Earth and Life Science

Quarter 1
& Science
1|Page
1
This module is exclusive to Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
Quarter 1
MODULE
1 The Universe and the Solar System
Learning Competency
 Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar
system with properties necessary to support life
Introduction
Our planet is remarkably special and unique. It is, by far, the only one we
know that is able to support life. But how our Earth came to existence is simply
more-than just a step-by-step process. The planet is a series of multiple events
that slowly paved way to develop the conditions that are now suitable for life.
Did our planet simply laid everything for life to enjoy? Or life had a role to play
since the beginning? In this module, you will understand how Earth supports
life and how it becomes unique from the other planets.
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

 Cite the difference between the Earth and its neighboring planets
in terms of their physical and chemical properties
 Compare the Planet Earth from other terrestrial planets
 Identify factors that allow a planet to supports life
Let’s play…
4 pictures, 1word
Guess the four-letter word.
_____ _____ _____ ____
FDLAIKETV
2|Page
2
PRACTICE TASK
Observe and recall your previous knowledge about the three planets
below (Figure 1). What are their similarities and differences?
Venus Earth Mars

Figure 1. Images from NASA
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DID YOU KNOW?

Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system
and the third planet from the Sun at a distance of about
93 million miles (150 million km). It is the only place we
know so far that is inhabited by living things. Many
scientist agree our planet’s most special feature might
just be us.
Earth is one special planet. It has liquid water, plate
tectonics and an atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of the sun’s rays and
protects us from incoming meteoroids, most of which break up before they can
strike the surface. Earth’s atmosphere is made up of 78 percent nitrogen, 21
percent oxygen and 1 percent other ingredients- a perfect balance for us to
breathe. It is rocky and terrestrial planet.
Planet Earth has a number of special features. It is unique among planets
in our solar system for having water in its liquid form at the surface, in an
amount conducive to life evolving. It is the only world in our solar system with
liquid water on the surface. Water covers 70 percent of Earth’s surface.
3|Page
3
Venus, Earth and Mars Comparison
VENUS EARTH MARS
Mass (1,024 kg) 4.87 5.97 0.642
Diameter (km) 12,104 12,756 6,792
Density (kg/m3) 5,243 5,514 3,933
Gravity (m/s2) 8.9 9.8 3.7
Escape Velocity (km/s) 10.4 11.2 5
Surface Pressure (bars) 92 1 0.01
96% 78% N 95 % CO2

Composition of Atmosphere CO2 21% O2 2.7% N
3.5% N 1% Ar 1.6% Ar
Major Greenhouse Gases (GHG) CO2 CO2 H2O CO2
Mean Temperature (C) 464 15 -65
Temperature if no GHG -46 -18 -57
Change in Temperature (C) due to GHG +523 +33 +10
Distance from the Sun (106 km) 108.2 149.6 227.9
Orbital Period (days) 224.7 365.2 687
Orbital Velocity (km/s) 35 29.8 24.1
Length of day (hours) 2,802 24 24.7
Global Magnetic Field No Yes No
(http: //nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/)
Various factors that support life on

Earth
 Distance from the Sun: Earth is at just the appropriate distance from the
Sun. If we were closer, the planet would be warmer. If we were more
distant, the planet would be colder.
 Atmosphere: Earth has an atmosphere, which provides gases for our
survival. It also ensures that the planet does not lose all of its heat and
hence maintains a liveable temperature. The atmosphere also protects us
from the Sun's ultraviolet radiation.
 Water: The presence of a universal solvent ensures that reactions can take
place and nutrients can be moved around easily.
4|Page
4
 Time for development: We are lucky to have the Sun, which is an average
star and has a long life, something which is essential for life to develop and
sustain. If the Sun had a shorter life, Earth may not have had the time to
develop and life may not have evolved.
ASSESSMENT
Answer the following.
1. What makes Earth unique from the other planets in the solar system?
2. Compare and contrast the three terrestrial planets in the solar system.
3. Why do you think the presence of liquid water is essential to life?
ENRICHMENT
Imagine yourself in a spaceship. Your spaceship suffers mechanical
problems and you will be forced to land. You will be passing to different
planets and you have to decide the best place to land your ship. What features
of a planet would you look for before landing?
REFERENCES:
The Commission on Higher Education in collaboration with PNU, Teaching Guide for Senior
High School: Earth and Life Science
solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/earth/overview/
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/03/one-strange-rock-interactive-earth-
solar-system-milky-way-galaxy/
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.space.com/amp/5595-earth-special-compared-
planets.html
www.learnastronomyhq.com/articles/15-goldilocks-factors-that-allow-life-on-earth-to-exist.html
www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-all-factors-that-support-life-earth-695649
5|Page
5
Quarter 1
MODULE
2 Earth Subsystems
Learning Competency
 Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose
boundaries matter and energy flow
Introduction
Everything in Earth’s system can be sited into one of four major
subsystems: land, water, living things, or air. These four subsystems are called
“spheres”. Specifically, they are the “lithosphere” (land), and “atmosphere” (air),
hydrosphere (water) and biosphere (living things). In the previous module, you
learned what makes Earth unique and the factors that make it habitable. You
will also learn how the components of the Earth interacts to sustain life.

 Describe the different components of the Earth

 Identify the four subsystems of the Earth
 Explain how the Earth’s subsystems interact
 Cite some examples of interactions between the Earth
subsystems
Water Practice Task

Cycle Label the different
processes of water involved
3. in the illustration. Use the
following term to complete
the cycle.
2. Condensation
1. Precipitation
Evaporation
Collection
4.
6|Page
6
Learn About It!
EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS
Consists of all living organisms on Earth. This

includes all of the microorganisms, plants and
Biosphere animals on Earth. Their habitats extend from the
upper areas of the atmosphere, deep in the
ground, to the bottom of the ocean – any place
that life cane exist.
It is the physical Earth – the rock, magma and
soil. The geosphere extends from the center of the
Geosphere (Lithosphere) Earth (the core, mantle and crust) to the dust in
the atmosphere and even includes the sediments
found in the oceans.
Contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water
Hydrosphere of the planet – water molecules in the air, icebergs
and glaciers, groundwater, lakes, rivers, and
oceans.
Contains all the air in Earth’s system. It is the
layer of gases that surround the Earth. In
Atmosphere comparison to the size of the Earth, it is a thin
layer, composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen
with small amounts of carbon dioxide and other
gases. The upper portion of the atmosphere
protects the organisms of the biosphere from the
sun’s ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and
emits heat.
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE FOUR SPHERES
The Earth is made of several

subsystems or “spheres” that interact to
form a complex and continuously
changing whole called the Earth system.
Although the four systems have
their individual identities, there is
important interaction between them. The
double-headed arrows indicate that the
cause and effect relationships of these
interactions go in both directions. The
Earth system is essentially a closed
system. It receives energy from the sun
and returns some of this energy in space.
7|Page
7
Example of interactions between Earth’s subsystems is the water cycle.
We know that weather happens in the atmosphere, but without the hydrosphere,
there would be no water to evaporate and so no cloud or rain could form.
Some examples of interactions between two or more species.
ASSESSMENT
I. Fill in the blanks with the correct word/s to complete the sentence.
1. The _______________ is all the water held on the Earth.

2. The biosphere contains all the ________ forms on Earth.
3. The gases that surround the Earth (the air) is called _______________.
4. The ____________ is the physical Earth – the rock, magma and soil.
5-8.) The ____________, ______________, _______________, and ____________ are
the four subsystems of the Earth.
9.) The _____________ protects the Earth from incoming solar rays.
10.) The four Earth’s subsystems are called __________.
II. Match the descriptions in Column A with the terms being described in
Column B and write your answer in blanks provided.
______1. All of the rocks and “hard parts” of the Earth. A. hydrosphere
______2. All of Earth’s water. B. biosphere
______3. All living things. C. geosphere
______4. The blanket of gases surrounding the planet D. atmosphere
______5. The rock, magma and soil
8|Page
8
ENRICHMENT
How do the subsystems interact with each other? Give example phenomena
to support your answer.
REFERENCES:
ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/dynamic/session4/sess4_interactions.htm
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/720-earth-system
9|Page
9
Quarter 1
MODULE
3 Earth Minerals and Rocks
Learning Competencies
 Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
 Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties.
Introduction
As this module deals with Earth materials and processes, it is important
that we gain knowledge of the materials that make up the Earth’s crust. The
rocks that make up the Earth and the minerals that compose them have
significant effects in our lives. To understand the relationship between minerals
and rocks, imagine a Snickers candy bar. It is made up of several different
materials: chocolate, nuts, caramel, and nougat. A rock is, like that candy bar,
an aggregate of diverse components: the components are, like minerals,
homogenous substance with properties that distinguish them from each other.

 Identify the physical and chemical properties of minerals
 Cite the most common rock forming minerals and their
properties
 Distinguish the difference between igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
 Classify the common rock forming minerals according to
their physical, chemical properties and types
10 | P a g e
10
Let’s Rock! Identify what type of rocks is being described by
each riddles.
I am formed by I have been

I am made layers of changed by
when hot sediment being pressure or heat
magma cools and used to be
squished
quickly, like
together to like an igneous or
from volcano.
under ocean. sedimentary
I AM ______________. I AM _________________. I AM ____________.
Practice Task
MINERAL OR NOT. Write the word mineral to the space provided if you
think the given substance is an example of mineral and write X if not.
________1. Plastic
________2. Coal
________3. Salt
________4. Sugar
________5. Ice
________6. Glass
________7. Water
________8. Jewelry
________9. Graphite (pencil)
________10. Gold
What is a MINERAL?
It is a naturally occurring substance;
It is an inorganic substance;
It has an orderly internal structure, and;
It has a fixed, (or uniformly variable) chemical composition.
11 | P a g e
11
MINERAL PROPERTIES
Physical Properties of Minerals
Luster Describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected

from its surface.
Color The most obvious characteristic of a mineral, but generally
not the most useful diagnostic feature. Depending on
impurities, individual mineral types may come in vast
variety of colors.
Streak It is the color of a mineral in powdered form, which may and
may not be the same color as the mineral itself. It is obtained
by scratching the mineral.
Hardness It is a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching.
Cleavage It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel
repetitive planes of weakness to from smooth, flat surfaces.
Fracture Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken
surfaces that are irregular and non-planar.
Crystal Form/Habit It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development
of any cleavage or fracture.
Chemical Properties of Minerals
Silicates minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in

the Earth’s crust, namely, silicon and oxygen
Oxides minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one
or more metal ions
Sulfates minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4)-
combined with other ions
Sulfides minerals containing sulfur anion (S2)- combined with one
or more ions. Some sulfides are sources of economically
important metals such as copper, lead and zinc.
Carbonates minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined
with other elements
Native Elements a. Metals and Inter-metals – with high thermal and
electrical conductivity
b. Semi-metals – more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity
c. Non-metals - nonconductive
Halides minerals containing halogen elements combined with one
or more elements
12 | P a g e
12
Common Rock Forming Minerals
QUARTS
 Usually called silica, is one of the most common minerals
in the Earth’s crust.
 Made up of silicon dioxide (SiO2)
 Quartz crystals are usually hexagonal and prismatic
in shape
 Pure quarts is colorless, although the presence of
impurities may give a range of colors, such as violet, pink and orange
 Quarts is the raw material for making glass.
MICAS
 Are family of silicate minerals
 Made up of varying amounts of potassium, magnesium,
iron, as well as aluminium, silicon and water.
 Micas form flat, book-like crystals that split into
Biotite Mica
individual sheets
 Common minerals in intrusive igneous rocks and
can also be found in sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
AMPHIBOLES Muscovite Mica

 Family of silicate minerals
 Generally contain iron, magnesium, calcium and
aluminium as well as silicon, oxygen, and water
 Form prismatic or needle-like crystals
 Component of many igneous and
metamorphic rocks
 Hornblende – common member of the Hornblende
amphibole group of rock-forming minerals
PYROXENE
 Family of silicate minerals
 Generally contain iron, magnesium, calcium and
aluminium as well silicon, oxygen
 Form short or columnar prismatic crystals
 Is a component in many igneous and
metamorphic rocks
Peroxene
OLIVINE
 Is a silicate mineral
 Contains iron and magnesium ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4)
 Is a green, glassy mineral
 Is common in mafic and ultramafic rocks
Olivine
13 | P a g e
13
CALCITE
 is a carbonate mineral
 made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
 generally white to clear and easily scratched with knife
 It is a common sedimentary mineral that is the
major component of calcareous sedimentary rocks
such as limestone. Metamorphism of limestone
produces marble. Calcite
FELDSPARS
 the large group of rock-forming silicate minerals
that make up 50% of Earth’s crust
 a group of crystalline minerals that consist of
aluminum silicates with either potassium,
sodium, calcium, or barium
 Feldspars crystals are triclinic or monoclonic
 found in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks in all parts of the
world
 Important industrial minerals used in ceramics and glass products
ROCKS ARE NOT ALL THE SAME!
TYPES OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS
 Forms when magma (molten rock deep within the
earth) cools and hardens.
 Most of the Earth’s crust is made up of this rock.
 Examples: granite, pumice, obsidian rock
METAMORPHIC
 Rocks that have been changed from heat and
pressure
 Forms deep in the Earth
 Examples: marble, gneiss, quartzite
SEDIMENTARY
 Formed when small pieces of rock are
pressed together
 Often forms at the bottom of bodies of water
 Examples: conglomerate, sandstone, coal
14 | P a g e
14
ASSESSMENT
I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following properties of minerals is obtained by scratching the

mineral on unpolished piece?
a. Streak c. Luster
b. Hardness d. fracture
2. If a mineral breaks along random and irregular surfaces, what physical
properties of minerals is being shown?
a. Streak c. Luster
b. Cleavage d. Fracture
3. What physical properties of mineral does the teacher is trying to observe
if the teacher asks her students these questions “Is the mineral shiny or
dull? Does the mineral looks like a metal or like a glass”?
a. Streak c. Luster
b. Hardness d. Fracture
4. The minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with
other ions.
a. Silicates c. Sulfates
b. Oxides d. Sulfides
5. Which of the following chemical properties of minerals contains halogen
elements combined with one or more elements?
a. Halides c. Oxides
b. Sulfides d. Silicates
II. TRUE OR FALSE. Write T if you think the statement is correct or true, then
write F if you think it is not.
__________6. A mineral is a material that occurs naturally, generally strong,

stable and inorganic.
__________7. Rocks is a solid material with more than one component of mineral.
__________8. A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks along parallel
flat surfaces.
__________9. Marble is an example of sedimentary rocks.
__________10. Igneous rocks are formed when rocks are changed by heat,
pressure and chemical action while metamorphic forms by solidified molten
rocks.
III. ESSAY. Differentiate the 3 types of rocks - igneous, metamorphic, and

sedimentary rocks.
15 | P a g e
15
SUMMARY:
Complete the table below.
Rock-forming Physical Chemical Properties Rock

Minerals Properties classification
(Igneous, metamorphic,
or sedimentary)
Quarts Hexagonal and
prismatic in shape
Feldspar Consist of aluminum
with either
potassium, sodium,
calcium, or barium
Micas Igneous but can
also be found in
metamorphic and
sedimentary
Amphiboles
Pyroxene
Olivine
Calcitate
REFERENCES:
www.geologypage.com/2019/07/rock-forming-minerals.html
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.civilsdaily.com/classifications-of-rocks-sedimentary-
igneous-and-metamorphic/amp/
geologyglasgow.org.uk/local-rocks/rock-forming-minerals/
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/952/An-Introduction-to-the-Rock-Forming-
Minerals
courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/why-it-matters-rock-forming-minerals/
16 | P a g e
16
Quarter 1
MODULE
Endogenic Processes
4
Learning Competency
 Describe where Earth’s internal heat comes from
Introduction
It may not be obvious while lying in the sun on a hot summer’s day, but
a significant amount of heat is also coming from below you – originating from
deep within the Earth. If you think of a volcano, you know Earth must be hot
inside. This heat is equivalent to more than three times the total power
consumption of the entire world and drives important geological processes, such
as the movement of tectonic plates and the flow of magma near the surface of
the Earth. Earth runs on massive amounts of heat, enough to melt iron in the
core and create a magnetic field. But, why is the Earth’s core hot in the first
place? Where does the Earth’s internal heat comes from?
 Identify the main sources of Earth’s internal heat

 Explain how the heat moves within the Earth
 Discuss how Earth’s internal heat is produced
17 | P a g e
17
Practice Task
Give me a LABEL!
Recall your knowledge about the layers of the Earth and label each section of
the diagram below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Learn About It!

