Power Quality Analysing

Content

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................... 2
2. Application areas for power quality monitoring......................................................................... 2
3. Benefits of power quality analysing ......................................................................................... 2
Interferences and failure detection.............................................................................................. 2
Advanced power resources management and predictive diagnostics............................................ 2
Input power quality evaluation according to EN 50160 ................................................................. 3
4. Most frequent power quality problems and possible solutions ................................................... 3
Low cos ϕ. ................................................................................................................................. 3
High content of harmonic components ........................................................................................ 3
Consequences of high current harmonics ............................................................................... 4
Preventive and corrective actions ........................................................................................... 4
Supply voltage variations ........................................................................................................... 4
Consequences of voltage variations ....................................................................................... 5
Possible solutions ................................................................................................................. 5
5. Various situations and troubleshooting.................................................................................... 5
Resonant state between power supply transformer and the capacitor bank ................................... 5
Flickers caused by welding machines ......................................................................................... 6
Loose bus bar........................................................................................................................... 6
Overheating of a neutral conductor ............................................................................................. 6
EN50160 compliance testing...................................................................................................... 7
6. Return of investment ............................................................................................................. 7
Reduction of a peak consumption (peak power) .......................................................................... 7
Improving cosϕ and power factor (PF) ........................................................................................ 8
Filtering harmonic currents......................................................................................................... 8
Installing uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)............................................................................ 8
7. Technical background ........................................................................................................... 9
What is measured at Power Quality Analysing?........................................................................... 9
Calculated parameters............................................................................................................... 9
Simultaneous measurements and TRMS ...................................................................................10
Types of measurements in Power Quality Assessment ...............................................................10
8. What type of instrument will I need for my purpose? ...............................................................10
Number of inputs......................................................................................................................10
Sampling frequency..................................................................................................................10
True RMS ................................................................................................................................11
Scope and Meter function .........................................................................................................11
Harmonic components and their direction ..................................................................................11
EN50160 Autotest ....................................................................................................................11
Special tools ............................................................................................................................11
Energy………...........................................................................................................................11
Accessories .............................................................................................................................11
PC Evaluation software package...............................................................................................12
Remote control of the instrument ...............................................................................................12
9. Evaluation of the results with Metrel’ instruments....................................................................12
Periodics measurement ............................................................................................................12
EN 50160 Auto report ...............................................................................................................13
Waveforms ..............................................................................................................................13
Transients................................................................................................................................13
Fast Logging ............................................................................................................................14
10. The most frequent terms in power quality analysing............................................................14

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 1. Introduction

There are quite a few reasons for measuring and analysing power quality nowadays.
Potential interactions between end use equipment and electric distribution system,
external electromagnetic interferences, resonant states between electrical circuits
and some other factors call for a need to be analysed in order that harmful
consequences can be omitted or prevented.

2. Application areas for power quality monitoring

Power quality is of a great importance in all modern environments.

§ Manufacturing plants
§ Banks
§ Hospitals
§ Telecommunication companies
§ IT and Data centres
§ Education and other Public Services
§ Power distribution
§ Power generation

Power quality can essentially influence a number of important factors like:

§ Quality of service,
§ Competitiveness of services and products
§ Time management

High availability of the electric systems is therefore of extreme essence nowadays.

3. Benefits of power quality analysing

By analysing power quality following benefits can be obtained.

Interferences and failure detection

Non-linear loads with high content of harmonics, loose bus bars, switching problems
with capacitor banks and similar problems can essentially decrease availability of
electric equipment or electric distribution systems.
Detection of failure/interferences generation points can be easily found with a
suitable Power Quality Analyser.

Advanced power resources management and predictive diagnostics

Optimised daily or weekly consumption diagrams can essentially reduce costs for
electricity and infrastructure. Reducing electric energy losses, control of peak
consumption and improving power factor can bring important savings.
Power Quality Analyser will simplify decision-making.

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Input power quality evaluation according to EN 50160
Transients, voltage variations and supply interruptions often come from the supply
network and influence operations of internal electrical systems. Loss of data, shorter
life span of the electronic equipment, increased rejection level on production lines
etc. are consequences of bad quality power supply.
Supply voltage quality can be assessed in accordance with relevant “Power Quality”
standards (example: EN 50160).
Advanced Power Quality Analysers will produce “Quality compliance” report which
can be used for further negotiations with electro-distribution company if necessary.

