") and
Neoclassical styles. It was encouraged by the Catholic Church
as a means to counter the simplicity and austerity of Protestant
architecture, art, and music, though Lutheran Baroque art
developed in parts of Europe as well.[1]

The Baroque style used contrast, movement, exuberant detail,

deep colour, grandeur, and surprise to achieve a sense of awe.
The style began at the start of the 17th century in Rome, then
spread rapidly to France, northern Italy, Spain, and Portugal,
then to Austria, southern Germany, and Russia. By the 1730s,
it had evolved into an even more flamboyant style, called
rocaille or Rococo, which appeared in France and Central
Europe until the mid to late 18th century.

In the decorative arts, the style employs plentiful and intricate

ornamentation. The departure from Renaissance classicism has
its own ways in each country. But a general feature is that
everywhere the starting point is the ornamental elements
introduced by the Renaissance. The classical repertoire is
crowded, dense, overlapping, loaded, in order to provoke
shock effects. New motifs introduced by Baroque are: the
cartouche, trophies and weapons, baskets of fruit or flowers,
and others, made in marquetry, stucco, or carved.[2]

Contents
Origin of the word
Architecture: origins and characteristics
Italian Baroque
Spanish Baroque
Central Europe and Rococo (1740s–1770s)
French Baroque or Classicism
Portuguese Baroque
Top: Venus and Adonis by Peter Paul
Russian Baroque
Rubens (1635–40); Centre: The
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa by Bernini
 Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial (1651); Bottom: The Wieskirche in
Americas Bavaria (1754)
Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Years active 17th–18th centuries
Asia
Painting
Spanish Americas
Sculpture
Furniture
Music
Composers and examples
Dance
Theatre
Spanish colonial Americas
Gardens
Differences between Rococo and Baroque
End of the style, condemnation, and academic
rediscovery
Baroque Revival art
See also
Notes
Sources
Further reading
External links

Origin of the word

The English word baroque comes directly from the French (as the modern standard English-language
spelling might suggest). Some scholars state that the French word originated from the Portuguese term
barroco ("a flawed pearl"), pointing to the Latin verruca,[3] ("wart"), or to a word with the suffix -ǒccu
(common in pre-Roman Iberia).[4][5][6] Other sources suggest a Medieval Latin term used in logic, baroco,
as the most likely source.[7]

In the 16th century, the Medieval Latin word baroco moved beyond scholastic logic and came into use to
characterise anything that seemed absurdly complex. The French philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533–
1592) associated the term baroco with "Bizarre and uselessly complicated."[8] Other early sources associate
baroco with magic, complexity, confusion, and excess.[7]

The word baroque was also associated with irregular pearls before the 18th century. The French baroque
and Portuguese barroco were terms often associated with jewelry. An example from 1531 uses the term to
describe pearls in an inventory of Charles V of France's treasures.[9] Later, the word appears in a 1694
edition of Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française, which describes baroque as "only used for pearls that
are imperfectly round."[10] A 1728 Portuguese dictionary similarly describes barroco as relating to a
"coarse and uneven pearl".[11]
An alternative derivation of the word baroque points to the name
of the Italian painter Federico Barocci (1528–1612).[12]

In the 18th century the term began to be used to describe music,

and not in a flattering way. In an anonymous satirical review of the
première of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie in October
1733, which was printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734,
the critic wrote that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque",
complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing
with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily
ran through every compositional device.[13]

In 1762 Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française recorded that the

term could figuratively describe something "irregular, bizarre or
unequal".[14]
Pendant in the form of a siren, made
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and composer as of a baroque pearl (the torso) with
well as a philosopher, wrote in 1768 in the Encyclopédie: enameled gold mounts set with
"Baroque music is that in which the harmony is confused, and rubies, probably circa 1860, in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New
loaded with modulations and dissonances. The singing is harsh
York City)
and unnatural, the intonation difficult, and the movement limited. It
appears that term comes from the word 'baroco' used by
logicians."[8][15]

In 1788 Quatremère de Quincy defined the term in the Encyclopédie Méthodique as "an architectural style
that is highly adorned and tormented".[16]

The French terms style baroque and musique baroque appeared in Le Dictionnaire de l'Académie
Française in 1835.[17] By the mid-19th century, art critics and historians had adopted the term "baroque" as
a way to ridicule post-Renaissance art. This was the sense of the word as used in 1855 by the leading art
historian Jacob Burckhardt, who wrote that baroque artists "despised and abused detail" because they
lacked "respect for tradition".[18]

In 1888 the art historian Heinrich Wölfflin published the first serious academic work on the style,
Renaissance und Barock, which described the differences between the painting, sculpture, and architecture
of the Renaissance and the Baroque.[19]

Architecture: origins and characteristics

The Baroque style of architecture was a result of doctrines adopted by the Catholic Church at the Council
of Trent in 1545–63, in response to the Protestant Reformation. The first phase of the Counter-Reformation
had imposed a severe, academic style on religious architecture, which had appealed to intellectuals but not
the mass of churchgoers. The Council of Trent decided instead to appeal to a more popular audience, and
declared that the arts should communicate religious themes with direct and emotional involvement.[21][22]
Similarly, Lutheran Baroque art developed as a confessional marker of identity, in response to the Great
Iconoclasm of Calvinists.[23]

Baroque churches were designed with a large central space, where the worshippers could be close to the
altar, with a dome or cupola high overhead, allowing light to illuminate the church below. The dome was
one of the central symbolic features of Baroque architecture illustrating the union between the heavens and
the earth, The inside of the cupola was lavishly decorated with paintings of angels and saints, and with
stucco statuettes of angels, giving the impression to those below of looking up at heaven.[24] Another
feature of Baroque churches are the quadratura; trompe-l'œil paintings on
the ceiling in stucco frames, either real or painted, crowded with paintings
of saints and angels and connected by architectural details with the
balustrades and consoles. Quadratura paintings of Atlantes below the
cornices appear to be supporting the ceiling of the church. Unlike the
painted ceilings of Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel, which combined
different scenes, each with its own perspective, to be looked at one at a
time, the Baroque ceiling paintings were carefully created so the viewer on
the floor of the church would see the entire ceiling in correct perspective,
as if the figures were real.

The interiors of Baroque churches became more and more ornate in the
High Baroque, and focused around the altar, usually placed under the
dome. The most celebrated baroque decorative works of the High Baroque
are the Chair of Saint Peter (1647–53) and the Baldachino of St. Peter
(1623–34), both by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
The Baldequin of St. Peter is an example of the balance of opposites in
Baroque art; the gigantic proportions of the piece, with the apparent Quadratura or trompe-l'œil
lightness of the canopy; and the contrast between the solid twisted ceiling of the Church of the
columns, bronze, gold and marble of the piece with the flowing draperies Gesù from Rome, by
of the angels on the canopy.[25] The Dresden Frauenkirche serves as a Giovanni Battista Gaulli,
prominent example of Lutheran Baroque art, which was completed in from 1673 to 1678[20]
1743 after being commissioned by the Lutheran city council of Dresden
and was "compared by eighteenth-century observers to St Peter's in
Rome".[1]

The twisted column in the interior of churches is one of the signature features of the Baroque. It gives both
a sense of motion and also a dramatic new way of reflecting light. The cartouche was another characteristic
feature of Baroque decoration. These were large plaques carved of marble or stone, usually oval and with a
rounded surface, which carried images or text in gilded letters, and were placed as interior decoration or
above the doorways of buildings, delivering messages to those below. They showed a wide variety of
invention, and were found in all types of buildings, from cathedrals and palaces to small chapels.[26]

Baroque architects sometimes used forced perspective to create illusions. For the Palazzo Spada in Rome,
Borromini used columns of diminishing size, a narrowing floor and a miniature statue in the garden beyond
to create the illusion that a passageway was thirty meters long, when it was actually only seven meters long.
A statue at the end of the passage appears to be life-size, though it is only sixty centimeters high. Borromini
designed the illusion with the assistance of a mathematician.

Italian Baroque

The first building in Rome to have a Baroque facade was the Church of the Gesù in 1584; it was plain by
later Baroque standards, but marked a break with the traditional Renaissance facades that preceded it. The
interior of this church remained very austere until the high Baroque, when it was lavishly ornamented.

