DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 112 259 CE 005 285

TITLE Tractor Hydraulics. A Teaching Reference.

INSTITUTION American Association for Vocational Instructional
Materials, Athens, Ga.; Farm and Industrial Equipment
Inst., Chicago, Ill.
REPORT NO VT-102-063
NOTE 48p.; Illustrations have color keying which will not
reproduce

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$1.95 Plus Postage

DESCRIPTORS *Agricultural Machinery; Fluid Power Education;
*Hydraulics; Instructional Materials; *Manuals; Power
Mechanics; *Tractors; Trade and Industrial
Education

ABSTRACT
The manual was developed to help provide a better
understanding of how and why hydraulic principles serve the purposes
of weight reduction, increase of physical effort, and more precise
control to machines of all types. The four components that are
necessary to have a workable hydraulic system - -a reservoir, a pump, a
valve, and a motor (cylinder) are described in detail. Special
emphasis is given to farm and industrial equipment applications.
(VA)

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 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,
EDUCATION R. WELFARE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-
DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM
THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN-
ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS
STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY
REPRE-
;SENTOFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
-EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

102. 063)
A Teaching Reference
Available through the cooperative efforts of the ...

AA
FARM and INDUSTRIAL
VIM
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION
EQUIPMENT INSTITUTE and the FOR VOCATIONAL
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
 CE005285
CONTENTS
Introduction 3

Definition of Hydraulics 3

Hydraulic Theory 5

Basic System 6

Reservoir 9

Pumps 10
Reciprocating 11
External Gear 11
Internal Gear 12
Gear-Like 12
Screw 13
Vane 13
Radial Piston 14
Axial Piston 15
Centrifugal 15
Combination 16

Valves
Cock 17
Globe 18
Gate 18
Flapper 19
Ball 19
Needle 19
Spool 19
Rotary 22
Directional Poppet 22
Combination 24
Flow Control and Flow Divider 24

'Cylinders 24

Seals and Packing 28

0-Rings 29
"U" and "V" Packing 29
Cup and Flange Seals 29
Mechanical Seals 29
Metallic Seals 29
Compression Packing 30
Compression Gaskets 30

4
Hydraulic Lines and Fittings 30
Piping and Tubing .7 30
Flexible Hose 30
Fittings 31

Accessories 32

Phenomena 33
Ruptured Line or Exploded Cylinder in System at Rest 33
Collapsed Suction Hose 34
Pressure Drop Caused by Friction Losses 34
Effect of Using Wrong Size Pump in System 35
The Effect of "Hammer" in a System 35

Systems 35
Blocked Return Line System 36
Basic Open. Center System 36
Tandem Open Center System 36
Through Flow System 37
Closed Center System 37

Hydraulic Motors 38

Transmissions 39
Hydrostatic 39
Hydrodynamic 39
Hydraulic Couplings 39
Torque Converters 39

Fluids 41
Functions of Hydraulic Fluid 41
Viscosity 41
Viscosity Index 41
Oxidation Resistance 41
Rust and Corrosion Resistance 42
Oiliness 42
Water Separation 42
Foaming Resistance 42
Aniline Point 42
Other Properties 43

System Maintenance 43
Storage of Fluid 43
Drain Schedule 43
Cleaning the System 43

Trouble Shooting 45
 INTRODUCTION

THE Wright brothers shifted their weight practical had not a better means of control
on a seat to control their early airplane. Later been found. Application of the age old princi-
models employed wires to the movable sur- ples of hydraulics has provided designers with
faces of wings and tail, which were pulled by a practical means to reduce weight, multiply
hand or foot levers to control the flight. The physical effort and furnish more precise con-
size, weight and complexity of modern mili- trol to machines of all types. This has been a
tary and commercial machines require a much
major factor in achieving greater factory and
more powerful and flexible means of control.
Present day farm and industrial equipment is
farm production per manhour. The uses to
also larger, more powerful and performs more which hydraulics are being put increases daily.
jobs than it did only a few years ago.
This manual has been developed to help
These are only a few of the many kinds of provide a better understanding of how and
modern mechanical units which would not be why hydraulic principles serve these purposes.

DEFINITION OF HYDRAULICS

Hydraulics may be defined, in a strict sense, use. of hydraulic forces water power, for
as the science of fluid forces. In modern usage, example, dates back to early times. In the sev-
hydraulics has come to mean the use of fluid enteenth century, Pascal discovered the funda-
to transfer power, or to change a power source mental law upon which modern machine
into useful force. hydraulics is based. Simply stated, Pascal's
law is that pressure applied at any point in a
While modern farm and industrial equip- static fluid is the same in all directions and
ment hydraulic uses are relatively new,. the acts with equal force on equal areas (Illust. 1).

3
 AREA = 1 SQ. IN.

AREA =1 SQ. IN.

1. PISTONS OF EQUAL AREA; OUTPUT FORCE EQUALS INPUT FORCE.

AREA 1 SQ. IN.

AREA= 2 SQ.IN.
2. OUTPUT PISTON AREA INCREASED; OUTPUT FORCE IS INCREASED.

AREA = 2 SQ.IN.

AREA 1 SQ. IN.

AREA =4 SQ.IN.

AREA -3 SQ.IN.

3. MULTIPLE PISTONS: OUTPUT FORCES PROPORTIONAL TO PISTON AREAS.

Illust. 1 Application of Pascal's law.

Since fluids are nearly incompressible, the pressure. One of the earliest applications of
application of Pascal's law means that me- the principle was the hydraulic press shown
chanical forces may be transmitted, multi- in Illust. 2.
plied, or controlled by means of fluids under
4
 CYLINDER A CYLINDER B

1 SQ. IN. 10 SQ. IN.

Illust. 27Principle of early hydraulic press.

It was not until the late eighteenth century 5. Limitless variety of speeds, controls, and
that pistons and cylinders could be made with forces.
close enough "fit" to make full use of hydrau- 6. Reduction of wear on moving parts by:
lic principles. The development of present- (a) Controlled acceleration and decel-
day hydraulic systems dates from about 1900. eration; (b) automatic release of pres-
ure at overload; (c) absence of vibra-
Hydraulics offer a simple method of apply- tion; (d) automatic lubrication.
, ing large forces with a flexibility of controls 7. Efficient and economical to operate.
that is practically limitless. Hydraulic equip- 8. Large forces can be controlled by much
ment is so versatile that it can be easily smaller ones.
adapted to provide multiples of interdepend- 9. Power and friction losses are compar-
ent and coordinated motions of force which ably small.
would be economically impossible by mechani-
cal linkages. No mechanical device is perfect, and hy-
draulics have some drawbacks also:
Some of the main features that make 1. Pressures often are very high. Two or
hydraulics so adaptable are: three thousand p.s.i. is not uncommon.
1. Simplicity in design.
High pressures require heavy tubing,
tight joints, and intelligent maintenance.
2. Extreme flexibility as regards location of 2. Operating efficiency can be severely re-
components. duced, or operation halted, by rust, cor-
3. Complete automation of sequence is rosion, high temperatures, dirt, and the
possible. products of fluid deterioration.
4. Simplicity of speed control. Cleanliness is all-important!

HYDRAULIC THEORY
Some knowledge of hydraulic theory is nec- used to transmit force. By Pascal's law, when
essary in order to fully understand the appli- pressure is exerted by a piston in a cylinder,
cation of hydraulics to farm and industrial the pressure is transmitted undiminished
equipment and the reasons that these applica- throughout the fluid.
tions act as they do. Although fluid is said to be incompressible,
1. Incompressibility in a high-pressure hydraulic system, fluid does
Fluids are very nearly incompressible. For compress slightly. For example, at 3,000 p.s.i.,
this reason, fluid in a confined space can be fluid "loses" about 1.2 percent of its volume.
5
This is a minor item of concern mainly to of a hydraulic system may be multiplied into
design engineers. a greatly increased work force.
2. Multiplication of Forces 3. Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic
Pascal's law explains the ability of confined Hydraulic power may be classified in two
fluid to multiply forces. Since the pressure at general categories: Hydrostatic: where the po-
tential (static) energy of fluid under pressure
any point in confined fluid is the same in all
is used to perform work. Examples: the hy-
directions, the total thrust on any piston can
draulic press, hydraulic brakes, hydraulic
be computed by multiplying p.s.i. by the area lifts, hydraulic motors. This includes most of
of the piston head in square inches. the present applications of hydraulics to farm
For example, fluid in a closed system, and industrial equipment.
brought to a pressure of 100 p.s.i. by means Hydrodynamic: where the kinetic (dy-
of a small pump, will exert a thrust of 500 namic) energy of fluid in motion is used to
pounds on a piston with an area of five square perform work. Examples: the hydraulic cou-
inches. Thus, a small force exerted on the fluid pling, the torque converter.

BASIC SYSTEM
Modern hydraulic systems on many types of ble, the displaced fluid will go to cylinder B.
equipment seem complicated, and some are. To find the distance this piston would be
Actually, however, their fundamental design moved, simply divide 10 cubic inches by the
is quite simple. This can be illustrated by area of piston B (10 square inches), and the
building up a basic system, piece by piece. (II- distance will be found to be one inch.
lust. 2.)
To alter this illustration of Pascal's law into
In Illustration 2, it will be noticed that, if a hydraulic system, it is necessary to change
the piston in cylinder A is moved ten inches, it the design of cylinder B, add a spring to pro-
will displace 10 cubic inches of fluid (10 vide a force against which the piston will push,
inches movement times 1 square inch piston and straighten out the connecting tubing, as
area). Since fluid is essentially incompressi- in Il lust. 3.

CYLINDER A
CYLINDER B
TUBING

SPRING

II lust. 3Simple hydraulic press with spring added.

6
 In this illustration, cylinder A is actually a the spring will force the piston up and the
simplified hand pump, and any force devel- fluid will be delivered back to the reservoir.
oped by it will exert a greater force on the
piston in cylinder B, according to the previ- Because it is usually desired to operate such
ously explained multiplication of forces. Sev- a cylinder at frequent intervals, a motor
eral strokes of the hand pump will be required driven pump is added (Illust. 5). As the
to move piston B through its complete stroke. rotary pump supplies fluid continuously, the

AIR
VENT

RESERVOIR

CHECK VALVES
(ARROWS SHOW
FREE FLOW)

CYLINDER

TUBING
HAND PUMP

SPRING

!Dust. 4Reservoir and check valves added.

