Maintenance Objectives of Highway Maintenance

University of Al-Qadissiyah College of Engineering
Roads and Transport Department Pavement Maintenance 4th Year
Maintenance
Objectives of highway maintenance:

1. Repairing of the functional pavement defects.
2. Prolonging the functional and structural life of the pavement.
3. Maintaining road safety and signage.
4. Keeping the road reserve in an acceptable condition.
Definitions:
Road maintenance has been defined as suitable routine, periodic and urgent
activities to keep pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities and all other
structures and property within the road margins as near as possible to their as-
constructed or renewed condition. Maintenance includes minor repairs and
improvements to eliminate the cause of defects and avoid excessive repetition of
maintenance efforts.
Periodic maintenance has been defined as operations that are occasionally required
on a section of road after a period of a number of years. They are normally large scale
and require specialist equipment and skilled resources to implement, and usually
necessitate the temporary deployment of those resources on the road section. These
operations are costly and require specific identification and planning for implementation,
and often require design.
Preventive maintenance is a planned strategy of cost-effective treatments that

preserves and maintains or improves a roadway system and its appurtenances and
retards deterioration, but without substantially increasing structural capacity.
Pavement preservation: all activities undertaken to provide and maintain

serviceable roadways; this includes corrective maintenance and preventive
maintenance, as well as minor rehabilitation projects.
Routine maintenance is defined operations required to be carried out once or more/year

on a section of road. These operations are typically small-scale or simple, but widely
dispersed, and require skilled or unskilled manpower. The need for some of these can
be estimated and planned on a regular.
Routine maintenance activities are not influenced by the traffic, while the recurrent
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maintenance activities are carried out.
The urgent maintenance is required to keep the highways open, protect property and
road users. This has also been referred to as emergency maintenance and includes
repair of washouts, rigid pavement blow-ups, and earth slides.
Emergency maintenances refer to activities associated with the urgent repair of

defects caused by natural disasters or accidents. The highway maintenance types and
activities are summarized below.
Rehabilitation: restoring or betterment of roadway such as resurfacing.
Why Maintenance is Necessary?
 All Pavements require maintenance.
 Stresses producing minor effects are constantly working in all pavements.
 Stresses are:
 Change in temperature and moisture;
 Traffic;
 Small movements in underlying or adjacent earth.
 Distresses are visible evidence of pavement wear (i.e. they are the end result of the
wear process which begins when construction ends).
 Water lines and other utilities are major area of pavement maintenance.
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Pavement Distress
The term pavement distress refers to the condition of a pavement surface in terms of
its general appearance. A perfect pavement is level and has a continuous and unbroken
surface. In contrast, a distressed pavement may be fractured, distorted, or disintegrated. These
three basic categories of distress can be further subdivided. For example, fractures can be
seen as cracks or as spalling (chipping of the pavement surface). Cracks can be further
described as generalized, transverse, longitudinal, alligator, and block. A pavement distortion
may be evidenced by ruts or corrugation of the surface. Pavement disintegration can be
observed as raveling (loosening of pavement structure), stripping of the pavement from the
subbase, and surface polishing. The types of distress data collected for flexible and rigid
pavements vary from one state to another.
Pavement distress groups and their causes
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Flexible Pavement Distresses and repair

Different types of distress can occur in asphalt pavement. These distresses could be
developed due to traffic load repetitions, temperature, moisture, aging, construction practice,
or combinations.
1- Fatigue Cracking
Fatigue cracks are a series of longitudinal and interconnected cracks caused by the repeated
applications of wheel loads. This type of cracking generally starts as short longitudinal cracks
in the wheel path and progress to an alligator cracking pattern (interconnected cracks) as
shown in following figure.
Advanced stage of fatigue cracking.
• In thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom of the HMA layer where the
tensile stress is the highest then propagates to the surface as one or more longitudinal
cracks ("bottom-up" or "classical" fatigue cracking).
• In thick pavements, the cracks initiate from the top in areas of high localized tensile
stresses resulting from tire-pavement interaction and asphalt binder aging (top- down
cracking).
• After repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect forming many-sided sharp-
angled pieces that develop into a pattern resembling the back of an alligator or
crocodile.
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• Problem: Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration,
roughness, may further deteriorate to a pothole
Causes:
– Inadequate structural support,

