CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

The domestication of animals is based on an ancient contract, with benefits on both sides, between man
and the ancestors of the breeds familiar to us today.

Table: Shows the period and area of domestication of animals in the world context

The Period of domestication in India:

The history of domestication of animals in India goes as far back as 7000-6000 years B.C. from
the Mesolithic cultural phases at site Bagor, Bhilwara district in Rajasthan and site Adamgarh,
Hoshangabad district in central India. At Bagor, sheep/goat has been identified as the principal domestic
animals, while at Adamgarh, cattle (Bos indicus), buffalo (Bublus bublis), sheep (Ovis aries), goat
(Capra hircus), pig (Sus domesticus), and ass (Equus asinus) are reported as domestic animals.

Alur’s analysis provides convincing evidence of the operation of the law of natural relation and
the adaptation of these species to the changing ecological conditions leading to the emergence of such
wild species (or potential domesticates) in the Mesolithic as were amenable to domestication in the
succeeding Neolithic. The sheep/goats are found in fully domestication from in the Neolithic sites at
Koldihwa and Mahagara. Normally animal domestication in India has been explained by the gradual
expansion of the Neolithic system from west Asian nuclear area. But, in the light of the abovementioned
facts it becomes difficult to accept that animal domestication in India was a product of foreign influence,
especially of west Asiatic origins.

1
 The beginnings of domestication in Indian subcontinent on present evidence can be traced to the
Mesolithic period. However, excavations have often been too small and bone collections inadequate or
the report merely catalogues with little or no bearing on the history of domestication. In fact since the
work of Sewell & Guha and Prashad no attempt has been made to study the problem of domestication of
animals in the light of the new faunal evidence that has accumulated as a result of recent excavations.

• About 10,000 years ago the transition from hunting and foraging for foodto the domestication of
plants and animals took place.
• It was a shift from food quest or food procurement to food production. It was by no means a
smooth transition and may have been spread over many centuries.
• At first people may have had to supplement the food they produced with food they procured
byhunting and foraging, but gradually the dependence on wild food resources mayhave lessened
as domesticated plants and animals increased in quantity andimproved in quality.
• Spatial mobility, a basic requisite of the nomadic way oflife, may also have given way to the
process of sedentarisation, which is anecessary condition for the domestication of plants or
cultivation. However,the domestication of animals or animal husbandry has different
requirements.
• Spatial mobility, which may have temporarily been given up, became the basicrequisite for
animal herding.
• The shift from food quest to food production occurred with the onset of the Neolithic period, and
one of the first regions to undergo this transition was south-west Asia, as is shown by
polynological and archaeo-zoological studies of domesticated plants and animals in Israel,
Jordan, Syria, Turkey,Iraq and Iran, all from before 5000 BC.
• The first animals to be domesticated, before 6000 BC, were probably sheep and goats fromthe
arid highlands of Persiaand Anatolia, to be followed by cattle (Bos) in the lowlands of
Mesopotamia.
• Gradually diverse animals would have come under human control in other regions also. In the
Indian subcontinent there isevidence from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappaindicating the
domestication of sheep, cattle (even buffaloes) from the animal remains that have been found
and studied.

2
Role of animals on Economy, Health and Socio-Psychology among the human being can be studied
through the following dimensions:

1. Employment Dimension
2. Economic Dimension
3. Health and Social Dimension
4. Psychological Dimension

Employment Dimension
1. Livestock provides employment for the rural community by undertaking livestock enterprises
like dairy farming, poultry farming, sheep and goat farming and piggery etc. which provides both
primary and secondary income to the main occupation of rural farmers.
2. In view of the development programmes undertaken by the government agencies as a means of
poverty alleviation programme livestock enterprises are considered as one of the potential source
of employment generation particularly to the weaker sections in rural areas.

Economic Dimension
1. Livestock farming provides direct cash income which is regular daily and quick through the sale
of livestock produce like milk, milk products, eggs, meat and direct income through draft power,
production of organic manure and fuel.
2. Livestock serves as an important alternate source of living
3. Utilized in Army, Police and in Research
4. Livestock and human beings are interlinked with each other because these two units are
generally carried out under the mixed farming system.

Health, Cultural and Social Dimension

One of the major relationship of livestock with human beings is the domestication of animals
particularly cows, buffaloes, sheep and goat etc.

1. These animals are chief producers of animal protein such as milk, milk products, eggs, meat etc.
to human beings.
2. Milk and eggs are considered as an important article of diet especially for infants, growing
children, adults, expectant and locating woman and people convalescing from sickness.
3. Livestock is a mark of social status, donated to daughters at time of marriages
4. Livestock is a source of recreation and sports.
5. Livestock and religion is interlinked (animal sacrifices, considered as gods and considered
sacred).
6. Superstitious beliefs attached to livestock farming.

Psychological Dimension
1. Livestock provides a prestige value to the rural families because of the possession of very
valuable and high yielding livestock. It also provides self reliance and confidence to the rural
farmers who are successful in rearing livestock and also deriving benefits through this enterprise.
It is used as a symbol of sacredness in religious events and during sacred activities.
2. Livestock is considered as an asset value to rural families, as it provides a means of security at
times of crises. It also helps when the rural families are affected with natural calamities like
floods, drought, earthquakes etc. where in the livestock enterprises comes as a rescue to the rural
farmers and sustain them in the above crises.
3. The small animals particularly canines play an important role as companion animal in the form
of a watch dog to the owner and also as a pet animal.
4. The sport animals especially horses which are commonly used in racing event. For this purpose
there are stud farms where in the choicest race horses are bred and reared for this purpose.