In Rome in 1605, Paul V became the first of series of popes who commissioned basilicas and church
buildings designed to inspire emotion and awe through a proliferation of forms, and a richness of colours
and dramatic effects.[27] Among the most influential monuments of the Early Baroque were the facade of
St. Peter's Basilica (1606–1619), and the new nave and loggia which connected the facade to
Michelangelo's dome in the earlier church. The new design created a dramatic contrast between the soaring
dome and the disproportionately wide facade, and the contrast on the facade itself between the Doric
columns and the great mass of the portico.[28]
 In the mid to late 17th century the style reached its peak, later termed the
High Baroque. Many monumental works were commissioned by Popes
Urban VIII and Alexander VII. The sculptor and architect Gian Lorenzo
Bernini designed a new quadruple colonnade around St. Peter's Square
(1656 to 1667). The three galleries of columns in a giant ellipse balance
the oversize dome and give the Church and square a unity and the feeling
of a giant theatre.[29]

Another major innovator of the

Italian High Baroque was
Francesco Borromini, whose
major work was the Church of
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane or
Saint Ignatius from Rome Saint Charles of the Four
(1626–1650) Fountains (1634–46). The sense
of movement is given not by the
decoration, but by the walls
themselves, which undulate and by concave and convex elements,
including an oval tower and balcony inserted into a concave Santa Maria della Salute in Venice
traverse. The interior was equally revolutionary; the main space of (1631–1687)
the church was oval, beneath an oval dome.[29]

Painted ceilings, crowded with angels and saints and trompe-l'œil architectural effects, were an important
feature of the Italian High Baroque. Major works included The Entry of Saint Ignatius into Paradise by
Andrea Pozzo (1685–1695) in the Church of Saint Ignatius in Rome, and The triumph of the name of Jesus
by Giovanni Battista Gaulli in the Church of the Gesù in Rome (1669–1683), which featured figures
spilling out of the picture frame and dramatic oblique lighting and light-dark contrasts.[30] The style spread
quickly from Rome to other regions of Italy: It appeared in Venice in the church of Santa Maria della Salute
(1631–1687) by Baldassare Longhena, a highly original octagonal form crowned with an enormous
cupola. It appeared also in Turin, notably in the Chapel of the Holy Shroud (1668–1694) by Guarino
Guarini. The style also began to be used in palaces; Guarini designed the Palazzo Carignano in Turin,
while Longhena designed the Ca' Rezzonico on the Grand Canal, (1657), finished by Giorgio Massari with
decorated with paintings by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.[31] A series of massive earthquakes in Sicily
required the rebuilding of most of them and several were built in the exuberant late Baroque or Rococo
style.
 Façade of the Church of the Ceiling of the Church of the The Ca Rezzonico from
Gesù from Rome (1584) Gesù (1674–1679) Venice (1649–1656)

Cartouches decorating Gallery with forced The Chair of Saint Peter by

courtyard of the Palazzo perspective, by Francesco Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in
Spada from Rome, by Borromini, which creates the St. Peter's Basilica from
Francesco Borromini the illusion that the corridor Rome (1657–1666)
(1632) is much longer than it really
is, in the Palazzo Spada
(1632)

Spanish Baroque

The Catholic Church in Spain, and particularly the Jesuits, were the driving force of Spanish Baroque
architecture. The first major work in this style was the San Isidro Chapel in Madrid, begun in 1643 by
Pedro de la Torre. It contrasted an extreme richness of ornament on the exterior with simplicity in the
interior, divided into multiple spaces and using effects of light to create a sense of mystery.[32] The
Cathedral in Santiago de Compostela was modernized with a series of Baroque additions beginning at the
end of the 17th century, starting with a highly ornate bell tower (1680), then flanked by two even taller and
more ornate towers, called the Obradorio, added between 1738 and 1750 by Fernando de Casas Novoa.
Another landmark of the Spanish Baroque is the chapel tower of the Palace of San Telmo in Seville by
Leonardo de Figueroa.[33]

Granada had only been conquered from the Moors in the 15th century, and had its own distinct variety of
Baroque. The painter, sculptor and architect Alonso Cano designed the Baroque interior of Granada
Cathedral between 1652 and his death in 1657. It features dramatic contrasts of the massive white columns
and gold decor.

The most ornamental and lavishly decorated architecture of the

Spanish Baroque is called Churrigueresque style, named after the
brothers Churriguera, who worked primarily in Salamanca and
Madrid. Their works include the buildings on the city's main
square, the Plaza Mayor of Salamanca (1729).[33] This highly
ornamental Baroque style was very influential in many churches
and cathedrals built by the Spanish in the Americas.

Other notable Spanish baroque architects of the late Baroque

include Pedro de Ribera, a pupil of Churriguera, who designed the
Royal Hospice of San Fernando in Madrid, and Narciso Tomé,
The towers of the Cathedral of
who designed the celebrated El Transparente altarpiece at Toledo
Santiago de Compostela by
Cathedral (1729–32) which gives the illusion, in certain light, of
Fernando de Casas Novoa (1680
floating upwards.[33] (centre tower) and 1738–1750)

The architects of the Spanish Baroque had an effect far beyond

Spain; their work was highly influential in the churches built in the
Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines. The Church built by the Jesuits for a college in
Tepotzotlán, with its ornate Baroque facade and tower, is a good example.[34]

The Granada Cathedral Altarpiece of Convento de The Plaza Mayor from

(1652–1657) San Esteban, from Salamanca (1729)
Salamanca (1690)

Hospice of San Fernando

from Madrid (1750)
Central Europe and Rococo (1740s–1770s)

From 1680 to 1750, many highly ornate cathedrals, abbeys, and

pilgrimage churches were built in Central Europe, in Bavaria, Austria,
Bohemia and southwestern Poland. Some were in Rococo style, a distinct,
more flamboyant and asymmetric style which emerged from the Baroque,
then replaced it in Central Europe in the first half of the 18th century, until
it was replaced in turn by classicism.[35]

The princes of the multitude of states in that region also chose Baroque or
Rococo for their palaces and residences, and often used Italian-trained
architects to construct them.[36] Notable architects included Johann Fischer
von Erlach, Lukas von Hildebrandt and Dominikus Zimmermann in
Bavaria, Balthasar Neumann in Bruhl, and Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann
in Dresden. In Prussia, Frederick II of Prussia was inspired by the Grand
Quadratura; a painted dome
by Andrea Pozzo for the
Trianon of the Palace of Versailles, and used it as the model for his summer
Jesuit Church, Vienna, residence, Sanssouci, in Potsdam, designed for him by Georg Wenzeslaus
giving the illusion of looking von Knobelsdorff (1745–1747). Another work of Baroque palace
upwards at heavenly figures architecture is the Zwinger in Dresden, the former orangerie of the palace
around a nonexistent dome of the Dukes of Saxony in the 18th century.
(1703)
One of the best examples of a
rococo church is the Basilika
Vierzehnheiligen, or Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, a
pilgrimage church located near the town of Bad Staffelstein near
Bamberg, in Bavaria, southern Germany. The Basilica was
designed by Balthasar Neumann and was constructed between
1743 and 1772, its plan a series of interlocking circles around a
central oval with the altar placed in the exact centre of the church.
The interior of this church illustrates the summit of Rococo
decoration.[37] Another notable example of the style is the
Pilgrimage Church of Wies (German: Wieskirche). It was designed
by the brothers J. B. and Dominikus Zimmermann. It is located in
the foothills of the Alps, in the municipality of Steingaden in the
Weilheim-Schongau district, Bavaria, Germany. Construction took
place between 1745 and 1754, and the interior was decorated with
frescoes and with stuccowork in the tradition of the Wessobrunner
School. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Another notable example is the St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana) St. Nicholas Church (Malá Strana)
in Prague (1704–55), built by Christoph Dientzenhofer and his son from Prague (1704–1755)
Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer. Decoration covers all of walls of
interior of the church. The altar is placed in the nave beneath the
central dome, and surrounded by chapels, light comes down from the dome above and from the
surrounding chapels. The altar is entirely surrounded by arches, columns, curved balustrades and pilasters
of coloured stone, which are richly decorated with statuary, creating a deliberate confusion between the real
architecture and the decoration. The architecture is transformed into a theatre of light, colour and
movement.[25]

In Poland, the Italian-inspired Polish Baroque lasted from the early 17th to the mid-18th century and
emphasised richness of detail and colour. The first Baroque building in present-day Poland and probably
one of the most recognizable is the Church of St. Peter and Paul in Kraków, designed by Giovanni Battista
Trevano. Sigismund's Column in Warsaw, erected in 1644, was the world's first secular Baroque
monument built in the form of a column.[38] The palatial residence style was exemplified by the Wilanów
Palace, constructed between 1677 and 1696.[39] The most renowned Baroque architect active in Poland
was Dutchman Tylman van Gameren and his notable works include Warsaw's St. Kazimierz Church and
Krasiński Palace, St. Anne's in Kraków and Branicki Palace in Bialystok.[40] However, the most celebrated
work of Polish Baroque is the Fara Church in Poznań, with details by Pompeo Ferrari.