HEAT IN THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
The Earth's internal heat source provides the energy for our dynamic
planet, supplying it with the driving force for plate-tectonic motion, and for on-
going catastrophic events such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This
internal heat energy was much greater in the early stages of the Earth than it is
today, having accumulated rapidly by heat conversion associated with three
separate processes, all of which were most intense during the first few hundred
thousand years of the Earth's history: (1) primordial heat, and (2) radioactive
heat.
1. PRIMORDIAL HEAT – general term for the heat imparted to a planetary body
by the processes of its formation and differentiation. It is the heat from accretion
and bombardment of the Earth during the early stages of
formation. If you hit a hammer on hard surface several times, the metal in the
hammer will heat up (kinetic energy is transformed to heat energy).
18 | P a g e
18
 Accretional Heat: The heat generated by the conversion of the kinetic
energy of impacting bodies to thermal energy.
Most scientists believe that our solar
system evolved from the accretion of solid
particles derived from a large nebular
cloud - the so-called Nebular Hypothesis.
Under this scenario, proto-planet Earth
would have grown over time from a
barrage of extraterrestrial impacts,
increasing its mass with each
bombardment. As the proto-planet grew in
size its increased gravitational field would
Accretion generates heat
have attracted even more objects its © Planet Hunters
surface. The composition of these colliding
bodies would have included metal-rich fragments (i.e.., iron meteorites),
rocky fragments (i.e., stony meteorites), and icy fragments (i.e., comets).
Although accretion was much more prevalent in the early stages of the
Earth's history, these extraterrestrial collisions are still occurring today,
exemplified by shooting stars and fireballs in the night sky, and by the
occasional impact of larger bodies on the Earth's surface.
Such particles travel at great velocities, typically ~30,000--50,000
km/hr, similar to that of the Earth as it rotates around the Sun. The very
large amount of kinetic energy inherent in these moving bodies is instantly
converted to heat energy upon impact, thus providing a component to the
Earth's internal heat source.
 Gravitational Heat: The gravitational potential of dense materials is
converted to heat during differentiation.
In the early stages of planetary
accretion, the earth was much less
compact than it is today. The accretionary
process led to an increasingly greater
gravitational attraction, forcing the Earth
to contract into a smaller volume.
Increased compaction resulted in the
conversion of gravitational energy into
heat energy, much like a bicycle pump
heats up due to the compression of air Transformation of potential to kinetic energy
inside it. Heat conducts very slowly in differentiation (© University of Indiana
Geology 105)
through rock, so that the rapid build-up of
this heat source within the Earth was not accommodated by an equally
rapid loss of heat through the surface.
2. RADIOACTIVE HEAT - the heat generated by long-term radioactive decay.
19 | P a g e
19
Radioactivity – the spontaneous decay of the nucleus of one element into
that of another. Radioactive decay is unpredictable, however nuclei of a
given radioactive substance have a specific probability of decaying in any
given moment.
The discovery of radioactivity. Ironically, radioactive decay ended up
providing the true key to the absolute dating of rocks.
 Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908): Discovered natural

radioactivity (1896). In the following years, a large number of
radioactive isotopes and their daughter products became
known.
 Pierre (1859-1906) and Marie Curie (1867-1934): Discovered
that the radioactive element radium continuously releases
newly generated heat – radiogenic heat. With this discovery,
it became clear that the decay of radioactive substances
provided a continuous source of new heat.
Radioactive Decay. Radioactive elements

are inherently unstable, breaking down over time to
more stable forms. The unstable isotope Uranium-
238, for example, will slowly decay to Lead-206. All
such radioactive decay processes release heat as a
by-product of the ongoing reaction. In its early
stages of formation, the young earth had a greater
complement of radioactive elements, but many of Radioactive Decay
© Babylon
these (e.g., aluminum-26) are short-lived and have
decayed to near extinction. Others with a lengthier rate of decay and are still
undergoing this radioactive process, thus still releasing heat energy. The greater
complement of unstable elements in the early Earth thus generated a greater
amount of heat energy in its initial stages of formation.
Current estimates tell us that the decay of radioactive U-238 and Th-232
contribute about 20 trillion watts to the amount of heat Earth radiates. And yet,
this is only about half of the planet’s total heat—the remainder comes from the
slow cooling of the Earth. The difference is that the Earth’s early heat seems to
be held tight to the core, while the heat generated by radioactive decay
distributes itself through the mantle and crust. This causes mantle convection,
which in turn causes plate tectonics and all kinds of geophysical activity—
mountain-building, volcanic eruptions, rock formation, and mid-ocean ridge.
So, how hot is the core? Turns out, it’s 5700 Kelvin, or 5400 ° Celsius: about
the same temperature as the surface of the Sun.
MOVING HEAT AROUND
Many other factors are involved, however. How is heat conveyed to the
surface? There are three basic mechanisms:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Advection
20 | P a g e
20
Conduction: Here, heat is transferred by the transmission of
vibrational (thermal) energy from one atom to the next. Warm
atoms vibrate more quickly than adjacent cold ones, but by jostling
them, impart vibrational energy. Eventually, energy is spread
evenly and all atoms vibrate at the same rate. Conduction enables
heat to be spread from the bottom of a skillet to the handle.
Convection: This is the process by which material circulates through a region

that is unevenly heated. In a tea kettle, for instance:
 Water is heated at the bottom.
 It rises.
 Surface water radiates its heat into the air and cools.
 Cooler water sinks into the space evacuated by the rising warmer
water and begins to warm, while the warmer water reaches the
surface and cools.
 The process repeats, yielding a top to bottom circulation of water.
Advection: The transport of heat by the simple upward movement of hot

material passing from a solid to a liquid state.
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following statement is NOT true?

a. The known sources of heat from the Earth's interior are radioactive
decays, and residual heat from when our planet was first formed.
b. This internal heat energy was much greater in the early stages of
the Earth than it is today.
c. Earth was cold when it was formed.
d. Earth makes some of its own heat.
2. Which of the following is the heat generated by the conversion of the kinetic
energy of impacting bodies to thermal energy?
a. Radioactive heat
b. Accretional heat
c. Gravitational Heat
d. Radiogenic heat
3. It is the heat produced within a medium as a result of absorption of

radiation from decay of radiation decay of radioisotopes in the medium?
a. Radioactive heat
b. Accretional heat
c. Gravitational Heat
d. Radiogenic heat
21 | P a g e
21
4. Which of the following elements does Pierre and Marie Curie discovered to
be radioactive and constantly releases newly generated heat?
a. uranium c. technetium
b. radium d. aluminum
5. In which layer of the Earth does the Earth’s early heat seems to be held
tight?
a. Crust c. core
b. Mantle d. mesosphere
6. Earth has been losing heat since it was formed billions years ago, but it is
producing almost as its losing. The process which makes Earth makes
heat is called?
a. Radioactive decay c. Radiation
b. Differentiation d. Convection
7. Which of the following helps to move heat within Earth?

a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Advection
d. All of the above
8. The heat is transferred from the stove to the soup pot. Which movement
of heat is being portrayed?
a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Advection
d. Radiation
9. Volcanic Eruption is what example of the following movement of heat?

a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Advection
d. Radiation
10. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE about where the
Earth’s internal heat comes from?
I. The first source of Earth’s internal heat was generated when
planet first formed.
II. Half of the Earth’s heat is thought to come from the decay of
radioactive element.
III. A major source of Earth’s heat is from the energy released when
the unstable atoms decay.
IV. The heat generated by radioactive decay distributes itself
through the mantle and crust.
a. I and II only
b. III and IV only
c. II and III only
d. I, II, III and IV
22 | P a g e
22
ENRICHMENT
Discuss. Why is Earth hot inside? What are the two main sources of the
Earth’s internal heat? Justify your answer.
REFERENCES:
www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol212/lectures/10.html
sci.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Heat.html
https://earthsky.org/earth/what-is-the-source-of-the-heat-in-the-earths-interior
openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/3-3-earths-interior-heat/
www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Earth_Heat.htm
www.google.com/amp/s/sciencesoup.tumblr.com/post/101207345347/where-does-the-earths-
internal-heat-come/amp
23 | P a g e
23
Quarter 1
MODULE
5 METAMORPHISM
Learning Competency
 Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due
to changes in pressure and temperature (metamorphism)
Introduction
Rocks are formed on Earth as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
rocks. Igneous rocks are form when rocks are heated to the melting point which
forms magma. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the cementing together of
sediments or from the crystallization of new mineral grains which are larger than
the original crystals. How about metamorphic rocks? How does metamorphic
rocks form? In this module, we will going to find out the changes in mineral
components and texture of rocks due to changes in metamorphism.
 Describe metamorphism
 Distinguish factors that control metamorphism
 Identify the changes in rocks’ texture and components due to
metamorphism
 Differentiate foliated and nonfoliated rocks
24 | P a g e
24
PRACTICE TASK
Rock around the Rock Cycle!
The Rock Cycle diagram below is an easy-to-read model of how rocks can
change over time.
DIRECTION: Use the diagram above to answer the following questions.

1. What are the three classes of rocks?
2. Follow the arrow from sedimentary rock to metamorphic rock. What

process is necessary to change a sedimentary rock to a metamorphic
rock?
3. Follow the arrow from sediments to sedimentary rock. How do sediments

become sedimentary rock?
4. How is magma formed?
5. How does magma become igneous rock?
6. How does igneous rock become metamorphic rock?
25 | P a g e
25
7. How does a metamorphic rock become an igneous rock?
8. How are sediments formed?
9. Which process cannot happen?

a. Igneous rock  heat and or pressure  metamorphic rock
b. Igneous rock  weathering and erosion  burial  deposition 
cementation  sedimentary rock
c. Metamorphic rock  melting  solidification  igneous rock
d. Sedimentary rock  melting  solidification  metamorphic rock
10. Can an igneous rock become another igneous rock? If so, how?
METAMORPHISM comes from the

Greek words “meta” which means change and
“morph” which means form form so
metamorphism means the “to change form”.
Metamorphism is the isochemical (no elements
are added or removed) process by which rocks
are changed by either heat or pressure, or both
heat and pressure. The chemical composition of
the parent rock will be the same as the
metamorphic rock produced.
The original rock that has undergone
metamorphism is called the protolith. During
metamorphism the mineral content and texture of the protolith are changed due
to changes in the physical and chemical environment of the rock. Metamorphism
can be caused by burial, tectonic stress, heating by magma, or alteration by
fluids. At advanced stages of metamorphism, it is common for a metamorphic
rock to develop such a different set of minerals and such a thoroughly changed
texture that it is difficult to recognize what the protolith was.
The process of metamorphism may result in:
 Destruction of fossils, beds and sedimentary structures
 Hardening of the rock
 Change in color
 Alignment of minerals
 Growth of new metamorphic minerals.
26 | P a g e
26
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
1. Contact Metamorphism occurs when magma comes in contact with an
already existing body of rock. When this happens the existing rocks
temperature rises and also
becomes infiltrated with fluid
from the magma. The area
affected by the contact of magma
is usually small, from 1 to 10 km.
Contact metamorphism produces
non-foliated (rocks without any
cleavage) rocks such as marble,
quartzite, and hornfels. It
involves mostly heat.
2. Regional Metamorphism occurs over a much larger area. This

metamorphism produces rocks such as gneiss and schist. Regional
metamorphism is caused by large geologic processes such as mountain-
building. These rocks when exposed to the surface show the unbelievable
pressure that cause the rocks to be bent and broken by the mountain
building process.
Regional
metamorphism
usually produces
foliated rocks such
as gneiss and
schist. It involves
mostly pressure.
27 | P a g e
27
3. Dynamic Metamorphism (high grade) also occurs because of mountain-
building. These huge forces of heat and pressure cause the rocks to be
bent, folded, crushed, flattened, and sheared. It is associated with faulting.
FACTORS THAT CONTROL METAMORPHISM
Temperature
Temperature is a key variable in metamorphism:
 High temperatures occur near to igneous intrusions, where the magma
heats the surrounding rocks.
 Temperature also increases with depth, due to the geothermal gradient.
As temperature increases, the rate of metamorphic reactions also increases.
This is because many of the chemical reactions require heat to take place. Higher
temperatures increase the rate at which ions diffuse between minerals, though
it is still a slow process because the ions have to move through solid rock during
metamorphism. The whole process is greatly speeded up by water, which allows
the ions to diffuse more rapidly.
Pressure
Pressure steadily increases with depth and is applied to rocks in three different
ways:
 Pore pressure is the pressure exerted by flids between the grains in a
porous rock. The presence of water speeds up reactions by acting as a
catalyst and increasing the rate and ease of ion exchange.
 Load pressure is the weight of overlying rocks and physically brings
minerals into contact with each other over very long periods of time.
 Tectonic stress or pressure is caused as the rocks undergo folding or
faulting and very high pressures are exerted, but usually over relatively
short periods of time.
In all cases the higher the pressure, the greater the degree of metamorphism.
Reactions that depend on pressure only are less common than temperature
dependent reactions.
Time
Time is very important because metamorphic reactions take place very slowly.
These reactions usually take millions of years to occur. Pressure and
temperature conditions that produce metamorphism have to exist over long
periods of time, in order for the reactions to occur.
Fluids
Sources of metamorphic fluids are
 Fluid trapped in sedimentary rock
 Fluid introduced by tectonic and igneous processes
 Fluid expelled when minerals react
Parent rock composition determines what fluids are released and what minerals
can react.
28 | P a g e
28
METAMORPHIC TEXTURES
The two distinctive metamorphic textures are:
1. Foliated = rocks sometimes look like they have stripes. Formed under high
temperature and HIGH PRESSURE. Pressure is uneven. FOLIATED
metamorphic rocks are those in which the minerals have been flattened and
pushed down into parallel layers. The bands in foliated metamorphic rock look
like pages in a book.
Foliated metamorphic rocks are formed within the Earth's interior under
extremely high pressures that are unequal, occurring when the pressure is
greater in one direction than in the others (directed pressure). This causes the
minerals in the original rock to reorient themselves with the long and flat
minerals aligning perpendicular to the greatest pressure direction. This reduces
the overall pressure on the rock and gives it a stripped look.
Foliated metamorphic rocks are identified on the basis of their texture:
Slate = formed at very low temperatures

and pressures, rock breaks along nearly
perfect parallel planes; used in pool
tables and as roofing material
Phyllite = low to intermediate

temperatures and pressures; slightly more
crystallized which gives the rock a shiny
appearance; layers may also be wavy or
crinkled
Schist = intermediate to high
temperatures and pressures; crystals are
larger with the grains aligned in parallel
to subparallel layers
Gneiss (nice) = very high temperatures and

pressures; coarse grained texture of alternating
light and dark mineral bands
2. Nonfoliated = metamorphic rocks that are formed under high temperature,

and LOW PRESSURE. NON-FOLIATED metamorphic rocks do not display layers.
Rather, they are massive structures with no obvious banding. The mineral grains
grow and rearrange, but they don’t form layers.
29 | P a g e
29
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are formed around igneous intrusions
where the temperatures are high but the pressures are relatively low and equal
in all directions (confining pressure). The original minerals within the rock
recrystallize into larger sizes and the atoms become more tightly packed together,
increasing the density of the rock.
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are identified on the basis of their composition:
Quartzite = composed of the mineral quartz;
metamorphosed sandstone
Marble = composed of the

mineral calcite; metamorphosed
limestone
ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read the questions properly and choose the letter of the
correct answer.
1. Which of the following statements is NOT true about metamorphism?
a. The term "metamorphic" means "to change form."
b. Metamorphism is the alteration of pre-existing rocks in the solid
state due to changes in temperature and pressure.
c. Rocks do not remain solid during metamorphism.
d. Metamorphism is a process that changed rocks by heat.
2. Which of the following types of metamorphic rocks occurs when in rocks
that are heated by nearby magma?
a. Contact Metamorphism
b. Regional Metamorphism
c. Dynamic Metamorphism
3. Which of the following statements does NOT correctly describe regional
metamorphism?
a. It is caused by the extreme pressure from overlying rock or from
compression caused by geologic processes
b. Regional metamorphism affects rocks over a small area.
c. Mountain chains are associated with regional metamorphism.
d. It involves mostly pressure.
4. Which type of metamorphism can produce crushing and smearing of
rock layers?
a. Contact Metamorphism
b. Regional Metamorphism
c. Dynamic Metamorphism
30 | P a g e
30
5. What happens to the rate of metamorphic interactions as the
temperature increases?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
6. It is a measure of the stress, the physical force, being applied to the surface
of a material. It is defined as the force per unit area acting on the surface,
in a direction perpendicular to the surface.
a. Time
b. Pressure
c. Temperature
d. Fluids
7. Which metamorphic rock would you associate with high grade regional
metamorphism?
a. Slate
b. Phyllite
c. Gneiss
d. Schist
8. Which of the following rocks does not belong to the group?
a. Slate
b. Phyllite
c. Gneiss
d. Quartzite
9. Which of following is the correct sequence of rocks according to how they
were formed by the temperature and pressure (strongest to lowest)?
a. Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss
b. Schist, Gneiss, Slate, Phyllite
c. Gneiss, Schist, Phyllite, Slate
d. Slate, Schist, Gneiss, Phyllite
10. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE?
I. During contact metamorphism, broken down pieces of rock near the
Earth's surface is altered by magma.
II. During regional metamorphism, rocks buried deep within the Earth
are altered by magma chambers.
III. Nonfoliated rocks are types of metamorphic rock that have parallel
bands of grain.
IV. Foliated rocks are types of metamorphic rock that have no
arrangement or bands of grain.
a. I and II only c. I, II, and III only
b. II and III only d. I , II, III and IV
31 | P a g e
31
ENRICHMENT.
Explain why rocks formed by contact metamorphism lack any foliation.
Justify your answer.
SUMMARY:
 Metamorphism means “to change form”
 Metamorphic rocks are formed when a rock's mineral composition and
texture change
 The original rock that has undergone metamorphism is called the protolith.
 Metamorphic rocks are influenced by heat or temperature, pressure,
fluids, parent rock composition, and duration of metamorphism
 Form through regional, contact, or dynamic metamorphism
 Can be classified as foliated (layered) or nonfoliated
 Contain minerals that can be used to infer the conditions under which
they formed
REFRENCES:
https://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/metamorphic.htm
https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks_minerals/rocks/metamorphic.html
https://uh.edu/~geos6g/1330/meta.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-metamorphic-rocks/
sites.google.com/site/plazaearthscience/minerals-rocks-and-rock-cycle/metamorphic-rocks
32 | P a g e
32
Quarter 1
MODULE
THE FOLDING AND FAULTING OF
6 ROCKS
Learning Competency
 Describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as
compression, pulling apart and shearing
 Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds
and faults
Introduction
When people have too much stress, they may break. What happens if a
rock gets too much stress? With all the movement occurring on Earth’s surface
– slabs of crust smashing into each other, sideways movements along faults,
magma rising through solid rock – it’s no wonder that rocks experience stress.
Rocks respond differently to different types of stress and under different
conditions.

