3935808437

Principles of European Law on
Commercial Agency, Franchise

and Distribution Contracts
(PEL CAFDC)
Principles of European Law
Study Group on a European Civil Code

(PEL CAFDC)
prepared by
Martijn W. Hesselink
Jacobien W. Rutgers
Odavia Bueno Díaz
Manola Scotton
Muriel Veldman
with advice from the Advisory Council

approved by the Co-ordinating Group
Sellier. Stæmpfli
European Law Publishers Publishers Ltd. Berne
The Dutch Working Team
Georgios Arnokouros LL M (Greek Law), Professor Maurits Barendrecht (Team Leader),
Lic. Rui Miguel Prista Patrıćio Cascão (Portuguese Law), Odavia Bueno Diaz LL M Leuven
(Spanish Law), John Dickie (Team Manager Utrecht, English Law, until 2002), Giuseppe
Donatello, Professor Martijn Hesselink (Team Leader), Dr. Viola Heutger (Team Manager
Utrecht), Professor Ewoud Hondius (Team Leader), Dr. Christoph Jeloschek (Austrian
Law), Roland Lohnert (until June 2002), Prof. Marco Loos (Team Manager Tilburg),
Dr. Andrea Pinna (French Law), Dr. Jacobien Rutgers (Team Manager Amsterdam, since
April 2001), Dott.ssa. Manola Scotton (Italian Law), Dr. Hanna Sivesand (Swedish
Law), Mr. Muriel Veldman (Dutch Law), Mr. Hester Wattendorff (Team Manager
Amsterdam, until July 2000), Aneta Wiewiorowska (Polish law)
External Reporters:
Dr. Andre Jansen (Mnster) (German law), Dr. Soili Nysten-Haarala, (Finnish reporter)
The Advisory Council on Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Contracts

Professor Johny Herre (Stockholm), Professor Jérôme Huet (Paris), Professor Ewan
McKendrick (Oxford), Professor Peter Schlechtriem (Freiburg i.Br.), Professor Hugh Beale
(London/Warwick), Professor Christina Ramberg (Stockholm)
The Co-ordinating Group

Professor Guido Alpa (Genua/Rome), Professor Kaspars Balodis (Riga, since December
2004), Professor Christian v. Bar (Osnabrck), Professor Maurits Barendrecht (Tilburg),
Professor Hugh Beale (London), Professor Michael Joachim Bonell (Rome), Professor
Mifsud G. Bonnici (Valetta, since December 2004), Professor Carlo Castronovo (Milan),
Professor Eric Clive (Edinburgh), Professor Ulrich Drobnig (Hamburg), Professor Bénédicte
Fauvarque-Cosson (Paris), Professor Marcel Fontaine (Leuven, until December 2003),
Professor Andreas Furrer (Luzern, since December 2003), Professor Jacques Ghestin
(Paris), Professor Sir Roy Goode (Oxford, until December 2002), Professor Viggo
Hagstrøm (Oslo, since June 2002), Professor Arthur Hartkamp (The Hague), Justitierdet
Professor Torgny Håstad (Stockholm), Professor Johnny Herre (Stockholm), Professor
Martijn Hesselink (Amsterdam), Professor Ewoud Hondius (Utrecht), Professor Giovanni
Iudica (Milan, since June 2004), Professor Konstantinos Kerameus (Athens), Professor
Ole Lando (Copenhagen), Professor Kåre Lilleholt (Bergen, since June 2003), Professor
Brigitta Lurger (Graz), Professor Hector MacQueen (Edinburgh), Professor Denis Mazeaud
(Paris, since June 2005), Professor Ewan McKendrick (Oxford), Professor Valentinas
Mikelenas (Vilnius, since December 2004), Dr. Niamh Molony (Belfast, since December
2003), Professor Eoin O’Dell (Dublin), Professor Edgar du Perron (Amsterdam), Professor
Johannes Rainer (Salzburg), Professor Jerzy Rajski (Warsaw), Professor Christina Ramberg
(Gothenburg), Professor Philippe Rémy (Poitiers), Judge Professor Encarna Roca y Trias
(Madrid/Barcelona), Professor Peter Schlechtriem (Freiburg i. Br.), Professor Martin
Schmidt-Kessel (Osnabrck, since December 2004), Professor Denis Philippe (Leuven,
since June 2004), Professor Jorge Sinde Monteiro (Coimbra), Professor Lena Sisula-Tulokas
(Helsinki), Professor Sophie Stijns (Leuven), Professor Matthias Storme (Leuven),
Professor Jan Svidron (Trnava, since June 2005), Dr. Stephen Swann (Osnabrck),
Professor Lubos̆ Tichý (Prague, since June 2005), Professor Verica Trstenjak (Maribor),
Professor Paul Varul (Tartu, since June 2003), Professor Lajos Vékás (Budapest), Professor
Anna Veneziano (Rome)
Further Members of the Study Group’s Advisory Councils

Professor John W. Blackie (Strathclyde, Tort Law), Professor Michael G. Bridge (London,
Property Law and Securities), Professor Angel Carrasco (Toledo, Securities), Professor
Pierre Crocq (Paris, Securities), Dr. Eugenie Dacoronia (Athens, Tort Law and Renting
Contracts), Professor Marie Goré (Paris, Structure), Professor Helmut Grothe (Berlin,
Renting Contracts), Professor Jérôme Huet (Paris, Sales, Services, Agency, Franchise
and Distribution Contracts), Professor Jan Kleineman (Stockholm, Tort Law), Docent
Dr. Irene Kull (Tartu, Renting Contracts), Professor Guillermo Palao Moreno (Valencia,
Tort Law), Professor Antoni Vaquer Aloy (Lleida, Renting Contracts), Professor Alain
Verbeke (Leuven, Renting Contracts), Professor Anders Victorin (Stockholm, Renting
Contracts), Professor Sarah Worthington (London, Renting Contracts).
Volume 2
To be cited as: PEL /Hesselink/Rutgers/Bueno Daz/Scotton/Veldmann, CAFDC,

Introduction I
PEL /Hesselink/Rutgers/Bueno Daz/Scotton/Veldmann, CAFDC,
Chapter I, Article 1: 101, Comments, A
PEL /Hesselink/Rutgers/Bueno Daz/Scotton/Veldmann, CAFDC,
Chapter I, Article 1: 101, Notes, 1
ISSN 1860-0905
ISBN-10 3-7272-1803-7 (Staempfli)
ISBN-13 978-3-7272-1803-3 (Staempfli)
ISBN-10 2-8027-2214-X (Bruylant)
ISBN-13 978-2-8027-2214-4 (Bruylant)
ISBN-10 3-935808-43-7 (Sellier. European Law Publishers)
ISBN-13 978-3-935808-43-9 (Sellier. European Law Publishers)
Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie;

detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet ber http:/ /dnb.ddb.de abrufbar.
2006 by Sellier. European Law Publishers, Munich together with