The Fara Church from Remnant of Zwinger Ceiling of Ottobeuren

Poznań (Poland) (1651– Palace in Dresden (1710– Abbey, in Bavaria (1711–
1701) 1728) 1725)

Library of the Clementinum, Karlskirche (Vienna), by The Vierzehnheigen

the Jesuit university from Fischer von Erlach Basilica from Bavaria, by
Prague (1722) (consecrated 1737) Balthasar Neumann (1743–
1772)
 Sanssouci, in Potsdam, by The East façade of the Eszterháza, today in
Georg Wenzeslaus von Würzburg Residence from Fertőd, Hungary built by
Knobelsdorff (1745–1747) Würzburg (Germany) Nikolaus I, Prince
Esterházy (1720–1784)

French Baroque or Classicism

France largely resisted the ornate Baroque style of Italy, Spain,

Vienna and the rest of Europe. The French Baroque style (often
termed Grand Classicism or simply Classicism in France) is
closely associated with the works built for Louis XIV and Louis
XV; it features more geometric order and measure than Baroque,
and less elaborate decoration on the facades and in the interiors.
Louis XIV invited the master of Baroque, Bernini, to submit a
design for the new wing of the Louvre, but rejected it in favor of a
Palace of Versailles (begun by Louis
more classical design by Claude Perrault and Louis Le Vau.[41]
Le Vau in 1661)
The principal architects of the style included François Mansart
(Chateau de Balleroy, 1626–1636), Pierre Le Muet (Church of
Val-de-Grace, 1645–1665), Louis Le Vau (Vaux-le-Vicomte, 1657–1661) and especially Jules Hardouin
Mansart and Robert de Cotte, whose work included the Galerie des Glaces and the Grand Trianon at
Versailles (1687–1688). Mansart was also responsible for the Baroque classicism of the Place Vendôme
(1686–1699).[42]

The major royal project of the period was the expansion of Palace of Versailles, begun in 1661 by Le Vau
with decoration by the painter Charles Le Brun. The gardens were designed by André Le Nôtre
specifically to complement and amplify the architecture. The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors), the
centerpiece of the château, with paintings by Le Brun, was constructed between 1678 and 1686. Mansart
completed the Grand Trianon in 1687. The chapel, designed by de Cotte, was finished in 1710. Following
the death of Louis XIV, Louis XV added the more intimate Petit Trianon and the highly ornate theatre. The
fountains in the gardens were designed to be seen from the interior, and to add to the dramatic effect. The
palace was admired and copied by other monarchs of Europe, particularly Peter the Great of Russia, who
visited Versailles early in the reign of Louis XV, and built his own version at Peterhof Palace near Saint
Petersburg, between 1705 and 1725.[43]
 The Church of Saint-Paul- The Château de Vaux-le- East facade of the Louvre,
Saint-Louis, the first Paris Vicomte from Maincy by Claude Perrault and
church with a façade in the (1657–1661) Louis Le Vau (1668–1680)
new Baroque style (1616–
20)

Hall of Mirrors in the The Dôme des Invalides, Place des Victoires (1684–
Versailles Palace (1678– part of the Les Invalides 1697), by Jules Hardouin-
1686) (Paris) Mansart

Portuguese Baroque

Baroque architecture in Portugal lasted about two centuries (the

late seventeenth century and eighteenth century). The reigns of
John V and Joseph I had increased imports of gold and diamonds,
in a period called Royal Absolutism, which allowed the
Portuguese Baroque to flourish.

Baroque architecture in Portugal enjoys a special situation and

different timeline from the rest of Europe.
Neptune's glory, Palace of Queluz,
1747 It is conditioned by several political, artistic, and economic factors,
that originate several phases, and different kinds of outside
influences, resulting in a unique blend,[44] often misunderstood by
those looking for Italian art, find instead specific forms and character which give it a uniquely Portuguese
variety. Another key factor is the existence of the Jesuitical architecture, also called "plain style" (Estilo
Chão or Estilo Plano)[45] which like the name evokes, is plainer and appears somewhat austere.
The buildings are single-room basilicas, deep main chapel, lateral
chapels (with small doors for communication), without interior and
exterior decoration, very simple portal and windows. It is a very
practical building, allowing it to be built throughout the empire
with minor adjustments, and prepared to be decorated later or
when economic resources are available.

In fact, the first Portuguese Baroque does not lack in building

because "plain style" is easy to be transformed, by means of
decoration (painting, tiling, etc.), turning empty areas into
pompous, elaborate baroque scenarios. The same could be applied
to the exterior. Subsequently, it is easy to adapt the building to the
taste of the time and place and add on new features and details.
Practical and economical.

With more inhabitants and better economic resources, the north,

particularly the areas of Porto and Braga,[46][47][48] witnessed an
architectural renewal, visible in the large list of churches, convents
and palaces built by the aristocracy. Interior of Monastery of São Martinho
de Tibães, Braga, 1757
Porto is the city of Baroque in Portugal. Its historical centre is part
of UNESCO World Heritage List.[49]

Many of the Baroque works in the historical area of the city and beyond, belong to Nicolau Nasoni an
Italian architect living in Portugal, drawing original buildings with scenographic emplacement such as the
church and tower of Clérigos,[50] the logia of the Porto Cathedral, the church of Misericórdia, the Palace of
São João Novo,[51] the Palace of Freixo,[52] the Episcopal Palace (Portuguese: Paço Episcopal do
Porto)[53] along with many others.

Russian Baroque

The debut of Russian Baroque, or Petrine Baroque, followed

a long visit of Peter the Great to western Europe in 1697–98,
where he visited the Chateaux of Fontainebleau and the
Versailles as well as other architectural monuments. He
decided, on his return to Russia, to construct similar
monuments in St. Petersburg, which became the new capital
of Russia in 1712. Early major monuments in the Petrine
Baroque include the Peter and Paul Cathedral and Menshikov
Palace.
The western façade of the Catherine
Palace (1752–1756) by Bartolomeo During the reign of Empress Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna,
Rastrelli Russian architecture was dominated by the luxurious Baroque
style of Italian-born Bartolomeo Rastrelli, which developed
into Elizabethan Baroque. Rastrelli's signature buildings
include the Winter Palace, the Catherine Palace and the Smolny Cathedral. Other distinctive monuments of
the Elizabethan Baroque are the bell tower of the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra and the Red Gate.[54]

In Moscow, Naryshkin Baroque became widespread, especially in the architecture of Eastern Orthodox
churches in the late 17th century. It was a combination of western European Baroque with traditional
Russian folk styles.
Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Americas

Due to the colonization of the Americas by European countries,

the Baroque naturally moved to the New World, finding especially
favorable ground in the regions dominated by Spain and Portugal,
both countries being centralized and irreducibly Catholic
monarchies, by extension subject to Rome and adherents of the
Baroque Counter-reformist most typical. European artists migrated
to America and made school, and along with the widespread
penetration of Catholic missionaries, many of whom were skilled
artists, created a multiform Baroque often influenced by popular
taste. The Criollo and Indidenous craftsmen did much to give this
Baroque unique features. The main centres of American Baroque
cultivation, that are still standing, are (in this order) Mexico, Brazil,
Peru, Ecuador, Cuba, Colombia, Bolivia, Guatemala, and Puerto
Rico.