This necessitates an additional quantity of flu- check valves have been removed. However, a
id, which can be obtained from a reservoir, relief valve has been added.
as shown in 'Must. 4. Also, check valves are
needed to permit:0e fluid to be pumped from Il lust. 5 represents a simple hydraulic sys-
the reservoir (which is at atmospheric pres- tem which is operable. If it is advisable to use
sure), to the cylinder at an increased pressure. a cylinder which does not contain a spring
to return the piston to its "home" position,
The system shown in Illust. 4 would be a four-way directional valve installed as shown
impractical, since once the piston is extended, in Illust. 6, so that fluid can be supplied to
the fluid cannot get back to the reservoir. For either end of the piston. Then, regardless of
this reason, a directional control valve and a which side of the piston pressure is applied,
return line to the reservoir must be installed the fluid on the opposite side of the piston will
as in Il lust. 5. A directional control valve is a return to the reservoir.
device capable of directing the flow of fluid in
one of several directions. When the valve is in The relief valve, added in Il lust. 5, is a
the position shown by the solid lines, the fluid fundamental part of nearly all hydraulic sys-
tems.
may be pumped into the cylinder and the
piston will be forced down. When the valve is Without a relief valve, the pump would
in the position indicated by the dotted lines, have to be stopped at the exact moment the

10
piston reached the end of its stroke (in either will cause it to open and allow fluid to escape
direction), or when the directional valve is to the reservoir.
placed in a position that stops the flow of fluid. All hydraulic systems can be broken down
If the pump were not stopped, the pressure in into simplified diagrams as shown in Il lusts. 5
the system would quickly build up to a point and 6, adding units as necessary. Multiple pis-
where rupture of parts or stalling of the driv- tons, multiple pumps with a common reser-
ing motor would occur. The relief valve is set voir, rotary power units, or any combination
at a predetermined pressure, according to the of components is possible with proper valuing
system involved, so that excessive pressure and flow design.

AIR
VENT

RETURN LINE
CYLINDER

PUMP

DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL VALVE

II lust. 5Directional control valve, rotary pump, relief valve, and return line added.

AIR
VENT

CYLINDER

PUMP

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

II lust. 6Four-way valve and double acting piston added.

8
 RESERVOIR
Every hydraulic system must have a reser- may be required to accomplish thissee
voir. In most farm and industrial equipment page 32.)
applications, the reservoir is a built-in unit. 4. Allow air and foreign matter to separate
For the sake of compactness, some comprom- from the fluid.
ises with ideal design are made. Ease of clean- The design characteristics shown in Illust. 7
ing, large capacity, ideal return line, baffle may be incorporated, in one form or another,
and filter installation are often impossible to in any hydraulic reservoir.
obtain with built-in reservoir systems. Most of these features are self-explanatory;
however, some emphasis should be placed on
The size of the reservoir depends on the some of them. All openings 'into the reservoir
amount of fluid required to operate the system. should be sealed to prevent the entry of dirt,
water and other contaminants.
An ideal size is two or three times the capacity
The vertical baffle plate (if used) with
per minute of the pump, except where extra openings at the bottom, helps to segregate
large cylinders or heat problems require return fluid from that entering the pump.

DipsUck for
checking fluid
level

I Pump lntskc filter

Illust. 7A drawing of the ideal features of a fluid reservoir.

greater quantities. At any rate, the* reservoir This allows slower and more complete fluid
should be large enough to: circulation, and helps air and foreign matter
1. Hold all of the fluid that can drain back separate from the fluid.
into the reservoir by gravity flow. If a pump intake filter is provided, it should
be mounted at least one inch away from the
2. Maintain the fluid level above the open- sides or bottom of the reservoir.
ing of the suction line at all times. The dipstick, or fluid level plug, whichever
3. Dissipate excess heat generated during is used, should show the proper level when
normal operation. (An accessory oil cooler the pump is not running, with the cylinders
9
12
collapsed. Too little fluid will allow air to in such a manner that all the fluid will be
enter the pump; too much will not provide drained when it is removed.
sufficient air space, and may cause damage
to the reservoir. The dipstick or plug must fit An air vent, or breather, which may be fitted
tightly in the reservoir. with a filter, is very important. As fluid is
moved to and from the hydraulic reservoir,
The filler hole must be tightly capped, and air will be sucked in and pushed out by the
a strainer-equipped funnel should be used to fluctuating level of fluid in the reservoir.
keep contaminants out of the reservoir when Filtered air helps prevent moisture, dirt, and
adding fluid. The drain plug should be located other contaminants from reaching the fluid.

HYDRAULIC PUMPS
The pump is the power supply of the In the hydraulic braking system, fluid flow
hydraulic system, and it is a precision-built stops when all the brake shoes make contact
unit, of rugged design and high quality with the brake drums. In this case, the pri-
materials. mary purpose of the pump (master cylinder)
At this point it is well to mention that is to transmit force hydraulically. In more
installation, trouble-shooting, and operating complex hydraulic systems, the pump provides
instructions for hydraulic pumps must be fol- a steady flow of fluid under pressure, thus
lowed to the letter. giving both transmission of force and motion.
Design features, tolerances, and lubrication Pumps may be classified into two types,
requirements that are not "spelled out" have based on performance: (1) Fixed delivery
been taken into consideration. It is advisable when running at a given speed, and (2) Vari-
that service personnel take advantage of the ex- able delivery when running at a given speed.
perience and research that have been put into At the present time, most farm and indus-
these manuals. trial equipment pumps are of the fixed deliv-
ery type.
Pumps are commonly thought of as com-
pressors, but this is not true of hydraulic Variable delivery pumps are usually run at
pumps. Since fluids are virtually incompressi- a constant speed, and are so designed that the
ble, except at extremely high pressures, the volume output can be easily varied from zero
pump serves only to transmit force. to maximum. These pumps are more complex,
therefore more expensive, than constant deliv-
ery types, so their use is limited to applica-
In the very simplest type of system, such as tions where the variable delivery feature is a
hydraulic brakes, force is merely transmitted necessity.
from one point to another. Pushing down on
the brake pedal moves the master cylinder Clearances are extremely critical in hydrau-
piston toward the discharge end of the cylin- lic pumps, as in most hydraulic system com-
der, and fluid flows under pressure to the ponents. The formation of contaminants in
cylinders at the wheels. Through one simple even tiny amounts can result in operating dif-
movement, force is transmitted from one point ficulties. The efficiency of a hydraulic pump
to oilier points. depends upon a minimum of wear throughout
its life. Abnormal wear, for example, causes
increased internal slippage of the fluid in the
Rods, shafts and levers can, and are, used pump. (Internal slippage is internal leakage
to obtain the same effect; however, fluid-filled from the high pressure side of the pump
lines give more desirable results. through the pump parts.) This results in
10
power loss, reduced output, and increased
operating temperature.
Since the hydraulic fluid is nearly always
the lubricant for the moving parts of the sys- CHECK CHECK
tem, it is essential that the recommended fluid VALVES VALVES

be used in the system.

The principles of operation of most of the
common types of hydraulic pumps are de-
scribed on the following pages. Illustrations,
in many instances highly simplified, will help
explain how these pumps put fluids in motion.

RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Pumps with reciprocating piston action (this
classification does not include the rotary piston
pumps covered later) are useful in extremely
high pressure applications because of low
leakage losses and in applications where large
volumes of fluid are required.
The pulsating nature of the discharge from Illust. 8A reciprocating pump showing the principal working
reciprocating pumps may cause objectionable parts.
vibration in many installations. Pumps with
three or more cylinders on the same shaft are 2. Fluid is picked up and
designed to reduce pulsation by overlapping carried in these spaces to
the outlet side of the pump.
the pumping strokes of each cylinder, in much
the same manner as internal combustion
3. Mating teeth displace
engines. fluid and force it through
outlet.
Most of these pumps are of the fixed dis-
placement type, although one variation is pro-
vided with a stroke-transformer which permits
variable delivery by varying the length of the
piston stroke. Reciprocating pumps are capa-
ble of operating under adverse conditions
(such as extreme cold and heat), are compar-
atively trouble-free and will handle tremen-
dous pressure. Il lust. 8 is a self-explanatory
schematic of a simple reciprocating pump. 1. Parting gears create
slight suction here that
helps to draw in fluid.

EXTERNAL GEAR PUMPS

External gear pumps are of the constant
delivery type, and operate on the simple prin-
Illust. 9Operating principle of the external gear pump.
ciple that as gears revolve, fluid trapped in be-
tween the gear teeth and the housing is carried
from the suction (inlet) side to the discharge They are used principally where relatively
(outlet) side of the pump. (Illust. 9). One low pressures, volumes, economy of cost, and
gear is driven, the other "follows." External restricted space are factors.
timing is not necessary. More quiet and somewhat smoother opera-
The efficiency of this pump is largely deter- tion plus slightly higher pressures may be ob-
mined by the close fit of the working parts. tained by using helical or herringbone gears.
11

14
 Pressures up to 3000 p.s.i. are available by FLUID OUT FLUID IN
"pressure loading" loose fitting bearings so (PORT NOT SHOWN) (PORT NOT SHOWN)

that a balance is set up between pressure

within the gear cavity and the thrust of the
bearings against the gears. This enables the
pump to be driven at very high speeds, with
increased pump efficiency.

Gear pumps have a tendency to churn

fluids, which may raise their temperature.
This action hastens the mixture of contam-
inants with the fluid.

INTERNAL GEAR PUMPS

Internal gear pumps are a modification of
the gear pump principle, in that pressure is
developed by trapping fluid between meshing
gears. Either the internal gear or the external Illust. I I Internal gear pump.
ring may be the driven member. See Il lust. 10.
Internal gear pumps have about the same
The crescent shaped block (Illust. 10) acts effect on fluid as the external gear pumps
as a division between suction and discharge. already described.
GEAR-LIRE PUMPS
Gear like pumps are similar to both gear
IN
types, in that they have rotating members
with lobes resembling teeth, which inter-mesh
INNER GEAR
(DRIVEN)
(Illust. 12).
1. Timing gears 2. are required to drive these gear-like
such as these. . . rotors, because the shape of the rotor
teeth makes it impossible for one rotor
to drive the other.

OUTER GEAR
STATIONARY
CRESCENT
DIVIDER

Must. 10Internal gear pump.

