[DOCUMENT TITLE]

Dr_Computer
[COMPANY NAME]  [Company address]
Table of Contents
Task 1:........................................................................................................................................................1
Task 2:........................................................................................................................................................3
Task 3:........................................................................................................................................................9
Task 4:......................................................................................................................................................12
Task 5:......................................................................................................................................................13
 Task 1:
Critical literature review on use of computational modelling software’s in fire
safety engineering.

Need of computational modelling software’s:

Smoke modelling may be used to test and evaluate fire prevention systems, such as determining
whether extra sprinklers or other safety measures are required in corridors; and determining
whether a certain level of safety can be achieved without additional sprinklers or other measures.

Types of models and their benefits and limitations:

There are a large range of models that may be used to anticipate different types of fires

Algebraic model:

A fire dynamic study often begins with the use of algebraic models. There are equations that may
be used to predict the behavior of fire effects, such as the height of the flame and the rate at
which heat is released.

Analytical models are useful because they can quickly answer elementary fire dynamics and
fundamental phenomena, as well as because the solutions of these equations are directly based
on practical data from testing or fundamental physics.

When using an algebraic model, it is important to keep in mind that these models are typically
suited to certain simplified conditions and may not give an accurate depiction of the fire's overall
behavior. To accurately forecast real circumstances, the correlation's predictive power will be at
its greatest when it is most similar to its test conditions, there is less trust in a correlation's
prediction result if there is a large discrepancy between the test and the situation.

Zone model:

An algebraic equation may not provide enough information or accuracy to identify an exciting
fire phenomenon, thus a zone model or a lumped parameter model is the next step. Assumes that
a given area may be partitioned into "zones" over which algebraic equations are solved in order
to determine the necessary flow characteristics. Zone models and lumped parameter models
presume this.
In seconds or minutes, a computer can run zone models of multi-compartment fire situations.
This is due to advancements in the capabilities of personal computers. Fire modelers may now
acquire more data than they could with algebraic models while still investigating a wide range of
elements that might influence a fire's behavior. To accurately describe complex geometries that
cannot be accurately recreated using equivalent rectangular volumes, the premise of
homogeneous zones does not hold. If stratification develops at a high ceiling height, zone model
assumptions regarding hot gas transmission to the ceiling may not hold.

Field model:

A numerical solution to the Navier-Stokes equations is used to construct a field model or a

computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. PDEs for conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy are solved using finite differences in fifteen control volumes. In most CFD software, it is
possible to run these calculations over a period of time to create a transient solution. Instead of
only two or three control volumes in a zone model, CFD models often have hundreds of
thousands (or millions) of these control volumes. Zone-assumed models have higher resolution
than models that do not, but this comes at the cost of longer simulation periods and greater
processing resources.

Additionally, CFD models have the capacity to simulate considerably more complex geometries
than can be done using algebraic or zone models since they are based on the fundamentals of
fluid flow and include a wide variety of boundary conditions.

Complexity, extra training needs for the model user, larger processing requirements, and
lengthier project start-to-finish times are all drawbacks of CFD models. Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) models are the most advanced and sophisticated method for predicting fire
propagation and compartment temperatures. There is evidence that CFD models can accurately
describe smoke flow, and they have lately been used in the modelling of flames as well. They are
able to simulate pre-flashover and localized flames in complicated geometries with smoke
movement in multi-compartment environments.

Applications:
  Engineering Research Facility, New market, University of Auckland
 Westgate, Auckland, New Zealand's Northwest Shopping Mall
 New Zealand's Pak'N Save Massey
 Shoppers' Plaza at Tauranga Crossing
 The presence of open atria in a number of high-end commercial projects

Regulatory or legal or code requirements of use of CFD in GCC Countries:

Standardization operations must be coordinated with counterparts in GCC countries to ensure

that they are carried out in unison, and GSO must monitor their implementation to ensure they
are in line with the GCC Economic Agreement and Charter. Intra-GCC commerce, consumer
protection, and environmental and public health protection are GSO's main objectives.

Task 2:
Plume equations explain how plume equations are calculated in general. Based on experiments,
they propose more broadly valid formulations. Consider the example of a single point of heat at a
height of 0. The energy in the plume is thought to be completely transmitted.