4. Most frequent power quality problems and possible

solutions
ϕ
Low cosϕ
Motors, transformers, fluorescent lights and other loads that need magnetic field for
their operation consume reactive power.
Electro distribution companies usually determine the minimum level of cosϕ. In case
it is below the limit the consumers are exposed to additional charges i.e. costs.
Cosϕ can be improved with capacitor banks that can be installed centrally for
individual enterprises or grouped for certain segments of the supply system.

Needed power of a capacitor bank can be calculated with a formula

Qc = P.(tgϕ1 − tgϕ2 )

Qc …required power of the capacitor bank

P…...active power of the compensated utility
ϕ1…..phase angle between U and I without compensation
ϕ2…..phase angle between U and I with compensation

Proper realisation of reactive power compensation results in:

• Lower transmission losses
• Stable network voltage
• Lower electricity costs for end users

Improper selection of cosϕ correction equipment can cause a risk of resonant states
with other elements of a supply network and/or harmful switching transients.

High content of harmonic components

Harmonic components are one of major power quality concerns. Non-linear loads
like electronic ballasts, UPS systems, variable frequency drives, switch mode power
supplies all create distortion of the sinusoidal waveform.

Distorted signal is analysed with Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) calculation

method. Basic signal with a fundamental frequency 50/60Hz is reported together
with individual harmonic components.
There are some representative examples how and when certain harmonics appear.

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Computers, printers and other small office IT equipment. High 3 rd, a bit lower 5 th, 7th,
11th and 13th current harmonics are typical for such loads.

Variable frequency drives (VFD’s). High harmonic components like 5 th, 7th, 11th, 13th,
17th and 19th order.

3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th Harmonics cause high current in a neutral conductor in 3-phase, 4-
wire systems.

Consequences of high current harmonics

• Harmonics cause circuit breakers tripping at no apparent overload.
• Voltage waveforms to other loads can be distorted and interference can be
inductively coupled between power and low-voltage communication lines if
they are placed close to each other.
• Harmonics that flows back to the supply network can have various negative
effects. In case 5 th harmonic is highly present 3-phase inductive motors can
experience “torque fight” as this component cause the negative torque that
tends to turn the motor backwards. Consequently more power is consumed
and the motor gets gradually overheated.
• High harmonics reduce the “transmission” capacity of the supply network, as
they do not perform any useful work.
• High neutral conductor currents are also a consequence of high current
harmonics. Thus a neutral conductor cross-section has to be larger or there is
a significant risk of fire.
• High current harmonics supplied back to the network may influence the
harmonics content on the supply voltage, which in the next step result on
unwanted current harmonics on the end-user equipment.

Preventive and corrective actions

• When purchasing and installing new equipment it is recommended that the
“low content THD” is selected.
• Neutral conductor in a 3-phase system has to be sized in respect with current
harmonics content as well. It sometimes means the cross-section of the
neutral conductor has to be larger than the phase conductor’s.
• In order to limit current harmonics active or passive filters are used. They will
damp unwanted harmonics down to acceptable level.
Active filters are frequently used together to eliminate harmonics created by
variable electronic loads. Their filtering performance adapts automatically
based on the existing harmonics spectrum.
There are some standard versions and sizes of active and passive filters
available on the market.

Supply voltage variations

Supply voltage variations appear in different forms. Known terms are:

Dips or sags that describe temporary drops of the voltage under the nominal level.
Duration is usually measured in seconds or sometimes in minutes.
Voltage swell is occurrence when the voltage level rises above the nominal level.
Duration period is also measured in seconds or minutes.

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Voltage transients. These are short lasting events with a duration measured in milli-
or microseconds. They usually appear as a consequence of external electromagnetic
interferences (atmospheric electric discharges, switching manoeuvres).
Longer power supply interruptions that can be categorised as unexpected or
foreseeable.

Consequences of voltage variations

• One of the most obvious phenomena are flickers which describe changing of
the illumination intensity as a reflection of a changing voltage level. Flickers
are annoying for people. Fluctuating illumination results in increased tiredness
and lower productivity.
• Telecom and data centres with frequent downtimes may experience data loss
or even reduced revenue. Voltage spikes can damage computer’s hardware or
similar equipment. Events like voltage surges, sags and similar can cause
malfunctioning of the equipment and their premature ageing.
• Production lines exposed to considerable voltage fluctuations may generate
increased rejection level and have lower productivity.