In another design, (Illust. 11) the crescent

is omitted and sealing of discharge from suc- 3. Fluid drawn
through the pumpInand
here is carried
tion is accomplished by having the teeth in In a simple gear pump.
discharged
the other side in the same at
way as
constant sliding contact throughout the cycle.
Also, there is one less tooth on the internal
gear than on the external ring. See Il lust. 11. Illust. 12Operating principle of a gear-like pump.

l2
ts
 One rotor cannot be used to drive the other, used for transferring fluids from one point to
so external timed driving gears are necessary. another. The operating principle is outlined
They are generally used for transferring fluids, in Illust. 13.
not for providing pressure in a hydraulic
system. VANE PUMPS
Other forms may be used in a gear like Vane pumps are a popular means of pro-
pump, such as two lobe or three lobe cams. ducing hydraulic power. Unless special adap-
SCREW PUMPS tations are made (see below) they are con-
stant delivery type pumps. They produce a rea-
Screw pumps are simple, rugged and are sonably steady flow. Vane pumps are capable
capable of working at very high speeds. They of handling large volumes of fluid at relatively
are especially useful in handling fluid with a high pressure. Wear does not greatly reduce
great deal of entrapped air. This type of pump efficiency because the vanes will move farther
is not used to provide hydraulic power. It is out in their slots to maintain contact with the

3. Fluid is drawn 4. and carried along in 5. to the discharge.

in here. . these spaces

t.
FA VA

Mt
wit
\11
Atr"
2, are rotated by this 1. As these screws. . .
driving screw. . .

Illust. 13Operating principle of the screw pump.

1. As this raw' 5. Conversely, over areas

turns counter- covered by these discharge
clockwise. . . ports, the volume between
adjacent vanes decreases

2. these vanes are

thrown out by cen-
J as rotor turns, thus fluid
le forced out of the pump.

trifugal force and

fluid pressure. . .

3. against this oval -

shaped housing.
4. The volume between
adjacent vanes increases
as the rotor turns over
areas covered by these
intake ports. Thus, fluid
13 drawn Into the pump.

Illust. 14Operating principle of the vane type pump.

13
housing. Dirt and sludge may cause the vanes spring-loaded pressure plate and a movable
to stick in their slots, thus seriously affect- inner housing, delivery can be either governor
ing operation. For operating principle, see or hand controlled. See Illust. 16.
Il lust. 14.
The pump in Il lust. 14 is called a "hydrau-
lically balanced" pump because it has two AADIAL PISTON PUMPS
each diametrically opposed inlets and outlets. Radial piston pumps are compact and rug-
In another design, the rotor is mounted ged. They are capable of high pressure, high
eccentrically with respect to a circular hous- volume and high speed, and are very efficient.
ing: See Il lust. 15. Because of the large number of closely fitted

ATTACHED TO GOVERNOR VARIES

OUTER CASING ECCENTRICITY OF
OF PUMP PRESSURE RING

PRESSURE

lf
RING

VANES
SLIDE IN
SLOTS FLUID PRESSURE BEHIND THE
VANES AIDS CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE TO HOLD THEM AGAINST
THE BODY SURFACE

Illust. 15Vane pump with the rotor mounted eccentrically to a

circular housing.

A further refinement will give the variable

delivery feature to this pump. By adding a Insist. 16Governor operated, variable delivery, vane type pump.

3. in thi circular housing. 4. Assuming clockwise rotation,

fluid drawn in through these
ports. . .

1I
2. this rotating cylinder These parts
block mounted eccentrically. . . do not rotate.

1. Pump pistons reciprocate as 5. and discharged

they are carried around by. . . through theme ports.

Spindle earns as a barrier

between low and high prceeure
fluid.

Illust. 17Operating principle of the radial piston pump.

parts, wear is an extremely important consid- CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
eration. Fluid recommended for use in systems Centrifugal pumps (Illust. 19) are of the
with radial piston type pumps must be clean constant delivery type and are unique in that
and it must contain properties to lubricate they deliver a completely non-pulsating flow
the closely fitted parts. (Illust. 17). of fluid. It is impossible to overload them be-
Unless special valving design is used, radial cause the fluid in the pump will start to rotate
piston pumps generally have an odd number with the blades if the design pressure is ex-
of pistons. ceeded. They are not often used to develop
Radial piston pumps may be given the
variable delivery feature by making it possible 5. this discharge opening.
to adjust the eccentricity of the rotor to the
circular housingeither manually or gover-
nor controlled.

4. into this galley, which

collects moving fluid and
leads it to.
AXIAL PISTON PUMPS
Axial piston pumps have the same general
3. and is thrown off by
characteristics as radial piston pumps. Instead centrifugal force.. .
of the pistons being mounted at right angles
to the driving shaft, they are parallel to it.
2. fills these spaces.. .
(Illust. 18)
Pump body design variations provide the
variable delivery feature by making it possible 1. Fluid drawn in here. . .

to alter the angle of the cylinder block to the

driving member during operation. Either man-
ual or governor controls may be used. Illust. 19 Operofing principle of the centrifugol type pump.

3. both cylinder block and

pistons are attached to this
driving member, which is
rotated by a motor.

4. In addition to rotating,
pistons reciprocate, because
the axis of the cylinder block
is at an angle to the axis of
2. these pistons rotate the driving shaft.
with it, because.. .

5. Thum this piston, now at the

intake end of its stroke, will be
at the discharge/end of its stroke
when it reaches the position of
the piston at the bottom

1. As this cylinder block 6. Fluid flow is controlled by valving

rotates about its axis. . arrangement at this end of the cylinder
block. Fluid enters and leaves pump
through lines (not shown), which are
indexed with the intake and discharge
ports.

Illust. 18Operoting principle of the oxiol piston type pump.

15

18
hydraulic pressure. They are better adapted more than one pressure. For example, a ma-
for transferring large quantities of fluids. Cen- chine that requires rapid movement to engage
trifugal pumps are most often found in engine the work, followed by slow, high pressure
cooling systems. work force uses large volume, low pressure
flow for rapid travel, and low volume, high
pressure flow for the work force. This can be
COMBINATION PUMPS provided by a two pressure (two-stage) pump
Many hydraulic applications involve two or such as the one shown in Illust. 20.
more distinct functions of the hydraulic fluid. Combination pumps may also be used
Multi-stage pumps are used to provide fluid at where pressure higher than that available
HIGH PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
MEDIUM PRESSURE
OUTLET RELIEF VALVE

LOW PRESSURE,
FLOW-THROUGH
CHECK VALVE

SMALL VOLUME HIGH

PRESSURE PUMP LARGE VOLUME, LOW
INLET PRESSURE PUMP

Illust. 20A two pressure gear type pump.

HIGH PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE

21A two-stoge series pump.

16 ft9
from a single pump is desired. Two single- separate suction and delivery lines. This is
stage pumps operated in series will give this the adaptation used for tractor hydraulics (large
effect. See Illust. 21. volume pump) and power steering (low volume
pump).
Greater volume of fluid delivery is also pos-
sible in this manner. Another adaptation of the combination
pump idea is found in hydraulic transmis-
--A duplex system (not illustrated) consists sions, many of which use a "multi- stage" cen-
of two pumps, mounted on_ the same shaft, trifugal pump arrangement. This will be dis-
with a common reservoir, but each having cussed later in the manual.

HYDRAULIC VALVES
It was mentioned earlier that hydraulic used in hydraulic systems are usually more
systems are basically simple and they are, if detailed, and their applications more complex
the presence of many valves, of several types, usually with elaborations and additions to
is not allowed to confuse understanding. the basic valvebut the basic operating prin
Nearly all the valves used in hydraulic ciples will be the same. If the basic operation
systems may be classified in these three cate- of a valve is understood, then its refinements
gories: will be more easily understood.
L Directional control
2. Volume control
3. Pressure control
Leakage of fluid past the moving parts of COCK VALVES
valves may occur, and may be objectionable Cocks are very simple valVes, usually in
if back pressures build up. In some designs, small sizes. They are used to bleed air out of a
this fluid may be internally drained to the system, turn gauges on and off, drain a system,
suction side of the pump, or to the reservoir.
Hydraulic fluid is generally the lubricant
for valves, as with pumps, and clearances are
again extremely small, so use of clean fluid,
of the recommended type, is essential.
Control of valves may be manual, mechani-
cal, electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic. Cir-
cuits can be constructed so that the entire
sequence is automatic.
Until recently, valves were the. only means
of controlling fluids in a hydraulic system.
With the advent of "variable delivery" pumps,
certain valves in systems having this type of
pump may be eliminated. However, valves
are still the most important method of con-
trolling fluid pressure and flow, and obtaining
wide flexibility in hydraulic systems.
Specific types of valves are described and
illustrated in the following section. Valves Illust. 22A cock valve in the open position.

17
etc. Il lust. 22 shows a cock in the open posi- the valve is closed, but will not seriously
tion. A quarter-turn of the handle will shut it hamper operation. Globe valves offer some re-
off. The one illustrated is designed for moder- sistance to flow, and may cause turbulence in
ate pressures. Modification will enable cocks the fluid.
to be used at much higher pressures.
GATE VALVES
GLOBE VALVES Gate valves have several advantages over
Globe valves are also very simple in design, globe valves. Mainly, at full open position,
and very reliable (Illust. 23). They should be they offer almost no resistance to flow, and
used either fully open or fully closed, as leaks they are easily controlled with automatic
along the stem are more likely in an inter- mechanisms. From their design, (Illust. 24),
mediate position. Particles of dirt on the seat note that serious wear may occur at partially
or disc (washer) usually cause leakage when opened positions, as fluid flowing past the

Stem. In design shown, stem

rises as valve is opened. Large
valves often have stationary
stems on which disc moves up
and down.

Disc (Washer) May be

flat or conical; shaped
to fit seat, usually
replaceable.

Disc. Design varies

Some discs are solid,
others split.

Seat. In many designs MAY BB

seat is replaceable, as REPLACZABLE,.....
shown here.

Illust. 23A globe valve in the closed position. Illust. 24A gate valve in the closed position.

FLOW IN THIS DIRECTION ONLY

Must. 25Action of a flapper valve.

valve parts will erode them. Particles of dirt NEEDLE VALVES
can interfere with the movement of the gate.
A needle valve is mainly used for metering
The gate of the valve may be a solid wedge fluid flow very carefully and exactly. It can
or a two piece "disc" with an eccentric action be used in any position from fully closed to
on the discs, so that tightening the valve stem fully open, and is usually manually operated.
spreads the discs apart for a tighter fit on their (Illust. 27). Its design makes it almost im-
seats. possible to cause an abrupt change in the rate
of flow, and therefore it is often used in sys-
FLAPPER VALVES tems containing any extremely sensitive com-
ponents. Dirt will easily interfere with its
Flapper valves are essentially check action. valves
in that they permit flow, in only one direction.
They are obtainable in all sizesvery small
to very large. They offer little resistance to
flow when fully open. (Illust. 25). Although
they are usually installed so that gravity and
pressure close them, they are sometimes
equipped with a spring to start the flapper
toward its closed position. The back pressure
causes the flapper valve to seal tightly.