 Differentiate the different types of stress
 Identify the possible responses of rocks to increasing stress
 Distinguish the difference between folds and faults
 Discuss the different types of folds and faults
33 | P a g e
33
STRESS IN EARTH’S CRUST
Enormous slabs of lithosphere move unevenly over the
planet’s spherical surface, resulting in earthquakes. This chapter
deals with two types of geological activity that occur because of plate
tectonics: mountain building and earthquakes. First, we will
consider what can happen to rocks when they are exposed to stress.
STRESS is the force applied to an object. In

geology, stress is the (pressure) force per unit
area that is placed on a rock. Four types of
stresses act on materials.
Stress caused this rock to
fracture.
1. A deeply buried rock is pushed down by the weight of all the material above
it. Since the rock is trapped in a single spot, it is as if the rock is being
pushed in from all sides. This pushing causes the rock to become
compressed, but it cannot deform because
there is no place for it to move. This is called
confining stress.
2. Compression is the stress that squeezes
rocks together. Compression causes rocks
to fold or fracture. When cars driving
around a parking lot collide, compression
causes the cars to crumple. Compression is
the most common stress at convergent plate
boundaries.
3. Rocks that are being pulled apart are under
tension (also called extension). Tension
causes rocks to lengthen or break apart.
Tension is the major type of stress found at
divergent plate boundaries.
4. When forces act parallel to each other but in opposite directions, the stress
is called shear. Shear stress causes two planes of material to slide past
each other. This is the most common stress found at transform plate
boundaries.
34 | P a g e
34
When stress causes a material to change shape, it has
undergone strain or deformation. Deformed rocks are
common in geologically active areas.
A rock’s response to stress depends on the rock type, the
surrounding temperature, and pressure conditions the rock
is under, the length of time the rock is under stress, and the
type of stress.
Shearing in rocks
Rocks have three possible responses to increasing stress:
 Elastic deformation: the rock returns to its original shape when the
stress is removed.
 Plastic deformation: the rock does not return to its original shape when
the stress is removed.
 Fracture: the rock breaks.
With increasing stress, the rock undergoes: (1) elastic deformation, (2)
plastic deformation, and (3) fracture.
Factors Affecting Rock Deformation

 Intensity of applied stress
 Heat –Temperature of the Rock
 Amount of Time the Stress is applied
 Rock Composition
35 | P a g e
35
FOLDING
Rocks deforming plastically under

compressive stresses crumple into folds.
Folds are just bends in the rock. They do
not return to their original shape. You can
easily make folds by placing your hands on
opposite edges of a piece of cloth and
pushing the cloth together.
They are three types of folds: Snow accentuates the fold exposed in these
rocks in Provo Canyon, Utah.
1. Monocline: A monocline is a simple bend in the rock layers so that they

are no longer horizontal.
2. Anticline: An anticline is a fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away
from the center of the fold. The oldest rocks are at the center of an anticline
and the youngest are draped over them.
3. Syncline: A syncline is a fold that bends downward. The youngest rocks
are at the center and the oldest are at the outside.
At Colorado National
Monument, the rocks in a This syncline is in Rainbow
An anticline exposed in a road
monocline plunge toward the Basin, California.
cut in New Jersey.
ground Provo Canyon, Utah.
36 | P a g e
36
FAULTING
Faulting occurs when the rocks fail
under deformation processes. Faults form in
rocks when the stresses overcome the
internal strength of the rock resulting
fracture. This can occur in any direction
with the blocks moving away from each
other. A fault is a planar discontinuity along
which displacement of the rocks
occurs. Granite rocks in Joshua Tree National Park
showing horizontal and vertical jointing.
A rock under enough stress will fracture. If there is no movement on

either side of a fracture, the fracture is called a joint.
If the blocks of rock on one or both

sides of a fracture move, the fracture is
called a fault. Sudden motions along faults
cause rocks to break and move suddenly.
The energy released is an earthquake.
Faults may occur at the Earth’s surface or
deeper in the crust. Faults are faound
alone or in clusters, creating a fault zone.
Faults are easy to recognize as they cut

across bedded rocks.
 Slip is the distance rocks move along a fault. Slip can be up or down the
fault plane.
 Faults lie at an angle to the horizontal surface of the Earth. That angle is
called the fault’s dip.
 The hanging wall is the rock beneath the fault.
 The footwall is beneath the fault.
 If the fault’s dip is inclined relative to the horizontal, the fault is a dip-slip
fault.
37 | P a g e
37
TYPES OF FAULT
1. NORMAL FAULT:
rocks above the fault plane,
or hanging wall, move down
relative to the rocks below
the fault plane, or footwall. It
is caused by tensional stress
that pulls the crust apart.
2. REVERSE FAULT:
rocks above the hanging wall
moves up relative to the
footwall. It is happened
when compression squeezes
the crust into a smaller
space.
3. THRUST FAULT: a type of reverse

fault in which the fault plane angle is nearly
horizontal. Rocks can slip many miles along
thrust faults
At Chief Mountain in Montana, the upper

rocks at the Lewis Overthrust are more
than 1 billion years older than the lower
rocks.
4. STRIKE-SLIP FAULT: a dip-slip fault

in which the dip of the fault plane is vertical.
Strike-slip faults result from shear stresses.
The San Andreas is a plate boundary,
it is also called a transform fault.
The worlds’ most famous strike-slip fault is

the San Andreas Fault in California.
38 | P a g e
38
ASSESSMENT
I. IDENTIFICATION. Identify what is being described by the following sentences

and write your answer on the blank before the number.
____________1. A bend in a set of rocks caused by compression.
____________2. Stresses that pull material in opposite directions so that it is
pulled apart
____________3. Force per unit area in a rock
____________4. Alters the shape of rock but that is not permanent. The rock goes
back to its original shape when the stress is removed.
____________5. A force that arches upward, in which the older rocks are in the
center and the younger rocks are at the outside.
____________6. Stresses that push toward each other. This causes a decrease in
the space a rock takes up.
____________7. A break in rock caused by stresses along which there is no
movement.
____________8. Stresses that pushed past each other in opposite directions.
____________9. A fault in which the hanging wall drops down relative to the
footwall.
____________10. The distance rocks move along a fault.
II. Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Why don’t rocks deform under confining stress?
2. What type of boundaries are found in compression, in tension and in

shear?
3. What is the difference between elastic and plastic deformation?
4. What is the difference between faults and folds?
5. What are the types of faults and how are they different from each other?
39 | P a g e
39
ENRICHMENT
You are a geologist walking around in the field when you spot a monocline.
You inspect the fossils in each layer of the rock and you discover that the oldest
rocks are at the top and the youngest at the bottom. How do you explain how
the rocks came to be this way?
REFERENCES:
www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10l.html
www.perkinselearning.org/accessible-science/activities/rock-under-stress
courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-stress-and-strain/
en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/High_School_Earth_Science/Stress_in_the_Earth%27s_Crust
40 | P a g e
40
Quarter 1
MODULE
7 STRATIFICATION
Learning Competency
 Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed.
Introduction
A rock is any naturally formed, non-living, coherent aggregate mass of
solid matter that constitutes part of a planet, asteroid, moon or other planetary
object. In the previous modules, you have learned the three types of rocks:
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
dominates the earth’s crust and the most common rock visible on earth’s surface
is sedimentary rock which as we observed are composed of layers. How do layers
of rocks are formed? In this module, we will going to find out how stratified rocks
or strata are formed.

 Define strata
 Identify Steno’s principles of interpreting stratified rocks
 Explain how layering of rocks are formed
41 | P a g e
41
Practice Task
Observe the images of the following rock formations below. What do you
observe? What do you think makes them similar to each other? What type of
rocks do you think are the following? Write your answer and observation on the
space provided below.
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
ROCK LAYERS
Rock layers, also known as strata, are found throughout the Earth. The
oldest layers of rock can be found on the bottom, while the youngest layers of
rock are found on top. Rock layers can be identified by color, thickness and
resistance to erosion.
In geology and related fields, a stratum (plural: strata) is a sedimentary
rock layer or soil with inside reliable qualities that recognize it from different rock
layers. The "stratum" is the crucial unit in a stratigraphic section and structures
the study's premise of stratigraphy.
Most of the rocks exposed at the surface of Earth are sedimentary--
formed from particles of older rocks that have been broken apart by water or
wind. As new layers of sediment are deposited, the layers eventually become
compressed, or compacted. Dissolved minerals separate out of the water to form
a natural glue that binds the sediments together into sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock forms at or near the Earth’s surface, without the heat and
pressure involved.
42 | P a g e
42
Stratification: the layering that
occurs in most sedimentary rocks and in
those igneous rocks formed at the Earth’s
surface, as from lava flows and volcanic
fragmental deposits.
The physical features of

sedimentary rocks tell part of
its history. The most
noticeable feature of
sedimentary rock is its layers,
or strata.
As early as the mid-1600's, the Danish scientist

Nicholas Steno studied the relative positions of
sedimentary rocks.
Steno’s Principles for interpreting Stratified Rocks

1. Principles of Superposition: oldest strata lie at the
bottom. Thus, in any sequence of layered rocks, a given
bed must be older than any bed on top of it.
2. Principle of Original horizontality: layers of sedimentary rocks are

originally deposited flat. It states that most sediments when originally
formed, were laid down horizontally.
3. Principal of Lateral continuity: layers or rocks are continuous until they

encounter other solid bodies that block their deposition or until they are
acted upon by agents that appeared after deposition took place.
He found that solid particles settle from a fluid according to their relative
weight or size. The largest, or heaviest, settle first, and the smallest, or lightest,
settle last. Slight changes in particle size or composition result in the formation
of layers, also called beds, in the rock. Layering, or bedding, is the most obvious
feature of sedimentary rocks.
Main reasons why layering of rocks are formed:
1. Crustal Movement: results in deformation of the Earth’s crust. There
are three types of plate that makes the earth’s crust move: convergent,
divergent and transform. These plate boundaries results in forming
mountains, mountain ranges, volcanoes, submarine volcanoes, and rift
valleys.
43 | P a g e
43
2. Displacement of Soils: This is also known as erosion. Erosion is the
geological process in which materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind and water.
Movements of Earth’s crust can lift up rock layers that were buried
and expose them to erosion. Then, if sediments are deposited, new rock
layers form in place of the eroded layers.
3. Distortion of Terrains: This is also known as weathering. Weathering
is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater,
extremes of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the
removal of rock materials.
Movements of Earth’s crust can lift up rock layers that were buried and
expose them to erosion and deposition will take place. After accumulating soils and
rocks which forms landmass, weathering will take place and the process continues.
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following types of rocks is most common on Earth’s
surface?
a. Igneous
b. Sedimentary
c. Metamorphic
2. Which part of the rock layers is the oldest?
a. Top part
b. Middle part
c. Bottom part
3. What is the other term for rock layers?
a. Strata
b. Sediments
c. Sedimentary
4. Which of the following Steno’s principles of sedimentary layers states
that younger layers of rock sit atop older layers?
a. Principles of Superposition
b. Principle of Original horizontality
c. Principal of Lateral continuity
5. It states that sedimentary rocks are originally found in horizontal layers
but sometimes they undergo change and cause them to be tilted?
44 | P a g e
44
6. “Material forming any stratum were continuous over the surface of the
Earth unless some other solid bodies stood in the way”, Steno, 1669.
Which principle described his statement?
7. It is the geological process in which materials are transported by wind
and water?
a. Crustal movement
b. Erosion
c. Weathering
8. Which of the following is the geological process of breaking down of rocks
into smaller fragments?
a. Crustal movement
b. Erosion
c. Weathering
9. It happens when fragments of rocks move from one place to another?
a. Crustal movement
b. Erosion
c. Weathering
10. Which of the following is the result in deformation of Earth’s crust?
a. Crustal movement
b. Erosion
c. Weathering
ENRICHMENT
Do you think it is possible to study Earth’s history by studying the layers

of the rock? Why, or why not?
REFERENCES:
Baltazar, R., Cuarto C., Leonor J., Conceptual Science and Beyond: Earth and Life Science,
Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/10/rock-layers.html?m=1
pubs.usgs.gov/gip/fossils/rocks-layers.html
www.geologyin.com/2014/03/stenos-principles-of-stratigraphy.html?m=1
45 | P a g e
45
Quarter 1
MODULE
8 Relative and Absolute Dating
Learning Competency
 Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to
determine the age of stratified rocks
 Explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the
subdivisions of geologic time
Introduction
The age of rocks intrigues almost everyone. We do not only want to know
how old rock is, but also how that age was determined. Some very
straightforward principles and methods are used to determine the age of rocks.
You should be able to understand the principles and have as background so that
age determinations by geologist don’t seem like black magic. There are two
methods of age determinations. Geologist in the late 18th and early 19th century
studied rock layers and fossils in them to determine age as well as the
subdivisions of geologic time. In this module, you’ll learned how geologist
determine the age of rock and the subdivisions of geologic time using the relative
and absolute dating methods.

 Describe relative and absolute dating.
 Explain how principles were used to determine the age of
rocks
 Determine how relative and absolute dating works
 Discuss how geologic time scale is calibrated
46 | P a g e
46
PRACTICE TASK
ABSOLUTE or RELATIVE age? Write the word relative on the space provided
if you think the statement shows relative age while write the word absolute if
you think it shows absolute age.
_______________1. The silver car is 2 years old

_______________2.The red car is newer than the silver car
_______________3. The red car costs more than the silver car
_______________4.The red car is 4 times more expensive than the silver car
_______________5. The red car costs 90, 000 dollars while the silver car costs
20, 000 dollars
Determining the Age of Rock

The age of a rock is determined by stratigraphy, a branch in geology
which studies the chronology of events and changes, along with the
development of organisms, which have determined the development of the Earth
from when it became an independent spatial body until today. The age, or the
chronology of geological creations and events is determined using relative and
absolute age.
Methods in determining the age of rock:
When geologists date rocks, they are determining how long ago they
formed. Two ways to do this:
 Relative Dating
 Absolute Dating
RELATIVE DATING
- Determining how old something is compared to something else
- Use words like “older” or “younger” instead of exact numbers
- Relative Dating is when you give the age of a rock or fossil compared to
another rock or fossil.
- The relative age of rocks determines the age of rock layers as younger or
older, but does not give the exact age
47 | P a g e
47
For example: You say you are older than your brother but younger than
your sister….. You are describing your relative age.
 Rock A is OLDER than Rock B.
The same way that a history book shows an order of events, layers of rock
(called strata) show the sequence of events that took place in the past. Using a
few basic principles, scientists can determine the order in which rock layers
formed. Once they can know the order, a relative age can be determined for each
rock layer.
Rules or Law of Relative Dating
1. Law of Superposition: When sedimentary rock layers are deposited, younger
layers are on top of older deposits.
Scientists use a basic principle called the Law of Superposition to
determine the relative age of a layer of sedimentary rock.
The Law of Superposition

is that a sedimentary rock layer
is older than the layers above it
and younger than the layers
below it.
2. Law of Original Horizontality: states that most sediments were originally

laid down horizontally. However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal.
Based on the law of original horizontally, the rocks that were tilted may due to
later events such as tilting episodes of mountain.
48 | P a g e
48
4. Law of Lateral Continuity: states that rock
layers extend laterally or out to the sides. These
layers may cover broad surfaces. Erosion may
have worn away some parts of the rock, but the
layers on either side of the eroded areas still
match.
3. Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships: If an igneous intrusion or a fault cuts

through existing rocks, the intrusion/fault is YOUNGER than the rock it cuts
through
Remember : sedimentary rock layers are horizontal with the oldest at the
bottom and the young at the top unless the layers are disturbed by a fault or
igneous intrusion
The principle of cross-cutting

relationships states that a fault
or igneous intrusion is always
younger than the rock it cuts
across
A picture of a fault or crack in the rock
49 | P a g e
49
ABSOLUTE DATING
- Also known as radiometric dating, is a method used to determine the age
of rocks by measuring its radioactive decay such as potassium and
carbon
- Determining how old something is
- Only works on igneous rocks
- Use numbers (in millions of years, mya)
- Determines the specific age of a fossil
- Looks at chemical properties
For Example:
Your absolute age is how old you are based on your birth date.
TWO TYPES:
1. Carbon-14 Dating – one of the most widely used and

well-known absolute dating technique, which is used to
date organic remains.
- Also known as Radiocarbon dating
- Used to date organic substances
- Scientists measure the radiocarbon in the fossil to
determine its age
- Can only date specimens up to about 60,000 years
old
2. Potassium-Argon Dating (K-Ar) - Scientists determine the age of the rock

surrounding the fossil to determine the fossil’s age.
- Used only for inorganic substances (rocks and minerals)
- Scientists measure the amount of argon in the rock to determine its age
- Dates rock 60,000 years old and older, it date up to five billion years
HOW ABSOLUTE DATING WORKS
1. When magma/lava cools, radioactive elements are incorporated into the

minerals
Examples:
 Potassium 40
 Uranium 235
2. These elements begin to decay at a known rate starting when the rock
cools
3. We can measure how much of the element is left
4. Tells us how much time has passed since the rock formed.
50 | P a g e
50
THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
- Shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records,
which describe the relationships between the events that happened
throughout the Earth’s history. The sequence of events is based on the
radiometric dating of igneous rocks associated with the fossil-bearing
sedimentary rocks.
- A geologic scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are
dated. It is calibrated by integrating results from relative and absolute
dating. Below is an example of how geologic time scale is calibrated.
How the Geologic Time Scale is calibrated
 Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.