Possible solutions
• Installing UPS systems. These will compensate voltage variations to a certain
extent. UPS systems are frequently used as a back-up power supply system in
IT, Data and Telecom environments. Possible drawback of installing UPS
systems is that they may generate harmonics.
• Over-voltage protection devices can considerably reduce fatal consequences
of over-voltage transients corresponding. They will protect expensive and
high-availability systems.
• Analysing internal electrical inventory and their influences on the voltage
variations.
• Assessing the input power quality on the connection point in order to prove
that supplied voltage complies with relevant standards.

5. Various situations and troubleshooting

There are some typical situations that deserve power quality analysing. Here are
some examples.

Resonant state between power supply transformer and the

capacitor bank
There are inductances and capacitances in the supply network. In case certain
conditions are fulfilled resonant states can appear.
Resonant states additionally load a supply network, which can lead to unwanted
shutdowns, overheating of the network elements, etc.
Power chokes installed in series with a capacitor bank are usual remedy in such
situations.

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Flickers caused by welding machines
Flickers occur frequently as a consequence of supply voltage variations or as an
influence of larger internal loads on the voltage level.
An example of internal cause for flickers is spot welding machine. Welding cycle is
usually only several periods long. Shape of the welding current (waveform, duration)
depends on how the triggering elements (triacs, diodes) are set.
Magnitude and length of the welding current can affect supply voltage level, which
further reflects as the illumination intensity variation.
Scope of the analysis is to find out possible interactions between temporary current
increases that are followed with voltage dips.
To avoid flickers a welding cycle has to be adjusted slightly (different triggering
settings, shorter welding period). Increased power of the supply transformer is
usually better long-term solution although it is quite expensive.

Loose bus bar

Loose bus bars often create unusual behaviour of electric equipment and enter
instability into power supply system.
Loose bus bars are frequent in environments with high content of harmonics that
varies during the day. That causes buses heating and cooling in cycles that gradually
make the bolts loose.
Problems appear in a form of computer malfunctioning, light flickers and sometimes
in unwanted fuses tripping.
In order to trace the root cause voltage and current signals have to be simultaneously
observed. Starting measuring point is the place where the problem is the most
exaggerated.
Normally voltage sags are detected and it has to be proved whether they appear as a
consequence of increased load (current) or if they emerge without apparent reason.
Source and load impedances have to be additionally measured to determine that
everything is within expected limits (supply transformers normally exhibit much lower
impedance than the loads).
In case the detected voltage sags appear without apparent reason (i.e. are not
conditioned with an increase of a load current) we have to find a point in the supply
network where such conditions no longer appear. Faulty point is than one step ahead
towards the load direction.

Overheating of a neutral conductor

4-wire three-phase systems that carry high content of current harmonics are often
exposed to an overheating of a neutral conductor.
It also happens that circuit breakers react without apparent reason.
High current harmonics in individual phases namely create asymmetry, which results
in increased current in a neutral conductor.
Overheated neutral conductor can create a fire potential. Therefore it is
recommended that a current THD is periodically measured and the neutral
conductor’s overheating is checked. Situations with current THD>15% are likely to
cause increased overheating of a neutral conductor.
Such situations occur where larger number of non-linear loads appears.

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Possible solutions can go in a direction of increasing a neutral conductor’s diameter,
filtering current harmonics to the acceptable level or perhaps splitting existing circuit
into several smaller circuits with separate neutral conductors.

EN50160 compliance testing

EN50160 is a standard widely used within European community and some other non-
European countries and defines and describes the characteristics of the supply
voltage concerning:

- Voltage
- Magnitude
- Wave form
- Symmetry of the three phase voltages

These characteristics vary during the normal operation of a supply system due to
changes of load, disturbances generated by certain equipment and the occurrence of
faults that are mainly caused by external events.
Variation of observed parameters can exceed allowed limits on a small number of
occasions.
If the number of violations and their size is out of, within EN50160 specified, limits the
consumers are entitled to complain against bad power quality to their electro-
distribution company.
Advanced Power Quality Analysers enable EN50160 compliance testing without
requiring a special knowledge from the user.