– Decrease in pavement load supporting characteristics
 Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support due to poor drainage.
 Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer.
- Increase in loading.
– Inadequate structural design
– Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)
Repair:
– Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support.
• Remove the cracked pavement area - dig out and replace the area of
poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if necessary.
• Patch over the repaired subgrade.
– Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure.
• Place a Hot Mix Asphalt over the entire pavement surface.
2- Rutting
Rutting is defined as permanent deformation in the wheel path as shown in following

figure. Rutting can occur due to: (a) unstable HMA, (b) densification of HMA, (c) deep
settlement in the subgrade.
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Description: Surface depression in the wheel path.
Pavement uplift (shearing) occurs along the sides of the rut.
There are two basic types of rutting: mix rutting and subgrade rutting.
Mix rutting occurs when the subgrade does not rut yet the pavement surface exhibits
wheel path depressions as a result of compaction/mix design problems.
Subgrade rutting - when the subgrade exhibits wheel path depressions due to loading.
In this case, the pavement settles into the subgrade ruts causing surface depressions in the
wheel path.
Plastic Flow Rutting
Rutting in Asphalt Layer
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Rutting in Asphalt Layer
Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, ruts tend to pull a vehicle
towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut.
Possible Causes:
Caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading.
Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction.
Subgrade rutting improper mix design or manufacture.
• Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause
of failure (e.g. insufficient compaction, subgrade rutting, poor mix design or studded
tire wear).
• Slight ruts (< 1/3 inch deep) can generally be left untreated.
• Pavement with deeper ruts should be leveled and overlaid.
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3- Shoving
Description:
Shoving is a form of plastic movement resulting in a localized bulging of the pavement

surface. Shoving can take a number of different forms such as upheaval, “wash-boarding” or
ripples across the pavement surface, or crescent shaped bulging.
Problem: roughness
Possible Causes: traffic action (starting and stopping)
 Too much asphalt binder in the HMA mix.

 Rounded aggregate particles.
 Smooth aggregate texture.
 Too many fines in the mix.
 Excessive moisture in the subgrade
Repair: Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. Remove the distorted pavement
and patch.
• Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the
damaged pavement and overlay.
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4- Depression
• Description:
– Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the
surrounding pavement.
– Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
• Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial water can cause vehicle
hydroplaning
• Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate

compaction during construction.
• Repair: depressions are small localized areas.
– Repaired by removing the affected pavement then digging out and replacing
the area of poor subgrade.
– Patch over the repaired subgrade.
5- Joint Reflection Cracking
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• Description:
– Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement.
– The cracks occur directly over the underlying rigid pavement joints.
– Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness.
• Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab beneath the HMA surface because of
thermal and moisture changes.
• Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks).
– Crack seal to prevent entry of moisture into the subgrade through the cracks
and further raveling of the crack edges.
High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks). Remove and replace the
cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
6- Longitudinal Cracking
Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline. Usually a type of fatigue

cracking.
Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates possible onset of alligator

cracking and structural failure.
Causes:
– Poor joint contraction or location.
– A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including joint reflection

cracking)
– HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future alligator cracking)
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– Top – Down Cracking.
• Repair: :
– Low severity cracks (< 1/2 inch wide and infrequent cracks). Crack Seal to
prevent entry of water and raveling.
– High severity cracks (> 1/2 inch wide and numerous cracks). Remove and
replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.
7- Transverse (Thermal) Cracking
• Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's centerline. Usually a type of

thermal cracking.
• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness.
• Possible Causes: Several including:
– Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or asphalt binder

hardening
– Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface HMA layer
– Top-down cracking.
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8- Water Bleeding and Pumping
Description:
– Water bleeding (left two photos) occurs when water seeps out of joints or
cracks or through an excessively porous HMA layer.
– Pumping occurs when water and fine material is ejected from underlying
layers through cracks in the HMA layer under moving loads.
Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of high pavement porosity (water

bleeding), decreased structural support (pumping).
Possible Causes:
– Porous pavement due to inadequate compaction during construction or poor

mix design
– High water table
– Poor drainage.
Repair:
If the problem is a high water table or poor drainage, subgrade drainage should be improved.
If the problem is a porous mix a slurry seal is applied to limit water infiltration.
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9- Patching
Patch over localized distress Utility cut patch
Description:
An area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement.
Problem: Roughness
Possible Causes:
– Previous localized pavement deterioration that has been removed and patched
– Utility cuts
Repair:
Structural or nonstructural overlay.
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10- Potholes
• Description:
Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the way through
the HMA layer down to the base course. They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides
near the top of the hole.
• Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can result from driving across
potholes at higher speeds), moisture infiltration.
• Possible Causes:
Potholes are the end result of alligator cracking.
As alligator cracking becomes severe, the interconnected cracks create small chunks of
pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them.
The remaining hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
Repair: remove all cracked pavement around and patch over.
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11- Stripping
• Description: The loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt binder that typically
begins at the bottom of the HMA layer and progresses upward. When stripping
begins at the surface and progresses downward it is usually called raveling.
• Problem: Decreased structural support, rutting, shoving/corrugations, raveling, or