 The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the
laws of relative dating leading to a chronological order of events.
 Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or
radiometric methods. Absolute dating provide the age for the ash layers
while relative dating provides at least six strata with relative ages – first
and last occurrences of the fossil and the volcanic eruption events.
The integration of relative and absolute dating results to a

calibrated geological time scale.
ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is a method of dating rocks by comparing rock layer to another rock.

a. Relative dating
b. Absolute dating
c. Radiocarbon dating
d. Potassium-Argon dating
2. This law states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the
top layer is younger than the bottom layer.
a. Law of superposition
b. Law of original horizontality
c. Law of lateral continuity
d. Law of cross-cutting relationship
3. Which of the following statements about the principles of relative dating
are false?
I. The law of cross-cutting relationship states that rock layers
extend laterally or out to the sides
II. The law of lateral continuity continuity states that fault lines
and igneous rocks are younger features that cut through old
features of rocks
III. The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of
layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer is younger than the
bottom layer.
51 | P a g e
51
IV. The law of original horizontality states that most sediments
were originally laid down horizontally.
a. I and II
b. III and IV
c. I and III
d. II and IV
4. Which of the following is not an example of absolute dating?
a. Radiocarbon dating
b. Radioactive dating
c. K-Ar dating
d. Carbon-14 dating
5. Which of the following statements is true about relative dating?
a. It is a method used to determine the age of the rocks by measuring
its radioactive decay.
b. It is a method used for arranging geologic events based on
radioactive decay of rocks.
c. It is a method used to determine that one rock is older than the
other based on rock sequence
d. It is a method used to describe relationships between events that
happen throughout history
6. It states that a fault or igneous intrusion is always younger than the rock
it cuts across.
a. Law of superposition
b. Law of original horizontality
c. Law of lateral continuity
d. Law of cross-cutting relationship
7. Which of the following statements is/are false?
I. Relative dating give exact age of a rock
II. Absolute dating determine the actual age of a rock
III. The oldest layer is at the bottom and the young is found at the top
IV. Carbo-14 dates rock for more years than Potassium-Argon dating
a. I and IV
b. I only
c. II and IV
d. III and IV
8. Which of the following is NOT true about the relevance of relative dating
to geologic time scale?
a. Relative dating would confirm the succession of events in the
layers that would establish the chronological series of events.
b. Relative dating would provide the age of ash layers and
occurrences of volcanic eruption events
c. Relative dating would provide strata with relative ages and indicate
the occurrence of fossils
d. Relative dating would provide ages based on radiometric dating of
igneous rocks.
9. Which of the following are true about the relevance of absolute dating to
geologic time scale?
I. Absolute dating would give numerical or absolute age of the
succession of events in the layers
52 | P a g e
52
II. Absolute dating would determine the age of the ash layers and the
occurrences of volcanic eruptions
III. Absolute dating would determine the age of the ash layers and the
occurrences of volcanic eruptions
IV. Absolute dating would provide ages of fossil-bearing sedimentary
rocks.
a. I and II
b. II and III
c. III and IV
d. I and III
10. Which of the following statements is NOT true about the geologic time
scale?
a. This scale could be revised as more rocks that can be dated are
discovered
b. This scale is a result of the integration of relative and absolute
dating
c. This scale shows the relationships between the events that
happened throughout the Earth’s history
d. This scale shows the location of where rocks were discovered.
ENRICHMENT
For each of the following cross sections, determine the relative age sequence
of the rocks. Place in order from oldest to youngest. Don’t forget to consider
all intrusions and faults.
1. ______ (oldest)
2. ______
3. ______
4. ______
5. ______ (youngest)
REFERENCES:
mobile.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/29-stratification-of-rocks-and-how-it-is-
used-to-determine-the-age-of-the-earth/1802666396636675/?_rdc=1&_rdr
webbaohiem.net/different-methods-relative-and-absolute-dating-to-determine-the-age-of-
stratified-rocks/
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1486-absolute-dating
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/dating-rocks-and-fossils-using-geologic-
methods-107924044/
53 | P a g e
53
Quarter 1
MODULE
9 Geologic Time Scale
Learning Competency
 Describe how the Earth's history can be interpreted from the geologic
time scale
Introduction
Earth is constantly changing. Geologist have divided Earth’s history into
a series of time intervals. The time intervals are variable in length. This is
because geologic time is divided using the significant events in the history og=f
the Earth. Geologic time scale spans Earth’s entire history and is separated into
divisions. In the previous modules, we have learned how subdivisions of geologic
time scale were calibrated using the relative and absolute modules. In this
module, we’ll identify the subdivisions geologic time scale and the major events
that happened in each divisions in order to understand Earth’s history.

 Describe geologic time scale
 Identify the divisions of geologic time scale
 Classify events in Earth’s geologic history
54 | P a g e
54
The Geologic Time Scale Divides Earth’s History.
From a person’s point of view, 4.6 billion years is a tremendous amount of
time. To help make sense of it, scientists have organized Earth’s history in a
chart called the geologic time scale. This divides Earth’s history into intervals
of time defined by major events or changes on Earth.
Geologic Time Scale is an important tool used to portray the history of the
Earth – a standard timeline used to describe the age of rocks and fossils, and
the events that formed them. It divides up the history of the earth based on life-
forms that have existed during specific times since the creation of the planet.
These divisions are called geochronologic units (geo: rock, chronology: time).
Most of these life-forms are found as fossils, which are the remains or
traces of an organism from the geologic past that has been preserved in sediment
or rock. Without fossils, scientists may not have concluded that the earth has a
history that long precedes mankind.
Divisions of Geologic Time
The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs
(EHP-uhks). Unlike divisions of time such as days or minutes, the divisions of
the geologic time scale have no fixed lengths. Instead, they are based on
changes or events recorded in rocks and fossils.
Eon: longest subdivision; the largest unit
of time is an eon. Earth’s 4.6-billion-year
history
is divided into four eons; based on the
abundance of certain fossils
Era: Next to longest subdivision; marked

major changes in the fossil record
Period: Each era is subdivided into a

number of periods; based on types of life
existing at the time
Epoch: shortest subdivision; marked by

differences in life forms and can vary
from continent to continent
55 | P a g e
55
Precambrian Time
By the time Earth emerged from the combining elements, our planet was
spinning rapidly and it looked like an alien planet. Molten lava was flowing and
it took only six hours for a day to last. Gravity made all things in order with the
heavier elements forming the core and the lighter materials floating and turning
into crust.
About 4.5 billion years ago, the planet was hit by an object as huge as
Mars. Some of the molten debris created another sphere moving around the
Earth now known as the moon. The impact titled the Earth’s axis of rotation,
creating seasons and provided stability to the planet. The tilted axis of Earth
lengthens the day into 24 hours and cools down the earth.
As the Earth started to cool down, rain poured down from the sky for
millions of years, creating the bodies of water. In these bodies of water,
abiogenesis took place. Key elements combined together forming the foundation
of all life forms – the DNA. These molecule created the first organism:
cyanobacteria.
These microorganisms evolved and later developed the ability to harness
the energy from the sun and produced the most essential of gases, the oxygen.
These oxygen molecules occupied
the primeval ocean and reacted
with iron, forming iron oxide,
consulting our major land mass.
Later, they escaped into the
atmosphere, creating the ozone
layer that further protected us
from the harmful radiation of the
sun. Large solid continents
appeared, making the crust more
suitable for living organisms. This
leads to Cambrian explosion.
PHANEROZOIC EON
The most recent eon is the Phanerozoic, began around 544 million years ago.
Its start marks the beginning of a fast increase in the diversity, or variety, of
life.
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras:
 the Paleozoic, whose name means “ancient life”

 the Mesozoic, whose name means “middle life”
 the Cenozoic, whose name means “recent life
56 | P a g e
56
The Paleozoic era is the first era of the Phanerozoic eon. At the start of the
Paleozoic, all life lived in the ocean. Fish, the first animals with backbones, and
aquatic plants developed during this time. Toward the end of this era, life moved
onto land. Later, plants began to occupy the land and soon some forms of fishes
also conquered the land. The first amphibians emerged from the ocean and lived
on land.
However, the amphibians could only reside near water for them to deposit
their eggs. Later they developed the ability of producing shells allowing them to
carry eggs anywhere on land. Reptiles, insects, and ferns were common.
A mass extinction occurred at
the end of the Paleozoic era, 248
million years ago. A mass
extinction is when many different
life forms all die out, or become
extinct, at once. This extinction
may have been caused when
volcanic eruption filled up the
atmosphere with carbon dioxide.
The Mesozoic era spans the next 183 million years and is best known for
the dinosaurs that ruled Earth. It is also known as the age of the dinosaurs.
Mammals, birds, and flowering plants also first appeared during the Mesozoic.
For some of this time, parts of North America were covered by a vast sea. The
spercontinental Pangaea began to separate, forming the Rocky Mountains.
The end of the Mesozoic marks
the end of the dinosaurs and many
other animals in another mass
extinction. This extinction may
have been caused by one or more
giant asteroids that slammed into
Earth, throwing huge amounts of
dust into the air. The dust blocked
the sunlight, causing plants to die
and, along with them, many
animals.
The Cenozoic era, the most recent era, began 65 million years ago and
continues today. The Cenozoic is often called the Age of Mammals because it
marks the time when mammals became a main category of life on Earth.
Mammals became the dominant species and the first primates evolved. Major
coastal during this ear, creating mountains like Himalayas, connecting north
and South America.
57 | P a g e
57
About 10 million years ago,
new plant species emerged and
dominated the land, giving way to
grassland. Early primates
inhabited most of the treetops but
as the grassland emerged, they
moved to explore it. With tall
grasses, they started walking on
two feet and free hands. They later
evolved to become the first
humans: the hominid. From that
day on present time, humans
dominated the planet.
ASSESSMENT
Classify the following events in Earth’s geologic history according to the
era where they occurred. Arrange them chronologically under each era. Only
write the letter.
Precambrian Paleozoic era Mesozoic Era Cenozoic Era
Era
A. abiogenesis
B. domination of dinosaurs
C. domination of mammals
D. asteroid impact
E. grassland
F. collision of huge mass on Earth, resulting to the formation of the moon
G. formation of the Earth’s atmosphere
H. emergence of cyanobacteria
I. evolution of humans
J. Pangaea
K. Reptiles
L. Emergence of first amphibians
M. Long duration of rain
N. Rule of primates
O. Formation of the ocean
REFERENCES:
geology.teacherfriendlyguide.org/index.php/geohist-mw
natmus.humboldt.edu/geological-time-scale
geology.com/time.htm
natmus.humboldt.edu/geological-time-scale
58 | P a g e
58
Quarter 1
MODULE
10 Natural Geologic Hazards
Learning Competency
 Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides
Introduction
The previous modules provided us an understanding of our Earth’s
structure and changes it has undergone. This module will now emphasize on the
discussion of the various natural geologic disaster and hazards. The Philippine
is prone to geological events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides. These natural events bring about different hazards that may cause
damage to infrastructures and danger lives.

 Define Natural and Geologic Hazard
 Describe earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides
 Identify various hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides
59 | P a g e
59
Practice Task
‘A source of potential harm or a
When you heard the
word “hazard”, what
situation with a potential to
cause loss.’
?
HAZARD
comes into your
(Standard Australia)
mind? Give your own
meaning of hazard,
A natural event that has the
you might base your
potential to cause harm or loss.
answer from the -ADPC
given definitions.
"Those elements of the physical
___________________________ environment, harmful to man
and caused by forces
_________________________________
extraneous to him"
_________________________________
_________________________________ (Burton et al 1978).
_________________________________
NATURAL HAZARD can be described as the threat of a potentially

damaging process or phenomenon that occurs, or has the potential to
occur, in our physical environment. The hazard exists whether or not an
event has happened. A natural hazard becomes a natural disaster when an
event occurs that causes injuries and damages beyond
society’s ability to cope.
GEOLOGICAL HAZARD is a natural hazard that has a geological or
physiographic cause, trigger or effect. It is a condition or event that may cause
harm to property and life as a result of geological process such as earthquake,
volcanic eruption and landslides.
1. EARTHQUAKES: the rapid shaking
of the Earth's surface that follows the
sudden release of energy within the
Earth.
The origin of the earthquake may
vary. It might be a result of a recent
volcanic activity, but mostly it is
tectonic-related. It results from the
dynamic release of elastic strain energy
The impact of Bohol-Cebu that radiates seismic waves. This is
Earthquake on Real Estate
explained by the elastic-rebound theory.
60 | P a g e
60
Elastic-rebound theory is derived from the concept of a spring. When
spring is compressed, it gains energy and releases the energy when the stress is
removed, resulting to wavelike movement. As tectonic plates meet, stress
accumulates; and later, energy is released from the stress in the form of ground
movements. Additional movements of the plates may occur accompanying the
main shock in order to gain stabilization of the plates. These additional
movements are known afterwards.
Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards are events associated with an earthquake that may cause
adverse effects on organisms and their environment.
 Ground shaking refers to the vibration of the land surface during an
earthquake. The intensity of the vibration depends on the magnitude of
the earthquake and the distance from the epicenter. Ground shaking may
cause partial or total collapse of buildings and structures.
 Ground displacement or surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical
displacement of the ground surface along the fault zone. It affects smaller
area compared to ground shaking. However, it severely damages buildings
and structures located adjacent to the faults.
 Liquefaction is the transformation of solid rocks and soil to a liquid‐
like state during ground shaking. When it occurs, large rigid structures
may tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
 Tsunami is a set of long, high ocean waves caused by an earthquake or
other disturbance under the sea. It causes flooding and destruction of
structures near the shorelines.
 Fire is caused by rupture of gas lines during ground shaking and
displacement. It poses threat of explosions which may cause death and
destruction of property.
Example
On October 15, 2013, a devastating earthquake happened in the province of
Bohol. Its recorded magnitude was 7.2. The ground shaking and displacement
caused major damage of several government buildings, schools, and houses. At
least 93 people had been reported dead after the earthquake.
2. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS: happens when materials such as magma, ash, and

gas are released from a volcano due to a build-up of pressure inside. The effects
of an eruption can be on a local scale affecting the areas near the volcano (e.g.
lava flow reaches nearby towns) or on a global scale (e.g. volcanic ash particles
on air change global temperature).
61 | P a g e
61
Similar to mountains and hills, volcanoes are formed by either the
converging of tectonic plates or the accumulation of materials erupted through
one or more openings on the Earth’s surface. The materials that accumulate and
form the volcanoes are molten
rocks coming from below the
Earth’s surface. Magma is
formed deep within the Earth
under high temperature and
pressure, and rises through
openings or cracks known as
fissure vents. Molten rocks
flowing out of volcanic vents are
called lava.
Lava flows from the crater of Mount
Mayon Volcano during a new eruption
in Legazpi City, Albay Province
Volcanic Eruption Hazards

Volcanic eruption hazards are events associated with a volcanic eruption that
may cause adverse effects on organisms and their environment.
 Lahar is a mixture of volcanic debris and water that flows at the slopes of
the volcano. It destroys infrastructures, buries towns and crops, and
fills river channels.
 Pyroclastic fall is a mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material (mixture of
ash and dust) and hot gases. It moves rapidly along the ground surface.
It buries towns and causes burns, injury, and damage upon impact.
 Volcanic gases are vapors released during an eruption. Some of these
gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, are poisonous. They
cause respiratory damage and death.
 Tephra falls are rock fragments and lava blobs ejected by a volcano. They
damage structures, break power lines, kill vegetation, and cause
respiratory damage.
Example
Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991. This eruption deposited about 5
km3 of rock fragments and volcanic ash on the volcano’s slopes. When a
heavy rain fell on that day, the rocks and ashes were washed down into the
surrounding lowlands in large, fast-moving mudflows called lahar. Lahar
caused more destruction in the lowlands than the eruption itself.
62 | P a g e
62
3. LANDSLIDES: also called
landslip, occurs when earth
materials (rocks, debris, and soil)
move downwards along a slope.
Landslides at Barangay
Ucab after typhoon Machut
Some landslides move slowly and cause damage gradually, whereas others
move so rapidly that they can destroy property and take lives suddenly and
unexpectedly. Gravity is generally the force driving landslide movement. Factors
that trigger landslide movement include heavy rainfall, erosion, poor
construction practices, freezing and thawing, earthquake shaking, and volcanic
eruptions. Landslides are typically associated with periods of heavy rainfall or
rapid snowmelt and tend to worsen the effects of flooding. Areas burned by forest
and brush fires are particularly susceptible to landslides.
Debris flows—sometimes referred to as mudslides, mudflows, lahars, or
debris avalanches—are common types of fast-moving landslides. These flows
generally occur during periods of heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt.
Landslide Hazards
Landslide hazards are events associated with a landslide that may cause adverse
effects on organisms and their environment.
 Mud flow is the flow of mud and rock. It may pick up trees, houses, and
cars as it moves down the slope. It may block bridges and tributaries
causing flood along its path.
 Earthflow is the downward flow of fine-grained materials, such as clay,
fine sand, and silt. It is slower than mudflow, but it inflicts the same
damage.
 Rock fall is the sliding, toppling, or falling of rocks along a slope. It
disrupts road traffic in mountainous regions. When it hits a structure or
vehicle, it causes damage depending on the size of the rock and the force
of impact.
Example
A massive landslide happened on February 17, 2006 in Southern Leyte. The
landslide caused widespread damage and loss of life. It was followed by heavy rainfall
and a minor earthquake. The official death toll was 1126
63 | P a g e
63
ASSESSMENT

1. What is a geological hazard?
A. an extreme weather that destroys properties and causes casualties
B. a possible cause of harm to property and life as a result of a
geological process
C. the magnitude of destruction caused by a geological event
D. a location prone to geological processes such as earthquake and
landslide
2. Which of the following conditions or events give rise to geological
hazards?
A. earthquake
B. volcanic eruption
C. tornado
D. tropical cyclone
3. Which of the following describes a tsunami?
A. a large ocean wave caused by an earthquake
B. a massive flood brought by heavy rain
C. a large ocean wave caused by a high tide
D. a coastal flood commonly associated with low pressure weather
system
4. Which of the following is not an earthquake hazard?
A. liquefaction
B. tsunami
C. fire
D. pyroclastic flow
5. Which of the following pairs correctly match?
A. volcanic eruption : ground displacement
B. earthquake : tsunami
C. landslide : rock fall
D. earthquake : lahar
6. Which of the following are true about a volcanic eruption?
A. It happens when materials such as lava, rocks, ashes, and gases
are released from a volcano.
B. It is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of
energy from accumulated stress along the geologic faults.
C. It may cause damage in the local or global scale.
D. It occurs when earth materials move downwards along a slope due
to a heavy rainfall.
7. What happens during liquefaction?
A. Solid rocks and soil transform into a liquid-like state.
B. A mass of hot, dry pyroclastic material moves rapidly along the
ground surface.
C. Rock fragments and lava blobs are ejected by a volcano.
D. A mixture of debris and water flows at the slopes of a volcano.
64 | P a g e
64
For 8, 9 and 10, refer to the table below
Hazard Description Effect
Code
Hazard A Rapid flowing of wet earth Buries towns and kills
vegetation
Hazard B A set of long, high ocean waves Breaks structure and
caused by an earthquake or other causes floods in low-
disturbance under the sea lying areas
Hazard C A mass of hot dry pyroclastic Buries towns and
material (mixture of ash and dust) destroys infrastractures
and hot gases
Hazard D Transformation of solid rocks and Breakage of
solid to a liquid-like state foundations, pipelines
and structures
8. Which is most likely a tsunami?