6. Return of investment

Reliable Power Quality Analyser is an essential tool that helps the users to:

§ Reduce the electricity cost

§ Prevent unwanted power supply breaks
§ Cure existing malfunctioning of the power supply system

Improvements of the power quality are often conditioned with a certain investment.
Therefore it is always necessary to compare potential financial burden of the
improvement with possible gains.
Experiences have shown that savings on electricity cost between 5-20% can be
achieved if proper actions are executed. Investment costs usually return within 1 to 3
years time.

Here are some examples how to reduce electricity bill.

Reduction of a peak consumption (peak power)

Peak power is usually essential part of a total monthly electricity cost.
By switching on individual larger electric loads in a certain time shift the power peak
can be essentially decreased.

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Technical measures base around applying current limiters or more sophisticated PLC
(Programmable Logic Controllers) devices that are both man-independent systems.
Such systems will keep the power peak under adjusted limit all the time. However,
PLC’s can be programmed in a way that production process parameters will not be
essentially influenced.

ϕ and power factor (PF)

Improving cosϕ
Excessive reactive power is usually penalised by electro-distribution companies.
Therefore it is recommended to achieve power factor (PF), which is at least that high
that there is no need to pay additional charges for reactive power. Usual limit for cosϕ
is 0,95.
Improved Power Factor cannot be achieved only by installing capacitor banks. It is
essential that filtering of harmonic components is considered too.

Filtering harmonic currents

Reduced content of current harmonics result as lower current in a neutral conductor,
lower phase currents, lower THD on supply voltage and better power factor (PF).
Filters can be active or passive. Active filters adapt to the load and cover wide range
of harmonics. They are much more expensive than passive filters.
Passive filters are easy to install but cover only definite range of harmonics. They are
suitable if the load does not vary a lot during the operation.

Installing uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)

UPS systems are part of critical power management plan. However, it has to be
understood that the primary task of the UPS is to provide continuous, transient-free,
sinusoidal power. UPS will not resolve infrastructure problems such as neutrals
overheating due to load-generated harmonics.
Before a new UPS is installed a baseline study has to me made. Voltage and current
profiles have to be established, existing harmonics have to be measured. Grounding
system has to be checked as well.
There are different types of UPS’s and they differ in technical specification and price-
wise. They can protect loads against under-voltages, over-voltages, surges, sags,
spikes, noise and power breaks.
Baseline study made with Power Quality Analyser gives a complete information
which problems are present in the network.

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 7. Technical background

Systematic approach and correct interpretation of the measuring results are two of
the things that count the most in power quality analysing.
Selecting the right solution greatly depends on analysing possible interactions
between various signals and parameters that are measured simultaneously.

What is measured at Power Quality Analysing?

Power quality analysing includes measurements of:

§ Phase to ground voltages

§ Phase to neutral voltages
§ Neutral to ground voltages
§ Phase to phase voltages in three phase systems
§ Phase currents
§ Current in a neutral conductor
§ Frequency
§ Power Factor
§ Cos ϕ
§ Harmonic components of current and voltage and their direction
§ Waveform of current and voltage at specific circumstances (peak magnitude,
primary frequency, time of occurrence, rising rate)
§ Transients

Sampling rate
During the measurement selected analogue input current and voltage signals are
sampled at a certain rate, converted into a digital form and stored inside the
instrument’s memory. Faster the sampling rate the more accurate the end results.

Integration period (IP)

Sampled data are processed inside the instrument’s microprocessor in order that
parameters like power factor (PF), consumption, energy, THD and others can be
reported.
Certain amount of sampled data is temporarily stored (integrated) inside the
instrument memory.
Minimum, maximum and average values for an individual input signal are calculated
out of these data. Newly acquired data are than saved inside the instrument’s
memory for permanent recording.
This period inside which the integration is made, is called integration period (IP).
IP can be selected from one second to half an hour or even longer. Shorter the IP,
quicker the instrument’s memory gets used.

Calculated parameters
Some parameters are calculated from the basic input signals (current, voltage).

- Harmonic components, - Power factor,

- Transients, - Asymmetry in poly-phase systems,
- Waveforms, - Power
- Flickers, - Consumption

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Simultaneous measurements and TRMS
Simultaneous sampling on all input signals is essential that possible interactions
between various parameters can be determined.

Types of measurements in Power Quality Assessment

There are basically two types of measurements when power quality analysing.

Long-term measurements
The duration of long-term measurements (frequently called Periodic measurements
or Periodics) is usually between several days or even up to several weeks long.
Purpose of such measurements is to observe consumption dynamics of larger loads /
consumers or controlling the quality of supplied voltage according to relevant
standard (EN 50160 for example).