cracking (alligator and longitudinal)
• Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very difficult to recognize because it

manifests itself on the pavement surface as other forms of distress including rutting,
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shoving/corrugations, raveling, or cracking. Typically, a core must be taken to
positively identify stripping as a pavement distress.
• Poor aggregate surface chemistry
• Water in the HMA causing moisture damage
Repair: A stripped pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of failure
(i.e., how did the moisture get in?). Generally, the stripped pavement needs to be removed
and replaced after correction of any subsurface drainage issues.
Rigid Pavement Distresses and repair
1. Spalling
Description
Cracking, breaking or chipping of joint/crack edges. Usually occurs within about 0.6 m (2 ft.)
of joint/crack edge.
Possible Causes
Possible causes are:
 Excessive stresses at the joint/crack caused by infiltration of incompressible materials and

subsequent expansion (can also cause blow-ups).
 Disintegration of the PCC from freeze-thaw action or “D” cracking.
 Weak PCC at a joint caused by inadequate consolidation during construction. This can
sometimes occur at a construction joint if (1) low quality PCC is used to fill in the last bit of
slab volume or (2) dowels are improperly inserted.
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 Misalignment or corroded dowel.
 Heavy traffic loading.
Repair
Spalling less than 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face can generally be repaired with
a partial-depth patch. Spalling greater than about 75 mm (3 inches) from the crack face may
indicated possible spalling at the joint bottom and should be repaired with a full-depth patch.
2. D-Cracking (Durability Cracking)
Description
Series of closely spaced, crescent-shaped cracks near a joint, corner or crack. It is caused by
freeze-thaw expansion of the large aggregate within the PCC slab. Durability cracking is a
general PCC distress and is not unique to pavement PCC.
Problem
Some roughness, leads to spalling and eventual slab disintegration
Possible Causes
Freeze-thaw susceptible aggregate.
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Repair
“D” cracking is indicative of a general aggregate freeze-thaw problem. Although a full-depth

patch or partial-depth patch can repair the affected area, it does not address the root
problem and will not, of course, prevent “D” cracking elsewhere.
3. Faulting
Description
A difference in elevation across a joint or crack usually associated with undoweled JPCP.
Usually the approach slab is higher than the leave slab due to pumping, the most common
faulting mechanism. Faulting is noticeable when the average faulting in the pavement section
reaches about 2.5 mm (0.1 inch). When the average faulting reaches 4 mm (0.15 in), diamond
grinding or other rehabilitation measures should be considered.
Problem
Roughness
Possible Causes
Most commonly, faulting is a result of slab pumping. Faulting can also be caused by slab
settlement, curling and warping.
Repair
Faulting heights of less than 3 mm (0.125 inch) need not be repaired. Faulting in an
undoweled JPCP between 3 mm (0.125 inch) and 12.5 mm (0.5 inch) is a candidate for a
dowel bar retrofit. Faulting in excess of 12.5 mm (0.5 inches) generally warrants total
reconstruction.
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4. Polished Aggregate
Description
Areas of pavement (either PCC or HMA) where the portion of aggregate extending above
the asphalt binder (in the case of HMA) or cement paste (in the case of PCC) is either very
small or there are no rough or angular aggregate particles.
Problem
Decreased skid resistance
Possible Causes
Repeated traffic applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the protruding rough, angular
particles become polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is susceptible to
abrasion or subject to excessive studded tire wear.
Repair
 HMA: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal or overlay.
 PCC: Diamond grinding or overlay.
 Klaruw: Bush-Hammering or Shot-Blasting.
5. Shrinkage Cracking
Description
Hairline cracks formed during PCC setting and curing that are not located at joints. Usually,
they do not extend through the entire depth of the slab. Shrinkage cracks are considered a
distress if they occur in an uncontrolled manner (e.g., at locations outside of contraction
joints in JPCP or too close together in CRCP).
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Problem
Indication of uncontrolled slab shrinkage. In JPCP they will eventually widen and allow
moisture infiltration. In CRCP, if they are allowed to get much wider than about 0.5 mm
(0.02 inches) they can allow moisture infiltration.
Possible Causes
All PCC will shrink as it sets and cures, therefore shrinkage cracks are expected in rigid
pavement and provisions for their control are made. However, uncontrolled shrinkage
cracking can indicate:
 Contraction joints sawed too late. In JPCP, if contraction joints are sawed too late the
PCC may already have cracked in an undesirable location.
 Poor reinforcing steel design. In CRCP, proper reinforcing steel design should result in
shrinkage cracks every 1.2 – 3 m (4 – 10 ft.).
 Improper curing technique. If the slab surface is allowed to dry too quickly, it will shrink
too quickly and crack.
 High early strength PCC. In an effort to quickly open a newly constructed or rehabilitated
section to traffic, high early-strength PCC may be used. This type of PCC can have a
high heat of hydration and shrinks more quickly and to a greater extent than typical PCC
made from unmodified Type 1 Portland cement.
Repair
In mild to moderate severity situations, the shrinkage cracks can be sealed and the slab should
perform adequately. In severe situations, the entire slab may need replacement.
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6. Pumping
Description
Movement of material underneath the slab or ejection of material from underneath the slab as
a result of water pressure. Water accumulated underneath a PCC slab will pressurize when
the slab deflects under load. This pressurized water can do one of the following:
 Move about under the slab.