A. Hazard A
B. Hazard B
C. Hazard C
D. Hazard D
9. Refer to the table below. What are possible effects of Hazard C?
A. It may cause flood in low-lying areas.
B. It can sink buildings and other structures.
C. It may cause respiratory ailments.
D. It may cause burn and injury upon impact.
10. Refer to the table below. Which of the hazards are caused by an
earthquake?
A. Hazard A
B. Hazard B
C. Hazard C
D. Hazard D
ENRICHMENT
While enjoying your summer vacation at the beach, you felt the ground
moving because of an earthquake. What should you do? What are the
scenarios that may happen during and after the earthquake?
REFERENCES:
mobile.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/31-geological-
hazards/1814976262072355/?_rdc=1&_rdr
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquake-Hazards
https://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/introduction.htm
65 | P a g e
65
Quarter 1
MODULE
11 Natural Geologic Hazards
Learning Competency
 Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought about by
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides
 Identify human activities that speed up or trigger landslides
Introduction
We have learned the various hazards brought about by earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and landslides in the previous module. We have understand
how they brought damages and injuries to the lives and to our environment. So,
it is important to identify areas that are prone or at risk of various natural hazard
and our activities that might cause them. In this module, we will going to
understand geologic hazard map and how to use it in locating hazard prone
areas. This will also provide us knowledge on the human activities that lead to
landslides.
 Describe geologic hazard map

 Locate areas prone to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides using hazard maps
 Give the important used of geologic hazard maps
 Cite human activities which lead and speed up landslides
66 | P a g e
66
GEOLOGICAL HAZARD MAP
A geological hazard map is a map indicating the areas that are
vulnerable to hazards caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides. It is a tool used by scientists and local government authorities
to anticipate any hazard that a geological event may bring. It also helps
the public be informed and prepared for the geological hazard.
You must take note of the following elements in studying the geological
hazard map:
 The map title indicates what type of information is being presented

by the map. For example, the title “tsunami-prone areas” indicates
that the map presents the places along the coastal areas that are
prone to tsunami hazards.
 Symbols are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used on the map.
For example, a line may indicate faults or tsunamis while a triangular
shape may represent a volcano.
 The legend tells you specifically what these symbols mean.
 Source make sure that the source of your map is a credible

institution.
 Hazard maps are produced by government agencies like PhiVolcS

(Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology), DOST
(Department of Science and Technology), and DENR (Department of
Environment and Natural Resources).
 Private research institutes like the Manila Observatory also generate

maps. With the use of the Internet, these maps can be viewed online
on their websites.
Earthquake Hazard Map (Refer to the picture below)
The map shows the earthquake-prone areas in the Philippines. Based on the
legend, the different locations are colored depending on the number of
earthquake hits for the past 30 years. For example, Baguio City (Benguet), which
is found in the northern part of Luzon, experienced 76-100 earthquakes.
Meanwhile, Puerto Princesa City (Palawan), which is in the Southwest of Luzon,
experienced fewer earthquakes (0-11).
67 | P a g e
67
The top ten provinces that are most prone to earthquakes are:
1. Surigao Del Sur
2. La Union
3. Benguet
4. Pangasinan
5. Pampanga
6. Tarlac
7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental
9. Nueva Vizcaya
10. Nueva Ecija
 Surigao del Sur, along with Davao Oriental, are earthquake-prone

because they are located along the Philippine Trench and because of
nearby active fault lines.
 Deep-focus earthquakes that are experienced in La Union and
Pangasinan are due to the Manila Trench, while shallow earthquakes
in these areas together with Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Benguet
are generally due to their location along the Philippine Fault Zone.
Although Ifugao experienced fewer earthquakes in the past, it is still
very vulnerable to future earthquakes.
68 | P a g e
68
Map of the Distribution of Volcanoes (Refer to the picture below)
Below is the map showing the distribution of volcanoes all over the
Philippines. These volcanoes are classified as active (red), potentially active
(yellow), and inactive (green). Places where active and potentially active volcanoes
are prone to hazards of volcanic activities or volcanic eruptions. For example,
Mayon Volcano situated in Albay in the Bicol Region, is known not only for its
perfect cone, but also for its volcanic activities. It has 49 recorded eruptions as
of 2013. The areas surrounding the volcano are highly affected by volcanic
hazards. On the contrary, Palawan is not vulnerable to volcanic eruption hazards
since there are very few volcanoes near the area and all of them are inactive.
69 | P a g e
69
Earthquake-Induced Shallow Landslides Map (Refer to the picture below)
Places that have landslide hazards are presented in the map below. The
legend tells you the levels of the danger of the occurrence of landslide. For
example, majority of the provinces in the Northern Luzon is considered a high-
danger zone. These include mountainous areas like Abra, Benguet, Ifugao,
Kalinga, and Mt. Province. On the other hand, Palawan shows no present risk in
landslides.
70 | P a g e
70
Human Activities That Speed Up or Trigger Landslides
1. Mining: The use of explosives

underground are like min-
earthquakes. This can cause a
landslide. Also historic mining
leaves gaps of 6-8 ft. A shift in soil
can cause a ground level drop of
the same measurement leading to
a landslide.
2. Quarrying: It is an excavation
or pit, usually open to the air, from
which building stone, slate, or the
like, is obtained by cutting and
blasting
3. Land Pollution: is the degradation of

earth’s land surfaces often caused by
human activities and its misuse.
Hazard disposal of urban and
industrial wastes, exploitation of
minerals, and improper use of soil by
inadequate agricultural practices are a
few of the contributing factors.
4. Excavation: is the exposure,

processing and recording or
archaeological remains. An excavation
site or “dig” is a site being studied.
5. Land use: examples are

construction of roads, houses and
other infrastructures.
71 | P a g e
71
ASSESSMENT
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. What is a geological hazard map?
A. a map that shows the potential mining areas in different regions of
the country
B. a map that shows the areas prone to hazards brought by geological
events
C. a map that shows the number of geologists based on specific areas
D. a map that shows the geographic features of an area
2. Which of the following are the points, lines, shapes, and colors used in
the map?
A. symbols C. titles
B. legends D. sources
3. Which of the following Philippine agencies and institutes produce

geological hazard maps?
I. Department of Agriculture
II. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
III. Department of Trade and Industry
IV. Department of Environment and Natural Resources
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and II
D. II and IV
4. Which of the following is true about the red dots? (Refer to Earthquake-
Prone Areas)
A. The biggest red colored area indicates that it was hit by a strong
earthquake.
B. The yellow part indicates that the area was not hit by an
earthquake.
C. The red colored part indicates that the area was hit by few
earthquakes.
D. The orange part indicates that the area was not hit by an
earthquake.
72 | P a g e
72
5. Which of the following are true about Albay and Palawan? (Refer to the
map below)
I. Palawan experiences more volcanic eruptions than Albay.
II. Albay experiences more volcanic eruptions than Palawan.
III. Palawan is near many active volcanoes.
IV. Albay is near active, inactive, and potentially active volcanoes.
A. I and II
B. II and IV
C. II and III
D. I and III
ALBAY
PALAWAN
II. Answer the following questions.

1. Find a map of the Philippines and compare it to the earthquake hazard
map or to the risk to earthquake map. Then, answer the following:
a. Which is more prone to earthquakes, Pampanga or Zamboanga?
b. Which town experienced a greater magnitude earthquake, Panay or

Mindoro?
2. What are the human activities that lead and speed up landslide?
73 | P a g e
73
ENRICHMENT
Your family decided to move to a different place and live there permanently.
You know nothing about the safety of this new place; however, you observed
that there is a nearby volcano. Also, there are coastlines several kilometers from
your house. You decided to go to the local government hall to ask about the area,
and they gave you hazard maps. How can you use these maps to confirm the
safety of your new home? What do you think? Why is it important to understand
geological hazard maps?
REFERENCES:
mobile.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/lesson-32-understanding-geological-hazard-
maps/1819274114975903/?_rdc=1&_rdr
www.slideshare.net/mobile/RomnickUreta/human-actions-that-speed-up-landslides
vm.observatory.ph/geophys_maps.html
www.planat.ch/en/homeowners/hazard-maps/
www.sheffield.ac.uk/news/nr/landslide-study-petley-froude-1.799171
74 | P a g e
74
Quarter 1
MODULE
Natural Hydrometeorological
12 Phenomena and Hazards
Learning Competency
 Using hazard maps, identify areas prone to hazards brought about by
tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods, or ipo-ipo
Introduction
Landslides, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions brought geologic hazards
in our environment as mentioned from the previous modules. But, not all
hazards can be considered geologically-related. Hazards might also be weather-
related or called as hydrometeorologically. The Philippines is disposed to
numerous natural disasters and most of these are climate or weather-related
hazards because it is located in the tropical area.

 Define hydrometeorological hazard
 Identify hydrometeorological phenomena
 Describe tropical cyclones, monsoons, floods and ipo-ipo
 Using hazard map, identify places with high risk of
hydrometeorological phenomena
75 | P a g e
75
Practice Task
Name the following natural phenomena represented by the pictures.
Hydrometeorology: a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies

the transfer of water and energy between the land surface and the lower
atmosphere.
Hazard: any source that can cause harm or damage to humans, properly
or the environment.
HYDROMETEREOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic
nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
Tropical Cyclone is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans from
where it draws the energy to develop. It has a low pressure center and clouds
spiralling towards the eyewall surrounding the “eye”, the central part of the
system where the weather is normally calm and free of clouds.
76 | P a g e
76
 Typhoons: develop in the Northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, which
includes the Philippines and neighboring Asian countries.
 Hurricanes: form in the Central or Northheastern part of the Pacific or in
the North Atlantic.
There are six main requirements for a tropical cyclone to form:
1. Sufficiently warm sea surface temperature

2. Atmospheric instability
3. High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
4. Enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center
5. Pre-existing low level disturbance
6. Low vertical wind shear
Classification of tropical cyclones according to the strength of the

associated winds
Tropical Cyclones Wind Strength

Tropical Depression (TD) Maximum sustained winds of up to 61 kilometers
per hour (kph) or less than 33 nautical miles per
hour (knots)
Tropical Storm (TS) Maximum wind speed of 62-88 kph or 34-47 knots
Severe Tropical Storm (STS) Maximum wind speed of 89-117 kph or 48-63
knots
Typhoon (TY) Maximum wind speed of 118-220 kph or 48-63
knots
Super Typhoon (STY) Maximum wind speed of 220 kph or more than 120
knots
MONSOONS
A seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of
region. It often brings about thoughts of torrential rains, similar to a hurricane
or typhoon. But, moon is not a single storm, it is a seasonal wind shift over a
region. The shift may cause heavy rains in the summer, but other times, it may
cause a dry spell.
 Wet monsoon: typically occurs during summer months (about April
through September) bringing heavy rains according to National
Geographic.
 Dry monsoon: typically occurs between October and April.
FLOODS
Generally referred as the running and overlaying of water on land that are
not ordinary covered by it. It may occur when water from bodies water, such as
river or lake, escapes its usual boundaries and therefore overflows. It may also
occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground.
 Areal flood: caused by lowland areas categorized as flood plains serving
as catch basin of water coming highlands or mountains.
 Riverine flood: due to the overflowing of water from rivers and streams.
 Coastal or Estuarine flood: due to the inability of estuaries or openings
to coastal areas to release the water faster than the intake of water.
77 | P a g e
77
 Urban flood: the result of non-functional drainages and canals in urban
areas
TORNADO or IPO-IPO
A violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm to the
ground. It’s often portended by a dark, greenish sky. Black storm clouds gather.
Baseball-size hail may fall. A funnel suddenly appears, as though descending
from a cloud. The funnel hits the ground and roars forward with a sound like
that of a train approaching. The tornado tears up everything in its path.
RISK TO TYPHOONS
Northern Luzon, Southeastern Luzon and Eastern Visayas are the areas highly
at risk to the occurrence of tropical depressions, tropical storms, typhoons and
super typhoons.
The top 20 provinces at risk to typhoons are:

1. Cagayan 11. Northern Samar
2. Albay 12. Catanduanes
3. Ifugao 13. Apayao
4. Sorsogon 14. Pampanga
5. Kalinga 15. La Union
6. Ilocos Sur 16. Nueva Ecija
7. Ilocos Norte 17. Pangasinan
8. Camarines Norte 18. Masbate
9. Mountain Province 19. Tarlac
10. Camarines Sur 20. Western Samar
78 | P a g e
78
RISK TO PROJECTED RAINFALL
CHANGE
The map of risk to projected rainfall

change shown below incorporates both
rainfall decrease during the dry season
and rainfall increase during the wet
season. The area’s most at risk to
projected rainfall changes are Central,
South and Southeast Luzon and Eastern
Visayas.
The top 20 provinces at risk to projected

rainfall change are:
1. Albay 11. Masbate
2. Pampanga 12. Metro Manila
3. Ifugao 13. Tarlac
4. Rizal 14. Nueva Ecija
5. Cavite 15. Northern Samar
6. Sorsogon 16. Aklan
7. Laguna 17. Capiz
8. Biliran 18. La Union
9. Batangas 19. Western Samar
10. Pangasinan 20. Romblon
ASSESSMENT
1. Which of the following is NOT considered as hydrometeorological
phenomena?
a. Flood c. Landslide
b. Monsoon d. Tropical cyclone
2. Which among the classification of tropical cyclones is the strongest?
a. Tropical Depression c. Typhoon
b. Severe Tropical Storm d. Super Typhoon
3. Which of the following hydrometeorological phenomena is the seasonal
wind shift over a region?
a. Tropical cyclone
b. Monsoons
c. Floods
d. Tornado
4. It is the accumulation of overlying water on land?
a. Tropical cyclone
b. Monsoons
c. Floods
d. Tornado
79 | P a g e
79
5. What type of flood is caused by the overflowing of water from rivers and
streams?
a. Areal flood
b. Riverine flood
c. Coastal or Estuarine flood
d. Urban flood
II. Answer the following questions: Find a map of the Philippines and compare
it to the hazard map below, then answer the following questions.
1. Which parts of Bicol Region have very

high risk to typhoons?
2. How prone or at risk does Palawan?
3. Which part of the Philippines (Luzon,

Visayas, or Mindanao) has the highest
risk to typhoons?
4. Why do you think Bicol Region has

high and very high risk to typhoon?
REFERENCES:
Vm.observatory.ph/geophys_maps.html
https://www.operandum-project.eu/news/what-are-hydrometeorological-hazards/
80 | P a g e
80
Quarter 1
MODULE
Marine and Coastal Processes and
13 their Effects
Learning Competency
 Describe how coastal processes result in coastal erosion, submersion,
and saltwater intrusion
Introduction
The Philippines is an archipelago which composed of many islands making
it rich with marine and coastal areas. Our coasts provide us with various
different products. Marine and coastal areas are beneficial as these serve as
source of income of many Filipinos. But, still, there are various marine and
coastal processes that might put dangers to our environment.
 Describe coastal erosion, submersion and saltwater

intrusion
 Determine factors that caused coastal erosion, submersion
and saltwater intrusion
 Identify practices and methods that can help protect the
coasts
81 | P a g e
81
COASTAL PROCESSES: are unavoidable occurrences driven by nature and
amplified by human action. They cause damage to the shorelines through
coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
COASTAL EROSION: is the

wearing away of soil along the
coast caused by destructive
waves. It is the loss or
displacement of land, or the
long-term removal of sediment
and rocks along the coastline
due to the action of waves,
currents, tides, wind-driven
water, waterborne ice, or other
impacts of storms. There are
four main processes which
cause coastal erosion:
1. Corrosion, when waves pick up beach materials, (e,g. pebbles) and hurl
them at the base of a cliff.
2. Abrasion happens when breaking waves containing sediment fragments
erode the shoreline, particularly headland. It is also referred to as sand
paper effect.
3. Hydraulic action, when waves hit the base of a cliff, compressing air
into cracks and thereby causing the cliff material to break away as air
rushes out of the cracks when waves retreat.
4. Attrition is the process when waves bumps rocks and pebbles against
each other leading to the eventual breaking of materials
5. Corrosive/solution, when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak
acid in the sea
COASTAL SUBMERSION: is the
sustainable cyclic portion where the
sediment is submersed under water and
eventually replaced back to its original
location. This often takes place during
violent storms, when sand is dragged or
pushed underwater, and it tends to return
back to visible place (via wave action) it had
previously been when the seas have calmed
down.
 Beaches: relatively narrow strips of sand, pebbles, or cobbles deposited
along a shoreline.
82 | P a g e
82
 90% of beach sediment comes from streams that drain to coast –
transported by longshore current
 Spit and/or hook: narrow strip of sand across the mouth of bay due to
longshore current
SALTWATER INTRUSION: or encroachment, is a major concern commonly

found in coastal aquifers around the world. It is the movement of saltwater into
underground sources (aquifers) of freshwater, which can occur in coastal regions
or inland, and the surface movement of saltwater inland from the coast. The
induced flow of seawater into freshwater aquifers primarily caused by
groundwater development near the coast. It can lead to groundwater quality
degradation including drinking water.
Saltwater intrusion is most common in coastal regions, where the

