Microproject of Dte
Microproject of Dte
Microproject of Dte
1.1 Introduction:
Digital Techniques:
G.H.RAISONI Introduction
POLYTECHNIC, To Digital Techniques is designed for advanced electronics
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students who have a thorough understanding of AC/DC electronics and semiconductors. It
assumes a basic understanding of simple algebra.
1. Fanout
2. Power dissipation
3. Propagation delay
4. Noise margin
5. Fan in
6. Operating temperature
7. Power supply requirements
2.1 Bit:in a digital circuit, the smallest unit of data is the bit, which derives its name from the
phrase binary digit. Any single bit can only exist in one of two possible states. In a
physical digital circuit,
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINIones and zeroes are represented by high and low voltages,
PROJECT 3
respectively.
2.2 Byte: The term "byte" is a respelling of the word "bite," in order to avoid the problem of
a typo causing the two words to be mistaken for one another. If you have ever heard of an
eight bit computer, what that means is that the digital circuits within the computer are
designed to primarily handle single bytes.
Introduction:-
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
A digital system can understand positional number system only where there are a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.
The digit
The position of the digit in the number
The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).
Example:
The position of “6” is in One’s place, which means 6 ones (i.e. 6).
The position of “5” is in the Ten’s place, which means 5 tens (i.e. fifty).
Decima Binary
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT l 5
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
Example: Consider the conversion of the decimal number 236.53. The conversion of integer
part is shown below.
Each Hexadecimal number can be represented using only 4 bits, with each group of bits
having a distich values between 0000 (for 0) and 1111 (for F = 15 = 8+4+2+1). The equivalent
binary number of Hexadecimal number are as given below.
Hex digit 8 9 A = 10 B = 11 C = 12 D = 13 E = 14 F = 15
The AND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p one o/p, which perform logical conjunction
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of this gate is true only when all the
inputs are true. When one or more inputs of the AND gate’s i/p are false, then only the
output of the AND gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an AND gate with two inputs
is shown below.
4.1.2 OR Gate:
DIGITAL
The TECHIQUES
OR gate MINI PROJECT
is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs a logical 8
conjunction based on the combinations of its inputs. The output of the OR gate is true only
when one or more inputs are true. If all the i/p of the gate are false, then only the output of
the OR gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an OR gate with two inputs is shown
below.
The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the
input of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa. The symbol and
truth table of a NOT gate with one input is shown below. By using this gate, we can
implement NOR and NAND gates
The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs the operation of
the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT gate.NAND gate is designed by
combining the AND and NOT gates. If the input of the NAND gate high, then the output of
the gate will be low. The symbol and truth table of the NAND gate with two inputs is shown
below.
The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that operates an inverter
operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the reverse of the input. When the
input of the NOT gate is true then the output will be false and vice versa. The symbol and
truth table of a NOT gate with one input is shown below. By using this gate, we can
implement NOR and NAND gates
The NAND gate is a digital logic gate with ‘n’ i/p and one o/p, that performs the operation of
the AND gate followed by the operation of the NOT gate.NAND gate is designed by
combining the AND and NOT gates. If the input of the NAND gate high, then the output of
the gate will be low. The symbol and truth table of the NAND gate with two inputs is shown
below.
The NOR gate is a digital logic gate with n inputs and one output, that performs the
operation of the OR gate followed by the NOT gate. NOR gate is designed by combining the
G.H.RAISONI
OR POLYTECHNIC,
and NOT gate. When anyJALGAON
one of the i/p of the NOR gate is true, then the output of the
NOR gate will be false. The symbol and truth table of the NOR gate with truth table is shown
below.
The Exclusive-NOR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one output. The short
form of this gate is Ex-NOR. It performs based on the operation of NOR gate. When both the
G.H.RAISONI
inputs of this POLYTECHNIC,
gate are high,JALGAON
then the output of the EX-NOR gate will be high. But, if any one
of the inputs is high (but not both), then the output will be low. The symbol and truth table
of the EX-NOR are shown below.
5. DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 12
5.1. DE Morgan’s First Theorem
According to DE Morgan’s first theorem, a NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled AND gate.
The Boolean expressions for the bubbled AND gate can be expressed by the equation shown
below. For NOR gate, the equation is
As the NOR and bubbled gates are interchangeable, i.e., both gates have exactly identical
outputs for the same set of inputs.
Therefore, the equation can be written as shown below.
This equation (1) or identity shown above is known as DE Morgan’s Theorem. The symbolic
representation of the theorem is shown in the figure below.
DE Morgan’s Second Theorem states that the NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled OR gate.
The Boolean expression for the NAND gate is given by the equation shown below.
The Boolean expression for the bubbled OR gate is given by the equation shown belo
Since NAND and bubbled OR gates are interchangeable, i.e., both gates have identical
outputs for the same set of inputs. Therefore, the equations become as given below.
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This identity or equation (2) shown above is known as DE Morgan’s Second Theorem.