 Move from underneath one slab to underneath an adjacent slab. This type of movement leads
to faulting.
 Move out from underneath the slab to the pavement surface. This results in a slow removal of
base, subbase and/or subgrade material from underneath the slab resulting in decreased
structural support.
Problem
Decreased structural support of the slab, which can lead to linear cracking, corner
breaks and faulting.
Possible Causes
Water accumulation underneath the slab. This can be caused by such things as: a high water
table, poor drainage, and panel cracks or poor joint seals that allow water to infiltrate the
underlying material.
Repair
First, the pumping area should be repaired with a full depth patch to remove any deteriorated
slab areas. Second, consideration should be given to using dowel bars to increase load
transfer across any significant transverse joints created by the repair. Third, consideration
should be given to stabilizing any slabs adjacent to the pumping area as significant amounts
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of their underlying base, subbase or subgrade may have been removed by the pumping.
Finally, the source of water or cause of poor drainage should be addressed.
7. Punchout
Problem
Roughness, allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of base/subbase support, cracks

will spall and disintegrate.
Possible Causes
Can indicate a localized construction defect such as inadequate consolidation. In CRCP, it

can be caused by steel corrosion, inadequate amount of steel, excessively wide shrinkage
cracks or excessively close shrinkage cracks.
Repair
Full-depth patch.
8. Linear Cracking
Description
Linear cracks not associated with corner breaks or blow-ups that extend across the entire slab.
Typically, these cracks divide an individual slab into two to four pieces. Often referred to as
“panel cracking”
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Problem
Roughness, allows moisture infiltration leading to erosion of base/subbase support, cracks

will eventually spall and disintegrate if not sealed
Possible Causes
Usually a combination of traffic loading, thermal gradient curling, moisture stresses and loss
of support.
Repair
Slabs with a single, narrow linear crack may be repaired by crack sealing. More than one
linear crack generally warrants a full-depth patch.
9. Joint Load Transfer System Deterioration
Description
Transverse crack or corner break developed as a result of joint dowels.
Problem
Indicator of a failed load transfer system, roughness
Possible Causes
Load transfer dowel bars can fail for two principal reasons:
 Corrosion. If inadequately protected, dowel bars can corrode over time. The corrosion
products occupy volume, which creates tensile stresses around the dowel bars, and a severely
corroded dowel bar is weaker and may fail after repeated loading.
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 Misalignment. Dowel bars inserted crooked or too close to the slab edge may create
localized stresses high enough to break the slab. Misalignment can occur during original
construction or during dowel bar retrofits.
Repair
Removal and replacement of the affected joint load transfer system followed by a full-depth
patch for affected area
10. Corner Break
Description
A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints near the corner. “Near the corner” is typically
defined as within about 2 m (6 ft) or so. A corner break extends through the entire slab and is
caused by high corner stresses.
Problem
Roughness, moisture infiltration, severe corner breaks will fault, spall and disintegrate
Possible Causes
Severe corner stresses caused by load repetitions combined with a loss of support, poor load
transfer across the joint, curling stresses and warping stresses.
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Repair
Full-depth patch
11. Blowup
Description
A localized upward slab movement and shattering at a joint or crack. Usually occurs in spring
or summer and is the result of insufficient room for slab expansion during hot weather
Problem
Roughness, moisture infiltration, in extreme cases (as in the second photo) can pose a safety
hazard
Possible Causes
During cold periods (e.g., winter) PCC slabs contract leaving wider joint openings. If these
openings become filled with incompressible material (such as rocks or soil), subsequent PCC
slab expansion during hot periods (e.g., spring, summer) may cause high compressive
stresses. If these stresses are great enough, the slabs may buckle and shatter to relieve the
stresses. Blow-up can be accelerated by:
 Joint spalling (reduces slab contact area and provides incompressible material to fill the
joint/crack)
 D cracking (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)
 Freeze-thaw damage (weakens the slab near the joint/crack area)
Repair
Full-depth patch
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Pavement Rehabilitation
A variety of methods can be used to rehabilitate pavements or to correct deficiencies in
a given pavement section including using overlays, sealing cracks, using seal coats, and
repairing potholes.
Rehabilitation Techniques and Strategies