Of particular note is the so-called "Missionary Baroque",

Façade of the Jesuit Church from
developed in the framework of the Spanish reductions in areas
Arequipa (Peru), 1698–1699. The
extending from Mexico and southwestern portions of current-day façade elevation was supervised by
United States to as far south as Argentina and Chile, indigenous Spanish architect Diego de Adrián.
settlements organized by Spanish Catholic missionaries in order to The ornamentation was carved by
convert them to the Christian faith and acculturate them in the Native American sculptors and
Western life, forming a hybrid Baroque influenced by Native masons. [55]
culture, where flourished Criollos and many Indian artisans and
musicians, even literate, some of great ability and talent of their
own. Missionaries' accounts often repeat that Western art, especially music, had a hypnotic impact on
foresters, and the images of saints were viewed as having great powers. Many Indians were converted, and
a new form of devotion was created, of passionate intensity, laden with mysticism, superstition, and
theatricality, which delighted in festive masses, sacred concerts, and mysteries.[56][57]

The Colonial Baroque architecture in the Spanish America is characterized by a profuse decoration (portal
of La Profesa Church, Mexico City; facades covered with Puebla-style azulejos, as in the Church of San
Francisco Acatepec in San Andrés Cholula and Convent Church of San Francisco of Puebla), which will
be exacerbated in the so-called Churrigueresque style (Facade of the Tabernacle of the Mexico City
Cathedral, by Lorenzo Rodríguez; Church of San Francisco Javier, Tepotzotlán; Church of Santa Prisca of
Taxco). In Peru, the constructions mostly developed in the cities of Lima, Cusco, Arequipa and Trujillo
since 1650 show original characteristics that are advanced even to the European Baroque, as in the use of
cushioned walls and solomonic columns (Church of la Compañía de Jesús, Cusco; Basilica and Convent of
San Francisco, Lima).[58] Other countries include: the Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in Bolivia;
Cathedral Basilica of Esquipulas in Guatemala; Tegucigalpa Cathedral in Honduras; León Cathedral in
Nicaragua; the Church of la Compañía de Jesús in Quito, Ecuador; the Church of San Ignacio in Bogotá,
Colombia; the Caracas Cathedral in Venezuela; the Cabildo of Buenos Aires in Argentina; the Church of
Santo Domingo in Santiago, Chile; and Havana Cathedral in Cuba. It is also worth remembering the
quality of the churches of the Spanish Jesuit Missions in Bolivia, Spanish Jesuit missions in Paraguay, the
Spanish missions in Mexico and the Spanish Franciscan missions in California.[59]

In Brazil, as in the metropolis, Portugal, the architecture has a certain Italian influence, usually of a
Borrominesque type, as can be seen in the Co-Cathedral of Recife (1784) and Church of Nossa Senhora da
Glória do Outeiro in Rio de Janeiro (1739). In the region of Minas Gerais, highlighted the work of
Aleijadinho, author of a group of churches that stand out for their curved planimetry, facades with concave-
convex dynamic effects and a plastic treatment of all architectural elements (Church of São Francisco de
Assis in Ouro Preto, 1765–1788).

The Church of San The Chihuahua Cathedral The León Cathedral from
Francisco Acatepec from from Mexico (1725– Nicaragua (1747–1814), a
Mexico [60]
1792 ) UNESCO World Heritage
Site

The Minor Basilica of San The Church of Rosário dos The Church of San Agustín
Francisco de Asís from Pretos from Ouro Preto from Quito (Ecuador)
Havana (Cuba) (1548– (Brazil) (1762–1799[62]) (1606–1617[63])
1738[61])
 The Palacio de Torre Tagle The Santo Domingo
from Lima (Peru) (1715– Church from Santiago
1735 ), Balconies of (Chile) (1747–1808[65])
[64]
Lima

Baroque in the Spanish and Portuguese Colonial Asia

In the Portuguese colonies of India (Goa, Daman and Diu) an architectural style of Baroque forms mixed
with Hindu elements flourished, such as the Goa Cathedral and the Basilica of Bom Jesus of Goa, which
houses the tomb of St. Francis Xavier. The set of churches and convents of Goa was declared a World
Heritage Site in 1986.

In the Philippines, that was part of the Spanish Empire for a long time, a large number of Baroque
constructions are preserved, including the Baroque Churches of the Philippines that four of these, and the
Baroque and Neoclassical city of Vigan, are both UNESCO World Heritage Sites. It was also very
remarkable the Walled City of Manila (Intramuros). Other city with notable preserved Spanish-era Baroque
is Tayabas.

Painting
Baroque painters worked deliberately to set themselves apart from the painters of the Renaissance and the
Mannerism period after it. In their palette, they used intense and warm colours, and particularly made use of
the primary colours red, blue and yellow, frequently putting all three in close proximity.[66] They avoided
the even lighting of Renaissance painting and used strong contrasts of light and darkness on certain parts of
the picture to direct attention to the central actions or figures. In their composition, they avoided the tranquil
scenes of Renaissance paintings, and chose the moments of the greatest movement and drama. Unlike the
tranquil faces of Renaissance paintings, the faces in Baroque paintings clearly expressed their emotions.
They often used asymmetry, with action occurring away from the centre of the picture, and created axes
that were neither vertical nor horizontal, but slanting to the left or right, giving a sense of instability and
movement. They enhanced this impression of movement by having the costumes of the personages blown
by the wind, or moved by their own gestures. The overall impressions were movement, emotion and
drama.[67] Another essential element of baroque painting was allegory; every painting told a story and had
a message, often encrypted in symbols and allegorical characters, which an educated viewer was expected
to know and read.[68]

Early evidence of Italian Baroque ideas in painting occurred in Bologna, where Annibale Carracci,
Agostino Carracci and Ludovico Carracci sought to return the visual arts to the ordered Classicism of the
Renaissance. Their art, however, also incorporated ideas central the Counter-Reformation; these included
 intense emotion and religious imagery that
appealed more to the heart than to the
intellect.[69]

Another influential painter of the Baroque

era was Michelangelo Merisi da
Caravaggio. His realistic approach to the
human figure, painted directly from life
and dramatically spotlit against a dark
background, shocked his contemporaries
and opened a new chapter in the history of
Las Meninas; by Diego painting. Other major painters associated
Velázquez; 1656–1657; oil closely with the Baroque style include
on canvas; 318 cm × 276 Artemisia Gentileschi, Elisabetta Sirani,
cm; Museo del Prado Giovanna Garzoni, Guido Reni, The Entombment of Christ;
(Madrid, Spain) Domenichino, Andrea Pozzo, and Paolo by Caravaggio; circa 1602–
de Matteis in Italy; Francisco de Zurbarán 1604; oil on canvas; 3 × 2
and Diego Velázquez in Spain; Adam m; Pinacoteca Vaticana
Elsheimer in Germany; and Nicolas Poussin and Georges de La Tour in (Vatican City)
France (though Poussin spent most of his working life in Italy). Poussin
and La Tour adopted a "classical" Baroque style with less focus on
emotion and greater attention to the line of the figures in the painting than to colour.

Peter Paul Rubens was the most important painter of the Flemish Baroque
style. Rubens' highly charged compositions reference erudite aspects of
classical and Christian history. His unique and immensely popular Baroque
style emphasised movement, colour, and sensuality, which followed the
immediate, dramatic artistic style promoted in the Counter-Reformation.
Rubens specialized in making altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history
paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.

One important domain of Baroque painting was Quadratura, or paintings

in trompe-l'œil, which literally "fooled the eye". These were usually
painted on the stucco of ceilings or upper walls and balustrades, and gave
the impression to those on the ground looking up were that they were
seeing the heavens populated with crowds of angels, saints and other The Toilet of Venus; by
heavenly figures, set against painted skies and imaginary architecture.[35] François Boucher; 1751; oil
on canvas; 108 × 85 cm;
In Italy, artists often collaborated with architects on interior decoration; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pietro da Cortona was one of the painters of the 17th century who (New York City)
employed this illusionist way of painting. Among his most important
commissions were the frescoes he painted for the Palace of the Barberini
family (1633–39), to glorify the reign of Pope Urban VIII. Pietro da Cortona's compositions were the
largest decorative frescoes executed in Rome since the work of Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel.[70]

François Boucher was an important figure in the more delicate French Rococo style, which appeared
during the late Baroque period. He designed tapestries, carpets and theatre decoration as well as painting.
His work was extremely popular with Madame Pompadour, the Mistress of King Louis XV. His paintings
featured mythological romantic, and mildly erotic themes.[71]
Triumph of Bacchus and The Calling of St Matthew; The Four Continents; by
Adriane (part of The Loves by Caravaggio; 1599–1600; Peter Paul Rubens; circa
of the Gods); by Annibale oil on canvas; 3.2 x 3.4 m; 1615; oil on canvas; 209 x
Carracci; circa 1597–1600; Church of St. Louis of the 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches
fresco; length (gallery): 20.2 French (Rome) Museum (Vienna, Austria)
m; Palazzo Farnese
(Rome) [72]

