Heat Transfer

Precious Arlene Villaroza-Melendrez

 Table of Contents

Module 8: Solar Radiation 58

Introduction 58
Learning Objectives 58
Lesson 1. Solar Radiation 58
Assessment Task 8 63
Summary 63

Module 9: The Radiation Heat – Transfer Coefficient 64

Introduction 64
Learning Objectives 64
Lesson 1. Effect of Radiation on Temperature Measurement 64
Assessment Task 9 66
Summary 66

Module 10: Review 67

Introduction 67
Learning Objectives 68
Lesson 1. Conduction 68
Lesson 2. Conduction through Composite Wall 71
Lesson 3. Conduction from Fluid to Fluid 72
Lesson 4. Conduction through Pipe 75
Lesson 5. Conduction through Composite Pipe 77
Lesson 6. Conduction from Fluids through Pipes 78
Lesson 7. Surface Convection 82
Lesson 8. Radiation 83
Assessment Task 10 87
Summary 88
 MODULE 8
SOLAR RADIATION

Introduction

Solar radiation is a form of thermal radiation having a particular wavelength

distribution. Its intensity is strongly dependent on atmospheric conditions, time of year, and
the angle of incidence for the sun’s rays on the surface of the earth. At the outer limit of the
atmosphere the total solar irradiation when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun is
1395 . This number is called the solar constant and is subject to modification upon
collection of more precise experimental data (Holman, 2002).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the Solar Radiation; and

2. Design and solve Solar Radiation

Lesson 1. Solar Radiation

Not all the energy expressed by the solar constant reaches the surface of the earth,
because of strong absorption by carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere. The
solar radiation incident on the earth’s surface is also dependent on the atmospheric content
of dust and other pollutants (Holman, 2002).
The maximum solar energy reaches the surface of the earth when the rays are
directly incident on the surface since (1) a larger view area is presented to the incoming

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solar flux and (2) the solar rays travel a smaller distance through the atmosphere so that
there is less absorption than there would be for an incident angle tilted from the normal.
Figure 8.1 indicates the atmospheric absorption effects for a sea-level location on clear days
in a moderately dusty atmosphere with moderate water-vapor content (Holman, 2002).

Figure 8.1. Solar Radiation Compared to Normalized Blackbody Spectrum With Peak at
0.5µm. Peak Of Blackbody Spectrum For 10,000◦R Has Been Normalized to Match Solar
Spectrum Outside Atmosphere at 0.5µm Wavelength (Holman, 2002).

It is quite apparent from Figure 8.1 that solar radiation that arrives at the surface of
the earth does not behave like the radiation from an ideal gray body, while outside the
atmosphere the distribution of energy follows more of an ideal pattern. To determine an

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equivalent blackbody temperature for the solar radiation, we might employ the wavelength at
which the maximum in the spectrum occurs (about 0.5 µm) and Wien’s displacement law.
This estimate gives

the equivalent solar temperature for thermal radiation is therefore about 5800 K
(10,000◦R) (Holman, 2002).
If all materials exhibited gray-body behavior, solar-radiation analysis would not
present a particularly unusual problem; however, since solar radiation is concentrated at
short wavelengths, as opposed to much longer wavelengths for most “earth-bound” thermal
radiation, a particular material may exhibit entirely different absorptance and transmittance
properties for the two types of radiation (Holman, 2002).

Table 8.1 Comparisons of Absorptivities of Various Surfaces to Solar and Low-Temperature

Thermal Radiation (Holman, 2002).

The classic example of this behavior is a greenhouse. Ordinary glass transmits

radiation very readily at wavelengths below 2 µm; thus it transmits the large part of solar
radiation incident upon it. This glass, however, is essentially opaque to long-wavelength
radiation above 3 or 4 µm. practically all the low-temperature radiation emitted by objects in
the greenhouse is of such a long-wavelength character that it remains trapped in the

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greenhouse. Thus the glass allows much more radiation to come in than can escape,
thereby producing the familiar heating effect. The solar radiation absorbed by objects in the
greenhouse must eventually be dissipated to the surroundings by convection from the
outside walls of the greenhouse (Holman, 2002).

Similar behavior is observed for the absorptance and reflectance of solar, as

opposed to low-temperature, radiation from opaque metal or painted surfaces. In many
instances, the total absorptivity for solar radiation can be quite different from the absorptivity
for blackbody radiation at some moderate temperature like 25◦C. Table 8-4 gives a brief
comparison of the absorptivities for some typical surfaces for both solar and low-
temperature radiation. As will be noted, rather striking differences can occur (Holman, 2002).