Study Group on a European Civil Code.
Dieses Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschtzt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulssig und strafbar. Das
gilt insbesondere fr Vervielfltigungen, bersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und
Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen.
Das Register wurde erstellt von RA Dr. Martina Schulz, Pohlheim. The Index was prepared by RA
Dr. Martina Schulz, Pohlheim.
Gestaltung: Sandra Sellier, Mnchen. Herstellung: Karina Hack, Mnchen. Satz: fidus Publikations-
Service GmbH, Augsburg. Druck und Bindung: Friedrich Pustet KG, Regensburg. Gedruckt auf sure-
freiem, alterungsbestndigem Papier. Printed in Germany
Foreword
The Study Group on a European Civil Code has taken upon itself the task of drafting
common European principles for the most important aspects of the law of obligations
and for certain parts of the law of property in moveables which are especially relevant
for the functioning of the common market. It was founded in 1999 as a successor body
to the Commission on European Contract Law, on whose work the Study Group is
building.
The two groups pursue identical aims. However, the Study Group has a more far-
reaching focus in terms of subject-matter and as an ultimate goal it aspires to a con-
solidated composite text of the material worked out by itself and the Commission on
European Contract Law. Both groups have undertaken to ascertain and formulate
European standards of ‘patrimonial’ law for the Member States of the European Union.
The Commission on European Contract has already achieved this for the field of
general contract law (Lando and Beale [eds.], Principles of European Contract Law, Parts
I and II combined and revised, The Hague, 2000; Lando/Clive/Prüm/Zimmermann [eds.],
Principles of European Contract Law Part III, The Hague, 2003). These Principles of
European Contract Law (PECL) are being adopted with adjustments by the Study Group
on a European Civil Code to take account of new developments and input from its
research partners. The Study Group is itself dovetailing its principles with those of the
PECL, extending their encapsulation of standards of patrimonial law in three directions:
(i) by developing rules for specific types of contracts; (ii) by developing rules for extra-
contractual obligations, i. e. the law of tort /delict, the law of unjustified enrichment,
and the law of benevolent intervention in another’s affairs (negotiorum gestio); and (iii)
by developing rules for fundamental questions in the law on mobile assets – in particular
transfer of ownership and security for credit.
Like the Commission on European Contract Law’s Principles of European Contract
Law, the results of the research conducted by the Study Group on a European Civil
Code seek to advance the process of Europeanisation of private law. We have under-
taken this endeavour on our own personal initiative and merely present the results of a
pan-European research project. It is a study in comparative law in so far as we have
always taken care to identify the legal position in the Member States of the European
Union and to set out the results of this research in the introductions and notes. That of
course does not mean that we have only been concerned with documenting the pool of
shared legal values or that we simply adopted the majority position among the legal
systems where common ground was missing. Rather we have consistently striven to
draw up “sound and fitting” principles, that is to say, we have also recurrently developed
proposals and concepts for the further development of private law in Europe.
The working methods of the Commission on European Contract Law and the Study
Group on a European Civil Code are or were likewise quite similar. The Study Group,
however, has had the benefit of Working (or Research) Teams – groups of younger legal
scholars under the supervision of a senior member of the Group (a Team Leader) which
undertook the basic comparative legal research, developed the drafts for discussion and
VII
Foreword
assembled the extensive material required for the notes. Furthermore, to each Working
Team was allocated a consultative body – an Advisory Council. These bodies – delib-
erately kept small in the interests of efficiency – were formed from leading experts in
the relevant field of law who are representative of the major European legal systems.
The proposals drafted by the Working Teams and critically scrutinised and improved in
a series of meetings by the respective Advisory Council were submitted for discussion on
a revolving basis to the actual decision-making body of the Study Group on a European
Civil Code, the Co-ordinating Group. Until June 2004 the Co-ordinating Group con-
sisted of representatives from all the jurisdictions belonging to the EU immediately prior
to its enlargement in Spring 2004 and in addition legal scholars from Estonia, Hungary,
Norway, Poland, Slovenia and Switzerland. Representatives from the Czech Republic,
Malta, Latvia and Lithuania joined us after the June meeting 2004 in Warsaw. However,
due to reasons of time and capacity, it was only occasionally possible to summarise in
the notes the current legal position in the new Member States of the EU. We are keen
to fill the outstanding gaps (of which we are only too painfully aware) at a later point in
time.
Besides its permanent members, other participants in the Co-ordinating Group with
voting rights included all the Team Leaders and – when the relevant material was up for
discussion – the members of the Advisory Council concerned. The results of the
deliberations during the week-long sitting of the Co-ordinating Group were incorpo-
rated into the text of the articles and the commentaries which returned to the agenda
for the next meeting of the Co-ordinating Group (or the next but one depending on the
work load of the the Group and the Team affected). Each part of the project was the
subject of debate on manifold occasions, some stretching over many years. Where a
unanimous opinion could not be achieved, majority votes were taken. As far as possible
the Articles drafted in English were translated into the other languages either by
members of the Team or third parties commissioned for the purpose. The number of
languages into which the articles could be translated admittedly varies considerably
from volume to volume. That is in part a consequence of the fact that not all Working
Teams were equipped with the same measure of financial support. We also had to resign
ourselves to the absence of a perfectly uniform editorial style. Our editing guidelines
provided a common basis for scholarly publication, but at the margin had to accom-
modate preferences of individual teams. However, this should not cause the reader any
problems in comprehension.
Work on these Principles had begun long before the European Commission pub-
lished its Communication on European Contract Law (in 2001), its Action Plan for a
more coherent European contract law (in 2003), and its follow-up Communication
“European Contract Law and the revision of the acquis: the way forward” (in 2004). (All
of these documents concerning European contract law are available on the Commis-
sion’s website: http:/ /europe.eu.int/comm/consumers/cons_int/safe_shop/fair_bus_pract/
cont_law/index_en.htm). These documents for their part were published before we
formed the Network of Excellence, together with other European research groups and
institutions, which will collaborate in the preparation of an academic Common Frame
of Reference with the support of funds from the European Community’s Sixth Frame-
work Programme. The texts laid before the public by the Study Group on a European
Civil Code are therefore not necessarily identical with those which the Network of
Excellence will propose to the European Commission for adoption in the Common
VIII
Foreword
Frame of Reference. Rather they represent for the time being texts which the Study
Group considers should serve as the starting point for the comprehensive process of
discussion and consultation envisaged for the coming years. Whether that process will
require any changes to our texts (and, if so, which changes) is something which will
have to be weighed up carefully in a spirit of academic independence after a review of
the arguments. The political domain can then determine at a later date which of our
proposals, if any, it wishes to take up.
In order to leave no room for misunderstanding, it is important to stress that these
Principles have been prepared by impartial and independent-minded scholars whose
sole interest has been a devotion to the subject-matter. None of us have been rewarded
for taking part or mandated to do so. None of us would want to give the impression that
we claim any political legitimation for promoting harmonisation of the law. Our legit-
imation is confined to curiosity and an interest in Europe. In other words, the volumes
in this series are to be understood exclusively as the results of scholarly legal research
within large international teams. Like every other scholarly legal work, they restate the
current law and introduce possible models for its further development; no less, but also
no more. We are not a homogenous group whose every member is an advocate of the
idea of a European Civil Code. We are, after all, only a Study Group. The question
whether a European Civil Code is or is not desirable is a political one to which each
member can only express an individual view.
Osnabrck, June 2005 Christian v. Bar

Our Sponsors
The project of the Study Group on a European Civil Code represents a research en-
deavour in legal science of extraordinary magnitude. Without the generous financial
support of many organisations its realisation would not have been possible.
Our thanks go first of all to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), which has
supplied the lion’s share of the financing including the salaries of the Working Teams
based in Germany and the direct travel costs for the meetings of the Coordinating
Group and the numerous Advisory Councils. The work of the Dutch Working Teams
was financed by the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO) and
by the Universiteit van Amsterdam. Further personnel costs were met by the Flemish
Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek-Vlaanderen (FWO), the Onassis-Foundation, the
Austrian Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung and the Fundação Calouste
Gulbenkian.
In addition we have consistently been able to fall back on funds made available to
the respective organisers of the week long sittings of the Coordinating Group by the
relevant university or other sources within the country concerned. It is therefore with
the deepest gratitude that I must also mention the Consiglio nazionale forense (Rom) and
the Istituto di diritto privato of the Università di Roma La Sapienza, which co-financed the
meeting in Rome (June 2000). The session in Salzburg (December 2000) was supported
by the Austrian Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur, the Universität
Salzburg and the Institut für Rechtspolitik of the Universität Salzburg. The discussions in
Stockholm (June 2001) were assisted by the Department of Law, Stockholm University,
the Supreme Court Justice Edward Cassel’s Foundation and Stiftelsen Juridisk Fakultetslitter-
atur (SJF). The meeting in Oxford (December 2001) had the support of Shearman &
Sterling, the Hulme Trust, Berwin Leighton Paisner and the Oxford University Press (OUP).
The session in Valencia (June 2002) was made possible by the Asociación Nacional de
Registradores de la Propiedad, Mercantil y Bienes Muebles, the Universitat de València, the
Ministerio Español de Ciencia y Tecnologıá, the Facultad de Derecho of the Universitat de
València, the Departamento de Derecho Internacional, Departamento de Derecho Civil and
the Departamento de Derecho Mercantil ‘‘Manuel Broseta Pont’’ of the Universitat de
València, the law firm Cuatrecasas, the Generalitat Valenciana, the Corts Valencianes, the
Diputación Provincial de Valencia, the Ayuntamiento de Valencia, the Colegio de Abogados
de Valencia and Aranzadi Publishing Company. The subsequent meeting in Oporto (De-
cember 2002) was substantially assisted by the Universidade Católica Portuguesa – Centro
Regional do Porto. For the week long session in Helsinki (June 2003) we were able to rely
on funds from Suomen Kultuurirahasto (Finnish Cultural Foundation), the Niilo Helan-
derin Säätiö (Niilo Helander Foundation), the Suomalainen Lakimeisyhdistys (Finnish
Lawyers Association), the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the
Nordea Bank, Roschier Holmberg Attorneys Ltd., Hannes Snellman Attorneys Ltd., the
Department of Private Law and the Institute of International Commercial Law (KATTI) of
Helsinki University. The session in Leuven (December 2003) was supported by Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven, Faculteit Rechtsgeleerdheid, and the FWO Vlaanderen Fonds voor We-
XI
Our Sponsors
tenschappelijk Onderzoek (Flanders Scientific Research Fund). The meeting of the Group
in Warsaw (June 2004) was substantially assisted by the Fundacja Fundusz Wspolpracy
(The Cooperation Fund) and the Faculty of Law and Administration of Warsaw Uni-
versity. The meeting in Milan (December 2004) was supported by the Università Bocconi
and its Istituto di diritto comparato, by the Milan Camera di Commercio, by the Associa-
zione Civilisti Italiani and by the Comune di Milano. The meeting in Berlin (June 2005)
was made possible by PricewaterhouseCoopers Deutschland AG, Frankfurt/Berlin; Sievert
AG & Co., Osnabrck, and by Verband deutscher Hypothekenbanken e. V., Berlin. We
thank all of these organisations and institutions for the funds which they made available
to us and for the extraordinary warmth of hospitality with which our hosts received us.
Preface to this volume
These principles are the result of a truly European project.

They were prepared by the Amsterdam sub-team within the Dutch Working Team of
the Study Group on a European Civil Code. Each junior researcher within the Am-
sterdam Team was responsible for a specific subject, Muriel Veldman for commercial
agency (chapter 2), Odavia Bueno Daz for franchising (chapter 3) and Manola Scotton
for distribution (chapter 4). This responsibility included the actual drafting (and re-
drafting after discussion) of the articles and comments. I was responsible for the general
provisions (chapter 1).
The drafts were presented and discussed, on several occasions, during the two-weekly
meetings of the entire Dutch Working Team. The Dutch Working Team consisted of
junior researchers from virtually all the Member States (at the time) and was led by
Professors Ewoud Hondius, Maurits Barendrecht and myself. The members of the Dutch
Team also produced the country reports which provided the basis for the comparative
Notes.
Once the drafts were approved they were discussed with the Advisory Council which
was composed of Professors Johnny Herre, Jrme Huet and Peter Schlechtriem who
came to the Netherlands for several meetings which usually lasted several days. During
the last two, they were joined by Professors Hugh Beale, Eric Clive and Christina
Ramberg from the Drafting Group.
After amendment, the drafts were submitted to the Co-ordinating Committee. They
were discussed during meetings in Valencia (June 2002), Porto (December 2002) and
Helsinki (June 2003) which were chaired by Professor Marcel Fontaine. The final
reading of these principles took place during the meeting in Helsinki in June 2003
where the present text was adopted.
Since then the Working Team worked on the editing of the Comments and the
Notes. The bulk of this enormous and crucial task was taken care of by Dr. Jacobien
Rutgers, the Co-ordinator of the Amsterdam team. The Notes are based on country
reports which were prepared by the members of the Dutch Team.
In the meantime some very important political developments have taken place. In
February 2003 the European Commission published its Action Plan on European con-
tract law where it announced that it would adopt a ‘Common Frame of Reference’
(CFR) which would be prepared by scholars. Subsequently, in 2005 the task of preparing
the CFR was entrusted to a Network of Excellence (NoE) in which the Study Group on
a European Civil Code participates. As a result, the present principles will become the
basis for the academic draft CFR that the NoE will submit to the Commission in 2007.
For that reason, these principles were discussed with the stakeholders within the CFR
Net, during a Workshop in Brussels in March 2005. However, it is important to point
out that the comments from the stakeholders have not been taken into account in the
present publication. They will be addressed in a separate response which may contain
revised drafts of some articles.
XIII
Preface to this volume
The present principles have both the benefits and the drawbacks of an academic
project. On the one hand they have been prepared by a large, international group of
independent scholars without any pressure from special interest groups or national
governments. On the other, however, they lack the democratic legitimacy of true
legislation.
I would like to warmly thank the members of the Amsterdam Team, the Dutch team,
the Advisory Council, the Drafting Group and the Co-ordinating Committee for their
contributions to this wonderful European collaboration – a unique experience.
To embark upon telling anecdotes from the many discussions, dinners and receptions
across Europe would be totally out of place, I suppose. Therefore, I will refrain from
doing that, with some regret. However, I cannot resist the temptation to express my
feeling that if the wonderful atmosphere during all these European gatherings is only
slightly representative of European collaboration, the future of Europe is very bright.
Amsterdam, August 2005 Martijn W. Hesselink