The Rape of the Sabine Charles I at the Hunt; by The Night Watch; by
Women; by Nicolas Anthony van Dyck; circa Rembrandt; 1642; oil on
Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on 1635; oil on canvas; 2.66 x canvas; 363 × 437 cm;
canvas; 154.6 x 209.9 cm; 2.07 m; Louvre[73] Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam,
Metropolitan Museum of Art the Netherlands)
(New York City)
 The Art of Painting; by The Portrait of Louis XIV;
Johannes Vermeer; 1666– by Hyacinthe Rigaud; 1701;
1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x oil on canvas; 277 ×
1.1 m; Kunsthistorisches 194 cm; Louvre
Museum

Spanish Americas

In the Spanish Americas, the first influences were from Sevillan Tenebrism,
mainly from Zurbarán —some of whose works are still preserved in Mexico
and Peru— as can be seen in the work of the Mexicans José Juárez and
Sebastián López de Arteaga, and the Bolivian Melchor Pérez de Holguín.
The Cusco School of painting arose after the arrival of the Italian painter
Bernardo Bitti in 1583, who introduced Mannerism in the Americas. It
highlighted the work of Luis de Riaño, disciple of the Italian Angelino
Medoro, author of the murals of the Church of San Pedro of Andahuaylillas.
It also highlighted the Indian (Quechua) painters Diego Quispe Tito and
Basilio Santa Cruz Pumacallao, as well as Marcos Zapata, author of the fifty
large canvases that cover the high arches of the Cathedral of Cusco. In
Ecuador, the Quito School was formed, mainly represented by the mestizo Example of Bolivian
Miguel de Santiago and the criollo Nicolás Javier de Goríbar. painting (from the Cusco
School): an Arquebusier
In the 18th century sculptural altarpieces began to be replaced by paintings, Angel; by Master of
developing notably the Baroque painting in the Americas. Similarly, the Calamarca; 17th century
demand for civil works, mainly portraits of the aristocratic classes and the
ecclesiastical hierarchy, grew. The main influence was the Murillesque, and in
some cases – as in the criollo Cristóbal de Villalpando – that of Valdés Leal. The painting of this era has a
more sentimental tone, with sweet and softer shapes. It highlight Gregorio Vásquez de Arce in Colombia,
and Juan Rodríguez Juárez and Miguel Cabrera in Mexico.

Sculpture
The dominant figure in baroque sculpture was Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Under the patronage of Pope Urban
VIII, he made a remarkable series of monumental statues of saints and figures whose faces and gestures
vividly expressed their emotions, as well as portrait busts of exceptional realism, and highly decorative
works for the Vatican, including the imposing Chair of St. Peter beneath the dome in St. Peter's Basilica. In
addition, he designed fountains with monumental groups of sculpture to decorate the major squares of
Rome.[74]
Baroque sculpture was inspired by ancient Roman statuary, particularly by the
famous statue of Laocoön from the first century AD, which was on display in
the gallery of the Vatican. When he visited Paris in 1665, Bernini addressed
the students at the Academy of painting and sculpture. He advised the
students to work from classical models, rather than from nature. He told the
students, "When I had trouble with my first statue, I consulted the Antinous
like an oracle."[75]

Notable late French baroque sculptors included Étienne Maurice Falconet and
Jean Baptiste Pigalle. Pigalle was commissioned by Frederick the Great to
make statues for Frederick's own version of Versailles at Sanssouci in
Potsdam, Germany. Falconet also received an important foreign commission, The Bust of Louis XIV;
by Gian Lorenzo Bernini;
creating the famous statue of Peter the Great on horseback found in St.
1665; marble; 105 × 99 ×
Petersburg.
46 cm; Palace of
Versailles
In Spain, the sculptor Francisco Salzillo worked exclusively on religious
themes, using polychromed wood. Some of the finest baroque sculptural
craftsmanship was found in the gilded stucco altars of churches of the Spanish
colonies of the New World, made by local craftsmen; examples include the Rosary Chapel of the Church of
Santo Domingo in Oaxaca (Mexico), 1724–1731.
Apollo and Daphne; by Caryatides on the Pavillon Saint Veronica; by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini; de l'Horloge (Louvre Francesco Mochi; 1629–
1622–1625; marble; height: Palace), by Jacques 1639; Carrara marble;
2.43 m; Galleria Borghese Sarazin, 1639–1640 height: 5 m; St. Peter's
Basilica (Vatican City)

Bust of Andries de Graeff; The Fountain of Saturn; by The King's Fame Riding
by Artus Quellinus the François Girardon; 1672– Pegasus; by Antoine
Elder; 1661; marble; height: 1677; gilded lead; Palace Coysevox; 1701–1702;
76 cm, width: 76 cm, of Versailles (France) Carrara marble; height:
thickness: 36 cm; 3.15 m, width: 2.91 m,
Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, depth: 1.28 m; Louvre
the Netherlands)
 The Death of Adonis; by Mercury putting on his
Giuseppe Mazzuoli; 1710s; running shoes; by Jean-
marble; height: 193 cm; Baptiste Pigalle; 1753;
Hermitage Museum (Saint lead; 187 × 108 × 106 cm;
Petersburg, Russia) Louvre

Furniture
The main motifs used are: horns of plenty, festoons, baby
angels, lion heads holding a metal ring in their mouths,
female faces surrounded by garlands, oval cartouches,
acanthus leaves, classical columns, caryatids, pediments,
and other elements of Classical architecture sculpted on
some parts of pieces of furniture,[76] baskets with fruits or
flowers, shells, armour and trophies, heads of Apollo or
Bacchus, and C-shaped volutes.[77]

During the first period of the reign of Louis XIV, furniture

followed the previous style of Louis XIII, and was A beautiful gilded Baroque table, with a stone
massive, and profusely decorated with sculpture and top (most probably marble), from the
gilding. After 1680, thanks in large part to the furniture Cinquantenaire Museum (Brussels, Belgium)
designer André Charles Boulle, a more original and
delicate style appeared, sometimes known as Boulle
work. It was based on the inlay of ebony and other rare woods, a technique first used in Florence in the
15th century, which was refined and developed by Boulle and others working for Louis XIV. Furniture
was inlaid with plaques of ebony, copper, and exotic woods of different colors.[78]

New and often enduring types of furniture appeared; the commode, with two to four drawers, replaced the
old coffre, or chest. The canapé, or sofa, appeared, in the form of a combination of two or three armchairs.
New kinds of armchairs appeared, including the fauteuil en confessionale or "Confessional armchair",
which had padded cushions ions on either side of the back of the chair. The console table also made its first
appearance; it was designed to be placed against a wall. Another new type of furniture was the table à
gibier, a marble-topped table for holding dishes. Early varieties of the desk appeared; the Mazarin desk had
a central section set back, placed between two columns of drawers, with four feet on each column.[78]
Cupboard with scenes from Cupboard with hunting Dutch wardrobe; 1625–
the life of Christ; 1620– scenes; 1620–1640; 1650; oak with ebony and
1640; veneer, oak and veneer, oak and walnut rosewood veneers; overall:
walnut wood, pearwood wood, birch, rosewood, and 244.5 x 224.3 x 85.2 cm;
and ebony, steel and brass; many other types of wood, Cleveland Museum of Art
National Museum in and steel; 174 × 148 × (Cleveland, Ohio, US)
Warsaw (Poland) 63 cm; National Museum in
Warsaw

Small desk with folding top French pier table; 1685– Console table depicting
(bureau brisé); circa 1685; 1690; carved, gessoed, and Chronos, or the father time;
oak, pine, walnut veneered gilded wood, with a marble 1695; painted and gilded
with ebony, rosewood, and top; 83.6 × 128.6 × 71.6 cm; wood, with marble at its top;
marquetry of tortoiseshell Art Institute of Chicago overall: 95.3 x 107.3 x
and engraved brass, gilt (US)[79] 62.9 cm; Cleveland
bronze and steel; 77 x 106 Museum of Art
x 59.4 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art (New York
City)
 Commode; by André German slant-front desk; by
Charles Boulle; circa 1710– Heinrich Ludwig Rohde or
1720; ebony, gilt-bronze Ferdinand Plitzner; circa
mounts and other materials; 1715–1725; marquetry with
87.6 × 128.3 × 62.9 cm; maple, amaranth,
Metropolitan Museum of Art mahogany, and walnut on
spruce and oak; 90 × 84 ×
44.5 cm; from Mainz
(Germany); Art Institute of
Chicago[80]