3
 EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIP

For most of history, humans have been hunter-gatherers. Adopting a more nomadic lifestyle, we moved
with the changing seasons, with livestock migration patterns and adapted as climate change impacted
crops and the surrounding environment. Today, we embrace technologies that our ancestors likely could
never have dreamed of, but the incorporation of modern capabilities into agricultural practices took time
and didn’t entirely abandon early advancements. In other words: our ability to grow and sustain life on a
billboard didn’t come to us overnight.

The first true shift in agriculture came nearly 12,000 years ago at the start of the Neolithic
Revolution (a.k.a. the Agricultural Revolution), which marked the first instances of a more permanent,
settled lifestyle. Humans found a practical, long-term solution for food in the Fertile Crescent, an area
located across what is now the Middle East, with ready access to major bodies of water such as the
Mediterranean Sea. Humans began cultivating plants, domesticating such crops as wheat, barley, peas,
and flax, and livestock, breeding domestic pigs from wild boars, goats from Persian ibex, and the sheep
and cows commonly found on today’s farms.

For centuries, very little changed — a settled life with access to high-quality land and domesticated
animals didn’t lend itself to transition. Then came the Middle Ages, a period marked by selective cross-
breeding of plants and animals for optimal quality and a technique known as ridge and furrow farming, a
plowing technique employing oxen (and later, horses) that inspired similar methods used today.

The development of crop rotation, or the growing and harvesting of different crops on the same land
during different seasons, in the 16th century drove the modernization of farming practices, but it was
the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century that really took humans from the past into the present. With
crops that required fewer workers, better soil replenishment and improved livestock care, more people
could work in urban industries as a result of agricultural productivity.

The 20th century introduced widespread use of machinery, fertilizer and pesticide technology, which
coincided with huge population growth. As a result, food largely became an affordable and accessible
commodity in developed countries.

Today, we find ourselves at yet another turning point in which we must balance sustainability and
increased food production for the 9.6 billion people expected in the world by 2050. At Bayer, we strive to
continually advance agtech innovation to help tackle agricultural challenges such as these. Through
digital farming, we’re leveraging improved data collection methods and GPS systems, and other
innovative technologies like airborne photosynthesis sensors to drought resistant seeds.

One of the most fruitful and fascinating aspects of the evolution in human culture was the
beginning of man’s relationship with plants and animals in the Mesolithic period that developed into
domestication in the Neolithic (Prehistoric) period. It was through this process of domestication that a
population of animals and plants first became accustomed to human care and control and then their
evolutionary process was influenced by human so as to ensure secure supply of food and other valuable
commodities like wool, hides, teeth, skin and silk. Other factors such as use of animals in transportation,
protection, warfare, and companionship for enjoyment made the bondage more secure and strong. Thus
the domestication of animals and plants proved harbinger to cultivation of crops and rearing of cattle and
animals.

Simultaneously, with the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, the role of hunting and
foraging began to decline because now the domestic animals not only supplanted man’s need for food
and clothing but also became source of energy for him. The ox, horse, buffalo, camel etc. provided not
only meat and milk but also bones for making tools, skin for equipments, teeth for ornaments and hair
for decoration and painting. These animals were also useful in carrying loads, drawing the ploughs,
thrashing the crops, in running the Persian wheel and could be used as pack animals as well as for
4
riding. This relationship between man and animals went beyond the utilitarian level even at the hunting
stage as the man became emotionally attached with his domesticated animals. A dog/wolf head found
ceremonially buried in human graves at Burzahom, a Neolithic site in Kashmir bear evidence to this
fact.

The domestication of animals probably began about 12,000 years ago and by about 10,000 years
ago all human societies had learnt to domesticate plants and animals. This development proved to be of
far reaching importance in human history as the groups which had learnt agriculture and animal
husbandry were able to settle down permanently in villages. These villages slowly grew in size and
developed into towns and cities, and around 5,000 to 3,000 years ago the first civilization development
in the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates, the Nile and the Indus took place.

The beginning of cultivation and domestication of plants and animals started in south western
Asia than elsewhere. The transition from food gathering to food producing took place in the southern
alluvial plain of Mesopotamia, the low hill at the foot of the Zagros and Taurus mountains, the valleys of
those mountains, the high plateau of Turkey and the coastal area and the low hills of the eastern
Mediterranean.

5
 IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TO SOCIETY IN INDIA - LIVESTOCK
LIVELIHOODS AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS – CONCEPTS, CHARACTERISTICS AND
CONSTRAINTS

Contribution of Livestock to People

The livestock provides food and non-food items to the people.

1. Food: The livestock provides food items such as Milk, Meat and Eggs for human consumption. India is
number one milk producer in the world. It is producing about 163.7 million tones of milk in a year
(2016-17). Similarly it is producing about 88.81 billions of eggs, 8.89 million tonnes of meat in a year.
The value of output of livestock sector at current prices was Rs 5,91,691 crores in 2015-16.