Short Table of Contents
Text of Articles 1

Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Contracts
Introduction 91
Chapter 1: General Provisions
Section 1: Scope of Chapter 1

Article 1:101: Scope 97
Section 2: Obligations
Article 1:201: Pre-Contractual Information 103
Article 1:202: Co-Operation 106
Article 1:203: Information during Performance 110
Article 1:204: Confidentiality 113
Section 3: Ending and Termination

Article 1:301: Contract for a Definite Period 117
Article 1:302: Unilateral Ending of a Contract for an Indefinite Period 122
Article 1:303: Damages for Non-Observance of Notice Period 131
Article 1:304: Termination for Non-Performance 136
Article 1:305: Indemnity for Goodwill 141
Article 1:306: Stock, Spare Parts and Materials 148
Section 4: Other General Provisions

Article 1:401: Right of Retention 152
Article 1:402: Signed Written Document 154
Chapter 2: Commercial Agency
Section 1: General
Section 2: Obligations of the Commercial Agent

Article 2:201: Negotiate and Conclude Contracts 161
Article 2:202: Instructions 164
Article 2:204: Accounting 169
XV
Section 3: Obligations of the Principal

Article 2:301: Entitlement to Commission During the Contract 173
Article 2:302: Entitlement to Commission After the Contract 177
Article 2:303: Prevailing Entitlement to Commission 182
Article 2:304: Moment when Commission is to be Paid 184
Article 2:305: Entitlement to Commission Extinguished 186
Article 2:306: Remuneration 188
Article 2:308: Information on Acceptance, Rejection and Non-Performance 192
Article 2:309: Warning of Decreased Volume of Contracts 195
Article 2:310: Commission Statement and Extract from the Books 198
Article 2:311: Accounting 200
Article 2:312: Amount of Indemnity 202
Article 2:313: Del Credere Clause 207
Chapter 3: Franchise
Section 1: General
Article 3:102: Pre-Contractual Information 215
Section 2: Obligations of the Franchisor

Article 3:201: Intellectual Property Rights 222
Article 3:202: Know-How 225
Article 3:203: Assistance 228
Article 3:204: Supply 232
Article 3:205: Information during the Performance 235
Article 3:206: Warning of Decreased Supply Capacity 239
Article 3:207: Reputation of Network and Advertising 242
Section 3: Obligations of the Franchisee

Article 3:301: Fees, Royalties and Other Periodical Payments 247
Article 3:303: Business Method and Instructions 251
Article 3:304: Inspection 254
Chapter 4: Distribution
Section 1: General
Article 4:101: Scope and Definitions 257
Section 2: Obligations of the Supplier

Article 4:201: Supply 265
Article 4:203: Warning of Decreased Supply Capacity 272
XVI
Article 4:204: Advertising Materials 274

Article 4:205: Reputation of the Products 276
Section 3: Obligations of the Distributor

Article 4:301: Distribution 279
Article 4:303: Warning of Decreased Requirement 283
Article 4:304: Instructions 285
Article 4:305: Inspection 288
Article 4:306: Reputation of the Products 290
Annexes 293
Table of Contents
Foreword VII
Our Sponsors XI
Preface to this volume XIII
Text of Articles
English 3
Dutch 15
Agentuur-, Franchise- en Distributieovereenkomsten
French 27
Contrats d’Agence Commerciale, de Franchise et de Distribution
German 39
Handelsvertreter-, Franchise- und Vertriebsvertrge
Italian 52
Contratti di Agenzia Commerciale, Affiliazione Commerciale e Distribuzione
Polish 64
Umowa agencyjna, umowa franszyzowa oraz umowa dystrybucyjna
Spanish 77
Contratos Mercantiles de Agencia, Franquicia y Distribucin

Introduction
I. General 91
II. Economic Function: Marketing (Vertical Agreements) 91
XIX
Table of Contents
III. Relation to General Contract Law (PECL) 92

IV. Relation To Competition Law 92
V. Mainly Default Rules; Some Mandatory Protection 93
VI. The Structure: General And Specific Rules 95
VII. External Relationship Not Dealt With 96
Section 1: Scope of Chapter 1
Article 1:101: Scope
Comments
A. General Idea 97
B. Interests at Stake and Policy Considerations 97
C. Relation to PECL 98
D. Three Contracts: Commercial Agency, Franchise, Distribution 98
E. Other Vertical Agreements; not Advertisement 98
F. Independent Business Persons; not Employees 99
G. Other Long-Term Contracts 99
H. Products 99
I. Character of the Rule 99
J. Remedies 100
Notes
1. In General 100
2. Specific Rules concerning Commercial Agency 100
3. Specific Rules concerning Franchise Contracts 101
4. Application of Commercial Agency Rules by Way of
Analogy to Franchise Contracts 101
5. Specific Rules concerning Distribution Contracts 101
6. Application of Commercial Agency Rules by way of
analogy to Distribution 101
7. Other rules 101
Section 2: Obligations
Article 1:201: Pre-Contractual Information
Comments
A. General Idea 103
D. Within a Reasonable Time 104
E. Adequate Information 104
XX
Table of Contents
F. Character of the Rule 105

G. Remedies 105
Notes
1. Specific Statutory Rules concerning Pre-Contractual Information 105
2. General Statutory Rules concerning Pre-Contractual Information 105
3. Other sources of an Obligation concerning Pre-Contractual Information 106
Article 1:202: Co-Operation
Comments
A. General Idea 107
D. Co-Operate Actively and Loyally 108
E. Non-discrimination 108
F. Specific Obligations to Co-Operate 108
G. Character of the Rule 109
H. Remedies 109
Notes
1. Obligation to Co-Operate 109
Article 1:203: Information during Performance
Comments
A. General Idea 111
D. Actual Knowledge; No Duty to Investigate 111
E. In Due Time 112
F. No Form Requirement 112
H. Remedies 112
Notes
1. Information to be Provided 112
Article 1:204: Confidentiality
Comments
A. General Idea 113
XXI
Table of Contents
D. Protection of Know-how 114

E. Confidential Information 114
F. Contractual and Post-Contractual 115
G. Information Already Public 115
H. Character of the Rule 115
I. Remedies 115
Notes
1. Confidentiality during the Period of the Contract 115
2. Post-Contractual Obligation 116
3. Information already Disclosed to the Public 116
Section 3: Ending and Termination
Article 1:301: Contract for a Definite Period
Comments
A. General Idea 117
D. Definite Period 119
E. Notice of Renewal and Response to Non-Renewal 119
F. Continued Performance: A New Contract subject to the Old Conditions 119
G. Right to End a Contract for an Indefinite Period 120
I. Remedies 120
Notes
1. No Right to End a Contract for a Definite Period Unilaterally 120
2. Notices of Non-Renewal and of Renewal 121
3. Continued Performance 121
Article 1:302: Unilateral Ending of a Contract for an Indefinite Period
Comments
A. General Idea 123
D. Receipt Principle Governs Notice 125
E. No ‘Good Reason’ Required for Ending the Contract 125
F. Reasonableness of the Period of Notice 125
G. Presumption of Reasonableness 127
H. Minimum Period 127
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I. Agreed Longer Periods 128