Rehabilitation techniques are classified as:
(1) Corrective, which involves the permanent or temporary repair of deficiencies on an

as-needed basis.
(2) Preventive, which involves surface applications of either structural or non-

structural improvements intended to keep the quality of the pavement above a predetermined
level.
Pavement rehabilitation strategies can be categorized in a variety of ways. One

approach is in terms of the problem being solved, such as skid resistance, surface drainage,
roughness, or cracking. Another approach is in terms of the type of treatment used, such as
surface treatment, overlay, or recycle. A third approach is in terms of the type of surface
that will result from the process, such as asphalt overlay, rock seal coat, or liquid seal
coat.
The variety of pavement repair and rehabilitation alternatives and differentiates

between preventive and corrective approaches are shown in figure.
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Construction of surface treatments (dressing for flexible pavement)
Methods of Rehabilitation
1- Overlays
As the nation's highways age and deteriorate, some type of treatment is eventually
required to provide a safe and serviceable facility for the users. For pavements subjected to
moderate and heavy traffic, the most prevalent treatment is to place an overlay on the existing
pavement. Depending on the types of overlay and existing pavement, four possible designs
may serve: HMA overlays on asphalt pavements, HMA overlays on PCC pavements, PCC
overlays on asphalt pavements, and PCC overlays on PCC pavements.
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1- HMA Overlays on Asphalt Pavements

HMA overlay is the predominant type of resurfacing on asphalt pavements. Design
methods ranging from engineering judgment to mechanistic-empirical procedures have been
used.
2- HMA Overlays on PCC Pavements

Although HMA overlays have been used extensively on PCC pavements, this type of
overlay is the most difficult to analyze mechanistically because it involves two different types
of materials. A major problem in the design of HMA overlays on PCC pavements is
reflection cracking, defined as the fractures in an overlay or surface that reflect the crack or
joint pattern in the underlying layer. It is imperative that such cracking be prevented or
controlled to provide a smooth riding surface, maintain the structural integrity of the overlay,
and prevent the intrusion of water into the pavement system.
Several methods can be used to minimize the reflection cracking in HMA overlays on
PCC pavements such as:
1. Design a thicker HMA overlay.

2. Crack and seat the existing PCC slab into smaller sections.
3. Saw and seal joints in a HMA overlay.
3- PCC Overlays on Asphalt Pavements

The use of PCC overlays on asphalt pavements is somewhat uncommon. However,
they have been used very successfully in the United States and other countries. This method
can be used if the vertical clearance does not pose a problem. It can be cost effective if the
asphalt pavement is severely distressed and must be used only as a foundation for the PCC
overlay.
4- PCC Overlays on PCC Pavements

Three types of PCC overlay may be used for PCC pavements: unbounded, bonded,
and partially bonded.
Unbounded or Separated Overlay:
Unbounded overlays are typically placed on pavements that are badly cracked. Prior to
the overlay, the surface of the existing pavement must be cleaned of debris and excess sealing
materials. A separation layer, usually consisting of HMA or sand asphalt of less than 2 in.
(51 mm) thick, is then placed between the new overlay and the existing pavement to prevent
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reflection cracking. The separation layer can also serve as a levelling course so that a more
uniform thickness of concrete can be obtained.
Bonded or Monolithic Overlay:
Bonded overlays should be used only when the existing pavement is in good condition
or when serious distress has been repaired. To achieve a fully bonded overlay, it is necessary
to carefully prepare the existing surface before placing the overlay. All oil, grease, paint, and
surface contaminants must be removed by cold milling, sandblasting, or water blasting. Then
a thin layer of cement grout should be placed on the cleaned dry surface just in front of the
concrete paver.
Irrespective of the type of existing PCC pavements, plain concrete is the most
commonly used bonded overlay, although steel reinforcements may be used in thicker
overlays to supplement the steel in the existing pavements. The location of the joints in the
overlay must match that in the existing pavement. Use of dowel bars in bonded and partially
bonded overlays is not recommended, because it could produce localized failures in the
overlay directly above the dowel and could also cause the overlay to debond. For use over
continuously reinforced pavements, the bonded overlay does not require the installation of
joints.
Partially Bonded or Direct Overlay:
Partially bonded overlays are obtained when the fresh concrete is placed directly on
relatively sound and clean existing slabs. Unless steps are taken to prevent bond, some degree
of bonding can be assumed, so the overlay can be designed slightly thinner than un bonded
overlays to take advantage of the resulting stress reduction.
If the existing pavement is jointed, a joint should be placed immediately above the existing
joint to prevent reflection cracking. It is also important to keep the joint spacing of a partially
bonded overlay as short as possible by providing additional joints in the overlay to minimize
temperature stresses caused by the stiff underlying slabs.
2- Crack Seals
Crack seal products are used to fill individual pavement cracks to prevent entry of
water or other non-compressible substances such as sand, dirt, rocks or weeds. Crack sealant
is typically used on early stage longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks, reflection cracks and
block cracks. Alligator cracks are most often too extensive to warrant filling with crack
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sealer; they usually require an area treatment such as a patch or reconstruction. Crack filler
material is typically some form of rubberized asphalt or sand slurry.
3- Fog Seals
A fog seal is a light application of a diluted slow-setting asphalt emulsion to the surface
of an aged (oxidized) pavement surface. Fog seals are low-cost and are used to restore
flexibility to an existing HMA pavement surface. They may be able to temporarily postpone
the need for a surface treatment or non-structural overlay.
4- Rejuvenators
Rejuvenators are products designed to restore original properties to aged (oxidized)