2. Fibre and skins: The livestock also contributes to the production of wool, hair, hides, and pelts. Leather
is the most important product which has a very high export potential. India is producing about 47.9
million Kg of wool per annum.

3. Draft: Bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. Despite lot of advancements in the use of
mechanical power in Indian agricultural operations, the Indian farmer especially in rural areas still
depend upon bullocks for various agricultural operations. The bullocks are saving a lot on fuel which is
a necessary input for using mechanical power like tractors, combine harvesters etc. Pack animals like
camels, horses, donkeys, ponies, mules etc are being extensively used to transport goods in different
parts of the country in addition to bullocks. In situations like hilly terrains mules and ponies serve as the
only alternative to transport goods. Similarly, the army has to depend upon these animals to transport
various items in high areas of high altitude.

4. Dung and other animal waste materials: Dung and other animal wastes serve as very good farm yard
manure and the value of it is worth several crores of rupees. In addition it is also used as fuel (bio gas,
dung cakes), and for construction as poor man’s cement (dung).

5. Storage: Livestock are considered as “moving banks” because of their potentiality to dispose off during
emergencies. They serve as capital and in cases of landless agricultural labourers many time it is the
only capital resource they possess. Livestock serve as an asset and in case of emergencies they serve as
guarantee for availing loans from the local sources such as money lenders in the villages.

6. Weed control: Livestock are also used as Biological control of brush, plants and weeds.

7. Cultural: Livestock offer security to the owners and also add to their self esteem especially when they
are owning prized animals such as pedigreed bulls, dogs and high yielding cows/ buffaloes etc.

8. Sports / recreation: People also use the animals like cocks, rams, bulls etc for competition and sports.
Despite ban on these animal competitions the cock fights, ram fights and bull fights (jalli kattu) are quite
common during festive seasons.

9. Companion animals: Dogs are known for their faithfulness and are being used as companions since
time immemorial. When the nuclear families are increasing in number and the old parents are forced to
lead solitary life the dogs, cats are providing the needed company to the latter thus making them lead a
comfortable life.

6
 Rural Livelihood

Livelihood means in simple words ‘means of making a living’. Livelihoods mean the type of jobs and
lifestyles people lead to earn a living.In a food security context it refers to people, their capabilities, their
assets (both material and social), their income and activities required for a means of living (including
ways to obtain food).
A Livelihood can be defined as the activities, the assets and the access that jointly determine the
living gained by an individual or household. When it comes to an individual, a livelihood is the ability of
that individual to obtain the basic necessities in life, which are food, water, shelter and clothing.
Therefore all activities involved in finding food, searching for water, shelter, clothing and all necessities
required for human survival at individual and household level are referred to as a livelihood.
Majority of the people in India lives in rural areas. In these populations small-scale farming,
fishing, raising livestock and non-farm activities are some of the common livelihoods that these
populations survive on as a source of income.

Livelihood Analysis:
Livelihood analysis refers to finding out the degrees to which the pattern of life differs from one social
class to another social class in term of family size, landholding size, type of house, implements, annual
income, income source, expenditure pattern, crisis management pattern, indebtedness etc. Studies have
brought out clearly that livestock rearing helps the resource poor people to reduce the intensity of
poverty as the livestock offer livelihood options, security in the event of financial crisis to the families.

Rural livelihoods
Rural livelihood is a complex structurecomprising of mostly agriculture, with part of the
population diversifying into non-farm activitiesin order to attain a sustainable livelihood to get better
income for their households
Some of the activities that fall under rural livelihood include:
• Agriculture (Cultivation, farming);
• Animal herding including livestock farming;
• Hunting and gathering
• Wage labour
• Trading and hawking
• Artisan work, for example, weaving and carving;
• Providing services in transport and other available services;
• Fetching and carrying;
• Bakery;
• Basket weaving

Rural Livelihood Diversification:

Diversification can be defined as activities undertaken by household members in order to improve their
social status and standard of living. Diversification can also refer to attempts undertaken by an
individual or a household to find new ways of survival to raise income and endure shocks such as
disasters and disease outbreaks.
Rural livelihood diversification is defined as the process by which rural households construct an
increasingly diverse portfolio of activities and assets in order to survive and to improve their standard of
living.
Factors that determine diversification include age, access and level of education, size of the
family, dependency ratio, access and availability of land, assets, access and availability of irrigation
facility, access to credit and ability to borrow, distance from town, training/skill development, and
membership to social groups

Constraints of Diversification
Depending on the location of an individual or a household, they can be faced with assorted
constraints and challenges. These challenges can determine whether and how this individual or
household will diversify. These include:

7
 • Lack of Road Network and Transport Facilities
• Poor Asset Base
• Climate
• Lack of Credit
• Lack of Awareness and Training
• Lack of Infrastructure

Constraints in rural livelihood

Lack of finance, conflicts, livestock and crops diseases, land shortage, health issues, illiteracy,
marketing problem and any kind of shock are contributing factors making rural livelihood unstable.