Music
The term Baroque is also used to designate the style of music composed
during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art. The first uses of the
term 'baroque' for music were criticisms. In an anonymous, satirical review
of the première in October 1733 of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed
in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty
of this opera was "du barocque," complaining that the music lacked
coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly
changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional
device.[81] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was a musician and noted
composer as well as philosopher, made a very similar observation in 1768
in the famous Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot: "Baroque music is that in
Antonio Vivaldi, (1678–1741) which the harmony is confused, and loaded with modulations and
dissonances. The singing is harsh and unnatural, the intonation difficult,
and the movement limited. It appears that term comes from the word
'baroco' used by logicians."[15]

Common use of the term for the music of the period began only in 1919, by Curt Sachs,[82] and it was not
until 1940 that it was first used in English in an article published by Manfred Bukofzer.[81]

The baroque was a period of musical experimentation and innovation. New forms were invented, including
the concerto and sinfonia. Opera was born in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's mostly
lost Dafne, produced in Florence in 1598) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Louis XIV created
the first Royal Academy of Music, In 1669, the poet Pierre Perrin opened an academy of opera in Paris, the
first opera theatre in France open to the public, and premiered Pomone, the first grand opera in French,
with music by Robert Cambert, with five acts, elaborate stage machinery, and a ballet.[83] Heinrich Schütz
in Germany, Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, and Henry Purcell in England all helped to establish their
national traditions in the 17th century.

Several new instruments, including the piano, were introduced during this period. The invention of the
piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando
de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, as the Keeper of the Instruments.[84][85] Cristofori named the
instrument un cimbalo di cipresso di piano e forte ("a keyboard of cypress with soft and loud"), abbreviated
over time as pianoforte, fortepiano, and later, simply, piano.[86]

Composers and examples

Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554/1557–1612) Sonata pian' e forte (1597), In Ecclesiis (from
Symphoniae sacrae book 2, 1615)
Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger (c. 1580–1651) Libro primo di villanelle, 20 (1610)
Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), L'Orfeo, favola in musica (1610)
Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), Musikalische Exequien (1629, 1647, 1650)
Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676), L'Egisto (1643), Ercole amante (1662), Scipione affricano
(1664)
Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), Armide (1686)
Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704), Te Deum
(1688–1698)
Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704), Mystery
Sonatas (1681)
John Blow (1649–1708), Venus and Adonis (1680–
1687)
Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), Canon in D (1680)
Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), 12 concerti grossi, Op.
6 (1714)
Marin Marais (1656–1728), Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève
du Mont-de-Paris (1723)
Henry Purcell (1659–1695), Dido and Aeneas (1688)
Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), L'honestà negli JS Bach (1685-1750)
amori (1680), Il Pompeo (1683), Mitridate Eupatore
(1707)
François Couperin (1668–1733), Les barricades mystérieuses (1717)
Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751), Didone abbandonata (1724)
Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), The Four Seasons (1725)
Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745), Il Serpente di Bronzo (1730), Missa Sanctissimae
Trinitatis (1736)
Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), Der Tag des Gerichts (1762)
Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729)
Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764), Dardanus (1739)
George Frideric Handel (1685–1759), Water Music (1717), Messiah (1741)
Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757), Sonatas for harpsichord
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Toccata and Fugue in D minor (1703–1707),
Brandenburg Concertos (1721), St Matthew Passion (1727)
Nicola Porpora (1686–1768), Semiramide riconosciuta (1729)
 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), Stabat Mater (1736)

Dance
The classical ballet also originated in the Baroque era. The style of court dance was brought to France by
Marie de Medici, and in the beginning the members of the court themselves were the dancers. Louis XIV
himself performed in public in several ballets. In March 1662, the Académie Royale de Danse, was
founded by the King. It was the first professional dance school and company, and set the standards and
vocabulary for ballet throughout Europe during the period.[83]

Theatre
The Baroque period was a golden age for theatre in France
and Spain; playwrights included Corneille, Racine and
Molière in France; and Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de
la Barca in Spain.

During the Baroque period, the art and style of the theatre
evolved rapidly, alongside the development of opera and of
ballet. The design of newer and larger theatres, the invention
the use of more elaborate machinery, the wider use of the
proscenium arch, which framed the stage and hid the Set design for Andromedé by Pierre
machinery from the audience, encouraged more scenic effects Corneille, (1650)
and spectacle.[87]

The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character in

Spain, following an Italian literary model during the
Renaissance.[88] The Hispanic Baroque theatre aimed for a
public content with an ideal reality that manifested
fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchist
and national pride and honour originating from the chivalric,
knightly world.[89]

Two periods are known in the Baroque Spanish theatre, with

the division occurring in 1630. The first period is represented
chiefly by Lope de Vega, but also by Tirso de Molina, Gaspar
Design for a theater set created by
Aguilar, Guillén de Castro, Antonio Mira de Amescua, Luis
Giacomo Torelli for the ballet Les Noces
Vélez de Guevara, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Diego Jiménez de
de Thétis, from Décorations et machines
Enciso, Luis Belmonte Bermúdez, Felipe Godínez, Luis
aprestées aux nopces de Tétis, Ballet
Quiñones de Benavente or Juan Pérez de Montalbán. The
Royal
second period is represented by Pedro Calderón de la Barca
and fellow dramatists Antonio Hurtado de Mendoza, Álvaro
Cubillo de Aragón, Jerónimo de Cáncer, Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Juan de Matos Fragoso, Antonio
Coello y Ochoa, Agustín Moreto, and Francisco Bances Candamo.[90] These classifications are loose
because each author had his own way and could occasionally adhere himself to the formula established by
Lope. It may even be that Lope's "manner" was more liberal and structured than Calderón's.[91]

Lope de Vega introduced through his Arte nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609) the new
comedy. He established a new dramatic formula that broke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school of
poetry (action, time, and place) and a fourth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and
comic elements showing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is represented.[92] Although Lope
has a great knowledge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part of his career nor in theatre
or scenography. The Lope's comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the theatrical
representation.[93]

Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain.
Their works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could
be considered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the more elaborate comedy of Calderón.
Tirso de Molina is best known for two works, The Convicted Suspicions and The Trickster of Seville, one
of the first versions of the Don Juan myth.[94]

Upon his arrival to Madrid, Cosimo Lotti brought to the Spanish court the most advanced theatrical
techniques of Europe. His techniques and mechanic knowledge were applied in palace exhibitions called
"Fiestas" and in lavish exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called "Naumaquias". He was in charge of
styling the Gardens of Buen Retiro, of Zarzuela, and of Aranjuez and the construction of the theatrical
building of Coliseo del Buen Retiro.[95] Lope's formulas begin with a verse that it unbefitting of the palace
theatre foundation and the birth of new concepts that begun the careers of some play writers like Calderón
de la Barca. Marking the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Comedy, Calderón's style marked
many differences, with a great deal of constructive care and attention to his internal structure. Calderón's
work is in formal perfection and a very lyric and symbolic language. Liberty, vitality and openness of Lope
gave a step to Calderón's intellectual reflection and formal precision. In his comedy it reflected his
ideological and doctrine intentions in above the passion and the action, the work of Autos sacramentales
achieved high ranks.[96] The genre of Comedia is political, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid. The poetic
text interweaved with Medias and resources originating from architecture, music and painting freeing the
deception that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from the lack of scenery and engaging the dialogue
of action.[97]

The best known German playwright was Andreas Gryphius, who used the Jesuit model of the Dutch Joost
van den Vondel and Pierre Corneille. There was also Johannes Velten who combined the traditions of the
English comedians and the commedia dell'arte with the classic theatre of Corneille and Molière. His touring
company was perhaps the most significant and important of the 17th century.