Special measurements
Short lasting events like transients, direction of harmonics require that a complete
signal is captured.
Observed parameters are peak magnitudes, time of occurrence and rise / fall rates.
Measurement can be started when triggering conditions are fulfilled and last from
several periods up to several minutes.
Compared with Periodic measurements where the IP is relatively long, Special
measurements consume considerably more instrument’s memory as a complete
picture of the event has to be drawn.

It is not unusual that both type of the measurements have to be performed in order
that a complete and effective troubleshooting is made.

8. What type of instrument will I need for my purpose?

There are different types of the Power Quality Analysers available.

A typical specification for a portable analyser that can be used for general power
quality assessment, troubleshooting and for specialized analysis would be following.

Number of inputs
At least three independent current and three independent voltage inputs are needed
for analysing on 3-phase systems. It is necessary that both voltage and current are
measured simultaneously in order to capture possible interactions between different
parameters. For example a direction of harmonics cannot be determined without
simultaneous sampling of current and voltage.

Sampling frequency
The higher it is, the more accurate the results are. Sampling rate declares the highest
order of a harmonic component the instrument can still measure and is of paramount
importance for capturing short lasting transients. Usual sampling frequencies are
from 6400 Hz upwards.

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True RMS
Non-linear loads distort signals. Measurement of distorted signals can only be made
by True RMS method.

Scope and Meter function

Prior a recording is started it is important that a connection is checked i.e. whether a
phase sequence, orientation of current sensors, setting of the calculation constants
for voltage and current are properly adjusted. Users can easily check these settings
on line by a Scope and Meter functions.
Both functions allow monitoring of RMS waveforms and input signals values on-line.

Harmonic components and their direction

Harmonic currents and their harmful effects are recognized as a major source for
neutral conductors overheating, faulty operations of switchgear and general
overloading of power supply systems.
In order to be properly evaluated their order (frequency), magnitude and direction
have to be measured. These parameters come out from the Waveform
measurement.

EN50160 Autotest
Many users wonder whether their input voltage comply with the relevant standards. It
is simple to check all necessary parameters and compare their values with allowed
limits by performing EN 50160 Autotest.

Special tools
Short lasting events like Transients, Motor’s start-ups (Fast Logging) and Waveforms
have to be measured when profound power quality assessment is performed.
A complete signal (or more signals) will be captured and drawn in order that a
complete event is analysed and possible interactions with other parameters can be
determined.

Energy
Electric energy consumption measurement is essential when performing cost-
reduction analysis. Based on this measurement daily or weekly consumption
diagrams can be produced.

Accessories
Power Quality Analyser usually cannot be connected directly on the analysed
system. Measuring transducers are used for this purpose.
Current inputs receive input signals from current clamps or current transformers.
Voltage inputs can be fed directly or via voltage transformers.
In case the transducers are incorporated in the measuring circuit corresponding
calculation constants have to be applied that correct results are generated.

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PC Evaluation software package
PC evaluation software is essential part of every Power Quality Analyser.
After a recording is accomplished measuring results have to be downloaded on a PC
for further analysing.
PC evaluation software enables making various reports that show different relations
between analysed signals either in a table or in a diagram.
Programme suite can also report results in a statistical form with additional
information on average, minimum and maximum values within the observed period.

Remote control of the instrument

Power quality measurements are sometimes done on remote, inaccessible locations
and last up to several weeks long. Remote control over the instrument is valuable in
such situations.
Communication with the instrument can be established over a standard analogue
phone line or trough a GSM modem.
Possible services include start/stop of the measurement, results downloading,
entering new measuring parameters and receiving SMS alarms.

9. Evaluation of the results with Metrel’ instruments

Depending on the type of the measurement various actions can be taken.

Metrel’s range of Power Quality Analysers offers a wide choice for different
applications and environments.