Livestock livelihood:
Livestock are important to the livelihoods of a large percentage of rural population and Livestock
related interventions are found to be a successful strategy for poverty alleviation all over the world.
About 900 million of the world’s 1200 million extremely poor people live in rural areas and most of
them rely on agriculture as a livelihood option and livestock keeping is crucial for the rural poor.
Approximately 600 million poor smallholders keep nearly one billion heads of livestock. Livestock
contribute 40% percent of the global value of agricultural output and support the livelihoods and food
security of almost a billion people. Food security exists “when all people at all times have access to
adequate levels of safe, nutritious food for an active and healthy life and live stock sector is central to
food security, not only for rural small holders who rely directly on livestock for food, incomes and
services, but also for urban consumers who benefit from affordable high quality animal based food”
(FAO, 2009).

Livestock keeping is traditionally linked to the culture of rural India as a key livelihood and risk
mitigation strategy. It contributes to the livelihood of the poor in many ways - income from products,
insurance against drought, emergency cash requirements, household nutrition, fuel for cooking, manure
for crops and draught power for farming. The smallholders and landless farmers together control 75% of
country’s livestock resources. Since the livestock wealth of India is mostly distributed among the
marginal and small landholders, any growth in the sector would be beneficial to the rural poor of India.

Sustainable livelihood
Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway defined it as “A livelihood comprises the capabilities,
assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is
sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities
and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation; and which
contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the short and long term.”

The five assets in sustainable livelihood are human capital, physical capital, social capital,
financial capital and natural capital. These assets play an important role in survival strategies both in
rural and urban livelihoods.
• Human capital is a combination of knowledge, habits, social behaviour and personality that
contribute to economic benefits for an individual and/or community.
• Physical capital is an asset that helps to turn raw materials into finished products and/or services
• Social capital plays a major role in productivity of an individual, organization and community.
Social capital refers to relationships, institutions and norms that shape societal interactions.
• Financial capital refers to any liquid medium or mechanism that represents wealth such as
money, purchasable items, savings, credit, etc. It can also be defined as saved-up wealth that can
be used to start-up or maintain a business.
• Natural capital is the basis of all human economic activity. Natural capital includes land, water,
air, living organisms and all ecosystems on the Earth that are necessary for human survival and
well-being.
All these five assets mentioned above are important aspects to livelihood both in the urban and rural
setting.

8
 FARMING SYSTEM

Farm is organized economic unit in which crop and animal production is carried out with
purpose of producing economic net returns.

Farming is a dynamic biological and open system with human or social involvement. Being
primarily biological with a high degree of dependence on weather variables and changing socio-political
environments. Farming is inherently more risky than any other system.
Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal products
and system implies a set of inter related practices/processes organized into a functional entity.

A system consists of several components which depend on each other. A system is defined as a
set of elements or components that are inter- related and interacting among themselves.

“Farming system” therefore designates a set of agricultural activities organized while

preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological
diversity and ecological stability. The emphasis is more on a system rather than on gross output.
In other words “farming system” is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustain
agricultural production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household while preserving the resource
base and maintaining high environmental quality. The farming system in its real sense will help the
following ways to lift the economy of Indian agriculture and standard of living of the farmers.

Farming system specially refers to a group combination of enterprises in which the products and
or the by products of one enterprise serve as the inputs for production of other enterprise.

Farming system takes into account the combination needs of the family the economic factors like
relative profitability of the technically feasible enterprises, availability off farm resources, infrastructure
and institutions such as irrigation, marketing facilities including storage and transportation and credit
besides the agro biological consideration namely interdependence, if any among various technically
feasible enterprises and the performance of individual farmers.

Farming is defined as the way in which the farm resources are allocated to the needs and
priorities of the farmers in his local circumstances which include-
1. Agro climatic condition such as the quantity, distribution and reliability of rainfall. Soil type and
topography temperature etc and
2. Economic and institutional circumstances like market opportunities, prices, institutional and
infrastructure facilities and technology.

Characteristics of Indian Agriculture

The all around progress of agriculture based country like as depends on the development of
agriculture is the main livelihood of native Indians.

The Farming System Depends on the Characterstics of Indian Agriculture as:

1. Uneven distribution of land.

2. Fragmentation of holding.
3. Existence of small and marginal farmers.
4. Regional variation.
5. Dependence of seasonal rainfall.
6. Production of different kind of crops.
7. Low productivity of land.
8. Increasing of disguised unemployment.
9. Disorder in marketing of Agricultural products.
10. Weak land reformation.

9
Classification of Farming Systems:

A) According to the Size of the Farm:

a) Small scale farming
b) Large scale farming.

B) According to the Value of Products or Income or on the basis of Comparative Advantages:

i) Specialized farming.
ii) Diversified farming.
iii) Mixed farming.
iv) Ranching.
v) Dry farming .

C) According to the Water Supply:

i) Rained farming.
ii) Irrigated farming.

D) Based on the ownership:

i. Peasant farming
ii. Cooperative farming
iii. Contract farming
iv. Government/State farming
v. Capitalistic farming

Classification of Farming Systems

According to the size of the farm:

In this system, farming community cultivates the land for growing crops for obtaining maximum
production per unit area.