freshwater is displaced by the inland movement of saltwater from the ocean. But
it can also occur inland, far away from the ocean, as fresh water is pumped out
from underground reservoirs and the salt-laden water from surrounding salty
layers of the earth flow in.
The most common cause of saltwater intrusion is the pumping of
freshwater from wells near coasts. Climate change can increase saltwater
encroachment along coastal regions as level rises. Increased salinity of coastal
freshwater can threaten the plant life and wildlife of coastal areas, destroy
habitats and force the abandonment of drinking-water supplies.
The following practices and methods can help coastal areas cope with coastal
erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion.
COASTAL PROTECTION
Some structures and methods can help protect the coasts from erosion and
submersion. They are usually constructed along the coasts.
83 | P a g e
83
1. Seawalls and bulkheads are structures that are built parallel to shores
that protect the coasts from wave actions.
2. Groynes and jetties are structures that are built perpendicular to shores
to prevent coastal erosion by promoting beach build-up as they trap sand.
3. Breakwaters are offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel
waves and in turn, prevent erosion and submersion.
4. Beach nourishment is a method where a large amount of sand is added
to the coasts. This will create a new beach or widen an existing one.
However, this method is costly which deters communities to use it.
5. Sandbags are used to counteract waves that hit the shores. They also
diminish the effect of a storm surge that can cause submersion.
Reducing Coastal Erosion
Different ways can be done to reduce the impact of coastal erosion. Some of them
are less expensive than constructing structures along the coasts.
1. Development of infrastructures must be constructed in safe distances from
the coasts.
2. Beach dewatering involves pumping out water from the shores to prevent
erosion.
3. Artificial seaweeds can be placed in the water near the coasts to reduce
the speed of current that promote erosion.
4. Ban of mining activities near coasts prevents erosion caused by mining.
5. Plant cover and vegetation around coasts aid in protecting coasts from
erosion.
Coping with Saltwater Intrusion
The following methods help in dealing with saltwater intrusion.
1. Monitoring and assessment ensure effective management of saltwater
intrusion cases.
2. Regulations from governing units aid in coping with saltwater intrusion.
Structures must be regulated to have a safe distance from the sea to
prevent excessive groundwater extraction from the reservoir that
contributes to saltwater intrusion.
3. Artificial recharges pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent
saltwater from intruding through the coasts.
4. Barriers can be constructed along coasts to prevent further
advancement of saltwater if already present.
84 | P a g e
84
ASSESSMENT
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is the loss and displacement of land, or the long term removal of
sediment and rocks along the coastlines.
a. Coastal Erosion
b. Coastal Submersion
c. Saltwater Intrusion
d. Encroachment
2. Which of the following happens when waves cause rocks and pebbles to
bump into each other?
a. Corrosion
b. Abrasion
c. Hydraulic action
d. Attrition
3. Which of the following events is describe as abrasion?
a. when breaking waves containing sediment fragments erode the
shoreline
b. when waves hit the base of a cliff, compressing air into cracks
c. when waves bumps rocks and pebbles against each other
d. when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak acid in the sea
4. Which of the following statements is NOT true about saltwater intrusion?
a. It is the movement of saltwater into aquifers of freshwater
b. It can lead to groundwater quality degradation
c. It is most common in coastal regions but can occur inland.
d. It is the removal of sediments and rocks along the coastline.
5. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a. Coastal submersion occurs when amount of sediment exceeds
waves
b. Coastal erosion is caused by destructive waves and currents.
c. Most of beach sediments are transported by longshore current.
d. In saltwater intrusion, sand is dragged or pushed underwater.
6. Which of the following is best to be included in making legislation that
will protect the coasts?
a. Infrastructures must be built on a certain distance from the coasts
to prevent erosion and saltwater intrusion.
b. Infrastructure must not be built near coasts at all. Only rural
buildings are allowed.
c. Infrastructures must be built along coasts to prevent the
occurrence of waves.
d. Infrastructures must be made of heavy materials to withstand
waves and storm surges.
85 | P a g e
85
7. Which of the following is the most practical way of preventing coastal
erosion?
a. building of breakwaters
b. preservation of vegetation along coasts
c. construction of a seawall
d. enforcing sandbags every time there is an incoming wave
8. Which of the following best describes how monitoring and assessment of
coasts help in coping with the effects of coastal processes?
a. Monitoring and assessment provide adequate equipment for the
construction of physical barriers against waves and storm surges.
b. Monitoring and assessment provide people with relevant data for
them to plan special ways of coping with erosion, submersion, and
saltwater intrusion.
c. Monitoring and assessment have no significance with creating
ways of coping with the effects of coastal processes.
d. Monitoring and assessment provide a visual picture of the
aftermath of different coastal processes in coastal areas.
9. Which of the following are placed along coasts to lessen the impact of
storm surges or waves in cases of emergencies?
a. sandbags
b. artificial seaweeds
c. breakwaters
d. seawalls
10. Which of the following are the methods that help in coping with
saltwater intrusion?
I. artificial recharges
II. monitoring and assessment
III. regulations
IV. mining activities
a. I and II only c. II, III and IV
b. I, II and III d. II and IV
II. IDENTIFICATION. Identify the structure(s) or method(s) that can help
protect the coasts is being described by the following:
___________1. Pump freshwater to the reservoir to prevent saltwater from
intruding through the coasts.
___________2. The offshore structures that protect coasts from parallel waves in
which prevent erosion and submersion.
___________3. Structures that are built parallel to shores that protect the coasts
from wave actions.
____________4. Structures that are built perpendicular to shores to prevent
coastal erosion by promoting beach build-up as they trap sand.
____________5. Used to counteract waves that hit the shores.
86 | P a g e
86
ENRICHMENT
You are one of the leading researchers in your coastal community. A

land developer wants to build a mall that is 20 feet off the edge of the coast. He
presented that his mall will not be affected by coastal processes because there
were no records of any major damages done in your community. As a researcher,
what are the problems that the land developer might encounter if he would
continue to build his mall?
REFERENCES:
m.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/lesson-39-coping-with-coastal-erosion-submersion-
and-saltwater-intrusion/1830442383859076/
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/coastal-processes-and-beaches-
26276621/
www.encyclopedia.com/environment/energy-government-and-defense-magazines/saltwater-
intrusion
87 | P a g e
87
Quarter 2
& Science
1|Page
88
Quarter 2
MODULE
1 Introduction to Life Science
Learning Competency
 Explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
Introduction
In Quarter 1, we have studied about Earth sciences, which are the fields
of study concerned with the solid Earth, its waters, and the air that envelops it.
In the following modules, we will learn about Life science, which is the study
of life and living things. Living things are also called organisms. Life science is
often referred to as biology. In module 1, we will understand how philosophers
and scientists answered the following questions: Where did life come from? How
did life happen on Earth? Why is there life on Earth? What was the first form of
life?

 Discuss the different theories which explains the origin of life on
Earth
 Identify the first organisms that was first formed on Earth
 Compare abiogenesis and biogenesis theory
 Determine the most widely accepted theory about the origin of
life on Earth
 Make a timeline of the origin of life on Earth
2|Page
89
Activity 1.
What is LIFE? Write your own definition, view and understanding of
life as well as the recognized characteristics/properties associated with life.
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Life began on Earth at least 4.5 billion years ago, and it has been
evolving ever since. At first, all living things on Earth were simple, single-
celled organisms. Much later, the first multicellular organisms evolved,
and after that, Earth's biodiversity greatly increased.
3|Page
90
THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION

It is the earliest hypothesis about the origin of Life. Special creation is
a theological doctrine which states that the universe and all life in it originated
in its present form by unconditional force or divine decree. Most religions of
different human cultures accepted the concept of special creation in one way or
other. According to Bible, for instance, world was created within six natural days.
However, special creation theory lacks sound logic and scientifically sound
evidence, therefore, it could not convince the scientists. Charles Darwin
condemned the special creation theory by saying that earth has not always been
inhabited by plants and animals as we know.
COSMOZOIC THEORY or PANSPERMIA THEORY
This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by Arrhenius
(1908). According to this theory, life has reached the planet Earth from other
heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly resistant spores of
some microorganisms. The spores of some microorganisms are called cosmozoa
or panspermia because they are preserved inside meteorites coming to the earth
from the outer space. These meteorites struck the barren earth to release the
cosmozoa and they developed into different creatures on the earth. This theory
lacks evidence.
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION

This theory is also known as theory of abiogenesis, or the theory of auto-
biogenesis of origin of life. This theory was proposed by Greek philosophers (600
B.C) and supported by Aristotle (384-322 BC). This theory assumed that living
organisms could arise suddenly and spontaneously from non-living matter.
4|Page
91
Aristotle believed that dead leaves falling from the tree into a pond would
transform into fishes and those falling on soil would transform into worms and
insects. He also believed that some insects develop from morning dew and rotting
manure, maggots from flesh, tapeworm from animal excreta, butterflies from
cheese. The idea of spontaneous generation was popular almost until sevententh
century. Many scientists like Descartes, Galileo, and Helmont supported this
idea. This theory was disproved by Francisco Redi (1665), Spallanzani (1765),
and later by Louis Pasteur (1864) experimentally.
Activity 2.
Experiment Time!
Place a piece or raw meat on a disposable container. Leave it

outside for a day. Keep the meat out of reach of animals (such as cats)
and other people.
Return on the following day and check the meat. Observe carefully.
What else do you see aside from the meat?
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
How does this explain the theory of spontaneous generation?

_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________
THEORY OF BIOGENESIS
Biogenesis postulates the production of new living organisms from pre-
existing life. Biogenesis is based on the theory that life can only come from life, and
it refers to any process by which a life form can give rise to other life forms. This
theory could not explain the origin of the first life on earth but could satisfactorily
explain the continuity of life. This theory was proposed by Francisco Redi (1665),
Spallanzani (1765), and later supported by Louis Pasteur (1864).
5|Page
92
1. FRANCISCO REDI’S EXPERIMENT
Francesco Redi, as far back as 1668, had
set out to refute the idea of macroscopic
spontaneous generation, by publishing the
results of his experimentation on the matter.
Instead of his experiment, Redi had placed some
rotting meat in two containers, one with a piece
of gauze covering the opening, and the other
without it.
He noticed that in the container without
the gauze, maggots would grow on the meat itself. However, when he
provided the gauze, the maggots would appear on the gauze instead of on
the meat. He also observed that flies tend to lay eggs as close to a food
source as possible. Thus, he surmised the possibility of macroscopic
biogenesis.
2. LAZZARO SPALLANZANI’S EXPERIMENT
In 1768, Lazzaro Spallanzani

suspected microscopic biogenesis and
wanted to prove it experimentally. He
boiled meat broth in a sealed container to
avoid contamination. However, he was
faced with a problem- upon heating a
sealed container, the air inside would
expand massively and would shatter the
glass of the container.
He solved this problem by drawing
out all the air in the container after sealing
it. After experimenting with this manner,
he achieved his desired results of a broth
that had not clouded with bacterial growth,
in line with the theory of biogenesis.
3. LOUIS PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT

The French biochemist set up two
experiments. In both, he added nutrient
broth to flasks, bent the necks of the
flasks into S shapes, and then boiled the
broth to kill any existing microbes. Thus
the broth was sterilized. In the first
experiment, he broke off the swan necks
from the flasks and exposed the nutrient
broth within them to air from above. In
the second experiment, the flask was left
alone. Over time, dust particles from the
air fell into the broken flasks of the first
experiment. While, dust particles
remained near the tip of the swam necks,
6|Page
93
but could not travel against gravity into the flasks due to s shape of the
neck, keeping the nutrient broth sterile.
The broth in the broken flasks showed the development of microbial
life. However, the broth in the unbroken flasks remained clear. Thus
microbes are introduced in the broth in the flask of the first experiment by
dust particles. Thus, the Louis Pasteur experiment disproved the notion of
spontaneous generation.
PRIMORDIAL SOUP THEORY

According to the primordial
soup theory proposed by Alexander
Oparin and John Haldane, life started
in a primordial soup of organic
molecules. Some form of energy from
lightning combined with the
chemicals in the atmosphere to make
the building blocks of protein known
as the amino acids. Oparine and
Haldane independently hyphothesized
that the first microorganisms called
“primordial soup” appeared in oceans,
during a period when the atmosphere
was reducing.
DID YOU KNOW?
 The first evidence of life is found in microfossils. Microfossils are fossils

that contain the remains of tiny plants and animals. They are very small
and can be measured in millimeters, and some could only be identified
under a microscope.
 Some of the remains of organisms do not have a nucleus so they were
called prokaryotes. They are known to be the earliest forms of life. They
have survived the extreme conditions of the early environment. They
started to make their own food by utilizing the energy from the sun and
the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 The cyanobacteria are the first photosynthetic organisms to form. Their
microfossils are among the easiest to recognize. Their morphology
remained the same and they left chemical fossils in the form of broken
products from pigments.
 Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved from unicellular
eukaryotes. Some single eukaryotic cells, like unicellular algae, formed
multicellular aggregates through association with another cell producing
colonies.
 The continuous process of cell specialization brought the emergence of
complex and diverse plants and animals, including human beings.
7|Page
94
ASSESSMENT
1. When did the early forms of life exist?
a. 1.5 billion years ago
b. 2.5 billion years ago
c. 4.5 billion years ago
d. 3.5 billion years ago
2. What theory affirms that “life comes from other forms of life”?
a. Genesis c. biogenesis
b. Abiogenesis d. pangenesis
3. Which of the following theory lacks logic and scientific evidence as it
states that the universe and all life in it originated in its present form
by unconditional force?
a. Theory of special creation
b. Cosmozoic theory
c. Theory of spontaneous generation
d. Primordial soup theory
4. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?
a. Cosmozoic theory is based from the bible.
b. Theory of spontaneous generation believes that life originated
from pre-existing cells.
c. Theory of Biogenesis explains that life forms can give rise to other
life forms.
d. Theory of special creation states that life came from non-living
things.
5. Who is the scientist that used rotting meat on his experiment that
explains the theory of biogenesis?
a. Francisco Redi
b. Lazzaro Spallanzani
c. Louis Pasteur
d. Charles Darwin
6. What is the widely accepted theory for the origin of life?
a. Theory of special creation
b. Cosmozoic theory
c. Theory of spontaneous generation
d. Primordial soup theory
7. Which of the following experiment disproved the notion of spontaneous
generation?
a. Francisco Redi’s Experiment
b. Lazzaro Spallanzani’s Experiment
c. Louis Pasteur’s Experiment
d. Primordial soup Experiment
8|Page
95
8. Which of the following scientists proposed the primordial soup theory?
a. Oparin and Haldane
b. Aristotle and Darwin
c. Redi, Pasteur and Spallanzani
d. Richter
9. What was the known to be the earliest forms of life which can survived
the extreme conditions of the early environment?
a. Cyanobacteria
b. Algae
c. Microfossils
d. Prokaryotes
10. It is the first photosynthetic organisms to form which give rise to
other living organisms?
a. Cyanobacteria
b. Algae
c. Microfossils
d. Prokaryotes
II. Essay. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the difference between abiogenesis and biogenesis theory?
2. If multicellular organisms came from unicellular organisms, then

are all species related?
ENRICHMENT
Make a creative timeline of the different theories of how life on earth

evolved with brief description each.
REFERENCES:
https://www.britannica.com/science/life/Evolution-and-the-history-of-life-on-Earth
https://thefactfactor.com/facts/pure_science/biology/general-biology/theory-of-biogenesis-of-
origin-of-life/13652/
https://www.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/lesson-41-the-evolving-concept-of-
life/1831983763704938/
9|Page
96
Quarter 2
MODULE The Connection and Interaction
2 among Living Things
Learning Competency
 Describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution,
and ecosystems) in the study of life show the connections among living
things and how they interact with each other and with their environment
Introduction
Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of living
organisms and their relationships with each other and their environment. They
are different from each other, but they co-exist with one another in one
community. The unifying themes of life give us an idea of how each of these
themes contributes to the connection and interaction of living organisms and
their environment. What comes into your mind when you see or read the word
“themes”, maybe you think of about the colors and organization of a gadget or
desktop. In biology, you will see something similar. Themes of life is the basic
ideas that apply to all organisms. It connects many things in the exploration of
life.

 Identify the unifying themes of life
 Explain how the unifying themes of life show the connection and
interactions of organisms
10 | P a g e
97
Practice Task
Look around you and identify the living organisms that surround
you. What makes them similar to one another? What makes them
different?
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
All levels of life have systems of related parts.

System is an organized group of related parts that interact to form a whole
Systems exist on all scales in biology, from molecules that cannot be seen, to
cells that can be seen only with a microscope, to the biosphere. In just one heart
muscle cell, for example, chemicals and processes interact in a precise way so
that the cell has energy to do its work.It has different parts, but each plays a
significant role for the whole to function as one. Without the help from each
other, it cannot fully perform its function.
Ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment.
When you hear the term ecosystem, you might think about a large region, such
as a desert, a coral reef, or a forest. But an ecosystem can also be a very small
area, such as an individual tree.
11 | P a g e
98
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
New Properties Emerge at Each Level in the Biological Hierarchy

The cells are considered as the basic unit of life. All living organisms are
made up of cells. When cells come together, they form the tissues. A group of
tissues that perform the same functions form the organs. A group of organs that
works together form the different organ systems. An organism consists of many
organ systems but functions as one individual.
FORMS AND FUNCTIONS
Structure and Function are related in biology.

The function of an organism or a part of an organism greatly depends on its
form and structure. It is related to how it works. An example of this is the webbed
foot of a duck which helps the duck swim and search for their food under water.
Others birds have different structures of feet used for perching and grasping food.
12 | P a g e
99
REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE
Reproduction ensures the survival of species. All living organisms

reproduce either through asexual or sexual reproduction. In asexual
reproduction, the offspring inherits the genes from a single parent. However in
sexual reproduction, the offspring inherit the genes from two individual parents.
Some examples of animals that undergo asexual reproduction include
earthworms, hydra, planaria, and bacteria. Animals that undergo sexual
reproduction include some reptiles, fishes, insects, and mammals.
ENERGY AND LIFE
Living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. Plants undergo
photosynthesis where they convert the energy from the sun into sugar. Since most
of the animals cannot produce their own energy, they get the energy from the
consumption and assimilation of the biomass of plants and other animals.
13 | P a g e
100
THERMAL REGULATION
Organisms must maintain
homeostasis to survive in diverse
environment.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of
constant internal conditions in an
organism. Cells function best when it is
within a limited range of conditions,
therefore, homeostasis is important.
Homeostasis is maintained through
negative feedback, a change in a system
causing a response that tends to return that system to its original state. If your
body temperature drops below normal, systems in your body try to return your
temperature to normal by any means. Behavior is involved in homeostasis. For
an example, if you feel cold, you would most likely put on a jacket to warm
yourself.
ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION
Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life.