Supposition:

 Because of this, we must make several assumptions before we can describe the plume
characteristics analytically. If all energy is injected at its place of origin, and no heat is
lost as a result of radiative losses in the system, then this is our premise.
 Assuming that buoyancy is produced by a difference in density (–), this assumption does
not hold true.
  It is consequently frequently referred to as the "weak plume hypothesis," where the
ambient temperature is just slightly higher than that of the plume (entrainment).
 Z is assumed to have no effect on the velocity, temperature, or force profiles.
 It is a common assumption that the entrainment velocity is proportional to the local gas
velocity in a plume. This means that entrainment velocity may be expressed in terms of
the local gas velocity in the plume and is expressed in terms of the velocity at the edge of
the plume (v = u).

Initial considerations:

Analytical equations for the following variables are sought as a function of height z:

T (z) is the temperature difference in [°C] or [K] at height z.

[m] is the measurement of the plume's height zb (z). The gas velocity at a height of [m/s] equals
(z). [kg/s] is the mass flow rate of the plume at the height z p (z).

Flow, momentum, and buoyant force all have four basic formulae that we begin with. These
formulas will be used to solve the differential equations for mass continuity and
momentum/buoyancy. Thus, we can identify constants that arise from assumed solutions to
differential equations and, thus, put up expressions for the variables indicated before using
dimensional analysis. At a particular height z, the mass flow rate of the plume is calculated.

The differential buoyancy force acting on the mass in the tiny dz section may be expressed as:

In this equation, g is the acceleration of gravity. The mass flow time's velocity (time rate of
momentum) may be expressed as:

Two differential equations will be derived from these three equations, one for continuity and one
for momentum and buoyancy: We will use energy release rates to characterize the density
difference in our derivation (). We're searching for a correlation between the density differential
and the rate of energy release. The gas energy flow rate at height z may be expressed as,
assuming no radiative heat losses inside the plume.

In this equation, cp is the gas's specific heat at constant pressure. As a result of the ideal gas law
and a rewrite of the temperature difference as 'T = T', the formula is now written as 'T = T − T'.

Consequently, we can use this equation to calculate the energy release rate as a function of
density difference.

Mass and momentum/buoyancy differential equations with respect to Height are now written.
We'll get two differential equations as a result of this. Analytical solutions for the variables we
are trying to describe may be found by assuming answers for these and then utilizing
dimensional analysis.

Assume a pump failure causes 20 liters of transformer oil to pour into a sump with an area of 2
square meters.

 m” = 0.039 kg/(m2s)
 ∆Hc = 46.4 MJ/kg, and kβ = 0.7 (m –1).

D = 1.6 m is a rough estimate based on a circular spill with an area of 2 m2.

We discover that m′′ = 0.039(1 – exp (–0.71.6)) = 0.026 kg/m2 (m2s).

We get = 20.0260.746.4 = 1.69 MW if we assume a combustion efficiency of 70 percent.

The density of oil is shown in the table as 760 kg/m3.

As a result, M = 20/1000.760 = 15.2kg of oil.

Two kilograms per second is 0.052 kilograms per second. Because of this, the fire will burn for a
long time

290 seconds or 5 minutes is the result of 15.2/0.052.

ZUKOSKI PLUME:

While it is believed that the ambient air characteristics are

T∞ = 293 K

ρ∞ = 1.1 kg/m3

cp = 1.0 kJ/(kg K) and g = 9.81 m/s2.

mp = 0.071(1690)1/3(6)5/3 = 16.75kg/s

Flame height:

L= 0.235(Q)2/5-1.02D = 0.235(1690)2/5-1.02(1.6) = 2.96m

Assuming that 30% of total energy is lost as a consequence of flame radiation, we need to take
into consideration the radiant component of the energy release rate. Plumes flow because of the
buoyancy provided by the leftover energy (convective energy release rate). As a consequence,
we'll use = 0.7 100 = 70 kW in our calculations.