BALL VALVES
Like flapper valves, ball valves permit flow
in just one direction, so they also are often
used as check valves. Their design and opera-
tion prevents their use in the larger sizes
(above 1" ball size is unusual). They are
often spring-loaded, so that a certain prede-
signed pressure is required to open them. This
adaptation may sometimes be adjustable, and
is called a pressure relief valve. (Illust. 26). Illust. 27A needle valve in the closed position.
Dirt can easily make a ball valve inefficient.
The normal chatter of an operating ball valve
can be minimized or overcome by various SPOOL VALVES
modifications. Spool valves are used to control direction
of flow. They are very popular in hydraulic
equipment because of quick, positive action.
By increasing the number of "lands" and
adding appropriate ports, one spool valve can
be made to handle flows in many directions.
Also, these valves can be "stacked" so that
supply ports of the added valves are in line
with the discharge ports of the preceding ones.
Grooves are often machined around the lands
so that rings of fluid retained in the grooves
will help keep the spool centered and will
lubricate it. Mating surfaces of spool valves
must be accurately machined and fitted. Worn
parts will cause leakage and erratic or sluggish
action. Dirt will cause sticking and erratic ac-
Illust.26Two designs of the ball valve principle. tion. If the valve is actuated hydraulically,
19

22
 OPEN CENTER SPOOL VALVE CLOSED CENTER SPOOL VALVE
From cylinder
(Cylinder flow shut off) From pump

From pump From cylinder

Pump flow
shut off

Valved fluid lines

WA,
connected here
provide hydraulic
control of valves -91tailmai
slisftwel
'Pump flow To reservoir
To reservoir straight through

Flow to one end From pump

of hydraulic cylinder

From cylinder From cylinder

Pressure
from
pilot valve

To reservoir ITo reservoir I

rReturn line to pilot valve I

From pump From cylinder Flow to other

end of hydraulic
cylinder
From cylinder

Return
to pilot
valve

ITo reservoir Pressure To reservoir

from
pilot valve

Illust. 28Open and closed center spool valves.

20

z3
dirt and wear may upset delicate hydraulic der ports are blocked. In the closed center
balances and thus cause erratic action, or per- valve illustrated, pump flow is "blocked" in
haps completely halt operation. the neutral position and the cylinder ports are
There are two basic types of spool valves open (float position). In some designs, all
the open center and the closed center. (Illust. three ports are blocked.
28). The illustration shows that the difference The operating principle of these valves is
in operation between them is simply that the same, whether the effect is obtained with
pump flow passes through the open center bored passages, (Illust. 29) or with slotted
type in the neutral position, while the cylin- lands, (Illust. 30), or with plain lands
(Illust. 28).
FROM PUMP FROM PUMP
FROM CYL 1 TO CYL

CENTERED POSITION
TO RESERVOIR TO RESERVOIR

FROM PUMP

TO RESERVOIR

Illust. 29Open center type spool valve with bored passages.

FROM PUMP
FROM CYL TO CYL

TO RESERVOIR TO RESERVOIR

FROM PUMP

TO RESERVOIR

Illust. 30Open center type spool valve with slotted lands.

24
 Slotting or notching of the lands in a spool and sludge. Their operating principle is very
valve is often used as a method of "feather- simple. See Illust. 31.
ing" the closing or opening of a valve to pre-
vent "fluid hammer" (see page 35) and shock Rotary valves are usually operated manu-
to the system. ally, but it is also possible to operate them
hydraulically and electrically.
Spool valves may be spring or hydraulically
balanced. Neutral position can be at either
end or on center, as desired. In some installa-
tions, a "detent mechanism" is used to hold DIRECTIONAL POPPET VALVES
the spool in work position. This mechanism One kind of poppet valve has already been
will hold the spool until its force is overcome, discussed the simple spring-loaded ball
sometimes by hydraulic pressure. Usually, the valve. A poppet valve is usually spring loaded.
operator will overcome this force by manipu- It is any valve which is opened either hydrau-
lating the controls. lically or mechanically, and in which flow of
fluid is past the sealing member, through the
seat itself. The sealing member of a poppet
ROTARY VALVES valve may be ball-shaped, bluntly spear-
Rotary valves are also used to control direc-
shaped, mushroom shaped, or any of a num-
ber of other shapes.
tion of flow. Sometimes they are used by them-
selves, but usually they are used as pilot valves This discussion is limited to directional
to control the movement of spool valves. By poppet valves, which are gaining popularity
adding extra ports and passages it is possible in farm and industrial equipment applica-
to control flow through several lines with one tions. They have the advantage over spool
valve. Rotary valves handle a wide range of type directional valves of being positively
pressures and will operate efficiently in the seated, thus allowing no leakage past their
presence of relatively high amounts of dirt internal members, and consequent cylinder
settling.
One disadvantage of directional poppet
valves is that it is difficult to obtain the fine
metering action possible with spool valves.
Another is that it is very hard to obtain the
shock lessening feathering action possible with
spool valves.
The operating principles of the cone type
poppet valve (Illust. 32) are very simple. The
cams, which may be operated by hand or
mechanical means, are turned to open one
high pressure valve and one return valve.
TO RESERVOIR TO RESERVOIR TO RESERVOIR
TO VALVE OR TO VALVE OR FROM VALVE
When cylinder .movement in the other direc-
ORK WORK OR tion is desired, thi" camshaft is turned so that
WORK
the other two valves in the block are opened.
The operating principle of the mushroom
type poppet valve (Illust. 33) is also very
FROM VALVE
OR
FROM
\
OR
/ X
TO VALVE OR
`' WORK, -,., ..
simple. As the cam shaft is turned, it over-
comes the spring pressure which holds the
FROM PUMP
WORK
FROM PUMP
WORK
FROM PUMP
valves seated, and allows fluid to flow, as
ROTARY VALVE IN THREE POSITIONS directed by the two opened valves. To reverse
the flow, the cam shaft is turned until the
Must. 31Operating principle of the rotary valve. other two valves are opened.
22
 ROD LINE

THIS CAM OPERATES

THE LOW PRESSURE SIDE

PISTON LINE

ROTATE 180°
TO CHANGE
DIRECTION

THIS CAM OPERATES PISTON LINE

THE HIGH PRESSURE SIDE

Illust. 32Cone type cam operated poppet valve.

SPRINGS

TO VALVE OR
RESERVOIR

TO AND FROM
PISTON END
OF CYLINDER
TO AND FROM ROD END
OF CYLINDER
DOUBLE
SINGLE INNER OUTER
ECCENTRIC ECCENTRIC
;,111LW

CROSS SECTION
OF CAM

FROM PUMP
OR VALVE

Illust. 33Mushroom type cam operated poppet valve.

23
26
 COMBINATION which operate at different pressure and vol-
ume specifications, usually by controlling
It was mentioned earlier that spool valves volume through measured orifices.
may be "stacked" so that more than one opera-
tion is possible with one pump and reservoir.
This type of valve block is especially well Flow divider valves fall into three cate-
adapted to farm and industrial equipment. gories.

The first is the priority type, wherein all the

Other combinations are also commonly fluid delivered by the pump goes into one part
used, such as, a block with both pressure regu- of the system (for example, where the tractor
lating and check valves, or check valves and hydraulic pump also supplies fluid to the
directional valves together. Valves are often power steering) until pump delivery builds
incorporated into the body of the pump. up to a point where there is extra delivery
beyond that required for the priority delivery.
The "extra" deliver.), is then made available
These combinations will, unless they are to other parts of the system.
thoroughly understood, confuse the service-
man. It is very important, therefore, to under-
stand the purposes of a valve block and the Next is the adjustable priority type, which
workings of basic valves, before attempting to simply means that the delivery to the priority
tear down a block which has not been seen part of the system is adjustable, either exter-
before. nally, with levers; electric solenoids, or hy-
"positioners," or internally, by chang-
- ing spring tension in the valve, or changing
FLOW CONTROL AND shims, etc.
FLOW DIVIDER VALVES
It is relatively easy to understand the opera- The third is the ratio type, wherein there
tion of a simple relief valve, and what is is delivery to all parts of the system (at differ-
meant by the term "relief valve." Most valves ing volume and pressure specifications to each
in any system are relatively easy to under- part) at all times, but delivery may not be
stand. However, the terms flow control and enough to operate the system until the fluid
flow divider are highly confusing, and their "warms up," or until the power source is oper-
operational differences must be thoroughly ating at full speed.
understood.
To begin with, flow control valves are a If pump delivery is lowered for any reason,
large grouping of valves, which include flow the ratio type flow delivery valve will cause
dividers. Flow control valves control volume delivery to lower in all parts of the system at
flow, usually through a measured, "designed the same rate. Division of flow in the ratio
in" orifice. type valve is also accomplished through me-
Flow dividers perform this function, and tered ports or past spring loaded valves within
also divide the flow into two or more circuits the block.

CYLINDERS
The hydraulic cylinder is by far the most Cylinders may be classified into two general
popular method of turning fluid under pres- categoriessingle acting, (Illust. 34) wherein
sure into a work force. Other methods are in the weight of the load returns the piston to its
use, of course, and will be mentioned later. home positionand double acting, wherein
24
27
 ...:
.., ...
....."
.... ....,
... ....,N
....
,... '...."
.c. '...
.....
..... ....
.....
....,....
.....
*.
N.
N.%.
N.
N. N.
N. s.N.

.4.:
...
N.
N.
N.
N.
N N
N
N. N.
'N.
....
N.
N.
N.
N.
N
N.
N.
'...
N. ,41.1...

N.
N
'N.
..........e.

..... N..... ....

Must. 35A double acting hydraulic cylinder.

Illust. 34A single acting hydraulic cylinder.

.21.7=EZat
A
r711/1. 1/;
1 0
, t/// /////// ////////

Illust. 37A "stepped piston" type cylinder.

tion as is applied to move it in the other dir

Illust. 36A piston modified to provide equal force in both tion.
directions.
If equal force in both directions is desired,
the piston is under pressure in both directions. the piston rod is designed to extend through
See Illust. 35. both ends of the cylinder. See Illust. 36.
The double acting cylinder in Illust. 35 is The "stepped piston" provides a means for
called a differential type Lecause the piston a rapid approach stroke at low pressure and a
area at the bottom is larger, providing a slower, more powerful work stroke. A valve
slower, more powerful force upward, and a admits fluid first against the smaller part of
faster, less powerful downward stroke because the piston, which moves rapidly until the work
of the difference in piston area, if the same is contacted; the entire piston surface takes
psi is applied to move the piston in one direc- over for the power stroke. See Illust. 37.