J. Damages the Only Remedy; Specific Performance in Exceptional Cases 128
K. Character of the Rule 128
Notes
1. Right to End (General) 129
2. Fixed Notice Period 129
3. Reasonable Notice Period 130
4. Minimum Notice Period for the Principal, Franchisor or Supplier 130
5. Consequences of Disregarding the Notice Period 131
Article 1:303: Damages for Non-Observance of Notice Period
Comments
A. General Idea 131
D. Damages the Only Remedy 132
E. Calculation of Damages 133
F. Concrete Damages 133
G. General Rules on Damages Applicable 134
Notes
1. Entitlement to Damages in the case of Non-Observance of the
Notice Period 134
2. Calculation of the Damages 135
Article 1:304: Termination for Non-Performance
Comments
A. General Idea 136
D. Remedies 138
E. Character of the Rule 138
Notes
1. In General 138
2. Termination for Substantial or Intentional Non-Performance 139
3. Ending for Important and Urgent Reasons 139
4. No Termination if Proper Performance was ‘of the Essence’ 140
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Article 1:305: Indemnity for Goodwill
Comments
A. General Idea 141
D. Generated Goodwill 142
E. Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Distinguished 142
F. Continuous Substantial Benefits 142
G. Reasonable Indemnity 143
H. Relation to Damages for Irregular Ending 143
I. Relation to Compensation for Post-Contractual Non-Competition 143
J. Relation to Commission Agent After Contract 143
K. Remedies 144
L. Character of the Rule 144
Notes
1. Indemnity for Goodwill 144
2. Compensation for Damages 145
3. Indemnity for goodwill in the case of distribution contracts 146
4. Application of the Commercial Agency Rule concerning Indemnity
for Goodwill by way of analogy to Franchise or Distribution Contracts 146
5. No Indemnification for Goodwill in the case of Franchise
and Distribution Contracts 147
6. Entitlement to Damages because of Non-Observance of Notice Period 147
Article 1:306: Stock, Spare Parts and Materials
Comments
A. General Idea 148
D. Reasonable Price; No Speculation 149
E. No Obligation to Repurchase 149
F. Relation to the Period of Notice 150
G. Remedies 150
Notes
1. Obligation to Repurchase Stock, Spare Parts and Materials 150
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Section 4: Other General Provisions
Article 1:401: Right of Retention
Comments
A. General Idea 152
D. Right of Retention 153
E. Remedies 153
Notes
1. Right of Retention 153
Article 1:402: Signed Written Document
Comments
A. General Idea 154
D. No Form Requirement 155
E. Terms of the Contract 155
F. Written Document 155
G. Remedies 155
Notes
1. Written Document 155
2. Formal Requirements 156
Section 1: General
Comments
A. General Idea 157
D. Self-employed Intermediary 158
E. Contracts with Customers 159
F. Competition Law 159
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H. Remedies 159
Notes
1. Transposition of the Directive into National Legal Systems 160
2. Self-Employed Intermediary 160
3. Contracts with Clients may include both Service and Sales Contracts 160
4. Remuneration 160
Section 2: Obligations of the Commercial Agent
Article 2:201: Negotiate and Conclude Contracts
Comments
A. General Idea 161
D. Reasonable Efforts 162
E. Negotiate Contracts 162
F. Conclude Contracts 162
H. Remedies 163
Notes
1. Reasonable Efforts to Negotiate 163
2. To Conclude Contracts 163
Article 2:202: Instructions
Comments
A. General Idea 164
D. Reasonable Instructions 165
F. Remedies 165
Notes
1. Reasonable Instructions 165
Comments
A. General Idea 166
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D. Information to be Provided 167
E. No Formalities 168
G. Remedies 168
Notes
1. Information to Be Provided 168
2. Contracts Negotiated or Concluded 169
3. Market Conditions 169
4. Characteristics of Clients 169
Article 2:204: Accounting
Comments
A. General Idea 170
D. Proper Accounts 171
F. Remedies 171
Notes
1. Obligation to Keep Separate Accounts 171
Section 3: Obligations of the Principal
Article 2:301: Entitlement to Commission During the Contract
Comments
A. General Idea 173
D. Result of the Agent’s Efforts 174
E. Customers from a Specific Geographical Area or Group 175
F. Performance of the Contract with the Customer 175
G. Amount of Commission 175
I. Remedies 176
Notes
1. In General 176
2. Entitlement to Commission during the Contract 177
3. The Moment when Commission is ‘Due’ 177
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Article 2:302: Entitlement to Commission After the Contract
Comments
A. General Idea 178
D. Reasonable Period 179
E. Mainly the Result of the Agent’s Efforts 179
F. Performance of the Contract with the Customer 180
G. After the Contract 180
H. Relation to an Indemnity for Goodwill and to Damages for
Non-observance of the Period of Notice 180
J. Remedies 181
Notes
1. In General 181
2. Entitlement to Commission 181
3. The Moment when Commission is ‘Due’ 181
Article 2:303: Prevailing Entitlement to Commission
Comments
A. General Idea 182
D. Reasonableness of Shared Entitlement 183
F. Remedies 183
Notes
1. Prevailing Right to Commission 183
2. Character of the Rule 183
Article 2:304: Moment when Commission is to be Paid
Comments
A. General Idea 184
C. Relation to the PECL 184
D. Character of the Rule 185
E. Remedies 185
Notes
1. Moment when Commission is to be paid 185
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Article 2:305: Entitlement to Commission Extinguished
Comments
A. General Idea 186
D. Non-performance of the Contract with the Customer 187
F. Remedies 187
Notes
1. Entitlement to Commission Extinguished 187
Article 2:306: Remuneration
Comments
A. General Idea 188
D. Basis of Remuneration 189
F. Remedies 189
Notes
1. Remuneration 189
Comments
A. General Idea 190
F. Remedies 191
Notes
1. Information during Performance 192
2. Characteristics of the Goods or Services, Prices and
Conditions of Sale or Purchase 192
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Article 2:308: Information on Acceptance, Rejection and Non-Performance
Comments
A. General Idea 193
E. Remedies 194
Notes
1. Information on Acceptance, Rejection and Non-Performance 194
2. Reasonable Period 194
Article 2:309: Warning of Decreased Volume of Contracts
Comments
A. General Idea 195
D. Volume of Contracts 196
E. Reasonable Time 196
F. Expectations of the Commercial Agent 196
H. Remedies 197
Notes
1. Warning of Decreased Volume 197
2. Reasonable Period 197
Article 2:310: Commission Statement and Extract from the Books
Comments
A. General Idea 198
D. Reasonable Period 199
F. Remedies 199
Notes
1. Commission Statement 199
2. Extracts from the Principal’s Books 200
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Comments
A. General Idea 200
C. Relation to PECL and ECC 201
D. Proper Accounts 201
F. Remedies 202
Notes
1. Reasonable Access to the Principal’s Books 202
Article 2:312: Amount of Indemnity
Comments
A. General Idea 203
D. New or Old Customers 204
E. Likely Future Duration of Benefits 204
F. Migration Rate 204
G. Average Interest Rate 204
H. Maximum Amount of Indemnity 204
I. Damages 205
J. Character of the Rule 205
K. Remedies 205
Notes
1. Calculating the Amount of Indemnity 205
2. Maximum Amount of Indemnity 207
Article 2:313: Del Credere Clause
Comments
A. General Idea 207
C. Relation to PECL and ECC 208
E. Remedies 208
Notes
1. Del Credere Clause 208
2. In Writing 209
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3. Particular Contracts or Particular Clients 209

4. A Reasonable Cause Taking into Account the Interests of the Parties 209
5. Del Credere Commission 209
Section 1: General
Comments
A. General Idea 210
D. Mixed Contracts 211
E. Types of Franchise Contracts 211
F. Franchise Network 212
G. Competition Law 212
I. Remedies 212
Notes
1. Definition of a Franchise 213
2. Use of Franchisor’s Tradename, Trademark, Know-how and
Business Method 213
3. To Conduct a Business in its Own Name and on its Own Behalf 213
4. In Exchange for Remuneration 214
5. To Conduct a Business within the Franchisor’s Network 214
6. Written Requirement 214
Comments
A. General Idea 215
D. Adequate Information 216
F. Remedies 218
Notes
1. Pre-Contractual Information 218
2. Contents of the Information 219
3. Remedies 220
4. Form Requirements 220
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Article 3:201: Intellectual Property Rights
Comments
A. General Idea 222
D. Granting Intellectual Property Rights 223
E. Intellectual Property Rights Necessary for the Operation of
the Franchise Business 223
F. Undisturbed and Continuous Use of Intellectual Property Rights 223
H. Remedies 224
Notes
1. Granting of Intellectual Property Rights 224
2. Undisturbed and Continuous Use 225
Section 2: Obligations of the Franchisor
Article 3:202: Know-How
Comments
A. General Idea 225
D. Necessary Know-How 226
E. Regularly Reviewed Know-how 226
F. Protection of Know-How 227
G. Relation to Article 3:205 (Information during the Contract) 227
I. Remedies 227
Notes
1. Know-How 227
2. Granting Know-How 228
Article 3:203: Assistance
Comments
A. General Idea 229
D. Necessary Assistance 230
E. Responsive to Reasonable Requests for Further Assistance 230
F. Without Additional Cost 230
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H. Remedies 231
Notes
1. Obligation to Provide Assistance 231
2. Free of Extra Charge 231
Article 3:204: Supply
Comments
A. General Idea 232
D. Designated Suppliers 233
E. Reasonable Time 234
F. Practicability 234
G. Reasonable Order 234
H. De Facto Exclusivity 234
J. Remedies 235
Notes
1. In General 235
Article 3:205: Information during the Performance
Comments
A. General Idea 236
D. Necessary Information 236
G. Remedies 238
Notes
1. The Franchisor’s Obligation to Inform its Franchisee 239
Article 3:206: Warning of Decreased Supply Capacity
Comments
A. General Idea 239
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D. Supply Capacity 241