Digital circuits use digital signals to operate. These signals have binary values; they can be
either one or zero. Zero represents false or low state whereas one represents true or high
state. Boolean algebra helps to describe the binary numbers and binary variables. To be
more specific, a Boolean function is an algebraic form of Boolean expression. It is also
possible to simplify Boolean functions of digital circuits using Boolean laws and theorems.
Furthermore, SOP and POS are two methods of representing Boolean expressions.
SOP stands for Sum of Products. Writing a Boolean expression using product terms is called
Sum of Products form. The product terms are also known as min-terms. An example is as
follows.
6.2. What is POS?
For example, assume that P and Q are input variables and F is the output variable. Here, we
take the variable for 0 and take the complement of the variable for 1. Then we can write the
max terms by writing the sum terms.
For a Boolean function of n variables, a sum term in which each of the n variables appears
once (either in its complemented or un-complemented form) is called a maxterm. Thus, a
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 15
maxterm is a logical expression of n variables that employs only the complement operator
and the disjunction operator.
In many digital circuits and practical problems we need to find expression with minimum
variables. We can minimize Boolean expressions of 3, 4 variables very easily using K-map
without using any Boolean algebra theorems. K-map can take two forms Sum of Product
(SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) according to the need of problem. K-map is table like
representation but it gives more information than TRUTH TABLE. We fill grid of K-map with
0’s and 1’s then solve it by making groups.
6.6. K-map ofPOLYTECHNIC,
G.H.RAISONI 3 variables: JALGAON
Z= ∑A, B, C (1, 3, 6, 7)
• Combinational logic uses only the present inputs to determine the output while sequential
logic uses both present inputs as well as previous outputs to determine the current input.
• Combinational logic is used to implement basic Boolean operations while sequential logic
is used to create memory elements.
• Sequential logic uses the feedbacks from the output to inputs while combinational logic
does not require feedbacks.
8. MULTIPLEXER
of {\display style 2^ {n}} inputs has {\display style n} select lines, which are used to select
which input line to send to the output. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount
of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth. A
multiplexer is also called a data selector. Multiplexers can also be used to
implement Boolean functions of multiple variables.
An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one device or
resource, for example, one A/D converteror one communication line, instead of having one
device per input signal.
9. DEMULTIPLEXER
A demultiplexer (or demux) is a device that takes a single input line and routes it to one of
several digital output lines. A demultiplexer of 2 n outputs has n select lines, which are used
to select which output line to send the input. A demultiplexer is also called a data
distributor.
Demultiplexers can be used to implement general purpose logic. By setting the input to true,
the demux behaves as a decoder.
10. FLIP-FLOP
In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to
store state information – a bistablemultivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state
by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the
basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building
blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other
types of systems.
Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip-flop is a device which stores
a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other
DIGITAL TECHIQUES
represents a "zero". MINI
SuchPROJECT
data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is 18
described as sequential logic in electronics. When used in a finite-state machine, the output
and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence,
previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-
timed input signals to some reference timing signal.
11. COUNTERS
Counter is a digital device and the output of the counter includes a predefined state based
on the clock pulse applications. The output of the counter can be used to count the number
of pulses. Generally, counters consist of a flip-flop arrangement which can be synchronous
counter or asynchronous counter. In synchronous counter, only one clock i/p is given to all
flip-flops, whereas in asynchronous counter, the o/p of the flip flop is the clock signal from
the nearby one. The applications of the microcontroller need counting of exterior events
such as exact internal time delay generation and the frequency of the pulse trains. These
events are frequently used in digital systems & computers. Both these events can be
executed by software techniques, but software loops for counting will not give the exact
result slightly more important functions are not done. These problems can be rectified by
timers and counters in the microcontrollers which are used as interrupts.
Fig.11.Counter
DIGITAL
12. SHIFTTECHIQUES MINI PROJECT
REGISTERS 19
Flip flops can be used to store a single bit of binary data (1or 0). However, in order to store
multiple bits of data, we need multiple flip flops. N flip flops are to be connected in an order
to store n bits of data. A Register is a device which is used to store such information. It is a
group of flip flops connected in series used to store multiple bits of data.
The information stored within these registers can be transferred with the help of shift
registers. Shift Register is a group of flip flops used to store multiple bits of data. The bits
stored in such registers can be made to move within the registers and in/out of the registers
by applying clock pulses. An n-bit shift register can be formed by connecting n-flip flops
where each flip flop stores a single bit of data the register which will shift the bits to left are
called “shift the registers”. The register which wills shift the bits to right are called “shift
right register”.
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON
G.H.RAISONI
Data POLYTECHNIC,
conversion JALGAON
is the process of changing one from of data in to another form. In
processing and communication there are only two types of data forms i.e analog and digital
data. The converter which converts the digital data in to analog data is called analog to
digital to analog converter (ADC) and in the same the converter which converts digital to
analog is called as DAC.
In the growing digital world processing and transmitting of digital data became easy &
secure with the computer world. Most complicated applications or logic can be easily
programmable in the digital computer compared to analog circuits. This enabled the use of
converting analog form of data in to digital form. Even though the processing has been done
in digital form the final element which has to reflect the data is most probably responds to
DIGITALsignals
analog TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT
compared to digital signals. This utilizes the digital to analog conversion 21
techniques. In a summarized way the analog signals at the input of the system converted to
digital form and they are converted back to analog before applying final element i.e. at the
output of the system.