25
ZS
 cylinder, or otherwise closing a valve. See
Illust. 39.
4. In some cases, the cylinder moves, and
the piston is fastened to the base.
5. Another refinement is the telescoping
/ mimmaiimmarmuoimmiammaimmmm piston. See Illust. 40.
Illust. 38A hydraulic cylinder with provision for a cushion at the
The piston acts as though it were one piece
end of the stroke. until the outer section reaches its stop, where-
upon the inner section will continue to the
end of its stroke. They may be designed so that
Another important refinement of the hy- the inner section will move first, followed by
draulic cylinder provides a "cushion" for the
end of the stroke of the piston. Since pistons the outer section. The speeds of the various
are often under heavy load, and moving rap- sections are dependent upon the square inches
idly, this is very important in many applica- of pushing surface in each section, also a
tions. (Illust. 38). The boss on the piston designed-in feature.
enters a bore in the end of the cylinder, shut-
ting off the normal discharge port. The re-
maining fluid is then forced through a smaller
port, often adjustable by means of a ball or
needle valve.
Some other refinements often found in Illust. 40Cross section of a telescoping piston type cylinder.
hydraulic cylinders are as follows:
1. A thermal safety valve, set far higher Another feature which should be mentioned
than system pressure, to relieve any pressures is that of multiplication of forces, as used
caused by thermal expansion while the system especially in fork lifts. See Illust. 41.
is at rest.
Many other design features are possible
2. Using a double-walled cylinder, to pro- with hydraulic cylinderstwo pistons in one
vide fluid passages, instead of external hose cylinder, internal stroke adjustment, speed
or tubing. This is found in many power steer- variability, and many others, which are of
ing applications, including International Har- relatively small importance to farm and indus-
ester self-propelled combines. trial equipment.
3. Stroke control valves which are adjust- It has been a rather common practice for
able to stop the cylinder at any point in its some dealers and servicemen to attempt to
travel, by shutting off the flow of fluid to the install hydraulic cylinders in applications for

Must. 39A hydraulic cylinder with a stroke control valve.

26
 Illust. 4IPrinciple of using cables or chains and pulleys to multiply length of cylinder stroke.

WEIGHT
P (pivot) 1500 LB. 1500 LB.

W
L

2' 4'

(a)

Illust. 42Basic lever principle.

which no provision has been made for attach- Must. 42 shows the basic lever principle.
ing them. Of course, it is possible for an imple- The formula for figuring the force (F), re-
ment, wagon, or truck to be equipped with a quired to lift the weight (W), is F x 1
Wx (L 1) (force multiplied by distance from
hydraulic lifting mechanism, with proper pivot to point of force (1) equals weight multi-
strengthening and mounting. However, the plied by distance from pivot to weight (L 1).
attaching points for adding a hydraulic cylin- In (a), then, the force required would be
der are very critical, and no attempt should F x 2 = 1500 x 4, or F/2 6000, or F = 3000
be made to install one in an application which pounds upward force.
has no attaching points, without seeking ex- In (b), having lengthened the distance (L),
pert advice. F 4500 pounds, according to the formula.
27
30
If an attempt is made to lift 1500 lbs. with a raise the load. Also, this is the same thing that
two ton cylinder as in (b), then, obviously, happens when the drawbars of a tractor will
it will not work. not lift a load when improperly attached to
the tractor, even though the weight may be
This explains why, after a wagon bed has less than the lifting ability of the drawbar. In
been rebuilt, the cylinder, which was properly simple terms, what has happened in these
installed for its previous dimensions, some- cases is that distance (L) becomes too great
times will not handle the rebuilt bed.
for the lifting force of a given cylinder.
With this principle in mind, it is also under- When further complications are added to
standable why a loader will lift a heavy weight the problem of attaching a cylinder such as a
part way, and then stop. As the loader arms scissors type lift, or drawbar lift, it becomes
go up, they also follow an arc which gradually even more clear that it is very wise for the
moves the weight farther away from tlie lifting dealer or serviceman to get expert advice on
point, thus increasing the force necessary to installing cylinders.

SEALS AND PACKING

a b d

(c) a

(A) CUP PACKING (F) NON-EXPANDING METALLIC SEAL

(B) FLANGE PACKING (G) MECHANICAL SEAL
(C) U-PACKING (H) COMPRESSION PACKING
(D) V-PACKING (I) SPRING-LOADED LIP SEAL
(E) EXPANDING METALLIC SEAL (J) 0-RING

Illust. 43Various types of seals and packing.

None of the components of a hydraulic 1. StaticUsed as a gasket to seal non-

system so far discussed would operate without moving parts.
proper seals and packing to hold the fluid 2. DynamicUsed to seal moving parts.
under pressure in the system. They may be They may also be classified according to
classified as to their use: their shape: U-packing, chevron or V-packing,
28
0-rings, cup and flange seals, metallic seals, CUP AND FLANGE SEALS
compression packing, mechanical seals, and Cup and flange seals are dynamic seals, and
compression gaskets. (Illust. 43). The type to are made of leather, synthetic rubber, plastics,
be used is decided by the manufacturer, and and other material. Surfaces are sealed by the
manufacturers recommendations must be expansion of the "lip" or beveled edges. They
followed. are used in pistons and on piston rods.
0-RINGS
Perhap-s' the most popular seal in use in MECHANICAL SEALS
farm and industrial hydraulics is the 0-ring.
It is used as both a static and a dynamic seal, These seals are designed to eliminate some
and is usually made of synthetic rubber. It is of the problems attached to using chevron
used in sealing pistons in cylinders, sealing packing for rotating shafts. They are dynamic
the rod end of the cylinder, sealing moving seals, made of metal and rubber, usually.
valve parts (dynamic applications), and in Sometimes the rotating portion of the seal is
sealing boss or flange type fittings, sealing the made of carbon, "backed up" with steel.
various parts of a cylinder together, and to The seal (Illust. 43) consists of a fixed
seal pump and. valve body sections together member, (stationary seal) attached to the
(static applications). housing against which a rotating member at-
They are designed for installation in a tached to the shaft revolves. A spring holds
groove, so that when they are in use, the meet- the two parts of the seal tightly together. A
ing members compress the ring about ten per- rubber ring (flange-shaped) or diaphragm is
cent. In dynamic applications, their life is de- usually included to permit lateral flexibility,
pendent upon the smoothness of the moving and to keep the rotating part of the seal in
parts, and the closeness of fit. 0-rings are not motion.
used where they must cross openings or pass
corners under pressure. In static applications
under high pressure, they are often strength- METALLIC SEALS
ened by use of a fiber or leather back-up ring, Metallic seals used on pistons and piston
so that they will not squeeze out of their rods are very similar to the piston rings used
groove. When a back-up washer is used, it in automotive engines. They may be either
is almost always installed on the low Pres-
sure side of the 0-ring. If two are used, there expanding or non-expanding. They are dy-
is one on each side. namic seals, and are usually made of steel.
Unless extremely close tolerances are ob-
"U" AND "V "- PACKING served, non- expanding seals are subject to con-
"U" and "V"-packings (chevron packings) siderable leakage. Expanding seals (for use on
are dynamic seals used to seal pistons and rod pistons) and contracting seals (for use on
ends of cylinders, and to seal pump shafts. piston rods) are subject to moderate friction
They are made of leather, synthetic and nat- and leakage losses.
ural rubber, plastics, and other material. Metallic seals are therefore used where
They are installed with the open side, or economy is a very important factor in the
lip, toward the pressure so that pressure will design. Precision metallic ,seals, however, are
push the lip against the stationary member, to not so badly subject to leakage, and are espe-
form a tight seal. Chevron packings made up cially well adapted for use in extremely high
of several single "U" or "V"-packings are used temperatures.
in packing glands, and are very popular for
sealing rotating shafts, pistons, and rod ends Since metallic seals of all kinds are more
of cylinders. Packing glands are cases or com- subject to leakage than others, fluid wiper seals
pressing units that hold this packing in one in connection with external drains to the reser-
piece. voir, are often used.
29
32
COMPRESSION PACKING type packing is extremely important, as scor-
Compression packing (jam packing) is used ing of moving parts will result if it is allowed
in dynamic applications, and is made of plas- to run dry.
tics, asbestos cloth, rubber laminated cotton,
COMPRESSION GASKETS
fibrous or plastic cores with metallic foil
jackets, and vulcanized fibrous binders which Gaskets are suitable, of course, only for
are impregnated with grease, graphite, asbes- static applications, such as assembly of cou-
tos or metal particles. plings in hydraulic lines, parts of the body of
pumps, valves, cylinders, and for sealing
It is used for the same purposes, and in covers, etc., on hydraulic reservoirs. A gas-
much the same manner as "U" and "V"-pack- keted joint is sealed by the molding of the
ings. It comes as coils, and as endless rings gasket material into the imperfections of the
sized to fit, from which properly sized pieces mating surfaces of the joint.
may be cut. Gaskets are made of many materials, both
Generally, compression packing is suitable metallic and non-metallic, and of course, come
for the lower pressures. Lubrication of this in hundreds of shapes.

HYDRAULIC LINES AND FITTINGS

No hydraulic system can be expected to ized pipe should never be used, as it is likely
operate without proper connections for mov- to "flake,"' and these metal chips will cause
ing the fluid between the various units of the serious damage.
system. Hydraulic lines must be designed and When installing piping or tubing, make sure
installed with the same care applied to the the inside is bright and clean. Try to have each
other parts of the system. They should be segment continuous, and where bends are nec-
leakproof and strong enough to stand the essary, they must not be too sharp. The bend-
maximum pressure, temperature, and vibra- ing radius is ideally not less than three times
tion of the system involved. They should not the I.D. of the tube.
be constructed of materials, or designed in a
way, that will cause restriction of flow and Piping and tubing must be adequately sup-
turbulence. ported to minimize vibration. Vibration, if not
They should be large enough to carry the compensated for, can set up stresses in the
maximum pump output without excessive fric- metal which will cause it to rupture.
tion losses or turbulence. They should be as Copper has been extensively used in the
short as possible and have as few bends as past for hydraulic lines, but its use is dimin-
possible. Hydraulic lines may be of piping, ishingsteel and standard iron pipe is more
tubing or flexible hose. practical in today's systems.