Example:

Solar–Environment Equilibrium Temperatures

Calculate the radiation equilibrium temperature for a plate exposed to a solar flux of
700 W/m2 and a surrounding temperature of 25◦C if the surface is coated with (a) white
paint or (b) flat black lacquer. Neglect convection (Holman, 2002).

Solution
At radiation equilibrium the net energy absorbed from the sun must equal the long-
wavelength radiation exchange with the surroundings, or

For white paint we obtain from Table 8-1

so that Equation (a) becomes

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And

For flat black lacquer we obtain

so that Equation (a) becomes

And

Conclude from this example what we may have known from the start, that some
white surfaces are cooler than black surfaces in the sunlight (Holman, 2002).

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 Assessment Task 8

1. Influence of Convection on Solar Equilibrium Temperatures

The surfaces in Example 8-20 are also exposed to a convection environment at

25◦C having h = 10 W/m2 · ◦C, in addition to the radiation surrounding. Calculate the
radiation–convection equilibrium temperatures under these conditions (Holman, 2002).

Summary

Radiation equilibrium the net energy absorbed from the sun must equal the long-
wavelength radiation exchange with the surroundings (Holman, 2002).

Reference

Holman, Jack P. (2002). Heat Transfer (10th ed.). The McGraw-Hill

Company. New York.

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 MODULE 9
THE RADIATION HEAT-TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT

Introduction

Thermal radiation is that electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of its

temperature (Holman, 2002).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Design and solve conduction through composite wall; and

2. Design and solve conduction through fluid to fluid;

Lesson 1. Effect of Radiation on Temperature Measurement

When a thermometer is placed in a gas-flow stream to measure temperature, the

temperature indicated by the sensing element is determined by the overall energy balance
on the element. Consider the element shown in Figure 9-1. The temperature of the gas is
T∞, the effective radiation surrounding temperature is , and the temperature indicated by
the thermometer is . Assuming that T∞ is greater than , energy will be transferred by
convection to the thermometer and then dissipated by radiation to the surroundings. Thus
the energy balance becomes

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where A is the surface area of the element and is its emissivity. Assumes that the
surroundings are either very large or black so that can be applied for the radiation heat
transfer (Holman, 2002).
From this energy balance we see that the temperature indicated by the thermometer
is not the true gas temperature but some radiation-convection equilibrium temperature
(Holman, 2002).

Figure 9.1 Thermometer Elements in Flow Stream (Holman, 2002).

Very large errors can result in temperature measurements if this energy balance is
not properly taken into account. Radiation shields are frequently employed to alleviate this
difficulty (Holman, 2002).

Example:
Temperature Measurement Error Caused by Radiation
A mercury-in-glass thermometer having = 0.9 hangs in a metal building and indicates
a temperature of 20◦C. The walls of the building are poorly insulated and have a
temperature of 5◦C. The value of h for the thermometer may be taken as 8.3 W/m2 · ◦C.
Calculate the true air temperature (Holman, 2002).

Solution

Inserting the numerical values, with

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And

In this simple example the thermometer is in error by 8.6◦C [15.5◦F]! (Holman, 2002).

Assessment Task 9

1. A mercury-in-glass thermometer is placed vertically outdoors to measure the

local air temperature. It is placed in a shaded area near a large vertical metal wall
that is heated on the reverse side by solar radiation to a temperature of 40°C. A
light breeze blows across the thermometer at a velocity of 3 m/s. The open-air
surroundings are at the ambient air temperature. If the true air temperature is
20◦C, estimate the temperature indicated by the thermometer (Holman, 2002).

Summary

Effect of Radiation on Temperature Measurement: Energy balance

Reference

Holman, Jack P. (2002). Heat Transfer (10th ed.). The McGraw-Hill Company. New
York.

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 MODULE 10
REVIEW

Introduction

Heat transfer is the science that seeks to predict the energy transfer that may
take place between material bodies as a result of a temperature difference.
Thermodynamics teaches that this energy transfer is defined as heat. The science of heat
transfer seeks not merely to explain how heat energy may be transferred, but also to predict
the rate at which the exchange will take place under certain specified conditions. The fact
that a heat-transfer rate is the desired objective of an analysis points out the difference
between heat transfer and thermodynamics. Thermodynamics deals with systems in
equilibrium; it may be used to predict the amount of energy required to change a system
from one equilibrium state to another; it may not be used to predict how fast a change will
take place since the system is not in equilibrium during the process. Heat transfer
supplements the first and second principles of thermodynamics by providing additional
experimental rules that may be used to establish energy-transfer rates. As in the science of
thermodynamics, the experimental rules used as a basis of the subject of heat transfer are
rather simple and easily expanded to encompass a variety of practical situations (Holman,
2002).