E. Designated Third Suppliers 241
F. Reasonable Time 241
G. Significant Decrease 241
H. Expectations of the Franchisee 241
I. De Facto Exclusivity 242
J. Character of the Rule 242
K. Remedies 242
Notes
1. In General 242
Article 3:207: Reputation of Network and Advertising
Comments
A. General Idea 243
E. Appropriate Advertising Campaigns 244
F. Without Additional Cost 244
H. Remedies 245
Notes
1. Reasonable Efforts to Promote and Maintain the Network’s Reputation 245
2. Advertising 245
3. Costs 246
Section 3: Obligations of the Franchisee
Article 3:301: Fees, Royalties and Other Periodical Payments
Comments
A. General Idea 247
D. Reasonable Fee 248
E. Calculation of Royalties and Periodical Payments 248
G. Remedies 249
Notes
1. Payment of Fees, Royalties or Other Periodical Payments 249
2. Unilateral determination of Fees, Royalties and Other Periodical Payments 249
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Comments
A. General Idea 250
E. Remedies 250
Notes
1. The Franchisee’s Obligation to Inform the Franchisor 251
Article 3:303: Business Method and Instructions
Comments
A. General Idea 251
E. Reasonable Instructions 252
F. Reasonable Care not to Harm the Franchise Network 253
H. Remedies 253
Notes
1. Reasonable Efforts to Operate according to the Franchisor’s
Business Method 253
2. Obligation to Follow Instructions 253
3. Reasonable Care not to Harm the Franchise Network 254
Article 3:304: Inspection
Comments
A. General Idea 254
D. Inspection 255
E. Reasonable Access 255
G. Remedies 256
Notes
1. Right to Inspect the Franchisee’s Premises 256
2. Access to the Books 256
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Section 1: General
Article 4:101: Scope and Definitions
Comments
A. General Idea 257
D. Purchasing and Selling of Products 259
E. Distribution of Services 259
F. Continuing Basis 259
G. In the Distributor’s Name 259
H. On the Distributor’s Behalf 259
I. Framework Agreement 259
J. Exclusive Distribution Contracts 260
K. Selective Distribution Contracts 260
L. Exclusive Purchasing Contracts 261
M. Mixed Contracts 261
N. De Facto Distribution Contracts and De Facto Exclusivity 261
O. Competition Law 262
P. Character of the Rule 262
Q. Remedies 262
Notes
1. Scope 262
2. Definition of Distribution 263
3. Exclusive Distribution, Selective Distribution, Exclusive Purchasing 263
Section 2: Obligations of the Supplier
Comments
A. General Idea 265
D. Obligation to Supply and Contrat d’Application 266
E. In so far as Practicable 266
F. Reasonable Order 266
H. Remedies 267
Notes
1. Obligation to supply 267
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Comments
A. General Idea 268
F. Competition Law 270
H. Remedies 271
Notes
1. Information during the Performance 271
Comments
A. General Idea 272
D. Reasonable Time 273
E. Significant Decrease 273
F. Expectations of the Distributor 273
H. Remedies 274
Notes
1. In General 274
Article 4:204: Advertising Materials
Comments
A. General Idea 274
D. Advertising Materials 275
E. Reasonable Price 275
G. Remedies 276
Notes
1. Advertising Materials 276
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Article 4:205: Reputation of the Products
Comments
A. General Idea 276
E. Liability of the Supplier 277
G. Remedies 278
Notes
1. Reputation of the Products 278
Section 3: Obligations of the Distributor
Article 4:301: Distribution
Comments
A. General Idea 279
D. Reasonable Efforts in so far as Practicable 280
F. Remedies 280
Notes
1. Obligation to Promote the Sales of the Products 280
Comments
A. General Idea 281
G. Remedies 282
Notes
1. Obligation to Provide Information during Performance 283
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Article 4:303: Warning of Decreased Requirement
Comments
A. General Idea 283
D. Reasonable Time 284
E. Significantly Less 284
F. Expectations of the Supplier 285
H. Remedies 285
Notes
Comments
A. General Idea 285
D. Reasonable Instructions 286
E. To Secure Proper Distribution 287
F. To Maintain Reputation and Distinctiveness 287
H. Remedies 287
Notes
1. In General 287
Comments
A. General Idea 288
D. Reasonable Access 289
E. Distributor’s Premises 289
F. Standard Agreed Upon 289
H. Remedies 290
Notes
1. Inspection 290
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Comments
A. General Idea 290
C. Relation to the PECL and ECC 291
E. Liability of the Distributor 291
G. Remedies 292
Notes
1. The Reputation of the Products 292
Annexes
Abbreviations 295
Table of European Legislation 312
Table of National Legislation and Soft Law 314
Table of Cases 325
Table of PECL 331
Bibliography 333
Index 339
XLI
Text of Articles
English
Chapter 1:
General Provisions
Section 1:
Scope of Chapter 1

This Chapter applies to commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts and with
appropriate modifications to other contracts where one party, engaged in business indepen-
dently uses its skills and efforts to bring another party’s products on to the market.
Section 2:
Obligations

(1) Each party must provide the other party with adequate information a reasonable time before
the contract is concluded. If it does not, Paragraph (3) applies.
(2) Adequate information means information which is sufficient to enable the other party to
decide on a reasonably informed basis whether or not to enter into a contract of the type
and on the terms under consideration.
(3) If a party’s failure to comply with Paragraph 1 leads the other party to conclude a contract
when the first party knew or could reasonably be expected to have know that the other
party, had it been provided with adequate and timely information, would not have entered
the contract, or would have entered the contract only on fundamentally different terms, the
remedies for mistake under PECL Chapter 4 apply.
(4) Parties may not derogate from this provision.

(1) In commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts and in other long-term com-
mercial contracts the obligation to co-operate (art. 1:202 PECL) is fundamental and parti-
cularly intense. It requires the parties in particular to collaborate actively and loyally and to
co-ordinate their respective efforts in order to achieve the objectives of the contract.
3
Text of Articles

(1) During the contract each party must provide the other in due time with all the information
which the first party has and the second party needs in order to achieve the objectives of
the contract.

(1) A party who receives confidential information from the other, must keep such information
confidential and must not disclose the information to third parties either during or after the
end of the contract period.
(2) A party who receives confidential information from the other must not use such informa-
tion for other purposes than the objectives of the contract.
(3) Any information which a party already had in its possession or which has been disclosed to
the general public, and any information which must necessarily be disclosed to customers
as a result of the operation of the business is not be regarded as confidential information for
this purpose.
Section 3:
Ending and Termination

(1) A contract for a definite period ends upon the expiry of the period determined by the
contract. Unless the parties agreed otherwise, such a contract cannot be ended unilaterally
beforehand.
(2) A party is free not to renew a contract for a definite period. However, if the other party has
given notice in due time that it wishes to renew the contract, the party who wishes not to
renew the contract must give the other party notice of its decision not to renew within a
reasonable time before the expiry of the contract period.
(3) A contract for a definite period which continues to be performed by both parties after the
contract period has expired becomes a contract for an indefinite period.

(1) Either party to a contract for an indefinite period may end the contract by giving notice of
reasonable length (art. 6:109 PECL).
(2) Whether a notice is of reasonable length depends, among other factors, on
(a) the time the contract has lasted,
(b) reasonable investments made,
(c) the time it will take to find a reasonable alternative, and
(d) usages.
(3) A notice period of one month for each year during which the contract has lasted, with a
maximum of 36 months, is presumed to be reasonable.
(4) The notice period for the principal, the franchisor or the supplier is to be no shorter than
one month for the first year, two months for the second, three months for the third, four
months for the fourth, five months for the fifth and six months for the sixth and sub-
sequent years during which the contract has lasted. Parties may not derogate from this
provision.
4
English. Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Contracts
(5) Agreements on longer notice periods than those laid down in Paragraphs 2 and 3 are valid
provided that the agreed period to be observed by the principal, franchisor or supplier is no
shorter than that to be observed by the commercial agent, the franchisee or the distributor.
(6) The aggrieved party is not entitled to specific performance of the contract during the notice
period. However, the court may order specific performance of contractual and post-con-
tractual obligations which do not depend on co-operation.

(1) In the case of the non-observance of the notice periods mentioned in art. 1:301 (2) and
1:302 (1), the aggrieved party is entitled to damages.
(2) The general measure of damages is such sum which corresponds to the benefit which the
aggrieved party would have obtained during the non-observed period of notice.
(3) The yearly benefit is presumed to be equal to the average benefit which the aggrieved party
has obtained from the contract during the previous 3 years or, if the contract has lasted for
a shorter period, during that period.
(4) The general rules on damages for non-performance (art. 9:501 ff PECL) apply accordingly.

(1) A party may terminate the contract for non-performance only if the other party’s non-
performance is fundamental within the meaning of Article 8:103 (b) and Article 8:103 (c)
PECL (art. 9:301 PECL).

(1) When the contract comes to an end for any reason (including termination by either party
for non-performance), a party is entitled to an indemnity from the other party for goodwill if
and to the extent that
(a) the first party has significantly increased the other party’s volume of business and the
other party continues to derive substantial benefits from that business, and
(b) the payment of the indemnity is reasonable having regard to all the circumstances.
(2) The grant of an indemnity does not prevent a party from seeking damages under Article
1:303.

If the contract is ended, terminated or avoided by either party, the principal, franchisor or
supplier must repurchase the commercial agent’s, franchisee’s or distributor’s remaining stock,
spare parts and materials at a reasonable price, unless the commercial agent, franchisee or
distributor can reasonably resell them.
5
Text of Articles
Section 4:
Other General Provisions

In order to secure its rights to remuneration, compensation, damages and indemnity the
commercial agent, franchisee or distributor has a right of retention over the movables of the
principal, franchisor or supplier which are in its possession as a result of the contract, until the
(former) principal, franchisor or supplier has fulfilled its obligations.

Each party is entitled to receive from the other, on request, a signed written document setting
out the terms of the contract.
Chapter 2:
Commercial Agency
Section 1:
General

This Chapter applies to contracts under which one party (the commercial agent) agrees to act
on a continuing basis as a self-employed intermediary to negotiate or to conclude contracts on
behalf of another party (the principal) and the principal agrees to remunerate the commercial
agent for the commercial agent’s activities.
Section 2:
Obligations of the Commercial Agent

The commercial agent must make reasonable efforts to negotiate contracts on behalf of the
principal and to conclude the contracts which the commercial agent was instructed to con-
clude.

The commercial agent must follow the principal’s reasonable instructions, provided they do not
substantially affect the commercial agent’s independence.