Street light project
ABSTRACT
G.H.RAISONI
This POLYTECHNIC,
report will JALGAON
explain the street light circuit system we had to build as well as the
technique we had to implement and efficiently completing this as a team.
INTRODUCTION
The mini project we built is an electronic system, like many others it uses an Input-
Processing-Output structure. The first system had an output of a flashing LED. The second
system, the output was a speaker. Both were processed by a 555 Integrated Circuit. The
report explains how to build the circuit, the problems that may arise, and the lessons
learned.
LESSONS LEARED
From Felder’s learning style inventory, when describing components and circuit functions,
our team were more visual than verbal. The visual representations of the circuits [2] we
DIGITAL TECHIQUES MINI PROJECT 22
built were a valuable aid in understanding the configurations [3] as well as the function. The
organization of information we gathered adhered closely to the inductive method—that is
to be given facts and observations. As a team, we progressed towards understanding
sequentially rather than globally, following step-by-step procedural methods.
FIGURE 1
The pyramid represents Bloom’s six functions that represent the “Cognitive Domain”.
According to Benjamin Bloom [1], there exist domains of education activities. In regards to
theCognitive
G.H.RAISONI domain in FIGURE
POLYTECHNIC, 1, we found that our team went through each level in order.
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Evaluation– we focused on the materials we needed, as well as the instructions, and sorting
it out in a manner which expedited different responsibilities to each team member.
Synthesis– putting together the circuit, and combining our equipment to make a different
device.
Analysis – this step involved our team troubleshooting the kinks in our circuit when it wasn’t
functioning as it should.
Application – we observed that our circuit could be used with different outputs media.
Knowledge –knowing how to build the circuit, learning the behavior of currents within, the
function of new devices, and the ability to rebuild without instruction.
TEAM BUILDING
Leading a team requires excellent communication, organizing meeting times and expediting
G.H.RAISONI POLYTECHNIC,
responsibilities JALGAONAs well as overseeing the overall progress of the project,
to team members.
our leader spent time in each task assigned to ensure the project would be complete in a
timely manner.
Certifying the circuit required focus and determination, which meant building the circuit first
hand. This gave a better intuition of the circuit’s function and how it can be modified, as well
as learning several common mistakes made in building it and how to troubleshoot for these
mistakes. This task also required communication, in learning about components and
explaining to the team how they work. This garnered a better comprehension of bridging
the gap between theory and execution.
Reporting and preparing the presentation requires an extraordinary amount of attention to
detail. This task meant gathering different information from the team and compiling it into
something cohesive, uniform and presentable. The most important aspect of reporting is
determining which information
DIGITAL TECHIQUES is relevant to the project, and how much of it to include.
MINI PROJECT 24
Working together as a team allowed us to efficiently apply different skills to different parts
of the project. Teamwork allowed us to successfully demonstrate, report, and prepare a
presentation.
Required hardware
Transistor
LED
Relay
Resistor
Potentiometer
jumper wire
AC supply
Required software
Kell compiler
Advantages of street light
Complete
G.H.RAISONI elimination
POLYTECHNIC, of manpower.
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Reduce energy costs .
Reduce green house gas emission
Reduce maintenance costs .
Higher community satisfaction.
Fast payback.
Street light .
Garden light.
G.H.RAISONI
When POLYTECHNIC,
LDR allows JALGAON
the current to flow this block diagram of circuitry goes into working
condition. IR sensors start emitting IR rays via IR transmitters. As soon as any vehicle crosses
or obstructs the path of IR rays and prohibits it to reach at IR receivers the microcontroller
starts getting the blockage signals. The programming installed in microcontroller starts
running which basically presented here allows three street lights to glow that are- the light
in front of vehicle, behind the vehicle and parallel to vehicle making backward and forward
street visible. Transformer converts the high 230V AC to 12V AC, Rectifier converts it into
DC. For voltage regulation we are using LM 7805 and 7812 to produce ripple free 5 and 12
volts DC constant supply. Emitting Diode (LED) replaces HID lamps by engaging a
programmable microcontroller that controls the street light on/off conditions.
We learned the
G.H.RAISONI importance
POLYTECHNIC, of time-management, how Felder’s learning style inventory
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applied to how we approached the task. It was easy to build the circuit by using the
workbook, which demonstrates how we lean more towards visual-style learning, rather than
verbally. In Bloom’s taxonomy, we actually went down the pyramid in order of the
“Cognition” domain. Multisim™ allowed us to simulate the circuit without the potential of
damaging any components in the process. Through teamwork, we learned about the
components needed to construct two different IPO systems. The first was an LED flasher
with a frequency controlled by a potentiometer. The second was a system using an audible
output (speaker). The potentiometer in this system controlled the frequency of the tone.
This project portrays.
https://www.academia.edu › PROJECT_NAME_ALTERNATING_LED