Small Scale Farming:

In this type, the farming is done on small size of holding and other factors of production are
small in quantity and scale of production is also small.
Advantages:
i) Intensive cultivation is possible
ii) Labour problem do not affect the production.
iii) It is easy to manage the farm
iv) There is less loss due to natural calamities like frost, heavy rainfall, and diseases.
v) Per unit output increases

Disadvantages:
i) small- scale farming cannot take advantages of various economic measures:
i) Cost of production per unit is more
ii) Mechanization of agriculture is not possible.
iii) Farmer does not get employment round the year.
ii) Large scale farming: when farming is done on large size holding with large amount of capital, large
labour force, large organization and large risk are called large- scale farming.

Large scale Farming:

In other words when the factors of production are large in quantity, the small of farming is said
to be large. In India 40 to 50 hectares land holding may be said large scale farming but in countries like
America, Canada and Australia even 100 ha. Farms are also called as small farms.
Advantages:
1. Production of large scale farming is more economical. The cost of production per unit is less.
2. per unit production is increased.

10
3. Better marketing of agricultural products is possible. Processing, transportation, storage, packaging of
produce is economical.
4. Costly machine like tractor, combined harvester can be maintained on the farm.
5. Subsidiary occupation such as dairy, poultry, bee keeping based on maintained on the farm.
6. Proper utilization of factors of production is possible.
7. Research work is possible.
8. It increases bargaining power of people.

Disadvantages:
1. If demand of produce decreases and production exceeds the market demand there will be more loss to
the large farm.
2. In case of labour strike there will be more loss on the farm.
3. Due to natural calamities like frost, drought, flood, insects and diseases the large farm will suffer a
lot.
4. It will be difficult to manage large scale farm.

Specialized Farming:
The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop production is derived from a single crop is
called specialized farming or The farm in which only single crop is cultivated for selling in the market
and the income of the farm depends mainly on that crop is called specialized farming by Hopkins.
According to the definition if 50% income is derived from paddy from any farm this is called paddy
farm similarly sugarcane farm wheat farm, vegetable farm, orchard farm etc.

Advantages:
1. Better use of land: More profitable to grow crops on land best suited to it. E.g. jute growing or
cultivation on swampy land in west Bengal.
2. Better marketing: it allows grading, processing, storing, transporting and financing the produce.
3. Less equipment and labour.
4. Costly and efficient machinery can be kept: A wheat harvester thresher can be maintained in a highly
specialized wheat farm.
5. The efficiency and skill of the labor increased: Specialization allows a man to be more efficient and
expert at doing a few things.
6. Farm records can be maintained easily.
7. Intensity of production leads to relatively large amount of output.
8. Better management: fewer enterprises on the farm are liable to be less neglected and sources of
wastage can easily be detected.

Disadvantage:
These disadvantages of specialization are evident when the farmer realizes that “all his eggs are in one
basket”.
1. There is greater risk: When failure of crop and decreasing market price of the product, demand in
market of product.
2. It is not possible to maintain soil fertility-lack of crop rotation.
3. The productive resources i.e. land; labor and capital are not fully utilized.
4. Irregular income of the farm as they get income only once or twice in a year.
5. Proper Utilization of resources is not possible.
6. By product of crop are not property utilized, as numbers of livestock’s are less in number.
7. Due to specialization of a single enterprise, the knowledge about other enterprises vainness.
8. Does not help in supplying all the food needs of the family members of the farmer.

Diversified Farming:
A diversified farm is one that has several production enterprises or sources of income but no source of
income equal as much as 50% of the total income from that source on such farm farmers depends on
several sources of incomes. It is also called as general farming.

11
Advantages:
1. Better use of land, labour and capital: Better area land through adoption of crop rotations, steady
employment of farm and family labour and more profitable use of equipment are obtained in diversified
farming.
2. The farmer and labour engaged all the year round in different activities.
3. Less risk to crop failure and market price of the product.
4. The by products of this farm can utilize properly as cattle, poultry, birds, etc. are reared with crop
production.
5. Regular and quicker return is obtained from various enterprises.
6. Soil erosion can be checked as land kept under cultivated throughout the year
7. Soil fertility can be checked as land kept under cultivated throughout the year.
8. Diversified farming is less risky than specialized farming.
9. Best use of all equipments.

Disadvantages:
1. Do not fetch desirable profit so long as co-operative marketing facility is not there.
2. Proper inspection of different enterprises is difficult.
3. It is not possible to farmer to maintain all types of machinery required for different crops.
4. The wastage of farm in any farm is difficult to detect.

Mixed farming:
Mixed farming is one which crop production is combined with the rearing of livestock. The live stock
enterprises are complementary to crop production; so as to provide a balance and productive system of
farming. In mixed farming at least 10% of its gross income must be contributed by livestock activity.
The upper limit being 45% under Indian condition. So the farm on which at least 10 to 49% income is
found from livestock is called mixed farm. In mixed farming cow and buffaloes are included with crop
production. If farmers are rearing cows, buffaloes, sheep goat, and fisheries with crop cultivation this
type of farming is called diversified farming.
The scope of mixed farming to combination of crops and their complementary livestock
enterprises of mixed farming would certainly include a vast majority of our farms, establishing a
complementary relationship between crop and livestock enterprises.

Enterprises Contribution to gross Farming type

income of farm
1. Cow and Buffalo only 10 to 49% Mixed farming
2. Cow, buffalo and poultry 10 to 49% Diversified farming

Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm which includes crop
production, raising live stock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain and satisfy as many needs of
the farmer as possible. Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming. While higher profitability
without altering ecological balance is important in farming system.