The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the commercial agent in particular to provide
the principal with information concerning:
(a) the contracts negotiated or concluded,
(b) the relevant market conditions,
(c) the solvency of and other characteristics relating to customers.
6

(1) The commercial agent must maintain proper accounts relating to the contracts negotiated
or concluded on behalf of the principal.
(2) If the commercial agent represents more than one principal, the commercial agent must, in
particular, maintain independent accounts for each principal the commercial agent repre-
sents.
(3) If the principal has important reasons to doubt that the commercial agent maintains proper
accounts, the commercial agent must allow an independent accountant to have reasonable
access to the commercial agent’s books upon the principal’s request. The principal must
pay for the services of the independent accountant.
Section 3:
Obligations of the Principal

(1) The commercial agent is entitled to commission on contracts concluded with customers
during the period of the agency contract, if
(a) the contract with the customer has been concluded as a result of the commercial
agent’s efforts; or
(b) the contract has been concluded with a third party whom the commercial agent has
previously acquired as a customer for contracts of the same kind; or
(c) the commercial agent is entrusted with a certain geographical area or group of custo-
mers, and the contract has been concluded with a customer belonging to that area or
group.
(2) The entitlement arises only if
(a) the principal has or should have performed the principal’s obligations under the con-
tract with the customer; or
(b) the customer has performed the customer’s obligations under the contract or justifiably
withholds performance (Article 9:201 PECL).
(3) The parties may not derogate from Paragraph 2 (b) to the detriment of the commercial
agent.

after the agency contract has been ended or terminated, if
(a) the contract with the customer is mainly the result of the commercial agent’s efforts
during the period of the agency contract, and the contract with the customer was
concluded within a reasonable period after the agency contract ended; or
(b) the conditions of Article 2:301 Paragraph 1 would have been satisfied except that the
contract with the customer was not concluded during the period of the agency con-
tract, and the customer’s offer reached the principal or the commercial agent before the
agency contract had been ended or terminated.
(a) the principal has or should have performed its obligations under the contract with the
customer; or
7
Text of Articles
(b) the customer has performed its obligations under the contract or justifiably withholds
performance (Article 9:201 PECL).
(3) The parties may not derogate from Paragraph 2 (b) to the detriment of the commercial
agent.

The commercial agent is not entitled to the commission referred to in Article 2:301, if the
previous commercial agent is entitled to that commission pursuant to Article 2:302, unless it is
reasonable that the commission is shared between the two commercial agents.

(1) The principal must pay the commercial agent’s commission before the last day of the
month following the quarter in which the commercial agent became entitled to it.
(2) The parties may not derogate from this provision to the detriment of the commercial agent.

(1) The commercial agent’s entitlement to commission in accordance with Articles 2:301 and
2:302 can be extinguished only if and to the extent that it is established that the contract
with the customer will not be performed and that fact is due to a reason for which the
principal is not accountable.
(2) Upon the extinguishing of the commercial agent’s entitlement to commission, the commer-
cial agent must refund any commission which the commercial agent has already received.
(3) The parties may not derogate from Paragraph 1 to the detriment of the commercial agent.

Any remuneration which (partially) depends upon the number or value of contracts is pre-
sumed to be commission within the meaning of this Chapter.

The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the principal in particular to provide the
commercial agent with information concerning:
(a) the characteristics of the goods or services,
(b) the prices and conditions of sale or purchase.

(1) The principal must inform the commercial agent, within a reasonable period, of
(a) the principal’s acceptance or rejection of a contract which the commercial agent has
negotiated on the principal’s behalf; and
(b) any non-performance of a contract which the commercial agent has negotiated or
concluded on the principal’s behalf.

(1) The principal must warn the commercial agent within a reasonable time when the principal
foresees or ought to foresee that the volume of contracts that the principal will be able to
conclude or perform will be significantly lower than the commercial agent had reason to expect.
8

(1) The principal must supply the commercial agent in reasonable time with a statement of the
commission to which the commercial agent is entitled. This statement must set out how
the amount of the commission has been calculated.
(2) For the purpose of calculating commission, the principal must provide the commercial
agent upon request with an extract from the principal’s books.

(1) The principal must maintain proper accounts relating to the contracts negotiated or con-
cluded by the commercial agent.
(2) If the principal has more than one commercial agent, the principal must, in particular,
maintain independent accounts for each commercial agent.
(3) The principal must allow an independent accountant to have reasonable access to the
principal’s books upon the commercial agent’s request, if
(a) the principal does not comply with the principal’s obligations under Article 2:310
Paragraphs 1 and 2, or
(b) the commercial agent has important reasons to doubt that the principal maintains
proper accounts.
(4) The commercial agent must pay the independent accountant.

(1) The commercial agent is entitled to an indemnity for goodwill on the basis of Article 1:305
which must amount to:
(a) the average commission on contracts with new customers and on the increased volume
of business with existing customers calculated for the last 12 months, multiplied by:
(b) the number of years the principal is likely to continue to derive benefits from these
contracts in the future.
(2) The resulting indemnity must be amended in accordance with:
(a) the average rate of migration in the commercial agent’s territory; and
(b) the average interest rates.
(3) In any case, the indemnity must not exceed one year’s remuneration, calculated from the
commercial agent’s average annual remuneration over the preceding five years or, if the
contract has been in existence for less than five years, from the average during the period in
question.

(1) An agreement whereby the commercial agent guarantees that a customer will pay the price
of the products forming the subject-matter of the contract(s) which the commercial agent
has negotiated or concluded (del credere clause) is only valid if and to the extent that:
(a) the clause is concluded in writing, and
9
Text of Articles
(b) the clause covers particular contracts which were negotiated or concluded by the
commercial agent or such contracts with particular customers who are specified in the
agreement, and
(c) the clause is reasonable with regard to the interests of the parties.
(2) The commercial agent is entitled to be paid a commission of a reasonable amount on
contracts to which the del credere guarantee applies (del credere commission).
Chapter 3:
Franchise
Section 1:
General

This Chapter applies to contracts under which one party (the franchisor) grants the other party
(the franchisee), in exchange for remuneration, the right to conduct a business (franchise
business) within the franchisor’s network for the purposes of selling certain products on the
franchisee’s behalf and in the franchisee’s name, and whereby the franchisee has the right and
the obligation to use the franchisor’s tradename or trademark and other intellectual property
rights, the know-how and the business method.

(1) The obligation to disclose pre-contractual information (Article 1:201) requires the franchisor
in particular to provide the franchisee with adequate and timely information concerning:
(a) the franchisor’s company and experience,
(b) the relevant intellectual property rights,
(c) the characteristics of the relevant know-how,
(d) the commercial sector and the market conditions,
(e) the particular franchise method and its operation,
(f) the structure and extent of the franchise network,
(g) the fees, royalties or any other periodical payments,
(h) the terms of the contract.
(2) If the franchisor’s non-compliance with Paragraph 1 does not give rise to a fundamental
mistake under Article 4:103 PECL, the franchisee may recover damages in accordance with
Article 4:117(2) and (3) PECL, unless the franchisor had reason to believe that the informa-
tion was adequate or had been given in reasonable time.
(3) The parties may not derogate from this provision.
Section 2:
Obligations of the Franchisor

(1) The franchisor must grant the franchisee a right to use the intellectual property rights to the
extent necessary to operate the franchise business.
10
(2) The franchisor must make reasonable efforts to ensure the undisturbed and continuous use
of the intellectual property rights.

(1) Throughout the duration of the contract, the franchisor must provide the franchisee with
the know-how which is necessary to operate the franchise business.

(1) The franchisor must provide the franchisee with assistance in the form of training courses,
guidance and advice, in so far as necessary for the operation of the franchise business,
without additional charge for the franchisee.
(2) The franchisor must provide further assistance, in so far as reasonably requested by the
franchisee, at a reasonable cost.

(1) When the franchisee is obliged to purchase the products exclusively from the franchisor, or
from a supplier designated by the franchisor, the franchisor must ensure that the products
ordered by the franchisee are supplied within a reasonable time, in so far as practicable, and
provided that the order is reasonable.
(2) Paragraph 1 also applies to cases where the franchisee, although not legally obliged to
purchase from the franchisor or from a supplier designated by the franchisor, is in fact
required to do so.

The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the franchisor in particular to provide the
franchisee with information concerning:
(a) the relevant market conditions,
(b) the commercial results of the franchise network,
(c) the characteristics of the products,
(d) the prices and terms for the sale of products,
(e) any recommended prices and terms for the resale of products,
(f) any relevant communication between the franchisor and customers in the territory,
(g) any advertising campaigns relevant to the operation of the franchise.

from a supplier designated by the franchisor, the franchisor must warn the franchisee within
a reasonable time when the franchisor foresees or ought to foresee, that the franchisor’s
supply capacity or the supply capacity of the designated suppliers will be significantly less
than the franchisee had reason to expect.
required to do so.
(3) The parties may not derogate from this provision to the detriment of the franchisee.
11
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(1) The franchisor must make reasonable efforts to promote and maintain the reputation of the
franchise network.
(2) In particular, the franchisor must design and co-ordinate the appropriate advertising cam-
paigns aiming at the promotion of the franchise network.
(3) The activities of promotion and maintenance of the reputation of the franchise network are
to be carried out without additional charge to the franchisee.
Section 3:
Obligations of the Franchisee

(1) The franchisee must pay to the franchisor fees, royalties or other periodical payments agreed
upon in the contract.
(2) If fees, royalties or any other periodical payments are to be determined unilaterally by the
franchisor, Article 6:105 PECL applies.

The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the franchisee in particular to provide the
franchisor with information concerning:
(a) any claims brought or threatened by third parties in relation to the franchisor’s intellectual
property rights.
(b) any infringements by third parties of the franchisor’s intellectual property rights.

(1) The franchisee must make reasonable efforts to operate the franchise business according to
the business method of the franchisor.
(2) The franchisee must follow the franchisor’s reasonable instructions in relation to the
business method and the maintenance of the reputation of the network.
(3) The franchisee must take reasonable care not to harm the franchise network.

(1) The franchisee must grant the franchisor reasonable access to the franchisee’s premises to
enable the franchisor to check that the franchisee is complying with the franchisor’s
business method and instructions in so far as it is necessary to achieve the objectives of
the contract.
(2) The franchisee must grant the franchisor reasonable access to the accounting books of the
franchisee.
12
Chapter 4:
Distribution
Section 1:
General

(1) This Chapter applies to exclusive distribution, selective distribution and exclusive purchas-
ing contracts.
(2) A distribution contract is a contract under which one party (the supplier) agrees to supply
the other party (the distributor) with products on a continuing basis and the distributor
agrees to purchase them and to sell them in the distributor’s name and on the distributor’s
behalf.
(3) An exclusive distribution contract is a distribution contract under which the supplier agrees
to supply products to only one distributor within a certain territory or to a certain group of
customers.
(4) A selective distribution contract is a distribution contract under which the supplier agrees to
supply products, either directly or indirectly, only to distributors selected on the basis of
specified criteria.
(5) An exclusive purchasing contract is a distribution contract under which the distributor
agrees to purchase products only from the supplier or from a party designated by the
supplier.
Section 2:
Obligations of the Supplier

The supplier must supply the products ordered by the distributor, in so far as it is practicable
and provided that the order is reasonable.