asphalt binders by restoring the original ratio of asphaltenes to maltenes. Many rejuvenators
are proprietary, making it difficult to offer a good generic description. However, many
rejuvenators contain maltenes because their quantity is reduced by oxidation. Rejuvenators
will retard the loss of surface fines and reduce the formation of additional cracks, however
they will also reduce pavement skid resistance for up to 1year. Because of this, rejuvenators
are generally appropriate for low-speed roads or parking lots.
5- Slurry Seals
A slurry seal is a homogenous mixture of emulsified asphalt, water, well-graded fine

aggregate and mineral filler that has a creamy fluid-like appearance when applied. Slurry
seals are used to fill existing pavement surface defects as either a preparatory treatment for
other maintenance treatments or as a wearing course. There are three basic aggregate
gradations used in slurry seals:
Type I (fine). This type has the finest aggregate gradation (most are smaller than the 2.36
mm (No. 8) sieve) and is used to fill small surface cracks and provide a thin covering on the
existing pavement. Type I aggregate slurries are sometimes used as a preparatory treatment
for HMA overlays or surface treatments. Type I aggregate slurries are generally limited to
low traffic areas
Type II (general). This type is coarser than a Type I aggregate slurry (it has a maximum
aggregate size of 6.4 mm (0.25 inches)) and is used to (1) treat existing pavement that
exhibits moderate to severe ravelling due to aging or (2) to improve skid resistance. Type II
aggregate slurry is the most common type.
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Type III (coarse). This type has the coarsest gradation and is used to treat severe surface
defects. Because of its aggregate size, it can be used to fill slight depressions to prevent water
ponding and reduce the probability of vehicle hydroplaning.
6-Microsurfacing
Micro surfacing is an advanced form of slurry seal that uses the same basic ingredients
(emulsified asphalt, water, fine aggregate and mineral filler) and combines them with
advanced polymer additives.
Micro surfacing truck Micro surfacing placement
7- Bituminous Surface Treatments (BST)
A bituminous surface treatment, also known as a seal coat or chip seal, is a thin protective
wearing surface that is applied to a pavement or base course. BSTs can provide all of the
following:
 A waterproof layer to protect the underlying pavement.

 Increased skid resistance.
 A filler for existing cracks or raveled surfaces.
 An anti-glare surface during wet weather and an increased reflective surface for night driving.
A single layer BST is constructed in the following steps:

1. Surface preparation. Surface defects, such as potholes, are repaired and the existing
surface is cleaned (e.g., by a street sweeper).
2. Asphalt material application. Typically, an asphalt emulsion is applied from a spray truck
to the surface of the existing pavement.
31
3. Aggregate application. A thin aggregate cover (only one stone thick) is spread over the
asphalt material before it has set. The aggregate usually has a uniform gradation.
4. Aggregate embedding. A roller (usually a pneumatic tire roller) is used to push the
aggregate into the asphalt material and seat it firmly against the underlying pavement.
Generally, about 50 percent of each aggregate particle should be embedded in the asphalt
material after final rolling. About 70percent of each aggregate particle will be embedded after
several weeks of traffic. Multiple layer surface treatments are done by repeating the above
process for each layer.
32
Pavement Safety
Safety characteristics of a pavement are another measure of its condition, and highway
agencies continually monitor this aspect to ensure that roadway sections are operating at the
highest possible level of safety. The principal measure of pavement safety is its skid
resistance. Other elements contributing to the extent in which pavements perform safely are
rutting (which causes water to collect that creates hydroplaning) and adequacy of visibility of
pavement markings.
Skid resistance data are collected to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of a
pavement in preventing or reducing skid-related accidents. Skid data are used by highway
agencies to identify pavement sections with low skid resistance, to develop priorities for
rehabilitation, and to evaluate the effectiveness of various pavement mixtures and surface
types.
The coefficient of sliding friction between a tire and pavement depends on factors such
as weather conditions, pavement texture, tire condition, and speed. The basic formula for
friction factor f is:
𝑳
𝒇=
𝑵
Where
L = lateral or frictional force required to cause two surfaces to move tangentially to each
other.
N = force perpendicular to the two surfaces.
When skid tests are performed, they must conform to specified standards set by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The test results produce a skid number (SK)
where.
SK = 100f
The SK is usually obtained by measuring the forces obtained with a towed trailer riding
on a wet pavement, equipped with standardized tires.
The principal methods of testing are:
(1) locked-wheel trailers.
(2) Yaw mode trailers.
(3) The British Portable Tester.
33
State Practice for Measuring Skid Resistance
Locked-wheel trailers (see Figure) are the most widely used skid measuring devices.
The test involves wetting the pavement surface and pulling a two-wheel trailer whose
wheels have been locked in place. The test is conducted at 40 mi/h with standard tires each
with seven grooves. The locking force is measured, and from this an SK value is obtained.
Locked-Wheel Skid Trailer
The Yaw mode test is done with the wheels turned at a specified angle to simulate the
effects of cornering. The most common device for this test is a Mu-Meter, which uses two
wheels turned at 7.5 degrees. The trailer is pulled in a straight line on a wetted surface with
both wheels locked. Since both wheels cannot be in the wheel paths, friction values may be
higher than those obtained by using a locked-wheel trailer.
Skid resistance data are not typically used in developing rehabilitation programs.
Rather, they are used to monitor the safety of the highway system and to assist in reducing
potential crash locations.
34
Skid Data for Various Pavement Surface Types

Example: A 10,000 lb load is placed on two tires of a locked-wheel trailer. At a speed of
30 mi/h, a force of 5000 lb is required to move the device. Determine the SK and the surface
type, assuming that treaded tires were used.
Solution:
𝑳
SK = 100f = (100)
𝑵
5000
SK = 100 ∗ = 50
10000
From Figure at 30 mi/h and SK = 50, the surface type is coarse-textured and gritty.
Factors Affecting Skid Accidents

Pavement characteristics are only one element of a multiple-component system in
which each component has a significant effect and interacts with the others to cause skid
accidents. The four major elements are the driver, the roadway, the vehicle, and the weather.
The following are some of the surface conditions that are indicative of potential safety
hazards:
35
1. Bleeding of asphalt, which covers the aggregates and obscures the effectiveness
of their skid-resistant qualities.
2. Polished aggregate with smooth micro texture, which reduces friction between
the aggregate and the tire.
3. Smooth macro texture, which lacks suitable channels to facilitate drainage.
4. Rutting, which holds water in the wheel paths after rain and causes
hydroplaning.
5. Inadequate cross slope, which retains water on the pavement for a longer time,
reduces friction, and increases the thickness of the water layer and the potential
for hydroplaning.
The skid resistance of wearing surfaces depends both on the aggregate and on the
mixture characteristics.
Aggregate Characteristics: The most frequently sought after characteristics for a skid-
resistant aggregate are its resistance to polish and wear and its texture, shape, and size:
1. The ability of an aggregate to resist the polish and wear actions of traffic has long
been recognized as a most important characteristic. When an aggregate becomes
smooth, it will have poor skid resistance.
2. Both the microtexture and the macrotexture have a great effect on skid resistance.
Microtexture describes surface coarseness as governed by the size of individual
mineral grains and the matrix in which they are cemented. Macrotexture refers to the
angularity of the aggregate particles and the voids and pits in the pavement surface.
An aggregate with larger than sand sizes of hard grains and weak cementation of the
grains will wear under traffic and expose a continually renewed nonpolished surface.
However, if the matrix of aggregate is strong, the individual grains will be tightly held
and subsequently could be polished by traffic. For an aggregate to exhibit satisfactory
skid resistance properties, it probably should contain at least two mineral constituents
of different hardness in order to wear differentially and expose new surfaces.
3. The shape of an aggregate particle significantly affects its skid-resistant proper -ties.
Angular particles are more skid resistant as long as they remain angular. The retention
of angularity depends on such characteristics as mineralogical composition and the
36
amount of polish and wear produced by traffic. Some minerals will crush into mostly
flat and elongated particles, resulting in poor skid resistance.
4. The size of an aggregate has considerable effect on skid resistance. For HMA
pavements, the quality of large-size aggregates has more effect on skid resistance than
does that of small-size aggregates, whereas, for PCC pavements, the presence of
cement mortar on the surface causes the sand-size aggregates to have more influence .
Mixture Characteristics: Mixture characteristics can be controlled by the blending of