Spanish colonial Americas

Following the evolution marked from Spain, at the end of the 16th century, the companies of comedians,
essentially transhumant, began to professionalize. With professionalization came regulation and censorship:
as in Europe, the theatre oscillated between tolerance and even government protection and rejection (with
exceptions) or persecution by the Church. The theatre was useful to the authorities as an instrument to
disseminate the desired behavior and models, respect for the social order and the monarchy, school of
religious dogma.[98]

The corrales were administered for the benefit of hospitals that shared the benefits of the representations.
The itinerant companies (or "of the league"), who carried the theatre in improvised open-air stages by the
regions that did not have fixed locals, required a viceregal license to work, whose price or pinción was
destined to alms and works pious.[98] For companies that worked stably in the capitals and major cities, one
of their main sources of income was participation in the festivities of the Corpus Christi, which provided
them with not only economic benefits, but also recognition and social prestige. The representations in the
viceregal palace and the mansions of the aristocracy, where they represented both the comedies of their
repertoire and special productions with great lighting effects, scenery, and stage, were also an important
source of well-paid and prestigious work.[98]
Born in the Viceroyalty of New Spain[99] but later settled in Spain, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón is the most
prominent figure in the Baroque theatre of New Spain. Despite his accommodation to Lope de Vega's new
comedy, his "marked secularism", his discretion and restraint, and a keen capacity for "psychological
penetration" as distinctive features of Alarcón against his Spanish contemporaries have been noted.
Noteworthy among his works La verdad sospechosa, a comedy of characters that reflected his constant
moralizing purpose.[98] The dramatic production of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz places her as the second
figure of the Spanish-American Baroque theatre. It is worth mentioning among her works the auto
sacramental El divino Narciso and the comedy Los empeños de una casa.

Gardens
The Baroque garden, also known as the jardin à la française or
French formal garden, first appeared in Rome in the 16th century,
and then most famously in France in the 17th century in the
gardens of Vaux le Vicomte and the Palace of Versailles. Baroque
gardens were built by Kings and princes in Germany, the
Netherlands, Austria, Spain, Poland, Italy and Russia until the
mid-18th century, when they began to be remade into by the more
natural English landscape garden.

The purpose of the baroque garden was to illustrate the power of Parterre of the Orangerie from the
man over nature, and the glory of its builder, Baroque gardens Palace of Versailles (1684)
were laid out in geometric patterns, like the rooms of a house.
They were usually best seen from the outside and looking down,
either from a chateau or terrace. The elements of a baroque garden included parterres of flower beds or low
hedges trimmed into ornate Baroque designs, and straight lanes and alleys of gravel which divided and
crisscrossed the garden. Terraces, ramps, staircases and cascades were placed where there were differences
of elevation, and provided viewing points. Circular or rectangular ponds or basins of water were the
settings for fountains and statues. Bosquets or carefully trimmed groves or lines of identical trees, gave the
appearance of walls of greenery and were backdrops for statues. On the edges, the gardens usually had
pavilions, orangeries and other structures where visitors could take shelter from the sun or rain.[100]

Baroque gardens required enormous numbers of gardeners, continual trimming, and abundant water. In the
later part of the Baroque period, the formal elements began to be replaced with more natural features,
including winding paths, groves of varied trees left to grow untrimmed; rustic architecture and picturesque
structures, such as Roman temples or Chinese pagodas, as well as "secret gardens" on the edges of the
main garden, filled with greenery, where visitors could read or have quiet conversations. By the mid-18th
century most of the Baroque gardens were partially or entirely transformed into variations of the English
landscape garden.[100]

Besides Versailles and Vaux-le-Vicomte, Celebrated baroque gardens still retaining much of their original
appearance include the Royal Palace of Caserta near Naples; Nymphenburg Palace and Augustusburg and
Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl in Germany; Het Loo Palace in the Netherlands; the Belvedere Palace in Vienna;
the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso in Spain; and Peterhof Palace in St. Petersburg,
Russia.[100]
 Garden of Vaux-le-Vicomte View of the garden facade Plan of the Tuileries
(France) seen from the of Palace of Versailles in Garden (France), designed
Chateau (1656–1661) 1680s by André Le Nôtre (about
1671)

Restored parterres of the

Belvedere Palace (Vienna,
Austria) today

Differences between Rococo and Baroque

The following are characteristics that Rococo has and Baroque has not:

The partial abandonment of symmetry, everything being composed of graceful lines and
curves, similar to the Art Nouveau ones
The huge quantity of asymmetrical curves and C-shaped volutes
The very wide use of flowers in ornamentation, an example being festoons made of flowers
Chinese and Japanese motifs
Warm pastel colours[101] (whitish-yellow, cream-coloured, pearl greys, very light blues)[102]

End of the style, condemnation, and academic rediscovery

Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV, contributed to the decline of the baroque and rococo
style. In 1750 she sent her nephew, Abel-François Poisson de Vandières, on a two-year mission to study
artistic and archeological developments in Italy. He was accompanied by several artists, including the
engraver Nicolas Cochin and the architect Soufflot. They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art.
Vandiéres became the Marquis of Marigny, and was named Royal Director of buildings in 1754. He turned
official French architecture toward the neoclassical. Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced
the petit style of Boucher, and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the
academies of painting of architecture.[103]

The pioneer German art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann also condemned the
baroque style, and praised the superior values of classical art and architecture. By the 19th century, Baroque
was a target for ridicule and criticism. The neoclassical critic Francesco Milizia wrote: "Borrominini in
architecture, Bernini in sculpture, Pietro da Cortona in painting...are a plague on good taste, which infected
a large number of artists."[104] In the 19th century, criticism went even further; the British critic John
Ruskin declared that baroque sculpture was not only bad, but also morally corrupt.[104]

The Swiss-born art historian Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque
in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass",
an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that
modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century.
Baroque art and architecture became fashionable in the interwar period, and has largely remained in critical
favor. The term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design
that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line.

Baroque Revival art

The end of the 19th century was a golden age for revival styles, including Baroque Revival or Neo-
Baroque.

In addition to its practical (protective) function, the face also has aesthetic and architectural purposes. It
mirrors the predominant styles of a certain era. Ornaments are the most common "ornaments" of
buildings.[105] The ornaments used in 17th-18th century architecture are reused at Baroque Revival
buildings, including: horns of plenty, festoons, baby angels, female or male mascarons, oval cartouches,
acanthus leaves, classical columns, caryatids, pediments and other elements of Greco-Roman architecture.
Most Baroque revival buildings have mansard roofs, usually blue or sometimes black, with oval or dormer
windows. Some of the houses is this style have cartouche-shaped oculus windows, usually with a mascaron
at their top or bottom. In France and Romania, many of the entrances have awnings (French: Marquise;
Romanian: marchiză), made of glass and metal, usually in a seashell-shape. In these two counties,
especially in Romania, Neo-Baroque was sometimes combined with Art Nouveau. Beaux-Arts buildings
from the late 1890s and early 1900s are very good examples of Baroque Revival architecture. The most
famous Neo-Baroque building in Paris are: the Pavillon de Flore (part of the Palais du Louvre), the Palais
Garnier, the Petit Palais, and the Grand Palais. Important architects of this style include Charles Garnier
(1825–1898), Ferdinand Fellner (1847–1917), Hermann Helmer (1849–1919), and Ion D. Berindey
(1871–1928).

In decorative arts, Baroque Revival is usually known as the Napoleon III style or Second Empire style.
Objects in this style was very appreciated in late 1890s and early 1900s Romania, many of them being
brought from France or Austria. One of the main influence was the Louis XVI style, or French
neoclassicism, which was preferred by the Empress Eugénie. Her rooms at the Tuileries Palace and other
Places were decorated in this style. Other influences include French Renaissance and the Henry II style,
which were popular influences on chests and cabinets, buffets and credences, which were massive and built
like small cathedrals, decorated with columns, pediments, cartouches, mascarons, and carved angels and
chimeras. They were usually constructed of walnut or oak, or sometimes of poirier stained to resemble
ebony.[106]
Tête-à-tête, an example of Young Ladies Beside the The Birth of Venus; by
Second Empire furniture; Seine; by Gustave Courbet; Alexandre Cabanel; 1863;
1850–1860; rosewood, ash, 1856; oil on canvas; 174 x oil on canvas; 130 x
pine and walnut; 113 x 206 cm; Petit Palais (Paris) 225 cm; Musée d'Orsay
132.1 x 109.2 cm; (Paris)
Metropolitan Museum of Art
(New York City)