As an example of the different kinds of problems that are treated by thermodynamics

and heat transfer, consider the cooling of a hot steel bar that is placed in a pail of water.
Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar–
water combination. Thermodynamics will not tell us how long it takes to reach this
equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a certain length of time
before the equilibrium condition is attained. Heat transfer may be used to predict the
temperature of both the bar and the water as a function of time (Holman, 2002).

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 Most readers will be familiar with the terms used to denote the three modes of heat
transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. In this module we seek to explain the
mechanism of these modes qualitatively so that each may be considered in its proper
perspective. Subsequent chapters treat the three types of heat transfer in detail (Holman,
2002).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Review all the topics from module 1 to module 9; and

2. Resolve problems about conduction, convection and radiation.

Lesson 1. Conduction

Figure 10.1 Analogy with Heat Transfer (Holman, 2002).

Steady state as shown in Figure. 10.1 unidirectional flow of heat though a

homogeneous plate wall, fourier’s equation gives the heat by conduction as, (Holman,
2002).

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Where:

Q = heat transmitted, W

A = heat transfer area,

= surface temperature on hot side

= surface temperature on cold side, or K

X = thickness of the wall, m

K = thermal conductivity or

Example:

1. Past ME board problem:

Calculate the energy transfer rate across 6 in. wall of firebrick with a temperature
difference across the wall of 50 . the thermal conductivity of the firebrick is 0.65 Btu/hr-
at the temperature interest. (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

A. C.

B. D. 429W/

Solution:

Where:

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Then,

Thus:

2. One insulated wall of a cold- storage compartment is 8 m long by 2.5 high and
consist of an outer steel plate 90mm apart to form a cavity which is filled with cork. If the
temperature drop across the extreme faces of the composite wall is 15 calculate the heat
transfer per hour though the wall and the temperature drop across the thickness of the cork.
Take the coefficient of thermal conductivity for steel, cork and wood as 45, 0.045, and 0.18
W/m-k respectively (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

A. 408.24kJ, 12.12 C. 608.24 kJ, 13.12

B. 708.24 kJ, 11.12 D. 508.24 kJ, 14.12

Solution:

Where:

Then:

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Thus: the transfer re hour is 508.24 kJ solving for the temperature drop across the cork:

Thus:

Lesson 2. Conduction through Composite Wall

According to Holman (2002) when insulation is looked for, the wall is not made of a
single material, but of several layers of materials having different properties (see Figure.
10.2).

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 For steady state hear transfer

Where: = overall resistance

Figure 10.2 Parallel Diagram of Composite Wall (Holman, 2002).

Thermal resistance R is the reciprocal of U for unit area; therefore

The total resistance to heat flow in series is then given by

Similarly, the total resistance in parallel is given by

Lesson 4. Conduction from Fluid to Fluid

If a hot wall at a temperature is exposed to a cool fluid at a temperature on one

side, the convective heat-transfer rate can be given by

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 Where h is the convective heat-transfer coefficient in The convective heat-
transfer coefficient is usually given a special symbol, h, to distinguish it from the overall heat-
transfer coefficient U. Because of the many factors that affect the convection heat-transfer
coefficient, calculation of the coefficient is complex. However, dimensionless numbers are
used to calculate h for both free convection and forced convection (Holman,2002).

For composite materials in series, the overall heat-transfer coefficient U due to

combined conduction and convection heat transfer is given by (Holman,2002).

Figure 10.3 Heat Transfer from Fluid to Fluid (Holman, 2002).

Analysis

Where:

= surface film conductance on hot side

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 = surface film conductance on cold
side

Overall conductance or overall coefficient of heat transfer, U: (Holman, 2002).

Heat transfer in term of overall resistance : (Holman, 2002).

Heat transfer in terms of overall conductance U: (Holman, 2002).