The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the supplier to provide the distributor with
information concerning:
(a) the characteristics of the products,
(b) the prices and terms for the sale of the products,
(c) any recommended prices and terms for the resale of the products,
(d) any relevant communication between the supplier and customers,
(e) any advertising campaigns relevant to the operation of the business.

(1) The supplier must warn the distributor within a reasonable time when the supplier foresees
or ought to foresee that the supplier’s supply capacity will be significantly less than the
distributor had reason to expect.
(2) In exclusive purchasing contracts, parties may not derogate from this provision to the
detriment of the distributor.
13
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The supplier must provide the distributor, at a reasonable price, with all the advertising
materials the supplier has which are needed for the proper distribution and promotion of the
products.

The supplier must make reasonable efforts not to damage the reputation of the products.
Section 3:
Obligations of the Distributor

In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, in so far as it is practicable, the distributor
must make reasonable efforts to promote the sales of the products.

In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the obligation to inform (Article 1:203)
requires the distributor in particular to provide the supplier with information concerning:
(a) any claims brought or threatened by third parties in relation to the supplier’s intellectual
property rights,
(b) any infringements by third parties of the supplier’s intellectual property rights.

In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must warn the supplier within a
reasonable time when the distributor foresees or ought to foresee that the distributor’s require-
ment will be significantly less than the supplier had reason to expect.

In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must follow reasonable instruc-
tions from the supplier which are designed to secure the proper distribution of the products or
to maintain the reputation or the distinctiveness of the products.

In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must provide the supplier with
reasonable access to the distributor’s premises to enable the supplier to check that the dis-
tributor is complying with the standards agreed upon in the contract and with reasonable
instructions.

In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must make reasonable efforts
not to damage the reputation of the products.
14
Dutch1
Agentuur-, Franchise- en Distributieovereenkomsten
Hoofdstuk 1:
Algemene Bepalingen
Titel 1:
Toepassingsgebied Hoofdstuk 1
Artikel 1:101: Toepassingsgebied

Dit Hoofdstuk is van toepassing op agentuur-, franchise- en distributieovereenkomsten en,
mutatis mutandis, op andere overeenkomsten waarbij de ene partij, handelend in de uitoefening
van een zelfstandig bedrijf, haar vaardigheden en inspanningen gebruikt om een product van
een andere partij op de markt te brengen.
Titel 2:
Verplichtingen
Artikel 1:201: Pre-contractuele informatie

(1) Iedere partij moet de andere partij binnen een redelijke termijn voor het sluiten van de
overeenkomst voorzien van adequate informatie. Als een partij nalaat aan deze verplichting
te voldoen is lid 3 van toepassing.
(2) Adequate informatie is informatie die de andere partij redelijkerwijs in staat stelt een
afgewogen beslissing te nemen ten aanzien van het al dan niet aangaan van een dergelijke
overeenkomst en onder de voorgestelde voorwaarden.
(3) Wanneer het schenden door een partij van haar verplichting op grond van lid 1 de ander
doet besluiten een overeenkomst te sluiten, terwijl de eerstgenoemde partij wist of rede-
lijkerwijs had behoren te weten dat de andere partij, indien deze had beschikt over adequate
en tijdige informatie, de overeenkomst niet zou zijn aangegaan of alleen onder wezenlijk
andere voorwaarden, is hetgeen in Hoofdstuk 4 PECL bepaalt omtrent remedies bij dwaling,
van toepassing.
(4) Partijen kunnen niet van deze bepaling afwijken.
Artikel 1:202: Samenwerking

(1) Bij agentuur-, franchise- en distributieovereenkomsten en andere commercile duurovereen-
komsten is de verplichting tot samenwerking fundamenteel en bijzonder intens. Ze vereist
in het bijzonder een actieve en loyale samenwerking van partijen en de cordinatie van hun
beider inspanningen met het oog op het verwezenlijken van de doelstellingen van de
overeenkomst.
1 Vertaling voorgesteld door Bastiaan van Zelst.
15
Text of Articles
Artikel 1:203: Informatie gedurende de nakoming

(1) Gedurende de overeenkomst moet iedere partij de ander tijdig voorzien van alle informatie
waarover zij beschikt en die de wederpartij nodig heeft om de doelstelllingen van de
overeenkomst te verwezenlijken.
Artikel 1:204: Geheimhouding

(1) Een partij die vertrouwelijke informatie van de ander ontvangt, moet deze informatie geheim
houden en mag de informatie niet met derden delen, noch tijdens noch na het einde van de
overeenkomst.
(2) Een partij die vertrouwelijke informatie ontvangt van de andere partij mag deze informatie
niet gebruiken voor andere doeleinden dan de die van de overeenkomst.
(3) Alle informatie waarover een partij al beschikte of die openbaar is gemaakt, en alle infor-
matie die noodzakelijkerwijs aan klanten beschikbaar moet worden gesteld bij het voeren
van de onderneming is geen vertrouwelijke informatie in de zin van dit artikel.
Titel 3:
Opzegging en ontbinding
Artikel 1:301: Overeenkomst voor bepaalde tijd

(1) Een overeenkomst voor bepaalde tijd eindigt door het verlopen van de overeengekomen
termijn. Tenzij partijen anders zijn overeengekomen, kan een dergelijke overeenkomst niet
voortijdig eenzijdig worden opgezegd.
(2) Een partij is vrij om een overeenkomst voor bepaalde tijd niet te verlengen. Als echter de
andere partij tijdig heeft aangegeven de overeenkomst te willen verlengen, moet de partij die
de overeenkomst niet wil verlengen, de andere partij hiervan binnen een redelijke termijn
voor het aflopen van de overeenkomst op de hoogte stellen.
(3) Een overeenkomst voor bepaalde tijd die na het aflopen van de overeengekomen termijn
door beide partijen wordt uitgevoerd, wordt een overeenkomst voor onbepaalde tijd.
Artikel 1:302: Eenzijdige opzegging overeenkomst voor onbepaalde tijd

(1) Iedere partij bij een overeenkomst voor onbepaalde tijd kan deze door een kennisgeving
opzeggen tegen een redelijke termijn (artikel 6:109 PECL).
(2) Of een opzegtermijn redelijke is hangt, onder meer, af van
(a) de tijd die de overeenkomst heeft geduurd,
(b) redelijke investeringen,
(c) de tijd die nodig is om een redelijke alternatief te vinden, en
(d) gewoonten en gebruiken.
(3) Een opzegtermijn van n maand voor ieder jaar dat de overeenkomst heeft geduurd, met
een maximum van zesendertig maanden, wordt verondersteld redelijk te zijn.
(4) De opzeggingstermijn voor de principaal, de franchisegever of de leverancier mag niet korter
zijn dan n maand voor het eerste jaar, twee maanden voor het tweede jaar, drie maanden
voor het derde jaar, vier maanden voor het vierde jaar, vijf maanden voor het vijfde jaar en
zes maanden voor het zesde en de daarop volgende jaren die de overeenkomst heeft
geduurd. Partijen kunnen niet van deze bepaling afwijken.
16
Dutch. Agentuur-, Franchise- en Distributieovereenkomsten
(5) Bedingen betreffende een langere opzegtermijn dan bepaald in de leden 2 en 3 zijn geldig
indien de overeengekomen termijn voor opzegging door de principaal, de franchisegever of
de leverancier niet korter is dan die voor opzegging door de handelsagent, de franchise-
nemer of de distributeur.
(6) De benadeelde partij heeft geen recht op nakoming van de overeenkomst gedurende de
opzeggingstermijn. Echter, de rechter kan nakoming bevelen van contractuele en post-
contractuele verplichtingen die niet afhankelijk zijn van samenwerking.
Artikel 1:303: Schadevergoeding voor het niet in acht nemen opzegtermijn

(1) Ingeval de opzegtermijn van artikel 1:301 (2) of 1:302 (1) niet in acht wordt genomen,
heeft de daardoor benadeelde partij recht op schadevergoeding.
(2) Als algemene maatstaf voor de schadevergoeding geldt de som die overeenkomt met het
voordeel dat de benadeelde partij zou hebben behaald gedurende de niet in acht genomen
opzeggingstermijn.
(3) Het voordeel gedurende een jaar wordt verondersteld gelijk te zijn aan het gemiddelde
voordeel dat de benadeelde partij uit de overeenkomst heeft behaald gedurende de drie
voorgaande jaren of, indien de overeenkomst korter heeft geduurd, gedurende de tijd die het
contract heeft geduurdde periode.
(4) De algemene regels met betrekking tot niet-nakoming (artikel 9:501 ff PECL) zijn van over-
eenkomstige toepassing.
Artikel 1:304: Ontbinding wegens wanprestatie

(1) Een partij mag de overeenkomst alleen wegens ontbinden wanprestatie indien de wanpres-
tatie fundamenteel is in de zin van de artikelen 8:103 (b) en 8:103 (c) PECL (artikel 9:301
PECL).
Artikel 1:305: Goodwillvergoeding

(1) Als de overeenkomst eindigt, heeft een partij, onafhankelijk van de reden voor het eindigen
van de overeenkomst (inclusief de ontbinding door een van partijen wegens wanprestatie),
recht op een goodwillvergoeding door de andere partij voorzover:
(a) de eerste partij de omzet van de andere partij aanzienlijk heeft doen toenemen en de
andere partij daar een voortdurend en substantieel voordeel van heeft, en
(b) de vergoeding, gezien alle omstandigheden van het geval, redelijk is.
(2) De toekenning van een goodwillvergoeding doet niet af aan een eventueel recht van partij
op schadevergoeding op grond van artikel 1:303.
Artikel 1:306: Voorraden, Reserveonderdelen en Materialen