The Palais Garnier from Window with a pair of putti Entrance of the House of
Paris, by Charles Garnier above it, in Wuppertal scientists (Lviv, Ukraine)
(Germany)
Staircase in the House of The Cantacuzino Palace
scientists from Lviv on Victory Avenue from
Bucharest (Romania), by
Ion D. Berindey (1898–
1900)[107]

See also
List of Baroque architecture Mexican art#Mexican Baroque
Baroque in Brazil Neoclassicism (music)
Czech Baroque architecture Andean Baroque
Dutch Baroque architecture Baroque in Poland
Earthquake Baroque Baroque architecture in Portugal
English Baroque Naryshkin Baroque
French Baroque architecture Siberian Baroque
Italian Baroque Spanish Baroque literature
Sicilian Baroque Ukrainian Baroque
New Spanish Baroque

Notes
1. Heal, Bridget (1 December 2011). " 'Better Papist than Calvinist': Art and Identity in Later
Lutheran Germany" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgerhis%2Fghr066). German History.
German History Society. 29 (4): 584–609. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghr066 (https://doi.org/10.109
3%2Fgerhis%2Fghr066).
2. Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 153, 154 & 156.
3. "Origem da palavra BARROCO – Etimologia" (https://www.dicionarioetimologico.com.br/bar
roco/). Dicionário Etimológico.
4. "BAROQUE : Etymologie de BAROQUE" (https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/baroque).
www.cnrtl.fr. "empr. au port. barroco « rocher granitique » et « perle irrégulière », attesté dep.
le xiiie s. sous la forme barroca (Inquisitiones, p. 99, Portugaliae Monumenta Historica, 1856
sqq. dans Mach.), d'orig. obsc., prob. préromane en raison du suff. -ǒccu très répandu sur le
territoire ibérique"
5. "Baroque" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Baroque).
Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911.
6. Wiktionary. "Baroque – Etymology" (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/baroque#Etymology).
Retrieved 17 June 2019.
 7. Robert Hudson Vincent, Vincent, Robert Hudson (2019). "Baroco: The Logic of English
Baroque Poetics" (https://read.dukeupress.edu/modern-language-quarterly/article-abstract/8
0/3/233/139274). Modern Language Quarterly. 80 (3): 233–259. doi:10.1215/00267929-
7569598 (https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00267929-7569598). S2CID 202373825 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:202373825). Modern Language Quarterly, Volume 80, Issue 3
(September 2019)
8. "BAROQUE : Etymologie de BAROQUE" (http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/baroque).
www.cnrtl.fr. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
9. Michael Meere, French Renaissance and Baroque Drama: Text, Performance, Theory (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=CMdwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR28&lpg), Rowman & Littlefield,
2015, ISBN 1-61149-549-0
10. "se dit seulement des perles qui sont d'une rondeur fort imparfaite". Le Dictionnaire de
l'Académie Française (1694) (https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/philologic4/publicdicos/navigat
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11. Bluteau, Raphael (1728). Vocabulario Portuguez & Latino (https://web.archive.org/web/2019
0102094518/http://dicionarios.bbm.usp.br/pt-br/dicionario/1/barroca). 2. p. 58. Archived from
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Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 31 December 2018.: "But Klein suggests the name may
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13. Claude V. Palisca, "Baroque". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
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unfolded. After the reformer's death in 1546, the image question was fiercely contested once
again. But as Calvinism, with its iconoclastic tendencies, spread, Germany's Lutherans
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Bély, Lucien (2005). Louis XIV – Le Plus Grand Roi du Monde (in French). Editions Jean-
Paul Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-87-747772-7.
Boucher, Bruce (1998). Italian Baroque Sculpture. World of Art. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-
500-20307-5.
Cabanne, Pierre (1988). L'Art Classique et le Baroque (in French). Paris: Larousse.
ISBN 978-2-03-583324-2.
Causa, Raffaello, L'Art au XVIII siècle du rococo à Goya (1963), (in French) Hachcette, Paris
ISBN 2-86535-036-3
Ducher, Robert (1988). Caractéristique des Styles. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-011539-1.
Ducher, Robert (2014). La Caractéristique des Styles.
Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya. 2005. Gardner's Art Through the
Ages, 12th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-15-505090-7
(hardcover)
González Mas, Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco,
Volumen 3. La Editorial, UPR.
Isacoff, Stuart (2012). A Natural History of the Piano: The Instrument, the Music, the
Musicians – From Mozart to Modern Jazz and Everything in Between. Knopf Doubleday
Publishing.
Prater, Andreas, and Bauer, Hermann, La Peinture du baroque (1997), (in French), Taschen,
Paris ISBN 3-8228-8365-4
Tazartes, Maurizia, Fontaines de Rome, (2004), (in French) Citadelles, Paris ISBN 2-85088-
200-3

Further reading
Andersen, Liselotte. 1969. Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: H. N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-
8109-8027-3
Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. 2012. Baroque & Rococo, London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-
7148-5742-8
 Bazin, Germain, 1964. Baroque and Rococo. Praeger World of Art Series. New York:
Praeger. (Originally published in French, as Classique, baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse.
English edition reprinted as Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: Praeger, 1974)
Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Sage.
Bailey, Gauvin; Lanthier, Lillian, "Baroque" (http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/articl
e/grove/art/T006459) (2003), Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press,
Web. Retrieved 30 March 2021. (subscription required)
Hills, Helen (ed.). 2011. Rethinking the Baroque. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
ISBN 978-0-7546-6685-1.
Hofer, Philip. 1951.Baroque Book Illustration: A Short Survey.Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.
Hortolà, Policarp, 2013, The Aesthetics of Haemotaphonomy: Stylistic Parallels between a
Science and Literature and the Visual Arts. Sant Vicent del Raspeig: ECU. ISBN 978-84-
9948-991-9.
Kitson, Michael. 1966. The Age of Baroque. Landmarks of the World's Art. London: Hamlyn;
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lambert, Gregg, 2004. Return of the Baroque in Modern Culture. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-
8264-6648-8.
Martin, John Rupert. 1977. Baroque. Icon Editions. New York: Harper and Rowe. ISBN 0-06-
435332-X (cloth); ISBN 0-06-430077-3 (pbk.)
Palisca, Claude V. (1991) [1961]. Baroque Music. Prentice Hall History of Music (3rd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-058496-7. OCLC 318382784 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/318382784).
Riegl, Alois (2010). Hopkins, Andrew (ed.). The Origins of Baroque Art in Rome (Texts and
Documents). Getty Research Institute. ISBN 978-1-6060-6041-4.
Wölfflin, Heinrich (1964) [Originally published in German, 1888]. Renaissance and Baroque.
Translated by Simon, Kathrin. ISBN 0-00-217349-2.
Vuillemin, Jean-Claude, 2013. Episteme baroque: le mot et la chose. Hermann. ISBN 978-2-
7056-8448-8.
Wakefield, Steve. 2004. Carpentier's Baroque Fiction: Returning Medusa's Gaze. Colección
Támesis. Serie A, Monografías 208. Rochester, NY: Tamesis. ISBN 1-85566-107-1.
Massimo Colella, Il Barocco sabaudo tra mecenatismo e retorica. Maria Giovanna Battista di
Savoia Nemours e l’Accademia Reale Letteraria di Torino, Fondazione 1563 per l’Arte e la
Cultura della Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino (“Alti Studi sull’Età e la Cultura del Barocco”,
IV-1), 2019, pp. 180.
Massimo Colella, Separatezza e conversazione. Sondaggi intertestuali attorno a Ciro di
Pers, in «Xenia. Trimestrale di Letteratura e Cultura» (Genova), IV, 1, 2019, pp. 11–37.

External links
The baroque and rococo culture (http://www.baroquelife.org)
Webmuseum Paris (http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/baroque/)
barocke in Val di Noto – Sizilien (https://web.archive.org/web/20180902092035/http://www.s
entieridelbarocco.it/)
Baroque in the "History of Art" (http://www.all-art.org/history252_contents_Baroque_Rococo.
html)
The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence (https://web.archive.org/web/20070624152123/htt
p://www.antiquestopic.com/the-baroque-style-1620-1700/)
Melvyn Bragg's BBC Radio 4 program In Our Time: The Baroque (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radi
o4/history/inourtime/inourtime.shtml)
 "Baroque Style Guide" (http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/
Style03b/index.html). British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20070819090827/http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/b
g_styles/Style03b/index.html) from the original on 19 August 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.

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