aggregates, by the selection of proper aggregate size and gradation, by the use of appropriate
binder content, and by the application of good construction practice:
1. Blending of aggregates to achieve the desired skid resistance is resorted to when

superior quality aggregates are expensive or in limited supply. Blending may be
accomplished by combining natural aggregates with a synthetic aggregate. Most
frequently, one of the aggregates will constitute the entire coarse or fine aggregate. To
provide good skid resistance, high-quality coarse aggregates should be used for HMA,
but high-quality fine aggregates for PCC.
2. The maximum size of aggregate, as well as the mix gradation, may be varied to
provide the desired surface texture. The skid resistance of asphalt pavements can be
greatly increased by using an open-graded surface course or a porous pavement. In
addition to reducing splash and spray and helping to maintain high friction levels
between vehicle tires and wet pavements, porous asphalt pavements are recognized
for their ability to reduce night reflectance and decrease tire and vehicle noise .
3. The binder content depends on the design criteria to be satisfied. The criteria for
asphalt pavements include durability and stability; those for concrete pavement s
include durability, strength, and workability. This does not mean that binder content
has no effect on skid resistance. For asphalt pavements, too much asphalt will cause
bleeding and result in a slippery surface, whereas too little could lead to ravelling
and deterioration of the pavement surface. For concrete pavements, if the mortar is
improperly balanced in the mix, rapid wear and early deterioration of the concrete
surface can occur. The skid resistance will diminish as the pavement deteriorates.
4. The texture of concrete surface can be controlled by the finishing method.
37
Mean texture depth and initial skid number of concrete pavements with different finishing
methods
38

Maintenance Objectives of Highway Maintenance

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University of Al-Qadissiyah College of Engineering

Roads and Transport Department Pavement Maintenance 4th Year

Objectives of highway maintenance:

2. Prolonging the functional and structural life of the pavement.

3. Maintaining road safety and signage.

4. Keeping the road reserve in an acceptable condition.

Preventive maintenance is a planned strategy of cost-effective treatments that

Pavement preservation: all activities undertaken to provide and maintain

Routine maintenance is defined operations required to be carried out once or more/year

Emergency maintenances refer to activities associated with the urgent repair of

Rehabilitation: restoring or betterment of roadway such as resurfacing.

Why Maintenance is Necessary?

 All Pavements require maintenance.

 Stresses producing minor effects are constantly working in all pavements.

 Change in temperature and moisture;

 Small movements in underlying or adjacent earth.

Pavement distress groups and their causes

Flexible Pavement Distresses and repair

Advanced stage of fatigue cracking.

– Inadequate structural support,

– Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support.

• Patch over the repaired subgrade.

– Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure.

• Place a Hot Mix Asphalt over the entire pavement surface.

Rutting is defined as permanent deformation in the wheel path as shown in following

Description: Surface depression in the wheel path.

Pavement uplift (shearing) occurs along the sides of the rut.

Plastic Flow Rutting

Rutting in Asphalt Layer

Rutting in Asphalt Layer

Caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading.

Insufficient compaction of HMA layers during construction.

Subgrade rutting improper mix design or manufacture.

• Pavement with deeper ruts should be leveled and overlaid.

Shoving is a form of plastic movement resulting in a localized bulging of the pavement

Possible Causes: traffic action (starting and stopping)

 Too much asphalt binder in the HMA mix.

• Possible Causes: Frost heave or subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate

• Repair: depressions are small localized areas.

– Patch over the repaired subgrade.

5- Joint Reflection Cracking

– Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement.

– Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness.

Description: Cracks parallel to the pavement's centerline. Usually a type of fatigue

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness, indicates possible onset of alligator

– Poor joint contraction or location.

– A reflective crack from an underlying layer (not including joint reflection

– HMA fatigue (indicates the onset of future alligator cracking)

7- Transverse (Thermal) Cracking

• Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's centerline. Usually a type of

• Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness.

• Possible Causes: Several including:

– Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or asphalt binder

– Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface HMA layer

Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of high pavement porosity (water

– Porous pavement due to inadequate compaction during construction or poor

– High water table

Patch over localized distress Utility cut patch

Structural or nonstructural overlay.