Advantages:
1. It offers highest return on farm business, as the by products of farm are properly utilized.
2. It provides work throughout year.
3. Efficient utilization of land, labour, equipment and other resources.
4. The crop by products such as straw, bus, fodder etc. is used for feeding of livestock and in return they
provide milk.
5. Manures available from livestock maintain soil fertility.
6. It helps in supplying all the food needs of the family members.
7. Intensive cultivation is possible.
8. If one source of income is lost he can maintain his family from other source of income.
9. Milk cattle’s provide draft animals for crop production and rural transport.
10. Mixed farming increases social status of the farmer.

12
Disadvantages:
1. Draft and milch animals should be sold when they fail in production.
2. Healthy calf should be reared to replace age old animals.

Ranching:
A ranch differs from other type of crop and livestock farming in that in that the livestock graze the
natural vegetation. Ranch land is not utilized for tilling or raising crops. The ranches have no land of
their own and make use of the public grazing land. A ranch occupies most of the time of one or more
operators.
Ranching is followed in Australia, America, Tibet and certain parts of India.

Dry Farming:
Farmers in dry land, which receives 750 mm rainfall or even less than that struggle for livelihood.
The major farm management problem in these tracts, where crops, which are entirely dependent upon
rainfall and the conservation of, soil moisture is needed.

Rain Fed Farming:

Agriculture mainly depends on the rainfall in most part of the country. 80% of the total
cultivated arable land is rain fed. Rain fed farming is very risky system of farming where the success of
the crop depends on the cycle of the monsoon. Timely rainfall is the pre-requisite of this farming. The
uneven rainfall is quite detrimental to crop production.

Irrigated Farming:
The crop can be grown throughout the year; moisture is not a limited factor.

Characteristics:
1. The round the year cropping pattern becomes possible.
2. Intensive cropping is possible.
3. Production can be increased by proper utilization of productive resources.
4. Crop rotation can be executed properly due to adequate irrigation facility.
5. Manuring is safely done in irrigated crop.
6. The field experiment is possible, because of timely irrigation facility.

Peasant farming:

It refers to that kind of farming in which individual cultivator is the owner, manager and
organizer of the farm. He takes decision and formulates plan for farms depending upon available
resources. Resource base of peasant farming is poor. It generally falls under the category of small –
scale farming.

Co-operative farming:

Co-operative farming is one in which agricultural / livestock producers co-operate with one
another to secure advantages of co-operative buying of agricultural / livestock inputs and co-operative
selling of agricultural/livestock produce or they may cooperate in order to obtain credit on easier terms.

It is a kind of farming where members pool their land and resources voluntarily and manage it
jointly under a democratic set up. Each farmer retain his right to his own land and resources. Total land
is treated as a unit and cultivated under the direction of an elected management by them. Profit is
divided in proportion to the land contributors after deducting labourers and other costs.

Co-operative farming societies are of four different steps:

a. Co-operative Better Farming:

Under this system, the land is not pooled and cultivation is carried out by each farmer separately. Here
the ownership and operationship both are individual. It promotes the interest of the members through the
adoption of better farming practices. It arranges for the purchase of seeds, manure, joint use of
13
machinery, etc.In this kind, independent land holding members “agree to follow a plan of cultivation /
operation” laid down by the society.

b. Co-operative Joint Farming:

Under this system, the ownership is individual and the operationship is collective, the land of the
members is pooled for joint cultivation. Ownership of each member over his land is recognized by
payment of a dividend in proportion to the value of his land. The members work on the land under the
direction of a managing committee and each member receives wages for his daily labour.

c. Co-operative Tenant Farming:

Under this system the ownership is collective and the operationship is individual. The land is held by
the society and not by the members individually. The land is then divided into plots, which are leased
out for cultivation to individual members. The society arranges for the agricultural requirements, e.g.
credit, seeds, manures, marketing of produce, etc. Each member is responsible to the society for
payment of the rent of his plots and is at liberty to dispose off his produce in such a manner as the likes.

d. Cooperative Collective farming:

Under this system, the operationship is collective and ownership is also collective. The land is owned by
the society and cultivation is done jointly. The method of work of the society is similar to that of a
cooperative joint farming society. But the right of share of individual members on the land is not
recognized. The profits are paid to the members in proportion to the work and capital contributed by
each member.

Collective farming:
It refers to collective management of resources. All family head members of the village
surrender their resources (Eg. land, livestock and machine). Members works together under management
committee elected by them. Whole farm is considered as a unit. The resources do not belong to any of
the farmer. Farmers are paid for their quota of work of that day. Services such as education, primary
health coverage, animal health care etc. are provided to the member’s family. If any farmer wants to
dissociate from it, he can do so but he can’t go with his share (resources). Money in lieu of his share will
be given to him. Individual has no voice. Farming is done on large scale and therefore it is mechanized.
It is not prevailing in India.

Eg. Kibbutz – Israel;

Commune – China;
Kolkhoz – Russia; Type of ownership and operator ship is society.
Ejido – Mexico

In collective farming, members of collectives surrender their land, livestock to the society. The
members work together under a management committee elected by themselves. The committee directs
farm management in matters of allocation of work, distribution of income and marketing surplus and put
all members into labour to see that the work is done efficiently. The main source of income is through
labour earnings.