PIPING AND TUBING FLEXIBLE HOSE

Piping is usually measured according to its Flexible hose is used where the parts con-
inside diameter, and tubing, by its outside nected to each other by the hose must have
diameter, although there are exceptions to this freedom to move. It is made of synthetic
rule. Choice between piping or tubing and rubber, steel, and sometimes cotton cords in
associated fittings is a design decision. Galvan- layers. See Illust. 44.
 COTTON ITZIL
possible. When they are used, they are often
of the boss type, with an 0-ring seal. (Illust.
46). Threads must be cut clean and smooth
and a protective compound should be used to
help seal the threads and protect theirilrom
corrosion. Brass fittings do not always require
use of a protective compound.
Illust. 44Cutaway hydraulic hose.

FITTING

In use, hose should be installed so that no

twist of any kind or sharp bends are present. NUT
BOSS

Bending. radius should not be less than six "O" BACK-UP

WASHER
RING
times the inside diameter. Also, enough slack "0" RING GROOVE
should be provided for changes in distance
from one part to another, and for changes in Illust. 46--Boss type hydraulic fitting with an 0-ring.
relative motion.

Flanged fittings may be either threaded to

the pipe ends or welded. Gaskets of softer
FITTINGS material are often used to make a better seal.
Good high pressure fittings are fabricated Fittings with restricted or stepped-up passages
or forged, and are either threaded or flanged should not be used, as they create restriction
for use with piping, or of the compression and turbulence, thereby causing friction
type for use with tubing. Compression fittings losses. Manufacturer's recommendations re-
may be-of flared or flareless (bite-type) design. garding tubing, hose, fittings, and the use of
(Illust. 45). Due to possibility of leakage, protective compound during assembly must
threaded connections are avoided as much as be followed.

SLEEVE COUPLING FOR FLEXIBLE HOSE 0-RING SEALED FLARELESS TYPE

FLEXIBLE HOSE COUPLING THREADED COUPLING FOR FLARED TUBING

FLARELESS (BITE-TYPE) COUPLING

Illust. 45Various hydraulic line fittings.

31

34
 ACCESSORIES
Several accessories are found in many
hydraulic systems. Of these, only two are of
great importance in farm and industrial
equipment hydraulics.
The heat exchanger, or fluid cooler, is used
to remove heat caused by rapidly moving
pressurized fluid. This is often necessary to
keep the viscosity of the fluid at an operable
level, and to keep the temperature of the fluid
from reaching a point injurious to the com-
ponents, especially seals. Also, excessive heat
contributes to fluid deterioration.
Coolers are made in separate units which
consist of tubes or places in a metal housing
through which cooling water circulates.
Baffles break up the flow of fluid to provide
more cooling surface (Illust. 47). A by-pass
line should be provided to prevent excessive
build-up of pressure if the cooler becomes
clogged.
Coolers may be located in either the return
or suction line. It may be a separate system,
drawing hot fluid from the reservoir, and
returning cool fluid to the reservoir.
The other accessory of importance in this
discussion is the filter. Filters or strainers are
necessary in modern, precision-fit hydraulic
systems. The presence of relatively fine abra-
sive particles can be very harmful to the Illust. 47Cutaway fluid coolers.
system.
Many contaminants harmful to a system
will "settle out" in the reservoir, and will then purifying it, and returning it to the system.
be removed during subsequent cleaning of the The last method is not practical in farm
reservoir. A wire mesh strainer on the pump and industrial equipment hydraulics, because
intake will often take care of any remaining of the relatively small amount of fluid used
contaminants. in these systems, since the equipment for
Where contaminants are still present after purifying fluid is rather expensive.
these means are applied, one of the following
three methods may be employed: Filters are of three types: mechanical,
1. Continuous filtration of all the fluid by absorbent, and adsorbent. Mechanical filters
flow through a filter. contain fine wire mesh, closely stacked metal
2. Continuous flow of part of the fluid discs or cloth in the form of a bag. They will
through a filter. remove the relatively large contaminating
3. Removing the fluid from the system, particlek
32
rt.
 Absorbent filters contain porous materials clogging of the filter will not cause stopping
such as cloth, paper, cotton waste, etc. They of fluid flow. Filters may be mounted so, that
will remove all contaminating particles, but a "bleed-off" from either the pressure line or
not products of fluid deterioration. return line is filtered or so that fluid passing
through the relief valve is filtered. Placement
Adsorbent filters contain chemically treated is a design consideration, so detailed infor-
paper or waste, charcoal, fuller's earth, acti- mation on placement is not within the scope
vated clay, etc., which remove impurities by of this manual.
chemical action. They remove all contaminat-
ing particles, and some of the soluble con- Proper servicing of filters is very important.
taminants. Because they also will remove some Mechanical filters must be cleaned at recom-
of the desirable additives in hydraulic fluid, mended intervals. Absorbent filter "car-
they are not often recommended for hydraulic tridges" must be replaced when necessary.
systems. With tolerances and clearances in hydraulic
systems getting more and more critical, proper
Filters may be installed so that they will maintenance of the filters and strainers in
filter all of the fluid, or only part of it. The any hydraulic system is becoming vital. Manu-
latter method is usually preferred, as complete facturer's instructions must be followed.

PHENOMENA
There are certain easily misunderstood heat, an escape hatch must be provided, of
scientific facts which are responsible for some breakage will occur.
of the breakdowns in hydraulic systems that
have been difficult to discover, explain or A thermal safety valve is one method used
overcome. to combat this problem. Another is for the
operator to be sure that the system is not left
in a "blocked off" position any time that it
RUPTURED LINE OR EXPLODED is at rest. Cylinders should be drained before
CYLINDER IN SYSTEM AT REST being put into storage.
There are two basic reasons for the rupture The second reason for rupturing in a system
of hose or cylinders in a system not in use. at rest is internal leaking of pressure from
One is simply thermal expansion, which is the piston head end of the cylinder to the
fluid expanding in the system due to an in- piston' rod end of the cylinder. -(IlThst. 48)
crease in outside temperatures. Depending on In this example, 1000 psi is required to hold
many variable conditions, one degree rise in the implement up. If there were no internal
outside temperature may cause an increase in leakage, the pressure at "A" would be at 1000
pressure of approximately 50 to 60 psi in a lb. and the pressure at "B" would be at return
tightly blocked system. line pressure, or perhaps no pressure. Since,
Unless there is some external leakage in in this case, there is internal leakage and the
the system, if there is no air in the system, system is positively blocked, pressure will
and the fluid is held in one part of the system transfer past the piston head until a hydraulic
by check valves, a given increase in tempera- "balance" between "A" and "B" is reached.
ture may cause some part of the "blocked off" There will be very little, if any, movement of
section of the system to rupture. There is only the piston rod in the cylinder. Because of the
so much room in the cylinder and lines for leakage past the piston head, the system
fluid, and even though fluid is nearly incom- behaves as though the piston head did not
pressible, if it expands even minutely due to exist. The area of the piston rod cross-section,

33
-4-16
 POSITIVELY BLOCKED AT SOME POINT

A WEIGHT OF
IMPLEMENT
\ :,\&\\A'S,,N

4 SQUARE INCHES I SQUARE INCH

LEAKAGE PAST PISTON

Must. 48Effect of faulty piston seal.

therefore, is all that will hold the imple- entirely possible, even probable, that the inner
ment up. layer of rubber of the suction hose will, when
Since the four square inch piston head it starts to deteriorate, collapse inward, com-
requires 1000 psi to hold the implement up, pletely sealing off flow, without showing any
the one square inch rod will require 4000 symptoms of collapse externally.
psi to hold it up. This is a simple application A noisy pump, lack of pressure, "spongy"
of Pascal's law. action, or no action at all are indications of a
Since a system of this sort is ordinarily collapsed suction tube, among other things.
designed for 2500 to 3000 psi maximum pres-
sure, it is obvious that the fluid will find an PRESSURE DROP CAUSED
escape somewhere in the system, usually by BY FRICTION LOSSES
rupturing a hose, although the cylinder could
explode, or external seals could break. Another scientific factor, often misunder-
stood, which sometimes leads to improper
A thermal safety valve will often prevent operation, is that of pressure and volume
this type of breakdown. The best way, how- drop caused by friction losses. Every com-
ever, of preventing this occurrence is to always ponent of any hydraulic system, except the
leave the implement "down" when parking it, pump itself, causes friction loss in the moving
whether it's attached to the tractor or not. fluid. These friction losses show up in the
This should be emphasized to customers and system mostly in the form of heat.
operators.
It is not the purpose of this manual to go
Internal leaks that do not affect operation into design features, and the subject of fric-
can, and often do, cause this type of break- tion loss is mostly a designer's responsibility.
down. However, sometimes it is necessary to add
hydraulic components to a system for an
COLLAPSED SUCTION HOSE added implement, or to obtain certain specific
Another type of breakdown, seemingly responses. In this case, it is advisable for the
simple, is the collapsed suction hose. It is serviceman and the dealer to know that fric-
34
tion losses may impair operation. It may be unlatching. Other types of malfunction can
necessary to add a larger pump, larger lines, result from using a pump with too high a
or different valving in order to overcome G.P.M. rating, such as primary power loss,
friction losses, when other components are increased "back" pressure, and increased
added to an existing system, in order to obtain turbulence in the pump.
proper operation. Taking these factors into consideration, it
Recommended line diameter must be known is obvious that the recommended pump must
and proper lines used in any application. be used in a given system, unless an increase
in components or number of uses forces the
use of a larger pump. In case a larger pump
EFFECT OF USING WRONG must be added to a system, it may be necessary
SIZE PUMP IN SYSTEM to increase the size of lines and valves.
Since pumps are usually spoken of in terms
of G.P.M. or gallons per minute, the term THE EFFECT OF
G.P.M. will be used in this discussion. Any "HAMMER" IN A SYSTEM
serviceman can see that the use of a pump
Everyone has noticed the banging noise that
too small in G.P.M. will lead to improper
operation. results when a valve is closed suddenly. This
effect is called "fluid hammer" and will take
However, it is also possible to have inoper- place in any system involving moving fluid
able conditions with too large a pump. Sub- wherein the fluid flow is suddenly stopped.
stituting a larger pump in a given system will, This effect' is not always audible, but it is
first of all, create greatly increased friction present.
losses. These losses do not increase in direct Hammer, if allowed to continue, can cause
proportion, so the multiple increase in per- rupture of parts in a system, especially by
centage loss at each point may result in such setting up "metal fatigue," so, when it is
low pressure and volume at the point of usage noticed, an investigation should be' made im-
as to make the system inoperable. All this ad- mediately to determine its cause. It is usually
ditional friction loss will appear in the form of
increased heat, in itself a danger to proper overcome in hydraulic systems by slotting
valves, using pilot valves to open larger ones,
operation, as well as to the components, and by "cushioning" the end of a piston stroke
especially the seals, in a system.
or valve closing. Operating the system at
In some systems that use hydraulically higher than recommended pressure will in-
actuated detent mechanisms, the momentary crease the likelihood of hammering. Over-
excessive pressure rise may cause premature coming hammer is mostly a matter of design.