We'll use the following data to estimate the air's temperature and humidity:

T∞ = 293 K

ρ∞ = 1.2 kg/m3

cp = 1.0 kJ/(kg K)

g = 9.81 m/s2

Mass flow at the height of 6 m:

mp= 0.20(1.22.9.81/1.0.293)1/3701/3.65/3 = 5.94kg/s

Plume temperature at the height of 6 m:

∆T= 5.0(293/9.81.1.02.1.22)1/3702/3.6-5/3 = 11.7k

So, at 6 m height the plume temperature is 11.7 + 20 = 31.77°C, or 11.7 + 293 = 304.7 K

HESKESTAD PLUME:

zₒ= 0.083(1690)2/5-1.02(1.6) = -0.009m= -0.01m

A centimeter below the floor is the imaginary origin. Because it is so near zero, we'll use it as an
example of how it may be employed in an equation, even though the difference is so little.

L = 0.235. (1690)2/5-1.02.1.6 = 2.96m

Z = 6 m is much above the flames' height. Flow rate of plume mass is calculated as follows:

QC= 0.8Q = 0.8.1690= 1352

mp = 0.071(1352)1/3.(6+0.01)5/3+1.92.10-3.1352 = 18.18kg/s

Note the plus sign in the brackets for heights, since z0 is a negative value.

The centerline plume temperature:

∆Tₒ = 9.1(293/9.81.1.02.1.22)1/313522/3(6+0.01)-5/3 = 153.87k

The centerline plume temperature is T0 = ∆T0 + T∞ = 446k

MCCAFFREY PLUME:

For the duration of 6m, suppose that the flame is intermittent. As a result, = –1/3 and = 1.1 are
obtained.

∆Tₒ = (1.1/0.9.√2.9.81)2(6/16902/5)-5/3293 = 160k

Comparison of the McCaffrey and Heskestad plume equations:

Plume region ∆Tₒ = 22.3 (16902/5/6)5/3 = 159k

Plume region uₒ = 1.1(1690/6)1/3 = 7.21

As a consequence, the McCaffrey equations will provide values 10% greater than those produced
by the Heskestad equations for both plume temperatures and plume velocities.
 Task 3:

1. Molecular formula of all species:

Let the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon be:
C7 H15 S0.0625 N0.0719 O0.0425
Relative molecular mass = Mass of element
Total mass of fuel
Total mass of fuel = 103kmol
Mass % of carbon = 7*12 * 100 = 81.5%
103
Mass % of hydrogen = 1*15*100 = 14.56%
103
Mass % of Sulphur = 0.0625*32*100 = 1.94%
103
Mass % of Nitrogen = 0.0714*14*100 = 0.97%
103
Mass % of Oxygen = 0.0625*11*100 = 0.97% (Solved)
103

2. Fuel Air Mass Ratio:

Fuel air mass ratio of statiometric conditions:

C7 H15 S0.0625 N0.0714 O0.0625 + (O2 + 3.76N2)

V1CO2 + V2H2O + V3SO2 + V4N2

Doing atom balance

V1 = 7
i Carbon Balance
  2V2 = 15
ii Hydrogen Balance

V2 = 7.5
Sulphur Balance
 V3 = 0.0625 iii
 0.0714 + (3.76*2)Vo = 2V4 iv
Nitrogen Balance
0.0714 + 7.52Vo = 2V4

0.0625 + 2Vo = (2*7) + (7.5) + (2*0.0625)

2Vo = 21.5625

Vo = 10.78125

Putting in (iv) 0.0714 + (2*3.75) * 10.78125 = 2V4

V4 = 40.5732

Moles of air needed = Vo = 10.78125

Moles of air needed = 10.78125 * ((16 *2) + 3.76 * 28)

= 1480.05 grams

Mass of hydrocarbons = (4*12)+(0.0625*32)+(0.0714*14)+(0.0625*16)

= 102.9996 = 103g

Air : fuel mass ratio (statiometric)

1480.05÷103

14.37 : 1

Air : Fuel mass ratio

1 : 14.37 (Solved)
C ) Yield of Fuel Gases:

i. Co2 = 7 mol Co2 / mol fuel

ii. H2O = 7.5 mol H2o / mol fuel
iii. So2 = 0.0625 mol So2 / mol fuel
iv. N2 = 40.5732 mol N2 / mol fuel

d) Enthalpy of Formation:

For Co2 = 393.5kJ/mol at 298.15k

For H2O = 280.7kJ/mol at 298.15k

For So2 = 296.8kJ/mol at 298.15k

For N2 = 0 at 298.15k

Enthalpy of formation of fuel gas stream = (-393.5kJ*7mol÷mol) + (-280.7kJ*7.5mol÷mol) +