In a world that is continuously changing, life itself evolves. Evolution is
the change in the physical and heritable traits of organisms over successive
generations. Organisms change over time to acclimate to their environment in
order to survive. If they fail to adapt to the changes, they usually become extinct.
Adaptation is an inherited trait that gives an advantage to individual
organisms and is passed on to future generations. In natural selection, genetic
trait helps some individuals of species survive and reproduce more successfully
than other in a particular environment.
14 | P a g e
101
Unity and Diversity
Evolution accounts for both
the diversity and the unity
(similarities) of life. Humans and
bacterial genetics are based on
DNA and RNA. They both rely
upon the same sources of energy
with similar cell structures. All of
the species that are alive today,
are the result of billions of years
and evolution and adaptation to environment. Evolution of new species is led by
the natural selection of genetic traits. Genetic diversity is responsible for the
diversity of life on Earth.
ASSESSMENT
1. What is the process by which the sun's energy is trapped as the source of
energy and is converted into chemical energy?
A. adaptation
B. evolution
C. photosynthesis
D. homeostasis
2. Which of the following refers to the process by which changes occur in the
characteristics of species of organisms over time?
A. evolution
B. homeostasis
C. regulation
D. metabolism
3. Which refers to the maintenance of internal conditions of an organism
within a certain range?
A. adaptation
B. evolution
C. metabolism
D. homeostasis
4. Which of the following sequences is likely to be observed in an elephant,
going from smallest to largest?
A. cell, organ, tissue, organism
B. cell, organ, system, tissue
C. organism, system, organ, tissue
D. cell, tissue, system, organism
5. Which of the following does NOT follow the principle of forms and
function?
A. The thick and heavy bones of birds allow them to stay longer in the
air.
B. The fins of a fish help it to propel itself through the water.
C. The beaver’s spoon-shaped tail helps them in swimming and is also
used as a defense mechanism.
15 | P a g e
102
D. The biconcave shape of red blood cells provides greater surface area
which allow both red blood cells and oxygen to exchange through
the capillaries which are smaller in diameter than the red blood
cells.
6. Which statement is NOT true about living organisms?
A. Living things are made up of cells.
B. Living things adapt and evolve in order to survive.
C. Living things have different parts that depend on the structure and
form for their functions.
D. Living things are made of organic elements only.
7. Which of the following is NOT an example of homeostasis?
A. Sweating cools the body down when temperature rises.
B. Energy is captured by plants to convert light energy into chemical
energy.
C. If there is too much glucose in the blood, insulin converts some of it
to glycogen.
D. The capillaries underneath your skin get constricted to take the
blood away from the surface of the skin to warm the body up.
8. Which is TRUE about the extinction of a species?
A. It can be caused by a natural phenomenon.
B. It is caused by humans only.
C. It is never affected by human activities.
D. It has a progressive impact on biodiversity.
9. Some members of a species have genetic change that causes them to
survive in their environment. They have survived to reproduce and pass
these genetic changes to their offspring. What best explains this situation?
A. All living organisms are made up of cells.
B. Living things evolve through time.
C. Living things interact with their environment in order to survive.
D. Different organisms have to maintain different internal conditions.
10. Over a year, the population of tigers in India decreased by half of its
original size. Which statement below best explains this change in the
Bengal tiger’s population?
A. presence of rich habitat and sustainability in food sources
B. poaching due to the increasing demand for traditional Asian
medicines
C. gradual change in climate and other environmental factors
D. increase in the number of prey in the area
II. ESSAY. Which of the unifying themes do you consider the most important of
all? Why did you say so?
REFERENCES:
ThemesintheStudyofLife.pdf
file:///C:/Users/admin/Downloads/Chapter%201.2%20student%20edition.pdf
https://www.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/43-the-connections-and-interactions-among-living-
things/1837669823136332/
https://a3biology1.weebly.com/homeostasis-and-evolution.html
16 | P a g e
103
Quarter 2
MODULE
Reproduction of Animals
3
Learning Competency
 Describe the different ways of how animals representative animals
reproduce
Introduction
How do different animals ensure the continuity of species? Without
reproduction, life will not exist. Animals reproduce in different ways. There are
some, which produces in unusual styles. In this module, we will going to find
out how animals reproduce, asexually and sexually, to guarantee the stability of
species.
 Differentiate sexual and asexual reproduction

 Describe the types of asexual reproduction
 Compare internal and external fertilization
17 | P a g e
104
Practice Task
Sexual or Asexual. Tell whether the following scenarios are under

asexual or sexual reproduction.
1. _____________1. offspring are genetically variable
2. _____________2. every offspring is genetically identical
3. _____________3. slower rate of reproduction
4. _____________4. faster rate of reproduction
5. _____________5. needs only one parent to produce an offspring
6. _____________6. needs two parents to produce an offspring
7. _____________7. extinction of species is unlikely
There are two types of reproduction that exists in living organisms:

asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is common among
lower form of animals while sexual reproduction can be found in more
complex animals.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF ANIMALS
This type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce an
individual. In this type of reproduction, an individual offspring produces
offspring that are genetically identical to itself since the genetic makeup is not
changed.
This occurs when an

offspring grows out of
BUDDING the body of the parent.
Example: hydra
18 | P a g e
105
Happens when an
organism
GEMMATION spontaneously develops
a bulge that turns into
a new organism.
Example: sponges
Occurs when one part

of an organism give rise
to another.
FRAGMENTATION Example: flatworms, the
animal splits at a
particular joint and the
two fragments
regenerate the missing
organs and tissues
Happens when there is
a regrowth of new parts
REGENERATION of an organisms’ body
to replace those that
has been damaged.
Example: green anole
lizard, enable to grow
back a lost tail
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION OF ANIMALS

Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an offspring. Two
organisms produce offspring that have genetic characteristics coming from
parents. The combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances
of species variation.
There are two types of fertilization among animal organisms: external and
internal fertilization.
1. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION - In external fertilization, the union of egg
and sperm occurs outside the female reproductive tract. It also occurs
mostly in wet environments and requires both male and female to release
their gametes (sex cells) into their surroundings, which is usually water.
This is common among most species of bony fish and amphibians.
2. INTERNAL FERTILIZATION - In internal fertilization, the union of egg

and sperm occurs within the female reproductive tract. Animals that
undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any of the
following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.
19 | P a g e
106
After the eggs are
OVIPARITY fertilized internally, it
would complete its
development outside the
mother’s body. The egg
would receive its
nourishment through its
yolk.
Examples: birds, egg-
laying mammals like
chicken
The eggs are also fertilized

internally and receive its
nourishment through its
OVOVIVIPARITY yolk. However, eggs will
complete its development
within the mother. They
are then fully developed
when they are hatched
and released by the
mother.
Examples: Guppies,
mosquito, fish
It is one wherein a young

develop within the female
VIVIPARITY and nourishment is
received directly from the
mother through a
placenta.
Examples: most mammals
like humans
20 | P a g e
107
ASSESSMENT
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction?
2. What are the different methods of asexual reproduction?
3. Compare external fertilization to internal fertilization.
4. What are the ways in which offspring is produced through internal

fertilization?
5. In which type of internal fertilization does human belong? Why?
REFERENCES:
https://m.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/62-the-reproduction-of-
animals/2004463749790271/
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/13-1-how-animals-reproduce/
21 | P a g e
108
Quarter 2
MODULE
4
Genetic Engineering
Learning Competency
 Describe the process of genetic engineering
 Evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMOs
Introduction
Organisms inherit traits only from their parent/s. However, as
advancements in biotechnology progresses, scientists have made new discoveries
and innovation as regards genetics. Today, through genetic engineering,
organisms can artificially acquire traits from a different organism other than its
parent/s. We will going to learn how genetic engineering works and find out the
risks and benefits it may give to us.
 Describe genetic engineering

 Arrange the processes of genetic engineering orderly
 Describe GMO
 Identify the risks and benefits of GMO
22 | P a g e
109
Wannabe!
If you will become a superhero with superpowers what superpowers
will you want to have and what changes in your body will you need? Draw
yourself as a superhero and think of a name. Write a short description.
What is GENETIC ENGINEERING?

It is sometimes called genetic modification. Genetic engineering refers to the
direct manipulation of DNA by artificial means to alter an organism’s
characteristics (phenotype) or to give the organism a new trait. The resulting
organism, is called transgenic or genetically modified organism (GMO).
The principle of genetic engineering is based on recombinant DNA
technology. Recombinant DNA is the DNA that contains genes from more than
one organism. In genetic engineering, bacteria are commonly used because they
have tiny rings of DNA called plasmids.
The process of recombinant DNA technology shows the following:
1. An isolated gene from a gene donor (e.g the insulin gene) and
bacterial plasmid from a plasmid donor are cut by restriction
enzyme.
2. Certain enzymes can “paste” or “install” the genes you want into the
plasmid or other organism.
3. The DNA can be reinserted and contain the recombinant DNA, which
will produce the polypeptide it codes for.
4. After a gene is inserted to a plasmid, the genetically engineered
plasmids can be put into a bacteria.
5. The bacteria will act like a gene factory that makes copies of the
plasmid - making new gene and gene’s product.
6. The resulting organism (bacteria) is called transgenic organism.
Organics that have altered genomes are known transgenic. Most
23 | P a g e
110
transgenic organisms are generated in the laboratory for research
purposes.
Recombinant DNA
Technology
BENEFITS AND RISKS OF GMO

In general, the end goal of genetic
engineering is to create an improved
variety of organism, one that has desirable
traits. The following advances in genetic
engineering show how it can be beneficial
to the organism and to humans.
Plants which have become more resistant to pests can eliminate the use of
potentially hazardous pesticides
GMOs can yield higher crop yields and more nutritious food that also have
better flavour and longer shelf life
GMO crops can be grown even in harsh environments, like the GM flood-
tolerant rice, which can save farmers’ livelihood.
GMOs can be a cheap source of medicine. For example, transgenic tobaccos

with Hepatitis B virus surface antigens can induce immune responses to the
disease.
24 | P a g e
111
A genetically engineered salmon
(top) and a natural salmon of the
Genetically modified corn same age (bottom).
Despite these beneficial effects however, there are a lot of questions

regarding the negative effects of GMO. While scientists have not yet found
negative effects on health from GM foods, more researchers have to be done to
find out the risks brought about by GM products. Nonetheless, environmentalist
are worried about the possible negative effects of genetic on the biodiversity of
the environment.
Beneficial insects, such as bees and butterflies, that help in pollination may
be at risk of becoming “unintended targets” of GM plants
Introduced genes may cause the GMOs to become invasive or toxic to wildlife.
Since all organisms in a transgenic population have the same genome, a

decrease in genetic diversity could leave the crops vulnerable to new disease.
ASSESSMENT
I. Arrange in order the following processes of genetic engineering, number it
from 1 to 8.
_______A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid is extracted from the
bacteria or yeast cell.
________The cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.
________To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or
yeast are grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they
need. The more the cells divide, the more insulin is produced.
________When fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release the
insulin.
________The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin
pens for distribution to patients with diabetes.
25 | P a g e
112
_______A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction
enzymes, ‘molecular scissors’.
_______The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid.
This plasmid is now genetically modified.
_______The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a new bacteria or
yeast cell.
II. ESSAY. What is genetic engineering? What are GMOs? How can it benefit
mankind and the environment?
ENRICHMENT
Create poster or slogans on the implication/s, both positive and

negative of GMO in the Philippines.
REFERENCES:
https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-engineering
26 | P a g e
113
Quarter 2
MODULE
How Animals Survive
5
Learning Competency
 Describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ
systems in representative animals
 Analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different
organ systems in ensuring animal survival
Introduction
Animals exhibit the biological concept of structure-function relationship,
referring to the connection of the specifically designed body parts of an organism
to their particular functions. All organisms maintain an organized body structure
with various functions that allow them to stay alive, grow, develop, and
reproduce themselves. In this module, you will learn about the functions of the
different organ systems in animals as well as how these organ systems interact
with each other to guarantee survival.

 Identify the different organ systems in animals
 Describe the functions of each organ systems
 Explain how organ systems works together to ensure animal
survival
 Create a concept map showing the relationships between
organ systems
27 | P a g e
114
Practice Task
WHAT ORGAN SYSTEM AM I? Identify the organ system shown in each
human body below.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
How Animals Survive?
FOOD GETTING, DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Animals need to break down the food

they eat into its essential components
in order to fuel their metabolism.
Invertebrate animals have simple
digestive systems—in one end, out the
other (as in the case of worms or
insects). But all vertebrate animals are
equipped with some combination of
mouths, throats, stomachs, intestines,
and anuses, as well as organs (such as
the liver and pancreas) that secrete
digestive enzymes. Ruminant mammals such as cows have four stomachs
in order to efficiently digest fibrous plants.
28 | P a g e
115
GAS EXCHANGE
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

All cells need oxygen, the crucial ingredient
for extracting energy from organic
compounds. Animals obtain oxygen from
their environment with their respiratory
systems. The lungs of land-dwelling
vertebrates gather oxygen from the air, the
gills of ocean-dwelling vertebrates filter
oxygen from the water, and the exoskeletons
of invertebrates facilitate the free diffusion of oxygen (from water or air) into their
bodies. The respiratory systems of animals also excrete carbon dioxide, a waste
product of metabolic processes that would be fatal if left to accumulate in the
body.
INTERNAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Vertebrate animals supply oxygen to

their cells via their circulatory systems, which
are networks of arteries, veins, and capillaries
that carry oxygen-containing blood cells to
every cell in their bodies. The circulatory
system in higher animals is powered by the
heart, a dense mass of muscle that beats
millions of times throughout a creature's
lifetime.
The circulatory systems of invertebrate animals are much more primitive;

essentially, their blood diffuses freely throughout their much smaller body
cavities.
EXCRETION
THE URINARY SYSTEM

All land-dwelling vertebrates produce ammonia, a
by-product of the digestion process. In mammals and
amphibians, this ammonia is turned into urea, processed
by the kidneys, mixed with water, and excreted as urine.
Interestingly, birds and reptiles secrete urea in solid
form along with their other wastes. These animals
technically have urinary systems, but they don't produce
liquid urine. Fish expel ammonia directly from their bodies
without first turning it into urea.
29 | P a g e
116
DEFENSE AGAINST DISEASES
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Closely associated with the circulatory system,

the lymphatic system consists of a body-
wide network of lymph nodes, which secrete
and circulate a clear fluid called lymph (which
is virtually identical to blood, except that it
lacks red blood cells and contains a slight
excess of white blood cells).
The lymphatic system is only found in higher

vertebrates, and it has two main functions: to
keep the circulatory system supplied with the
plasma component of blood and to maintain the
immune system. In lower vertebrates and
invertebrates, blood and lymph are usually
combined and not handled by two separate systems
BODY REGULATIONS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is what enables

animals to send, receive, and process
nerve and sensory impulses, as well as
to move their muscles. In vertebrate
animals, this system can be divided into
three main components: the central
nervous system (which includes the
brain and spinal cord), the peripheral
nervous system (the smaller nerves that
branch off from the spinal cord and carry
nerve signals to distant muscles and
glands), and the autonomic nervous
system (which controls involuntary
activity such as the heartbeat and
digestion).
Mammals possess the most advanced nervous systems, while invertebrates have
nervous systems that are much more rudimentary.
30 | P a g e
117
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
In higher animals, the endocrine system is

made up of glands (such as the thyroid and
thymus) and the hormones these glands
secrete, which influence or control various
body functions (including metabolism,
growth, and reproduction).
It can be difficult to fully tease out the

endocrine system from the other organ
systems of vertebrate animals. For
example, testes and ovaries (which are both
intimately involved in the reproductive system) are technically glands. As is the
pancreas, which is an essential component of the digestive system.
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system consists of the

skin and the structures or growths that
cover it (the feathers of birds, scales of fish,
hair of mammals, etc.), as well as claws,
nails, hooves, and the like. The most
obvious function of the
integumentary system is to protect animals
from the hazards of their environment, but
it's also indispensable for temperature
regulation (a coating of hair or feathers
helps to preserve internal body heat),
protection from predators (the thick shell of
a turtle makes it a tough snack for crocodiles), sensing pain and pressure, and,
in humans, even producing important biochemicals like Vitamin D.
BODY STRUCTURE AND MOVEMENT
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscles are the tissues that allow animals to both

move and control their movements. There are
three main components of the muscular system:
skeletal muscles (which enable higher vertebrates
to walk, run, swim, and grasp objects with their
hands or claws), smooth muscles (which are
involved in breathing and digestion and are not
under conscious control), and cardiac or heart
muscles (which power the circulatory system).
31 | P a g e
118
Some invertebrate animals, like sponges, completely lack muscular
tissues, but can still move thanks to the contraction of epithelial cells.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Higher animals are composed of trillions

of differentiated cells, and thus need
some way to maintain their structural
integrity. Many invertebrate animals
(such as insects and crustaceans) have
external body coverings composed of
chitin and other tough proteins, called
exoskeletons. Sharks and rays are held
together by cartilage. Vertebrate animals
are supported by internal skeletons—
called endoskeletons—assembled from calcium and various organic tissues.
Many invertebrate animals completely lack any kind of exoskeleton or

endoskeleton. Consider soft-bodied jellyfish, sponges, and worms.
ASSESSMENT
IDENTIFICATION: Identify the organ system that is being described by
the following statements/functions.
Organ System Functions

It moves oxygen from the external
1. environment into the internal environment;
also removes carbon dioxide.
Digests and absorbs food into nutrient

2. molecules by chemical and mechanical
breakdown; eliminates solid wastes into the
environment.
It is the outermost protective layer. It prevents
3. water loss from and invasion of foreign
microorganisms and viruses into the body.
Produces body movements, body heat,
4. maintains posture, and supports the body.
Provides support and protection, and

5. attachment points for muscles.
Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,

6. waste products, immune components, and
hormones.
Defends the internal environment from
7. invading microorganisms and viruses, as well
as cancerous cell growth.
32 | P a g e
119
Regulates volume of internal body fluids as
8. well as eliminates metabolic wastes from the
internal environment.
Coordinates and controls actions of internal
9. organs and body systems.
Secretes hormones that regulate body

10. metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
ENRICHMENT
Create a concept map showing how the different organ systems work
together in ensuring animal survival.
REFERENCES:
https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookANIMORGSYS.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/animal-organ-systems-4101795
33 | P a g e
120
Quarter 2
MODULE
The Process of Evolution
6
Learning Competency
 Explain how populations of organisms have changed and continue to
change over time showing patterns of descent with modification from
common ancestors to produce the organismal diversity observed today
 Describe how the present system of classification of organisms is based on
evolutionary relationships
Introduction
Descent with modification sounds fancy and complicated - but it isn't.
Understanding descent with modification is quite simple. Descent with
modification is simply passing traits from parent to offspring, and this concept
is one of the fundamental ideas behind Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. In
this module, we will understand how organisms have evolved and continued to
change over time to produce the diversity of life today.

