CONTOURING

Introduction and Definition of Common Terms

Contouring is the process of locating the contour lines on the surface of the earth.

The art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth or beneath the surface
of earth is called LEVELLING.

A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface. It can also
be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground surface. For example, the
line of intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond with the surrounding ground
represents a contour line.

Contour line- is a line joining points of equal elevations. It facilitates depiction of the relief of
terrain in a two dimensional plan or map.

Purpose of Contouring

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a road, a railway, a
canal, a dam, a building etc.

i. For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable site.
ii. To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
iii. To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork both in
cutting and filling should be minimum.
iv. To get information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
v. To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill, steep or small
slopes.

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Characteristics of contour: (Consider the additional reference handout provided for
illustrations)

The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour map are
as follows:

i. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be uniform.
ii. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and
varies inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform
slope
iii. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of
the contour at that point. They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross
such lines.
iv. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings.
v. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging cliffs are
the exceptions).
vi. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is an
exception).

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vii. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.
viii. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the
map.
ix. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill. A set of ring contours
with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, depicts a
depression (without an outlet).

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x. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in U-
shape cross a ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contour
lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and towards lower ground in the case
of valley.

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 xi. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Contour Interval: it is the vertical distance between any two consecutive contours. A contour
interval is kept constant for a contour plan or map, otherwise the general appearance of the map
will be misleading.

For example, if the various consecutive contours are 100m, 98m,96 m etc., then the contour
interval is 2m. This interval depends upon,

 The nature of the ground

 The scale of the map and
 The purpose of survey

Contour intervals for flat country are generally small, e.g. 0.25m, 0.5m, 0.75 m etc. For a steep
slope in hilly area is greater, e.g. 5m, 10m, 15 m etc. Again, for a small-scale map, the interval
may be of 1m,2m,3m etc., and for large scale map, it may be of 0.25m,0.50m,0.75m etc. It should
be remembered that the contour interval for a particular map is constant.

Horizontal equivalent: is the horizontal distance between two points on the two consecutive
contours.

Methods of Contouring

The method of establishing / plotting contours in a plan or map is known as contouring. It requires
planimetric position of the points and drawing of contours from elevations of the plotted points.
Contouring involves providing of Vertical control (for location of points on the contours) and
Horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points.

Thus, contouring depends upon the instruments used (to determine the horizontal as well as vertical
position of points). In general, the field methods of contouring may be divided into two classes:

- Direct methods
- Indirect methods

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 1. Direct Method:

In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points which happen
to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular
contour. This method is slow and tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval
and at high degree of precision.

a) Vertical control (with example)

In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is set up on any commanding
position and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the back sight reading (staff reading)
on the bench mark be 1.285 m. If the reduced level of the bench mark is 100 m, the height of
instrument would be 100 + 1.285 = 101.285 m.

To locate the contours of 100.5 m, 101.0m and 101.5m value,

i. The staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground where the staff reading
is 101.285 -100.500 = 0.785 m.
Mark all such positions on the ground where the staff reading would be 0.785 m by
inserting pegs.
ii. Similarly locate the points where the staff reading would be 101.285 -101 = 0.285 m
for 101m contour.
iii. The contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the
height of instrument for this setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore,
locating contours of higher value, the instrument has to be shifted to some other suitable
position. Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take fore sight on it. This
point acts as a point of known elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to
another position, from where the work proceeds in the similar manner till the entire
area is contoured.

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 b) Horizontal control:

After having located the points on various contours, they are to be surveyed with a suitable control
system. For small areas, chain surveying may be used and the points may be located by offsets
from the survey lines. In a work of larger nature, a traverse may be used.

In the direct method, two survey parties generally work simultaneously (i.e. one locating the points
on the contours and the other surveying those points).

2. Indirect method of contouring:

In this method, the spot levels of selected guide points are taken with a level and their reduced
levels are computed. The horizontal positions of these points are measured or computed and the
points are plotted on the plan. The contours are then drawn by a process called interpolation of
contours from the levels of the guide points. The following are the indirect methods are commonly
used for locating contours.

1. Squares or Grid method

2. Cross section method
3. By Tacheometric method

a) Square or grid method (spot levelling)

The method is used when the area to be surveyed is small and the ground is not very much
undulating.

- The area to be surveyed is divided into a grid or series of squares. The grid size may vary
from 5 m x 5 m to 25 m x 25 m depending upon the nature of the terrain, the contour
interval required and the scale of the map desired. Also, the grids may not be of the same
size throughout but may vary depending upon the requirement and field conditions.
- The elevation of the corners of the squares/grids are determined by use of dumpy level and
staff.