SYSTEMS

In order to be able to fully understand the Four components are all that are necessary
application of hydraulics to equipment, it to have a workable hydraulic system a
reservoir, a pump, a valve, and a motor
is necessary to understand what is meant by (cylinder). Review the Basic System Section
the descriptive terms applied to various kinds in the "Introduction" for more detailed infor-
of hydraulic systems. mation on a basic circuit. The system in the

35
Introductory section uses a rotary type direc- control handle is moved to the left (drop)
tional valve, while in most farm and industrial position, causing the lever (C) to upset the
applications, the spool type directional valve check valve, and allowing the fluid to return
is more popular. to the reservoir as the cylinder piston returns
Descriptive titles for the various systems to its home position by gravity.
discussed in the following text are based on
the type of valving used, or its operation, since BASIC OPEN CENTER SYSTEM
it would hardly be possible to differentiate The basic open center system (Illust. 50)
the type of system by basing. its name upon uses a three or four-way, open center spool
the kind of pump or cylinder used. valve. The fact that the illustration has drilled
passages should not be allowed to confuse the
BLOCKED RETURN LINE SYSTEM issueit could have slotted lands or solid
landsit's still a four-way open center spool
The first to be discussed is the blocked valve.
return line system. (Illust. 49) It uses a lever
operated check valve, and will operate a single
acting cylinder only. In this system, as the
control handle is moved to the right (lift)
position, the return to the reservoir (A) is
blocked, forcing fluid through the check valve
(B) and on to the cylinder. To lower, the LIFT

CYLINDER LOWER

CONTROL VALVE

RELIEF
VALVE

.00 Must. 50 Basic open center system in the neutral position.

.00
DROP 0dr----46. LIFT
00

N -;-.\ '.X
",...,j,
2 \\
.
RELIE . VALVE
N
In this system, in the neutral position, the
cylinder ports are closed off, and pump flow
...0',
..,
..0
...
is directed to the reservoir. Also, in this
...
/0 4 system, double acting cylinder operation is
.I possible. Action of this valve is described
,........, %.%i
4 yr'i at- ,z4 under "Spool Valverrin the valve section of
po
..._:,.....--

...
4,-.. i A
1 k
N
44iiss manual.
RESERVOIR
TANDEM OPEN CENTER SYSTEM
In this system (Illust. 51) two or more open
center spool valves are "stacked" so that the
return port of the first valve discharges into
the supply port of the second, and so on down
Illust. 49 Blocked return line system in the neutral position. the line.
36
:39
 VALVE 2
CYLINDER 2
CYLINDER 1 VALVE 1
been activated, there will still be flow from
O
111 the pump to the second one.
This makes it possible to activate two valves
at once, but the cylinder with the lightest load
will move firstto the end of its stroke
before the more heavily loaded one moves.

THROUGH FLOW SYSTEM

Ar.as The through-flow system (Illust. 53) may
be considered an adaptation of the open center
system. In this type of system, the high pres-
sure line is taken through, or past, the first
%. valve block to another open center valve block.
The first valve block is called a "through-
\gli\ flow" or "power beyond" valve. This type of
installation is often used when adding an-
other open center valve (or set of valves) to
Must. 51 Tandem open center system in the neutral posifiop. an existing system.

TO RESERVOIR

POWER BEYOND
OR
TRROUCII FLOW
DIRECTIONAL VALVE

FROM PUMP

Illust. 53Through flow system.

CLOSED CENTER SYSTEM

RE LIE F
VALVE
° A closed center system employs closed cen-
tel. spool valves, and uses a pressure regulat-

ing device to relieve pump pressure when the

valve (or valves) is in the neutral position.
Illust. 52Tandem open center system with valve 2 activated.
A familiar variation of the closed center
system is the pilot regulated system.
In this system, the directional control valve
By activating one of the valves in this
system, flow will be more easily understood. is a closed center type with all ports blocked in
(Illust. 52) Note that if the first valve had the neutral position. See Illust. 28.

37
e.' 40
 With all the ports blocked, there is of
course, no place for pump delivery to go
except through a second unit which is brought
into play by the position of the control valve.
This second unit, or pressure regulating valve,
maintains the system on either high pressure
or by-pass pressure. In the neutral position,
the small regulator port (A) is closed, so back
pressure develops at (B), forcing this valve
open, and allowing fluid to flow to the reser-
voir at low, or by-pass, pressure.
When this port is open, the fluid from the
regulator line flows to the return line. The
pressure then drops at (B), allowing the valve
to close, thus building high pressure in the
system.
Other systems are employed, of course, but
these are the main types presently used in Illust. 54Pilot regulated system in the neutral position.
farm and industrial equipment.
It is sometimes desirable (or necessary) to
use combinations of the above systems.

HYDRAULIC MOTORS
Any device which turns hydraulic pressure Pumps for explanation) in order to operate
into usable mechanical force may be consid- properly. The vanes are usually spring-loaded
ered a motor. Hydraulic cylinders, already to hold them against their housing.
covered, are a form of motor. Theoretically Radial and axial piston motors are usually
any hydraulic pump (except centrifugal) used in connection with radial or axial piston
may be used as a motor. Various refinements pumps. With a variable delivery pump, this
are necessary, however, to enable any of these combination allows an infinite variety of
pumps to be used as a motor. speeds. By tilting the slide block of the pump
In actual use, rotary hydraulic motors are past "zero" delivery, it is even possible to
of four typesgear, vane, radial piston and obtain reverse rotation of the motor while the
axial piston. pump continues to turn at a constant speed,
Gear motors can be either the spur gear in the same direction.
type or the internal gear or gerotor type. Gear Pressures developed in any pump-motor
motors must be of hydraulically balanced combination are dependent upon the load on
design. the motor. If the design characteristics of the
Vane motors, like the gear type, must be of pump and/or motor are exceeded, the system
hydraulically balanced design (see Vane will "lock."
 HYDRAULIC TRANSMISSIONS
Hydraulic transmissions are simply a means Usually, both pump and motor will be en-
for transferring power from a power source closed in a common housing, with a built-in
to a driven element. The actual delivery of reservoir, and with appropriate porting and
power is by means of fluid under pressure valving.
(hydrostatic transmission) or fluid in mo-
tion (hydrodynamic transmission) instead of
through gears, belts, or other mechanical HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSMISSIONS
methods. Advantages of hydraulic transmis- Hydrodynamic transmissions use the energy
sions are: of fluid in motion to transfer power to a driven
1. Simplicity of design and lower space and element. A centrifugal type pump (impeller)
weight requirements in many applications. sets the fluid in motion; the moving fluid
2. Fast, simple and infinite speed adjust- drives the blades of the driven member (run-
ment with power source operating at a con- ner) in the same direction. Hydrodynamic
stant (most efficient) speed. transmissions are of two types: hydraulic
couplings and torque converters.
3. Fast, smooth acceleration and decelera-
tion.
4. Smooth reversal of motion. HYDRAULIC COUPLINGS
5. Reduction of shock loads to either power Hydraulic couplings, sometimes called fluid
source or driven element. clutches, hydraulic clutches, or fluid drives,
Hydraulic transmissions are of two general can be either constant or variable speed de-
types: Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic. livery. Variable speed is accomplished by
varying the amount of fluid allowed in the
circuit. Illustration 55 shows the operating
HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSIONS principle of hydraulic couplings.
Hydrostatic transmissions combine positive In this type of hydrodynamic transmission,
displacement pumps with positive displace- torque output equals torque input, but speed
ment motorsusually both pumps and motors output is lower, I ecause of friction, and
are of the external or internal gear, vane, axial "slip," which is simply loss of motion of fluid
piston or radial piston types. Some of the pos- internally. The greater the "slip" vlie greater
sible combinations are: the power loss in the coupling.
1. Constant delivery pump with constant In automotive applications, a fluid flywheel
displacement motorconstant horsepower at (hydraulic coupling) together with an auto-
constant torque, unless a variable flow control matic device for shifting gears, makes up the
valve is added to the system in order to vary automatic transmission, allowing smooth
pump delivery, which would give, in effect, acceleration without manual clutching or gear
variable horsepower. shifting.
2. Variable delivery pump with constant
displacement motor---variable horsepower at TORQUE CONVERTERS
constant torque.
The torque converter (Illust. 56) resembles
3. Constant delivery pumps with variable the hydraulic coupling except that it contains
displacement motorconstant horsepower at a stationary section, called the stator, which
variable torque. multiplies the torque delivered by the power
4. Variable delivery pump with variable source. In torque converters, torque output is
displacement motor variable horsepower greater than torque input, but speed output,
and variable torque. again, is lower. It is used in automotive and
39

412
other applications to permit the power source speed, while selecting automatically the proper
to operate continuously at its most efficient output torque for any load.

4. this driven member. Here the fluid' 5. In effect, fluid swirl thus formed
direction of flow is again changed and it is an "endless corkscrew of fluid"
flows back to the driving member. that moves simultaneously in several
direction.: it spins as shown by the
arrow, and also rotates about the aids
of the coupling.
3. but this curvature causes
fluid to make a turn and flow
toward.. .

2. centrifugal force caume

fluid to flow toward the
circumference at right
angles to the axis of
rotation.. .

1. M this driving member

rotates.. .

II lust. 55Operating principle of the hydraulic coupling.

4. this set of stator blades changes the direction of

fluid flow and feeds fluid to the second set of rotor
blades. After second reversal and use of most of
remaining energy in third Bet of rotor blades. . .

I3. this set of rotor blades, which use some of 5. fluid, with most of its energy
the energy in the flowing fluid. Then. . spent, flows out here and returns
to intake side of pump, and thus. . .

2. this centrifugal pump. M pump I

rotates, fluid flow, toward. . 6. this shaft turns at a lower I
speed with a higher torque.

Return Line
Turbine. Designed to run at
1. This shaft, driven at relatively high speed lower speed than pump.
and low torque, drives. . .

Must. 56Operating principle of the torque converter.