 Describe evolution
 Explain the two theories of evolution – theory of descent
modification and theory of natural selection
 Differentiate convergent, divergent and coevolution
 Identify the taxonomic classifications
34 | P a g e
121
Descent with modification refers to
the passing on of traits from parent organisms
to their offspring. This passing on of traits is
known as heredity, and the basic unit of
heredity is the gene. Genes are the blueprints
for making an organism, and, as such, hold
information about its every conceivable aspect:
its growth, development, behavior, appearance,
physiology, and reproduction.
DARWIN ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
EVOLUTION – refers to the life processes that have transformed on Earth from
its earliest forms to the enormous diversity that characterizes it today. It is a
dynamic process. It is on-going and constantly active. As evolution arose,
biodiversity, which is defined as the variability of organisms that came into
existence, came along with it.
Charles Darwin believed that life had changed gradually over time and
continued to change. He also believed that organisms were related and they
changed to be better adapted to their environments. Darwin cited two major
points in his book, “The Origin of Species”.
1. Organisms present today descended from ancestral species that were
different from the modern species. Descent with modification explains life’s
unity and diversity.
2. Natural selection provided a mechanism for this evolutionary change.
35 | P a g e
122
THE NATURE OF EARTH AND EVOLUTION
Just as evolution is a dynamic
process, the environment of Earth
is continuously changing. The
coming and going of different eras,
the changing atmospheric
conditions, and the change in
geographical landmass over an
extended period of time forced
organisms to change. Different
changes took place such as diet,
habitat, or competition. To
compensate for these changes,
organisms have undergone
adaptation, which is a crucial
role in the dynamic nature of
evolution.
In humans, our behavior in shifting from a nomadic to a territorial lifestyle
gave way to artificial selection or selective breeding in certain species. The
change from a nomadic lifestyle which relied on hunting and gathering was
replaced by a cultivated one, where agriculture and domestication of animals,
such as cattle and poultry, gave a constant source of food. This change allowed
us to live longer, yet made us vulnerable to certain disease.
THEORIES ON EVOLUTION
There are two theories that explain how the
evolution of organisms took place. They are the:
 Theory of descent with modification
 Theory of natural selection.
Theory of Descent with Modification

This theory implies that all existing organisms originated from a singular
or several simple life forms that have continuously adapted to changes in the
environment. It seeks to explain that biodiversity arose from these organisms
continuously gaining new features in relation to changes, thus branching out
and forming a new species.
36 | P a g e
123
The tree is read as
the top most organism
being the most recent
while the bottom most
being the earliest.
Notice that certain
characteristics are always
passed down such as the
presence of paired fins, or
jaws. Furthermore, the
new descendant is better
equipped with new traits
for survival.
Theory of Natural Selection

Darwin’s theory of natural selection is most commonly known as the
“survival of the fittest”. This theory states that only species with ideal or superior
characteristics are able to survive the changing environment and thus replicate.
He hypothesized that there is a constant struggle for existence, and only certain
members of a population survive or reproduce in each generation. This
characteristic is then passed on to succeeding generations until various changes
to this characteristic occur, creating a new dominant trait.
Natural selection has these essential components:
1. The members of a population have inheritable variations.
2. A population is able to produce more offspring than the environment
can support.
3. Only certain members of the population survive and reproduce.
4. Natural selection results in a population adapted to the local
environment.
37 | P a g e
124
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
With these two theories, come the different ways and methods in which
organisms carry out evolution.
Divergent
Evolution The process where isolated
populations of a species branch
out due to geographical barriers
or migration patterns.
Convergent The process where members of

Evolution two varying species involve
similar characteristics due to
similar environments. This is a
species-independent type of
evolution.
Coevolution The process where the survival

of two species dependent on
each other. They are based on
symbiotic relationships such as
commensalism, predation, and
mutualism.
Species – refers to a group of populations whose individuals have the

potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring in nature.
Population – is a localized group of organisms which belong to the same
species.
SPECIATION – It is the term used to describe how a new species evolves from
an older one. A new species is not able to reproduce with members of the original
population.
The following are factors that can lead to speciation:
1. Mutation: is a change in the hereditary material. It may be a change in
the structure of a gene – that is, in the sequence of nitrogen bases of an
38 | P a g e
125
organism’s DNA – or it may be a chance in the structure or number of
chromosomes.
2. Natural Selection: individuals in populations vary in their heritable traits.

Those with traits better suited to the environment tend to produce more
offspring than those with traits that are less well suited.
3. Genetic Drift: refers to the changes in the gene pool of a small population
due to chance. The smaller the population, the greater will be the impact
of genetic drift.
a. Bottleneck effect or population bottleneck – is a sudden reduction
in population size due to change in the environment such as natural
disaster, habitat destruction.
b. Founder effect – is observed when a few individuals in a population
colonize a new location that is separate from the old population.
4. Migration: gene flow or gene migration occurs when breeding members of

a population leave a population or when new members enter a population.
5. Isolation: occurs when some members of species suddenly become

separated from the rest of the species.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
TAXONOMY – is a branch of biology that
deals with identifying, naming, and
classifying organisms. One goal of
taxonomy is to determine the evolutionary
history of organisms and the development
of their present forms.
PHYLOGENY - is the evolutionary history of
species or group of related species.
CAROLUS LINNAEUS – published a system

of taxonomy based on resemblances. He
introduced a system for grouping species in
increasingly broad categories. The
taxonomic groups are classified into
domain: kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species.
39 | P a g e
126
A species is most closely
related to other species in the
same genus, then genera in the
same family, and so forth, from
order to class to phylum to
kingdom. Two species that are
closely related to share a more
recent common ancestor with
each other rather than with
members of other taxa.
All animals are related because
we can trace their ancestry
back to the same order.
ASSESSMENT

1. The theory that refers to the survival of the dominant and more evolved
species over time allowing its descendants to continue to reproduce and
carry on with this trait.
A. Theory of Descent with Modification
B. Theory of Natural Selection
C. Mutation
D. Speciation
40 | P a g e
127
2. It refers to the evolutionary theory that claims there is a continuous
gradual change in defining characteristics as generations pass.
A. Theory of Descent with Modification
B. Mutation
C. Speciation
D. Theory of Natural Selection
3. Which statement regarding natural selection is most CORRECT?

A. Natural selection is the sole means by which populations can
evolve.
B. Well-adapted individuals leave more offspring, and thus,
contribute more to the next generation’s gene pool.
C. Adaptations beneficial in one habitat should generally be
beneficial in all other habitats as well.
D. Different species that occupy the same habitat will adapt to that
habitat by undergoing the same genetic changes.
4. Which of the following statements best describes the theory of descent
with modification?
A. All existing organisms originated from simple life forms that
gained new adaptations.
B. Behavioral characteristics are inherited from ancestors
creating new traits that help in survival.
C. Certain evolutionary characteristics are influenced only by
interaction with new species thus allowing several
modifications.
D. Only the dominant species are able to reproduce and survive,
and thus they retain characteristics.
5. Which of the following examples best represents divergent evolution?

A. Darwin observes different beaks from finches on his trip to the
Galapagos.
B. Invertebrates such as weaver ants and silk months use silk to
capture prey.
C. Hyenas are known to be domesticated in certain parts of Africa.
D. Different species of poison dart frogs develop colorful skin as a
warning to the predators.
6. Which of the following examples best represents convergent evolution?

A. Marsupials carry their young in punches just like humans
carrying their babies.
B. The hyenas and the lions consume the same types of food.
C. Butterflies and hummingbirds have long tongues for taking
nectar from flowers.
D. Walruses and penguins live in the coldest parts of the world.
7. Which of the following situations does not show a coevolutionary

mechanism?
A. Spiders and weaver ants have developed silk to capture their
prey.
41 | P a g e
128
B. The yucca moth and the yucca plant have evolved specifically to
suit each other’s needs.
C. The old world swallowtail caterpillar has developed an immunity
to fringed rue plant’s toxins to repel other insects.
D. Ornithophilous flowers developed nectars suited for a
hummingbird’s diet while the birds freely pollinate the flowers.
8. Which of the following principles is NOT part of Darwin’s theory of

evolution by natural selection?
A. Evolution is a gradual process that occurs over long periods of
time.
B. Variation occurs among individual in a population
C. Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation
D. More individuals who were born survive in the end.
9. What refers to an alteration in the arrangement of nucleotides in a

chromosome, possibly resulting in either a structural or physiological
change in the organism?
A. Genetic Drift
B. Gene flow
C. Natural selection
D. Mutation
10. Which of the following is the correct order of the taxonomic

classification from broadest to least?
A. kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
B. phylum, class, order, kingdom, family, species, genus
C. kingdom, genus, phylum, class, order, family, species
D. species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom
ENRICHMENT
Make an essay about your understanding on natural selection or about

the concept “survival of the fittest”. Provide examples and relate it to
real life situations. (Minimum of 150 words)
REFERENCES:
https://www.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/92-biological-
diversity/2006805229556123/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-darwin-and-descent-with-
modification/
42 | P a g e
129
Quarter 2
MODULE Biotic Potential and Environmental
7 Resistance
Learning Competency
 Categorize the different biotic potential and environmental resistance (e.g.,
diseases, availability of food, and predators) that affect population explosion
Introduction
Have you ever held a baby or seen ducklings in a pond? Both of these are
examples of offspring of a specific species. Offspring are very important because,
by producing offspring, a species is able to pass along genetic material to the
next generation and continue the existence of the species. The difference in the
number of offspring produced can be referred to as a difference in biotic
potential, which is the rate at which a species reproduces with unlimited
conditions. In this module, we will going to find out what affects to the increase
of population.
 Describe the relationship between biotic potential and

environmental resistance
 Identify factors that influence the biotic potential
 Cite biotic and abiotic factors that limit the biotic potential of
an organism.
43 | P a g e
130
The interactions of organisms with other organisms and with the
environment determine the abundance and distribution of organisms at a
particular location. A population refers to a group of organisms of the same
species that live in a defined area.
BIOTIC POTENTIAL
The ability of a population of a particular species to propagate under
ideal environmental conditions — sufficient food supply, no diseases, and
no predators, is called biotic potential. There are primary factors that
determine biotic potential: an organism's rate of reproduction and its litter
size — the number of offspring produced at one birth.
The biotic potential among organisms varies from species to species.
Similar to humans, many large mammals produce one offspring per year
or breeding season. On the other hand, insects produce thousands of
offspring per year. Therefore, large organisms have relatively lower biotic
potential than smaller organisms.
Examples:
On the average, spiders are capable of producing hundreds of
offspring at a time, cats and dogs can produce four to eight offspring at a
time, and humans can only produce one to three offspring at a time. The
different biotic potentials of organisms can be attributed to several factors
such as survival rate of their offspring, frequency of reproduction, and
reproductive lifespan.
Exponential Growth Curve (J-curve)

occurs when biotic potential is
unlimited. At a given time, the
population size increases.
44 | P a g e
131
Factors that influence the biotic potential are as follows:
1. Age of first reproduction
2. Frequency of reproduction
3. Average number of offspring produced with each reproductive event
4. Length of reproductive life span
5. Death rate of individuals under ideal conditions
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
The factors that limit the biotic potential of an organism are called
environmental resistance. It is the sum of the environmental factors that tend
to restrict the biotic potential of an organism, thereby imposing a limit. These
factors include abiotic and biotic factors that limit the organism from endlessly
increasing its population.
The biotic factors include insufficient food, excessive predators, diseases
or parasites and diminished ability to compete.
Abiotic factors include climatic conditions, fire, and temperature. Two
basic rules govern the effects of abiotic factors:
1. Law of Minimums, states that the nutrient or resource in the
least supply is the one that limits growth. For instance minimal
water is required for plants during a drought.
Growth factors Decrease factors

(biotic potential) (environmental resistance)
Abiotic Abiotic
 favorable light  too much or too little light

 favorable temperature  temperature too high or too low
 favorable chemical environment  unfavorable chemical environment
(optimal level of critical (too much or too little of critical
nutrients) nutrients)
Biotic Biotic
 high reproductive rate  low reproductive rate

 generalized niche  specialized niche
 adequate food supply  inadequate food supply
 suitable habitat  unsuitable habitat
 ability to compete for resources  too many competitors
 ability to hide from or defend  insufficient ability to hide from or
against predators defend against predators
 ability to resist diseases and  inability to resist diseases and
parasites parasites
 ability to mitigate and live in  inability to mitigate and live in
other habitats other habitats
 ability to adapt to environmental  inability to adapt to environmental
change change
45 | P a g e
132
2. Law of Tolerance, states that organisms can only tolerate or
survive within a particular range of an abiotic factor.
Biotic potential and environmental resistance affect the carrying capacity,
which is defined as the maximum population of a species an ecosystem can
sustain indefinitely without being degraded due to deterioration and damage.
We can analyse an
ecosystem’s carrying
capacity through this
graph. The carrying
capacity is the portion of the
graph in which the
population plateaus; this is
where the rate at which the
replenished resources of an
ecosystem is equal to the
number of organisms being
born.
If the population exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment, it is
called an overshoot. One reason for the overshoot is when the reproductive lag
time — the time it takes for the birth rate to decrease and the death rate to
increase in response to limited resources, takes place. When this happens, a
population can collapse or dieback since there are limited resources and space
unless a large number of individuals migrate to other areas with more favorable
conditions. When the population of the organisms is below the carrying capacity,
the available resources are able to sustain the needs of the population.
“Biotic potential of organisms makes the population increase while

environmental resistance limits the population on growing relentlessly.”
46 | P a g e
133
ASSESSMENT
1. It is the ability of a population of a particular species to multiply
under ideal environmental conditions.
A. carrying capacity
B. biotic potential
C. environmental factor
D. environmental resistance
2. What is the relationship between biotic potential and environmental

resistance?
A. Biotic potential increases the population of a species while
environmental resistance decreases its growth.
B. Biotic potential increases the population of a species while
environmental resistance limits its growth.
C. Biotic potential and environmental resistance are both factors
that limit the population growth of species.
D. Biotic potential and environmental resistance are both factors
that increases the population of species.
3. It refers to the maximum capacity of an ecosystem to sustain a

population of organisms without deteriorating.
A. biological capacity
B. biotic potential
C. environmental potential
D. carrying capacity
4. Which of the following organisms will have the highest biotic potential
assuming that they are all found in the same environment?
A. cheetah
B. butterfly
C. lions
D. elephants
5. It occurs when biotic potential is unlimited.

A. biological capacity
B. biotic potential
C. exponential growth curve
D. carrying capacity
6. Which of the following does not influence biotic potential?

A. Suitable habitat
B. Adequate food supply
C. Highh reproductive rate
D. Very low temperature
47 | P a g e
134
7. Which of the following are examples of environmental resistance?
I. Numerous predators may compete for the same prey.
II. Climate change such as change in seasons can affect
behaviour of organisms.
III. Drought limits the growth of producers as there is no
available water.
IV. Desert ecosystems have limited organisms due to extreme
arid conditions.
A. I and II
B. II and IV
C. I and III
D. II and III
8. Which of the following reasons does not explain why different

organisms have different biotic potentials?
A. Organisms that dwell in the same environment will have the
same potentials.
B. Numerous organisms have different proliferation rates.
C. Different organisms will have different reproductive life spans.
D. Offsprings will have different survival rates.
9. Which of the following examples refers to an abiotic factor for

environmental resistance?
A. A certain prey has numerous predators to keep the population
in check.
B. A tadpole is in competition with numerous fishes for eating
microalgae in ponds.
C. Plants are dependent on the availability of sunlight and water
in an ecosystem.
D. Bubonic plague which was caused by a certain bacteria in
mice, slowed the growth of humans.
10. Which of the following factors could limit the growth rate of a
certain predator?
A. There is an abundance of prey due to the prey’s mating
season.
B. The predator’s competitors migrated to another region.
C. A plague that targets its prey has spread into an ecosystem.
D. The predator recently migrated to a new ecosystem with an
abundance of prey.
II. ESSAY. During the 1900s, there were 1.6 billion people on Earth. Today,
there are over 7.2 billion people worldwide. Why do you think the population
continues to grow? Is there a limit to the growth of the population?
48 | P a g e
135
ENRICHMENT
Create a poster, poem or slogan that encourages people to reduce

human impacts on the environment. Show the devastating effects of
human activities to the ecosystem.
REFERENCES:
https://www.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/102-biotic-potential-and-
environmental-resistance/2006815826221730/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/environmental-resistance-definition-factors-examples.html
49 | P a g e
136

Earth and Life Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth and Life Science

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth and Life Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Quarter 1

1 The Universe and the Solar System

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

_____ _____ _____ ____

Venus Earth Mars

DID YOU KNOW?

VENUS EARTH MARS

Mass (1,024 kg) 4.87 5.97 0.642

Diameter (km) 12,104 12,756 6,792

Density (kg/m3) 5,243 5,514 3,933

Gravity (m/s2) 8.9 9.8 3.7

Escape Velocity (km/s) 10.4 11.2 5

Surface Pressure (bars) 92 1 0.01

96% 78% N 95 % CO2

Major Greenhouse Gases (GHG) CO2 CO2 H2O CO2

Mean Temperature (C) 464 15 -65

Temperature if no GHG -46 -18 -57

Change in Temperature (C) due to GHG +523 +33 +10

Distance from the Sun (106 km) 108.2 149.6 227.9

Orbital Period (days) 224.7 365.2 687

Orbital Velocity (km/s) 35 29.8 24.1

Length of day (hours) 2,802 24 24.7

Global Magnetic Field No Yes No

Various factors that support life on

3. Why do you think the presence of liquid water is essential to life?

Specific Learning Outcomes

 Describe the different components of the Earth

Water Practice Task

Consists of all living organisms on Earth. This

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE FOUR SPHERES

The Earth is made of several

Some examples of interactions between two or more species.

1. The _______________ is all the water held on the Earth.

3 Earth Minerals and Rocks

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

I am formed by I have been

I AM ______________. I AM _________________. I AM ____________.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Luster Describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected

Chemical Properties of Minerals

Silicates minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in

AMPHIBOLES Muscovite Mica

ROCKS ARE NOT ALL THE SAME!

1. Which of the following properties of minerals is obtained by scratching the

__________6. A mineral is a material that occurs naturally, generally strong,

III. ESSAY. Differentiate the 3 types of rocks - igneous, metamorphic, and

Rock-forming Physical Chemical Properties Rock

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

 Identify the main sources of Earth’s internal heat

Learn About It!

 Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908): Discovered natural

Radioactive Decay. Radioactive elements

Convection: This is the process by which material circulates through a region

Advection: The transport of heat by the simple upward movement of hot

1. Which of the following statement is NOT true?

3. It is the heat produced within a medium as a result of absorption of

___ _ _ __

I AM ______. I AM _. I AM ____.