Embedded Hardware and Various Building Blocks

Embedded Hardware And Various Building Blocks
The software embeds into hardware. Hardware consists of number of building blocks in a circuit board
or in ASIC or on the SoC along with the processors. Hardware consists of following building blocks and
devices in a system in general.
1. Power Source :
Various units in an embedded system operate in one of the ranges 5.0V±0,25 V. 3_3 V ±0.3V 2.0 V
±0,2 V and 1.5V± 0 2V.
2. Clock Oscillator and Clocking Unit(s):
The clock controls the time for executing an instruction,The frequency depends on the processor circuit
execution rate.
3. System Timer:
A timer circuit is suitably configured and functions as system dock. The system clock ticks and
generates system-interrupts periodically. The system-clock interrupt enables execution of the system
supervisory functions in the OS at the periodic intervals. System clock ticks can be 60 times in second.
4. Real-Time Clock (RTC):
A real-time clock is required in a system. The clock drives the timers for various timing and counting
needs in a system. The clock also updates time and date in the system. A microcontroller provides the
timer circuits for the counting and tuning devices.
5. Reset Circuit, Power-up Reset and Watchdog-Timer Reset
A circuit for reset enables restart of the system from the beginning using a switch or signal. The reset
can also be performed by using an instruction to the processor. A power-up reset circuit enables restart
of the system from beginning whenever power is switched on in the system. A watchdog-timer reset
enables the restart of system when it is stuck up in certain set of instructions for a period more than
preset time-interval. Reset based on reset-switch, reset-instruction or power-up or power-up reset and
watchdog reset can be from same starting instruction or the different starting instructions.
6. Memory
Various forms of memories are used in a system. Figure shows a chart for the various forms of
memories that are present in systems. These are as follows:
(a) Internal RAM
(b) Internal ROM/PROM/EPROM
(c) External RAM for the temporary data and stack (in most systems)
(d) Internal caches (in pipelined and superscalar microprocessors)
(e) Internal EEPROM or flash
(I) Memory Stick (card): video, images, songs, or speeches and large storage in digital camera, mobile
systems
(g) External ROM or PROM for embedding soft are (in almost all other than microcontrollers-based
systems)
(h) RAM Memory buffers at the ports
Fig. The various forms of memory in the system

Table gives the functions assigned in the embedded system to the memories, ROM or PROM or EPROM
embeds the embedded software specific to the system.
A system embeds(locates) the following either in the internal ROM, PROM or in an external ROM or
PROM of microcontroller; boot-up programs, initialization data, strings for an initial screen-display or
initial state of the system, the programs for various tasks, ISRs and operating system kernel. The system
has RAMs for saving temporary data, stack and buffers that are needed during a program run. The
system also has flash for storing non-volatile results.
7 Input, Output and I/O Ports, I/O Buses and I/O interfaces
The system gets inputs from physical devices through the input ports. Following are the examples
A processor identifies each input port by its memory buffer address, called port address. Just as a
memory location holding a byte or word is identified by an address, each input port is identified by the
address. The system gets the inputs by the read operations at the port addresses. The system has output
ports through which it sends output bytes to the real world.
Each output port is identified by its memory-buffer address(es) called port address. The system sends the
output by a write operation to the port address. There are also general- purpose ports for both the input
and output (I/O) operations.
8. Bus
Processor of a system might have to be connected to a number of other devices and systems. A bus
consists of a common set of lines to interconnect the multiple devices, hardware units and systems. It
enables the communication between two units at any given instance. The remaining units remain in an in
connected state during communication between these two. A bus communication protocol specifies the
ways of communication of signals on the bus. At any instance, a pus may be a serial bus or a parallel bus
transferring one bit or multiple data bits respectively. Protocol also specifies ways of arbitration when
several devices need to communicate through the bus. Alternatively, protocol specifies ways of polling
from each device for need of the bus at an instance. Protocol also specifies ways of daisy chaining the
devices so that, at an instance, the bus is -anted to a device according to the device priority in the chain.
9. Digital to Analog conversion (ADC):

DAC is a circuit that converts digital 8, 10 r 12 bits to analog output. A DAC operation is done with the
help of a combination of the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) unit in a microcontroller and an
external integrator chip.
10. Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC):
ADC is a circuit that converts the analog input to digital. The output is of 4, 8 10 or 12 bits from an
ADC. Analog input is applied between + and – pins. ADC circuit converts them into bits.The converted
bits value depends on the reference voltage. When input +ve and -ve pins are at voltage equal to
reference +ve and -ve voltage pins, then all output bits = 1. When the difference in voltage at inputs +ve
and -ve pins = 0v then all output bits = 0.
An ADC unit in the embedded system microcontroller may have multichannels. It can then take the
inputs in succession from the various interconnected to different analog sources.
11. LED, LCD and Touch-Screen Displays:
A system requires an interfacing circuit and software to display.LED is used for indicating ON ststus of
the system. A flashing LED may indicate that, a specific task is under completion or is running. It may
indicate a wait status for a message.The display may show the status or message. Display may be a line
display, a multiline display or a flashing display. An LSI (Lower scale integrated circuit) is used as
display controller in case of the LCD matrix display.
Touch screen is an input as well as output device, which is used by the user of a system to enter a
command, choose a menu or to give user reply as input. The input is on physical touch as a screen
position. The touch at a position is mostly by the finger or some times by stylus. Stylus is a thin pencil
shaped long object. It is held between the fingers and used just as a pen to mark a dot. An LSI (Lower
scale integrated circuit) functions as touch-screen controller. The display-screen display is similar to a
computer display unit screen.
12. Keypad, Keyboard or Virtual Keypad at touch screen:
The keypad or keyboard, is an important device for getting user inputs. A touch screen provides virtual
keypad in a mobile computing system. Virtual keypad is a keypad displayed on displayed on the LCD
display screen on touch plate. A user can enter the inputs using touches. A tile is displayed for a
command on the LCD display screen. User can enter the command using touch at the tile.
A keypad or keyboard may interface to a system. The system may provide necessary interfacing circuit
and software to receive inputs directly from the keys or touch screen controller
13. Interrupt Handler:
A system may process a number of devices. The system processor controls and handles the requirements
of each device by running an appropriate ISR for each interrupting event, An interrupts-handling
mechanism must exist in each system. It handles interrupts from various events or processors in the
system. The system handled multiple interrupts, which may be simultaneously pending for service.

Embedded Hardware and Various Building Blocks

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Embedded Hardware and Various Building Blocks

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Embedded Hardware And Various Building Blocks

Fig. The various forms of memory in the system

9. Digital to Analog conversion (ADC):

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