Types of collective farming societies are

• Type I Collective farming societies: It is marked by transfer of land ownership rights by
members in return for shares of equivalent value.
• Type II Collective farming societies: It is marked by transfer of land ownership rights by
members without any consideration.
• Type III Collective farming societies: It is marked by absence of the transfer of any prior land
ownership rights by members, because members did not possess any ownership rights in
society’s land.

State farming:

14
 It is a kind of farming where the farm operation and management is done by the government or
university. Such farms are either attached to some institutions or they themselves are institutions.

Supervision is done by the farm manager and labourers are hired on daily or monthly basis. The
farm may be mechanized or non-mechanized depending on the size of the farm. There is no limitation of
resources.

Capitalistic farming:

It is a kind of farming where the management and ownership of the farm remain under rich
person or capitalist. Size of such farm is sufficiently large and management is very efficient. The farm
may be owned by individual, or a group of individuals or share-holders.

Resources are plenty and latest technologies are used. Hence they are very efficient. This type of
farming is very common in western countries like USA, Canada, Australia etc. In India, tea and coffee
estates come under this category. Capitalistic farming falls under the category of large-scale farming and
is specialized in nature.

CONTRACT FARMING

It is defined as an agreement may be oral/written on ordinary/legal stamp paper between farmer

or marketing/ processing firms for production and supply of agricultural/livestock products under
forward agreements, frequently at predetermined prices.

In this farming system, farmers use to give contract to the agency with some conditions the
quantum of production, its quality and purchase price as well as timing are all governed by a mutually
agreed contact. It benefits both the producer and the processor/agency. Here farmer’s responsibility is to
provide land, labour and shed for farming. Simultaneously, the agency will provide animals/birds,
vaccines, medicines, feed, training etc. it is obligatory to purchase output of the farm by the agency at
the rate as fixed at the beginning of the farm. The farmers cannot sell their output against more cost
other than concerned agency in this farming. The farmer is assured of raw materials of good quality and
quantity at fixed prices, so as to permit effective and economic planning. The agency is assured of fixed
prices and does not have to depend upon the vagaries /fluctuate/ change of market. It is not always better
for small farmers, though it is preferred by most of the farmers because of assured market.

This is commonly found in broiler and layer farming. 60% of broiler farming is under contract
farming system in which the grower usually provides land and housing facilities, labour and other
operating expenses such as repair and maintenance, manure disposal and chick house cleaning. The
contractor provides chicks, feed, veterinary supplies, management service and transportation.

Advantages for farmers:

1. Provision of inputs and production services

2. Easy access to credit
3. Introduction of appropriate technology
4. Skill transfer
5. Guaranteed and fixed pricing structure
6. Access to reliable credit

Advantages for contractor:

1. Timely availability of good quality, sufficient and cost effective raw material
2. Overcome resource constraints (Eg. Land, livestock owned by farmer not by contractor)
3. Production reliability and shared risk
4. Quality consistency
5. Promotion of farm inputs

15
 6. Protection from fluctuating markets which gives long term planning guarantee, goodwill for
organization.

Problems faced by the farmer:

1. Lack of timely supply of resource/ input – animal feed, medications

2. Timely payment of profits for the produce
3. Unsuitable and incompatible technology (should be in line with social and cultural beliefs)
4. Problem of corruption
5. Domination by monopolies
6. Indebtedness and over-reliance on advances

Problems faced by sponsors

1. Poor management and lack of consultation with farmers may lead to farmer discontent
2. Farmers may sell outside the contract (extra-contractual marketing) thereby reducing processing
factory throughput
3. Farmers may divert inputs supplied on credit to other purposes, thereby reducing yields

ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming system in India is not new and is being followed from ancient time. It is a
method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way,
as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal and farm wastes,
aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (biofertilizers) to release
nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco friendly pollution free environment.

As per the definition of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) study team on
organic farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic
inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible
rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock
additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which
promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil
biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical
methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

16
 ROLE OF ANIMALS
1. Economic role
Livestock as
▪ Human food
▪ Draught animals
▪ Manure
▪ Energy source (Biogas)
▪ Ready and steady money for farmers (Moving banks)
▪ Alternative source of living (in addition to agriculture)
▪ Employment
▪ Used by police and army
▪ Used in research

2. Social and cultural role

▪ of social status (with good pedigree breeds)

▪ Animal recreations (racing and fighting purposes during festivals)
▪ Great cultural sport of bull taming (Great sport in TamilNadu since ancient and
present times too)
▪ Cow as dowry to the beloved daughter
▪ Legends and religions (Horses drawing the chariot of the sun, the gods choosing
and riding animals such as Durga - tiger, Mahadev-bull,Vigneshwar – bandicoot,
Yama – buffalo, Muruga – Peacock etc.)
▪ Animal sacrifice to propitiate gods
▪ Dung and urine are sacred in India
▪ Sacred milk bath of idols
▪ Gratitude towards the cow (Kamadhenu, the giver of whatever we wanted)

3. Psychological role

▪ Cow and house warming

▪ Cow in mothe’s status
▪ Human bond towards animals
▪ Human companion

Role of Livestock in Indian Economy

Livestock plays an important role in Indian economy. About 20.5 million people depend upon
livestock for their livelihood. Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households as
against an average of 14% for all rural households. Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural
community. It also provides employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. India has vast
livestock resources. Livestock sector contributes 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP.