Example

1. The air inside electronic package housing has a temperature of 50 C. A chip in this
housing has internal thermal power generation rate of 0.003W. this chip is subjected to an
air flow resulting in a convective coefficient h of 9 W/m-K over its two main surfaces which
are 0.5cm by 1cm. determine the chip surface temperature neglecting radiation and heat
transfer from edges (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

a. 3.33C b. 53.33C c. 56.67C d. 23.33C

Figure 10.4 Plane Chip (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution: q = hAΔt where: ts – 50 thus, ts = 53.33°C

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2. A hollow steel sphere contains a 100-watt electrical filament, and these data are
known; r i =9 in., r 0 =12 in. The film coefficient for the inner and outer surfaces are hi  6, ho
= 2 Btu hr-ft - F ; the environmental temperature is 80 F. Assuming the steady state,
2 0 0

compute the temperature inside air (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

0 0 0 0
a.102.9 F b. 110.8 F c. 101.9 F d. 101.5 F

Figure 10.5 Hollow Steel Sphere (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution: q = AUΔt where: U = thus, ti = 101.96°F

Lesson 4. Conduction through Pipe

In conduction through pipe assume that heat flows in the radial direction from inside
surface so that Fourier’s law is written (Holman, 2002).

Or

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 Figure 10.6 One-Dimensional Heat Flow through a Hollow Cylinder and Electrical Analog
(Holman, 2002).

Fig. 10.7 Resistance (Holman, 2002).

Where:

R = resistance to heat flow

Lesson 5. Conduction through Composite Pipe

Figure 10.8 Composite Pipe (Holman, 2002).

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 The thermal-resistance concept may be used for multiple-layer cylindrical walls just
as it was used for plane walls. For the three-layer system shown in Figure 10.8 the solution
is (Holman, 2002).

Figure 10.9. Resistance (Holman, 2002).

Note: for steady state heat transfer

Where:

= heat passes though layer

= heat passes though layer

= heat passes though layer

= total amount of heat that passes though the layer.

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Lesson 6. Conduction from Fluids through Pipes

Inside

Outside

Figure 10.10 Composite Pipe (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

, (Holman, 2002).

Noted: for steady state heat transfer:

Where:

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 =

= surface conductance on inside surface

= surface conductance on outside surface

Heat transferred in term of the overall conductance:

Δ or Δ

Where:

= overall conductance based on inside area

= overall conductance based on the outside area.

Spheres

Spherical systems may also be treated as one-dimensional when the temperature is

a function of radius only. The heat flow is then (Holman, 2002).

Example: Multilayer Cylindrical System

A thick-walled tube of stainless steel [18% Cr, 8% Ni, k = 19 W/m · ◦C] with 2-cm
inner diameter (ID) and 4-cm outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3-cm layer of asbestos
insulation [k = 0.2 W/m · ◦C]. If the inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at
600◦C, calculate the heat loss per meter of length. Also calculate the tube–insulation
interface temperature (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution:

A) Heat loss per meter of length

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=

Figure 10.11 Multilayer Cylindrical System (Holman, 2002).

B) tube–insulation interface temperature

This heat flow may be used to calculate the interface temperature between the
outside tube wall and the insulation. We have (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Example 2.

A 6 in. x 20 ft uninsula.0ted B.I. pipe conveys steam at 385 with an average

ambient temperature of 85 . If the cost of the fuel is P 250 . per Btu with the net
energy conversion efficiency of 75%, what is the annual cost of the heat lost? (Capote and
Mandawe, 2014).

Solution

For 6 in. pipe schedule 80

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For Iron;

For the surface coefficients;

Solving for Q :

Where:

Then, the annual cost of heat lost:

Thus;

Lesson 7. Surface Convection

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Where:

Q = Convective Heat Transfer

= heat transfer coefficient

= higher temperature

= lower temperature

Example 1.

A refrigerator stands in a room where the air temperature is . The surface

temperature on the outside of the refrigerator is 16 . The sides are 30 mm thick and have
an equivalent thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/m-K. the heat transfer coefficient on the outside
9 is 10 . Assuming one dimensional conduction through the sides, calculation the net
heat flow and the surface temperature on the inside (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution

The rate of heat convection per unit area can be calculated

This must equal the heat conducted through the sides. Thus we can use to calculate the
surface temperature:

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Comment: This example demonstrates the combination of conduction and convection heat
transfer relation to establish the desired quantities.