40 4.3
 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
The purpose of this section of the manual ' VISCOSITY INDEX
is not to describe how to select a hydraulic Viscosity of fluids change with temperature.
fluid. This section will merely give the im- Viscosity changes more in some fluids than in
portant qualities of a hydraulic fluid, and will others. Viscosity index is simply a measure-
serve to emphasize the importance of using ment of the rate of change of viscosity over
the fluids recommended by the manufacturer a certain range of temperature. If a fluid be-
of the equipment being serviced. comes thick at low temperatures, and very
In connection with this discussion, it should thin at high temperatures, it has a low viscos-
be explained that the word fluid as used in ity index (V.I.) . However, if the viscosity re-
this section means oil with additives. Oil is a mains relatively the same at varying tempera-
misleading term, as it gives no indication that tures, it has a high V.I.
anything has been added to improve it for From the earlier discussion of the impor-
hydraulic use, so "fluid" is the word used to tance of viscosity, it is obvious that, if a given
indicate that plain oil is not good enough for system operates at varying temperatures, a
hydraulic use, generally. fluid with a high V.I. is desirable. Of course,
if a system has nearly the same operating tem-
FUNCTIONS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID perature at all times, then the fluid need not
First of all, of course, it must be capable have a high V.I. In very few systems can the
of transmitting the power applied to it. It consideration of V.I. be 'eliminated, and it is
must lubricate the internal moving parts. In always considered in deciding upon fluid
many cases, the fluid acts as a sealing medium. recommendations.
Furthermore, it should be capable of hold-
ing its viscosity through a wide temperature OXIDATION RESISTANCE
range. It should resist oxidation, must protect Hydraulic fluids, especially in hard service,
machine parts against rust and corrosion and are likely to combine with oxygen, which leads
should be capable of separating air and water to decomposition. This chemical combination
from itself quickly. forms organic acids, which are harmful to the
metal parts and many types of seals and pack-
VISCOSITY ing in the system. This alone may shorten
Viscosity is the measurement of the re- machine life.
sistance to flow of a fluid, and is the most Oxygen also combines with fluid to form
important property of any hydraulic fluid. sludge. This action is multiplied by the pres-
Fluid used must have the correct viscosity at ence of water, high temperatures, and some
operating temperature, and must have the metals used in hydraulic systems. Conditions
ability to readily flow to the various parts of found in many systems are ideal for hastening
the system at the desired rate. Viscosity also oxidation and sludge formation, as a result of
has a definite influence on correct lubrication contact with air and/or water. Other con-
of the moving parts. taminants, such as dust, dirt, and metallic par-
Proper viscosity is a balance between (1) ticles, will also speed up oxygen reaction,
a fluid with a high enough viscosity to hold which is one reason filtering is so important.
wear to a minimum and reduce internal leak- Careful refinement and chemical additives
age and, (2) low enough viscosity to permit are used to combat oxidation in hydraulic
the fluid to flow readily through the system. fluids.

41
4.4
RUST AND CORROSION RESISTANCE components. Different fluids have varying
Rusting and corrosion differ in that rusting ability to separate water, and recommended
adds to the metal (oxygen fuses with the base fluids are chosen with this consideration in
metal, making the part larger). Corrosion, mind.
however, is an eating away of the base metal.
FOAMING RESISTANCE
Corrosion, of course, effects the closeness
of fit of parts, permitting excessive leakage A frequent difficulty often encountered in
and causing erratic action. Rusting will effect the operation of hydraulics is the formation
the smoothness of operation, and the loose of foam in the fluid. This foam is formed by
chips of rust will cause wear. the constant pumping and churning action
found in the system, or when the fluid level
To prevent rusting and corrosion, technolo- gets too low. In many systems, turbulence,
gists have developed additives which keep which leads to the mixing of air with the fluid,
these harmful effects to a minimum. is hard to avoid, and foaming becomes a seri-
ous problem.
OILINESS
Since the proper operation of any hydrau-
Because of the precision fit of most hydrau- lics system is based on the fact that fluids are
lic components, only a very thin film of fluid basically incompressible, and foam is compres-
is available to provide lubrication of these sible, the formation of foam is a serious detri-
parts. To provide this lubrication, the fluid ment to proper action.
must have good oiliness characteristics. Oili- Air that enters the system is soluble in fluid
ness is simply a term indicating the ability of to a certain extent. As pressure and tempera-
a fluid to hold friction between parts to a ture increases, the capability of fluid to absorb
minimum, and may be further defined as its air increases, but air in solution does not af-
ability to "stick" to closely fitted, warm parts. fect compressibility. When pressure is re-
Lubrfcating ability becomes doubly impor- lieved, however, the air will appear as bubbles
or foam. Also, if more air is trapped in the
tant when the hydraulic fluid is also expected fluid than the fluid will absorb, foam will
to lubricate other moving parts in a machine. appear.
An example of this is when the rear frame of
Foaming is particularly detrimental in fluid
a tractor is a common sump for the.hydraulic
couplings and torque converters, as the foam
system, transmission and final drive. Here,
will carry less impact energy than fluid with
the same fluid that operates the hydraulic no air bubbles in it. Recommended fluids con-
system serves to lubricate the transmission and
tain foam inhibitors to overcome this condi-
final drive.
tion.

WATER SEPARATION ANILINE POINT

It is practically impossible to keep all water Aniline point is the numerical index of a
out of a hydraulic system, so it is necessary test made with aniline dyes. The aniline dyes
for the fluid to be able to rid itself of the used in the test will change color at certain
water quickly. temperatures in a given fluid. The resulting
Popular opinion notwithstanding, oil and temperature index is called the aniline point
water will mix, forming an emulsion, which of the particular fluid involved. This aniline
leads to the formation of corrosive com- point index indicates the effect of the fluid
pounds. Also, emulsions often have a slimy, being tested upon the synthetic rubber used
sticky, or pasty consistency which interferes in seals. A high index indicates that the rubber
with normal operation of valves and other will swell; low, that it will shrink. Aniline
42
point is, therefore, a very important considera- formity of product, and bears no relationship
tion in the recommendation of hydraulic to fluid performance.
fluids. Flash point is a measurement of the point
at which heated fluid vaporizes, and is of no
OTHER PROPERTIES importance except where hydraulic equipment
is used in the vicinity of extremely high tem-
Most of the following factors have no im- peratures. It is used mainly by refiners as a
portancethey are mentioned only to over- product control.
come some common misconceptions regarding
hydraulic fluids. Carbon residue is the amount of carbon
remaining when fluid is subjected to destruc-
Pour point reflects the ability of fluid to tive heating, and has no relation to either
flow at low temperatures. Its only importance quality or performance of hydraulic fluids.
lies in the fact that hydraulic fluid also lubri-
cates the components of a system. It is neces- Acidity of fluid is a measurement of the
sary, therefore, that fluids used have a pour amount of acid in it. It has no value in rating
point corresponding to the lowest starting new fluids, but is often used in laboratories
temperature of the system involved. to help determine the degree of deterioration
of fluids which have been in use.
A.P.I. gravity is merely a way of stating the
Again, it is emphasized that all the impor-
specific gravity of a fluid, and has very little
importance in recommendations.
tant factors described above are considered
in recommendations of fluid to be used, and
Color is used by refiners to maintain uni- these recommendations must be followed.

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
Continuing, long term high efficiency of manufacturer of the equipment involved,
hydraulic systems is very dependent upon must be maintained. The manufacturer will
proper maintenance. One very important fac- set forth the method to be used, and the fre-
tor is the addition, when necessary, of only quency, depending on conditions.
clean, fresh fluid of the recommended type.
CLEANING THE SYSTEM
STORAGE OF FLUID
An important factor in the maintenance of
The cleaning procedure, when a regular
fluid is the manner in which it is stored. Must.
draining schedule is followed, and no gum or
lacquer formation is suspected, is very simple.
57 shows both improper storage and the man-
ner in which fluid must be stored in order to After the system is drained, solid sediment
maintain its. quality. in the bottom of the reservoir should be re-
moved, and filters must be cleaned or re-
DRAIN SCHEDULE placed. It may be advisable to flush out the
residue of old fluid remaining in the system,
Periodic draining of the entire, system is of especially if the fluid is badly contaminated.
vital importance. This is the only way to For this purpose, use some of the fluid recom-
remove contaminants, oxidized fluid, and in- mended for the system involved. Finally, re-
jurious particles completely from the system. fill the system with clean fluid of the recom-
A drain schedule, as recommended by the mended type.

43

46
 If gums and lacquers have been allowed to come in contact with seals and packing.
form, because of neglect of draining schedule, Cleansed parts should be thoroughly rinsed,
or other reasons, and the components are not and protected immediately with a coating of
functioning properly, (sticky action) it is ad- oil.
visable to remove the parts affected and clean
them thoroughly. When cleaning the disas- Most hydraulic systems will have with them
sembled parts, extreme care must be taken to on delivery an Operator's Manual or Preven-
prevent harm to closely fitted, finely finished tive Maintenance Manual, or both. The recom-
parts. Use of gum solvent or other non-corro- mendations given in these manuals for opera-
sive chemical cleaner is permissible on metal tion and care must be followed if efficient
parts only. Do not allow these materials to operation is expected.

/ /1//// / AIR
ESCAPING ik *ATE k Eft
14111111411
SPACE
AIR SPACE
REDUCED
POP/MAUL
SUCTION
CREATED
'/ //
/
//,
Fluid and air in the
barrel expand when Water is drawn in.
warm. Some, of the Fluid and air con-
air above the fluid tract when cooled.
escapes.

WATER

PREVENTION
I. KEEP BUNGS DRAWN TIGHT

2. STORE BARRELS INSIDE

WHENEVER POSSIBLE (WARM STORAGE
IN WINTER PREFERABLE) OR
3. AT LEAST UNDER COVER
4. IF STORED OUTSIDE,LAY BARRELS ON THEIR SIDES
5. IF BARRELS CANNOT BE LAID ON THEIR SIDES,TILT
THEM SLIGHTLY AS SHOWN BELOW
WATER AROUND BUNG NO WATER AROUND DUNG
MAY BE DRAWN INTO TO DE DRAWN INTO
DARREL BARREL

WRONG RIGHT

Illust. 57Proper fluid storage principles.

44 411
 TROUBLE SHOOTING
The following factors are responsible for 6. Inadequate understanding of the com
most complaints of inefficient hydraulic oper- ponents of the hydraulic system.
ation: Locating trouble in any hydraulic system
1. Fluid drain periods not frequent enough. is a job for a well-trained service man. He
should be familiar with the equipment used,
2. Contamination by cutting or grinding its construction, and its operation. He should
abrasives, air, or water. know enough about hydraulic circuits and
3. Air leaks. components to localize the trouble. He must
have the proper tools, and he must use them.
4. Failure to use the recommended hydrau-
lic fluid.
5. Packing, gaskets and seals faulty.

45