Role of livestock in farmers’ economy

The livestock plays an important role in the economy of farmers. The farmers in India maintain
mixed farming system i.e. a combination of crop and livestock where the output of one enterprise
becomes the input of another enterprise thereby realize the resource efficiency. The livestock serve the
farmers in different ways

1. Income: Livestock is a source of subsidiary income for many families in India especially the resource
poor who maintain few heads of animals. Cows and buffaloes if in milk will provide regular income to
the livestock farmers through sale of milk. Animals like sheep and goat serve as sources of income

17
 during emergencies to meet exigencies like marriages, treatment of sick persons, children education,
repair of houses etc. The animals also serve as moving banks and assets which provide economic
security to the owners.

2. Employment: A large number of people in India being less literate and unskilled depend upon
agriculture for their livelihoods. But agriculture being seasonal in nature could provide employment for
a maximum of 180 days in a year. The land less and less land people depend upon livestock for utilizing
their labour during lean agricultural season.

3. Food: The livestock products such as milk, meat and eggs are an important source of animal protein to
the members of the livestock owners.

4. Social security: The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status in the society.
The families especially the landless which own animals are better placed than those who do not. Gifting
of animals during marriages is a very common phenomenon in different parts of the country. Rearing of
animals is a part of the Indian culture. Animals are used for various socio religious functions. Cows for
house warming ceremonies; rams, bucks and chicken for sacrifice during festive seasons; Bulls and
Cows are worshipped during various religious functions. Many owners develop attachment to their
animals.

5. Draft : The bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. The farmers especially the marginal and
small depend upon bullocks for ploughing, carting and transport of both inputs and outputs.

6. Dung: In rural areas dung is used for several purposes which include fuel (dung cakes), fertilizer (farm
yard manure), and plastering material (poor man’s cement).

LIVESTOCK RESOURCES

Livestock population (2019 Livestock census)

India has emerged as the largest producer of milk with 20.17 percent share in total milk production in
the world. India accounts for about 5.65 percent of the global egg production, 3 percent of global meat
production and also the largest population of milch animals in the world (APEDA, 2018).

18
Standings of India in the World
Ranking Sector
Total Livestock Population, Milk Production, Buffalo Population, Carabeef Production, Goat Milk
1st
Production, Total Bovine Population
Cattle Population, Goat Population, Bristle Production (a pig industry by-product), Aquaculture,
2nd
Goat Meat Production
3rd Egg Production, Sheep Population, Fisheries Production
th
5 Poultry Production, Meat production
th
6 Poultry Meat Production
8th Duck Production
th
9 Camel Population, Wool Production

Animal Products Statistics

Commodity Total Production (per year) Per Capita Availability ICMR Recommendations
Milk 187.75 MT 394 grams/day 280 grams/day
Meat 8.11 MT – 11 kg/year
Eggs 103.32 billion 79 eggs/year 182 eggs/year
Wool 40.42 million kg – –

Comparison with Previous Year

Increase in milk production compared to previous year: 6.5%
Increase in egg production compared to previous year: 8.5%
Increase in meat production compared to previous year: 6.0%
Increase in poultry meat production compared to previous year: 7.8%
Decrease in wool production compared to previous year: 2.5%

As per estimates of the Publication “National Accounts Statistics 2019”of Central Statistics
Office (CSO), the value of output from livestock sector was about Rs. 10,43,656 crore at current prices
during 2017-18 which is about 33.25% of the value of output from agricultural and allied sector. At
constant prices the value of output from livestock was about 31.81% of total agriculture and allied sector
(DAHD annual report, 2019-20).

DIFFERENCES IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION PRACTICES

S.No Particulars Rural Urban Tribal
1 Purpose Economic as well Primarily economic Way of life
as social / religious
2 Number of animals / Less (2 to 3) More (>5) Less (<3)
household

3 Quality of animals Predominantly Predominantly cross Indigenous / non-

indigenous bred descript
4 Productivity of animals Low to medium Medium to high Very low

5 Dry and wet ratio High Low High

6 Animal sheds Open yard Mostly pucca Open yard

7 Feeding Mostly grazing Mostly stall feeding Grazing

19
8 Type of feeds Dry, green fodder Dry fodder with little or Green grasses
with little or no no green fodder,
concentrate concentrate feeding
common
9 Management Less scientific To a greater extent Not scientific
scientific
10 Adoption of Low level Early adoption No adoption of scientific
technologies to improve practices. Adopt
productivity of animals traditional practices
11 Cost of production / kg. Low High Meagre
of milk / meat
12 Occupation Traditional Entrepreneurial Traditional
13 Profit / unit of milk / Marginal or nil High Marginal or nil
meat sold
14 Sentimental attachment Very much present Not to that extent as in Very much present
with animals rural areas
15 Person involved in the All members of the Specific person as full All members of the
maintenance of animals family / part time time job family
16 Marketing Own use / vendor / Private Own use. At times do
co-operative not milk the animas

20