Lesson 8. Radiation

Radiation is the mode of heat transfer through electromagnetic wave. Anything

whose temperature is above the surrounding will always radiate of significant amount. The
Stefan-Boltzmann Law (otherwise known as fourth power law) of heat transfer governs
radiation heat transfer (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

The radiant heat exchange between two surfaces can be computed from Stefan-
Boltzmann Law (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Where:

Heat transmitted by radiation per unit time (J/s or W)

Emissivity

Radiating surface area

Absolute Temperature of surface radiating the heat, K

Absolute temperature of surface receiving the heat, K

Example

1. A thin square still plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith forge to a

temperature of 800 . If the emissivity is 0.6, what is the total rate of radiation of energy?
(Capote and Mandawe, 2014).
Solution:

Thus:

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2. The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the ambient air and its
surrounding, which are at 250 C, by a brick wall 0.15m thick. The brick has a thermal
conductivity of 1.2W/m-K and a surface emissivity of 0.8. Under steady state conditions and
outer surface temperature of 1000 C is measured. Free convection heat transfer to the air
adjoining this surface is characterized by a convection coefficient of 20W/m 2-K. What is the
brick inner surface temperature in C? (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

a. 352.5 b. 623.7 c. 461.4 d. 256.3

Figure 10.12 Brick Wall (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution: q = kA(t1 – t2) / x =hAΔt + F A (T14 – T24) thus, t1 = 352.5°C

3. A flat circular plate is 500 mm diameter. Calculate the theoretical quantity of heat
radiated per hour when its temperature is 215°C and the temperature of its surrounds is
45°C. Take the value of the radiation constant as 5.67 X 10-11 kJ/ m2 s K4 (Capote and
Mandawe, 2014).

a. 1863kJ b. 2658Kj c. 3652kJ d.3215kJ

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 Figure 10.13 Flat Circular Plate (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution: qb = F12 A1 (T14 – T24) thus, qb = 517.5 W = 1863 kJ/hr.

4. A steel pipe ( k  45.0W / m  K ) having a 5.0 cm OD is covered with a 4.2 cm thick

layer of magnesia ( k  0.07W / m  K ) which is in turn covered with a 3.4 cm layer of

fiberglass insulation( k=0.048 W/m-K). The pipe wall outside temperature is 370 K and the
outside surface temperature of the fiberglass is 305 K. What is the interfacial temperature
between the magnesia and the fiberglass? (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

a. 329.6 K b. 329.1 K c. 329.9 K d. 329.25 K

Figure 10.14 Composite Pipe (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Solution: qb-c = qc-d where: q = thus, tc = 329.6 K

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 Assessment Task 10

1) An insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at
250 C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70mm, and its surface temperature and
emissivity are 2000 C and 0.8 respectively. If the coefficient associated with free
convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15W/m 2-K, what is the rate
of heat transfer loss from the surface per unit length of pipe? (Capote and
Mandawe, 2014).
2) A cubical tank of 2 m sides is constructed of metal plate 12 mm thick contains
water at 75°C. The surrounding air temperature is 16°C. Calculate the heat loss
through each side of tank per minute. Take the coefficient of thermal conductivity
of the metal as 48 W/mK, the coefficient of heat transfer of the water 2.5 kW/m²K,
and the coefficient of heat transfer of the air 16 W/m²K (Capote and Mandawe,
2014).
3) A 6 in thick concrete wall, having thermal conductivity k =0.50 Btu/h  ft 0 F , is
exposed to air at 70 F on one side and air at 20 F on the opposite side. The heat
0 0

transfer coefficients are hi =2.0 Btu/h  ft  F on the 70 F side and h0 =10

2 0 0

Btu/h  ft  F on the 20 F side. Determine the heat transfer rate (Capote and
2 0 0

Mandawe, 2014).

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 Summary

Table 10.1 Summary of Basic Formula for Heat Transfer (Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Conduction though a plane wall

(steady state) (Capote and Mandawe,
2014).

Conduction through Composite Wall

(steady state) (Capote and Mandawe,
2014).

Conduction from Fluid to Fluid

(Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Conduction through Pipe

(Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Conduction through Composite Pipe

(Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Conduction from Fluids through Pipes

(Capote and Mandawe, 2014).

Surface Convection (Capote and

Mandawe, 2014).

Radiation (Capote and Mandawe,

2014).

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 References

Capote, Roger S. and Mandawe, Joel A. (2014). Power Plant Engineering Reviewer.
Jam Palisher. AR. Papa St. Sampaloc, Manila.

Holman, Jack P. (2002). Heat Transfer (10th ed.). The McGraw-Hill Company. New
York.

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