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 - The grid is plotted to the scale of the map and the elevations of the grid corners are entered.
- The contours of desired values are then located by interpolation.

Special care should be taken to give the elevation or spot levels to the salient features of the ground
such as hilltops, deepest points of the depressions, and their measurements from respective corners
of the grids, for correct depiction of the features. The method is used for large scale mapping and
at average precision.

b) Cross section method:

In these sections, a base line, center line or profile line is considered that run transverse to the
center line of a road, railway, canals etc. The method is most suitable for railway route surveys.

- Cross sections are taken perpendicular to this line at regular intervals. After this points are
marked along the cross sections at regular intervals.
- A temporary bench mark is set up near the site. Staff readings are taken along the base line
and the cross sections.
- The readings are entered in the level book, the base line and the cross sections should also
be mentioned. The RL of each of the points calculated.
- Then the base line and cross sections are plotted to a suitable scale. Subsequently the RLs
of the respective points are noted on the map, after which the required contour line is drawn
by interpolation

This method is suitable for route survey, when cross sections are taken transverse to the
longitudinal section.

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Method of Interpolation of Contours:

The process of locating the contours proportionately between the plotted points is termed
interpolation. Interpolation may be done by:

1. Estimation
2. Arithmetical calculation
3. The graphical method
1. The estimation- this method is extremely rough and is used for small scale maps only. The
contour positions are located by estimation.
2. By arithmetical calculation

The method is very accurate but time consuming.

The positions of contour points between the guide points are located by arithmetic arithmetical
calculations.

EXAMPLE 1.

Let A and B be two corners of the squares. The RL of A is 98.75 m, and that of B 100.75 m. The
horizontal distance between A and B = 10m (grid interval). the contour of 99m is required.

- Vertical difference between A and B = 100.75-98.75=2m

- Difference of level between A and 99.00m contour = 99.00-98.75=0.25m
- Therefore, distance of 99.00 m contour line form A= 10/2 *0.25=1.25m

This calculated distance is plotted to the same scale in which the skeleton was plotted to obtain a
point of RL of 99.00 m. Similarly, the other points can be located.

Guide formula;(Two alternatives)

i. First alternative (Locating the contour from the highest level)

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
= [ ] 𝑋 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
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 Grid line length depend on scale selected. E.g. if 1mm represent 0.5m on the ground, then,

25
𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = 50𝑚𝑚
0.5

ii. Second alternative (Locating the contour from the lowest level)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
= [ ] 𝑋 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

Grid line length depend on scale selected. E.g. if 1mm represent 0.5m on the ground, then,

25
𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = = 50𝑚
0.5

EXAMPLE 2

Consider the reduced levels (elevations) of points of intersections (corners) obtained from the field.
Using a suitable scale, and assuming a grid of 5m X 5m, locate and plot the 605m, 610m and 615m
contours.

CORNER A B C D
ELEVATIONS
1 603.2 607.4 617.4 627.2
2 601.7 604.3 612.5 619.3
3 507.4 602.3 608.3 616.7

3. By graphical method (to be covered under plane table surveying)

In this method, the interpolation is done with the help of tracing paper or a tracing cloth.

On a sheet of tracing paper, a line AB is drawn and divided into equal parts. AB is bisected at C
and a perpendicular is drawn at this point. A point O is selected on this perpendicular line and
then radial lines are drawn from O to the divisions on AB. After this lines 1-1, 2-2, 3-3. are drawn
parallel to AB. These lines serve as guide lines. Boundary line and every fifth the line is marked
with a thick or red line.

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Suppose we have to interpolate a 2m contour between two points a and b of RLs 92.5 and 100.75m.

Let us consider the lowest radial line OB to represent an RL of 90.00. So, every fifth line will
represent 95,100,105, etc. The tracing paper is moved over the plan until ‘a’ lies at 92.5 and ‘b’
at 100.25. Line ‘ab’ should be parallel to AB. Now the points 94, 96, 98,100 are picked through
to obtain the positions of the required contours.

Comparison between the direct and the Indirect method of contouring

Direct Method Indirect Method

Most accurate but slow and tedious Not so accurate but rapid and less tedious
Expensive Cheaper
Not suitable for hilly area Suitable for hilly area
During the work calculations can be done Calculations are not required in the field
Calculations cannot be checked after Calculation can be checked as and when
Contouring required

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