(-296.8kJ*0.0625÷mol) + 0

= -4878.3kJ/mol of hydrogen fuel Burritt (Solved)

e) Co2 under Stoichiometric Condition:

7 mol Co2/mol fuel = (7*44) g Co2/103g fuel = 3g Co2 fuel (Solved)

f) O2 Depletion:

7 mol O2/mol fuel = (7*32) g O2/103g fuel = 2.17g O2/g fuel (Solved)

Task 4:
Write a critical literature review on fire toxicity and its impact on human/
people.
Fire toxicity:

Toxic fumes from flames are the leading cause of mortality and injury. Sulfur and nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen cyanide (HCl) are
some of the asphyxiates and irritants found in these poisonous gases. There are also a number of
oregano-irritants, such as acrolein and formaldehyde, in these gases (SOx). Particulate matter
(soot particles) from fire effluents may potentially reach the lungs. Both asphyxiates and irritants
cause mortality in a fire, since any incapacity is likely to hinder escape and raise the likelihood of
being trapped.

Impacts on human:

You should avoid inhaling smoke if you can, even if you aren't sensitive to wildfire smoke. And
when the smoke is thick, as it may be near a wildfire, everyone is affected. When wood and other
organic materials are burned, they release a complex combination of gases and tiny particles into
the air. Fine particles in smoke provide the greatest risk to human health. They may go deep into
your lungs because they are so little. Many health issues may be caused by them, including a
runny nose, itchy eyes, and even heart and lung illness. Premature death has been related to
particle pollution exposure.

 Smoke obstructs one's eyesight.

 Eye and respiratory tract irritation, discomfort, and difficulty breathing due to smoke's
irritants.
 Toxic gas asphyxiation causes disorientation and loss of consciousness.
 Following a stinging sensation on the skin and a burning sensation in the lungs, a person
collapses due to heat exhaustion.
 Task 5:
Explain your understanding about external fire spread, formation of EVF
with the help of past fire incident. Also, consider the thermal and geometrical
characteristics of EVF.

External fire spread:

Outside of the structure, the spread of flames from one story to the next. An increasing number
of people are using the term to describe exterior vertical fire spreads. The most typical
occurrence will be the spread of heat and flames from one window to another. An aperture, either
existent or formed by structural collapse, allows heat and flames to exhaust out of the structure
and impact on other areas of the building, generally above, in high-rise buildings where fire
spread occurs. Fires that spread from one apartment to another are most often caused by external
spread when the interior fire barrier is intact and functioning, according to case studies and
previous incidents.

Formation of EVF with the help of past fire incident

EVFs, or façade fires, are generated when a building fire has completely developed and pours
out through outside apertures, such as windows, doors, and skylights. Many studies have shown
that EVF may cause fires to spread rapidly to higher floors or even nearby structures. This effect
is well-documented. EVF may be caused by fire circumstances that are either over- or under-
ventilated (OV or UV). Pre-flashover stage of a compartment fire prevents the flames from
spreading outside the compartment's perimeter. The EVF may be observed while the fire is still
fuel-controlled if the flames in the ceiling jet are long enough to expel out of the compartment
apertures. A post-flashover fire is caused by unburned volatiles ejecting from the aperture and
mixing with ambient air.

Thermal and geometrical characteristics of EVF

The use of flammable insulating materials on a building's exterior may dramatically increase the
danger of fire spreading to nearby floors or structures. Current fire engineering design
approaches, according to a slew of research, may not accurately reflect EVF properties under
actual fire loads. Comparing EVF thermal properties such EVF centerline temperature and heat
flux on the exposed façade surface using fire safety engineering design correlations is done in
this context.

When a blaze breaks out, the EVF envelope's geometrical properties are modified by the fire heat
release rate; average elevation of the apertures; and the total opening area. In the event of an
EVF, or externally venting flames, the flames might travel to nearby levels or buildings. To
better understand the magnitude of EVFs, this study examines and evaluates numerous fire
engineering design correlations. Each correlation's prediction is tested in an experimental fire
facility with a medium-sized compartmentalized facade.