Periodics measurement

Application areas:
- General Power Quality assessment,
- Power Factor correction,
- Harmonics filtering,
- Power Peak reduction,
- Power Breaks Capturing
Possible corrective solutions:
- PF correction equipment,
- Filters,
- UPS,
- Power conditioners
Suitable Metrel Power Quality Analyser:
- Power Harmonics Analyser MI2092
- Power Quality Analyser MI2192
- Power Quality Analyser Plus MI2292

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EN 50160 Auto report
Application areas:
- Assessment of supply voltage quality at end users
- Assessment of voltage quality in electro distribution
- Assessment of voltage quality in electrical generation systems
Possible corrective solutions:
- Dealing with customer’s complaints,
- UPS,
- Ferro-resonant transformers,
- Backup generators,
- Power conditioners
Suitable Metrel Power Quality Analyser:
- Power Quality Analyser MI2192
- Power Quality Analyser Plus MI2292
Voltscanner MI 2130 (1-phase only)
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Waveforms
Application areas:
- Analysing of influences of motor start-ups,
- Analysing of load variations,
- Analysing of non-linear loads
- Analysing of determination of harmonics direction
Possible corrective solutions:
- Voltage regulators,
- Power conditioners,
- UPS,
- Ferro-resonant transformers,
- Filters
Suitable Metrel Power Quality Analyser:
- Power Quality Analyser MI2192
- Power Quality Analyser Plus MI2292
-

Transients
Application areas:
- Analysis of oscillatory transients caused by lightning,
- Analysis of electrostatic discharges,
- Analysis of switching manoeuvres
Possible corrective solutions:
- UPS,
- Overvoltage protection devices,
- Power conditioners
Suitable Metrel Power Quality Analyser:
- Power Quality Analyser MI2192
- Power Quality Analyser Plus MI2292

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Fast Logging
Application areas:
- Analysing of influences of motor start-ups
- Analysing of load variations
Possible corrective solutions:
- UPS,
- Voltage regulators,
- Power conditioners
Suitable Metrel Power Quality Analyser:
- Power Quality Analyser MI2192
- Power Quality Analyser Plus MI2292

10. The most frequent terms in power quality analysing

The list of common terms that are encountered when dealing with power quality is
long. Here is a short explanation of the most frequent ones.

Supply interruptions
A condition in which the voltage at the supply terminals drops under 1% of the
declared voltage. There are two kinds of interruptions:
Pre-arranged. This is when the consumers are informed beforehand and can plan
their activities accordingly and minimize negative effects of the interruption.
Accidental interruptions. These are further classified as long (longer than three
minutes) and short-term (shorter than three minutes) interruptions.

Supply voltage dips (dips)

A sudden reduction of the supply voltage to a value between 90 % and 1 % of the
declared voltage followed by a voltage recovery after a short period of time. Duration
of a voltage dip can vary from 10 ms up to 1 minute.
Voltage changes lower than 10 % of the nominal voltage are not considered to be
dips.

Flicker
Voltage fluctuation causes changes of the luminance of lamps that can create the
visual phenomenon called flicker. Above a certain threshold flicker becomes
annoying. The annoyance grows very rapidly with the amplitude of the fluctuation. At
certain repetition rates even small amplitudes can be annoying.
There are two types of flickers.
Short-term flicker (Pst) is measured over a period of ten minutes.
Long-term flicker (Plt) is calculated from a sequence of 12 P st – values over a two-
hour interval.

Transient over voltage / over current

A short duration oscillatory or non-oscillatory overvoltage / overcurrent usually highly
damped and with a duration of a few milliseconds or less.
Lightning, switching or operation of fuses usually causes transient overvoltages. The
rise time of a transient overvoltage / overcurrent can vary from less than a
microsecond up to a few milliseconds.

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Harmonic components
A sinusoidal current /voltage with a frequency equal to an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency of the supply voltage.
Harmonic components can be evaluated individually by their relative amplitude
related to the fundamental voltage / current or globally, by the total harmonic
distortion factor THD.
Mainly customer’s non-linear loads connected to all voltage levels of the supply
system cause harmonic components. Harmonic currents flowing trough the system
impedance rise to harmonic voltages. Harmonic currents and system impedances
and thus the harmonic voltages at the supply terminals vary in time.

Voltage unbalance
Appears in three – phase systems. A condition in which the RMS values of the phase
voltages or the phase angles between consecutive phases are not equal.

Interharmonic voltage
A sinusoidal voltage with a frequency between the harmonics, i.e. the frequency is
not an integer multiple of the fundamental.
Interharmonic voltages at closely adjacent frequencies can appear at the same time
forming a wide band spectrum.

Mains signalling voltage

A signal superimposed on the supply voltage for the purpose of transmission of data
in the public distribution system and to customer’s premises.

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