Als de overeenkomst is opgezegd, ontbonden of vernietigd door een van partijen moet de
principaal, franchisegever of leverancier de overgebleven voorraden, reserveonderdelen en ma-
terialen van de handelsagent, franchisenemer of distributeur overnemen tegen een redelijke prijs,
tenzij de handelsagent, franchisenemer of distributeur deze redelijkerwijs zelf kan verkopen.
17
Text of Articles
Titel 4:
Overige algemene bepalingen
Artikel 1:401: Retentierecht

De handelsagent, franchisenemer of distributeur heeft een retentierecht met betrekking tot de
roerende zaken van de principaal, franchisegever of leverancier die hij ingevolge de overeen-
komst in onder zich heeft, teneinde zijn rechten op beloning, goodwillvergoeding, of schade-
loosstelling zeker te stellen, totdat de (voormalige) principaal, franchisegever of leverancier aan
zijn verplichtingen heeft voldaan.
Artikel 1:402: Getekend schriftelijk document

Iedere partij heeft het recht om, op haar verzoek, van de andere partij een ondertekend
schriftelijk document te ontvangen waarin de voorwaarden van de overeenkomst zijn weerge-
geven.
Hoofdstuk 2:
Handelsagentuur
Titel 1:
Algemeen

Dit Hoofdstuk is van toepassing op overeenkomsten waarbij de ene partij (de handelsagent)
zich verbindt om op duurzame basis als zelfstandige tussenpersoon over de totstandkoming
van overeenkomsten te onderhandelen of deze af te sluiten op naam van een andere partij (de
principaal) waarbij de principaal zich verbindt de handelsagent te belonen voor zijn inspannin-
gen.
Titel 2:
Verplichtingen van de handelsagent
Artikel 2:201: Het onderhandelen over en het afsluiten van overeenkomsten

De handelsagent is gehouden tot redelijke inspanningen bij het onderhandelen over de tot-
standkoming van overeenkomsten op naam van de principaal en, voorzover hem dat is opge-
dragen, bij het sluiten van zulke overeenkomsten.
Artikel 2:202: Instructies

De handelsagent moet de redelijke instructies van de principaal opvolgen mits deze de onaf-
hankelijkheid van de handelsagent niet aanzienlijk benvloeden.
Artikel 2:203: Informatie gedurende de overeenkomst

Op grond van de informatieplicht (Artikel 1:203) is de handelsagent in het bijzonder gehouden
de principaal te informeren met betrekking tot:
(a) overeenkomsten waarover hij heeft onderhandeld of die hij heeft gesloten,
18
(b) relevante marktomstandigheden,

(c) de kredietwaardigheid en andere relevante kenmerken van klanten.
Artikel 2:204: Boekhouding

(1) De handelsagent is verplicht een behoorlijke boekhouding te voeren met betrekking tot de
overeenkomsten waarover hij op naam van de principaal onderhandeld heeft of die hij op
naam van de principaal heeft gesloten.
(2) Indien de handelsagent meer dan n principaal vertegenwoordigt, is hij, in het bijzonder,
gehouden onderscheiden boekhoudingen te voeren voor iedere principaal die hij vertegen-
woordigt.
(3) Indien de principaal goede reden heeft om te betwijfelen dat de handelsagent een behoor-
lijke boekhouding voert, moet de handelsagent op verzoek van de principaal een onafhan-
kelijke accountant redelijke toegang verschaffen tot de boekhouding. De principaal draagt de
kosten van de diensten van de onafhankelijke accountant.
Titel 3:
Verplichtingen van de principaal
Artikel 2:301: Recht op provisie gedurende de overeenkomst

(1) De handelsagent heeft recht op provisie voor overeenkomsten die zijn afgesloten met
klanten tijdens de duur van de agentuurovereenkomst wanneer
(a) de overeenkomst met de klant is gesloten als gevol van de inspanningen van de
handelsagent; of
(b) de overeenkomst is gesloten met een derde die de handelsagent eerder heeft verworven
als klant voor soortgelijke overeenkomsten, of
(c) de handelsagent een bepaald afzetgebied of een bepaalde groep van klanten is toever-
trouwd en de overeenkomst is gesloten met een klant uit dat gebied of die groep.
(2) Het recht op provisie ontstaat alleen indien
(a) de principaal zijn verplichtingen uit de overeenkomst met de klant is nagekomen; of
(b) de klant zijn verplichten uit de overeenkomst is nagekomen danwel op goede gronden
zijn prestatie heeft opschort (Artikel 9:201 PECL).
(3) Partijen kunnen niet ten nadele van de handelsagent afwijken van lid 2 sub b.
Artikel 2:302: Recht op provisie na afloop van de overeenkomst

(1) De handelsagent heeft recht op provisie over overeenkomsten die zijn gesloten met klanten
nadat de agentuurovereenkomst is ontbonden of opgezegd, i
(a) het totstandkomen van de overeenkomst met de klant hoofdzakelijk het gevolg is van
de inspanningen van de handelsagent ten tijdens de agentuurovereenkomst en de
overeenkomst met de klant is gesloten binnen een redelijke termijn na de beindiging
van de agentuurovereenkomst; of
(b) aan de voorwaarden van Artikel 2:301 zou zijn voldaan ware het niet dat de over-
eenkomst met de klant niet is gesloten ten tijde van de looptijd van de agentuurover-
eenkomst terwijl het het aanbod van de klant de principaal of de handelsagent wel heeft
bereikt voordat de agentuurovereenkomst is opgezegd of ontbonden.
19
Text of Articles
(2) Het recht op provisie ontstaat alleen indien

(a) de principaal zijn verplichtingen uit de overeenkomst met de klant is nagekomen; of
(b) de klant zijn verplichten uit de overeenkomst is nagekomen danwel op goede gronden
zijn prestatie heeft opschort (Artikel 9:201 PECL).
(3) Partijen kunnen niet ten nadele van de handelsagent afwijken van lid 2 (b).
Artikel 2:303: Provisie bij opvolging

De handelsagent heeft geen recht op de in Artikel 2:301 genoemde provisie als zijn voorganger
ingevolge Artikel 2:302 recht heeft op deze provisie, tenzij het redelijk is de provisie tussen de
twee handelsagenten te verdelen.
Artikel 2:304: Moment waarop provisie moet worden betaald

(1) De principaal moet de provisie aan de handelsagent voldoen voor de laatste dag van de
maand die volgt op het kwartaal waarin de handelsagent recht kreeg op de provisie.
(2) Partijen kunnen niet ten nadele van de handelsagent afwijken van deze bepaling.
Artikel 2:305: Verlies recht op provisie

(1) Na het verlies van zijn recht op provisie moet de handelsagent alle reeds ontvangen provisie
restitueren.
(2) Partijen kunnen niet van lid 1 ten nadele van de handelsagent afwijken.
Artikel 2:306: Beloning

Elke beloning die (gedeeltelijk) afhankelijk is van het aantal of de waarde van de overeenkom-
sten wordt verondersteld provisie in de zin van dit Hoofdstuk te zijn.
Artikel 2:307: Informatie tijdens de nakoming

De informatieplicht (Artikel 1:203) verplicht de principaal in het bijzonder de handelsagent te
voorzien van informatie met betrekking tot:
(a) eigenschappen van de goederen of diensten,
(b) prijzen en voorwaarden van koop of verkoop.
Artikel 2:308: Informatie over aanvaarding, verwerping en wanprestatie

(1) De principaal moet de handelsagent binnen een redelijke termijn informeren over
(a) de aanvaarding of verwerping van een overeenkomst waarover de handelsagent op
naam van de principaal heeft onderhandeld; en
(b) iedere tekortkoming in de nakoming van een overeenkomst waarover de handelsagent
op naam van de principaal heeft onderhandeld of die hij op naam van de principaal
heeft gesloten.
Artikel 2:309: Waarschuwing ingeval van verminderde hoeveelheid overeenkomsten

(1) De principaal moet de handelsagent binnen een redelijke termijn waarschuwen wanneer hij
voorziet of zou moeten voorzien dat het aantal overeenkomsten dat de principaal zal
kunnen afsluiten of nakomen aanzienlijk lager is dan de handelsagent redelijkerwijs mag
verwachten.
20
Artikel 2:310: Provisieoverzicht en uittreksel uit de boekhouding

(1) De principaal moet de handelsagent binnen een redelijke termijn een overzicht verstrekken
van de provisie waarop de handelsagent recht heeft. Dit overzicht moet inzichtelijk maken
hoe het bedrag van de verschuldigde de provisie is berekend.
(2) Ten behoeve van de berekening van de provisie moet de principaal de handelsagent, op
diens verzoek, voorzien van een uittreksel uit de boekhouding van de principaal.
Artikel 2:311: Boekhouding

(1) De principaal moet een behoorlijke boekhouding voeren met betrekking tot de overeen-
komsten waarover de handelsagent heeft onderhandeld of die door hem zijn gesloten.
(2) Als de principaal meer dan n handelsagent heeft moet hij, in het bijzonder, onderschie-
den boekhoudingen voeren voor iedere handelsagent.
(3) De principaal moet een onafhankelijke accountant redelijke toegang geven tot de boekhou-
ding, wanneer de handelsagent daarom verzoekt, wanneer
(a) de principaal niet voldoet aan zijn verplichtingen op grond van Artikel 2:310 leden 1 en
2, of
(b) de handelsagent gegronde redenen heeft om te betwijfelen of de principaal een behoor-
lijke boekhouding voert.
(4) Een accountantscontrole als genoemd in lid 3 komt voor rekening van de handelsagent.
Artikel 2:312: Hoogte goodwillvergoeding

(1) De handelsagent heeft recht op een vergoeding voor goodwill op basis van Artikel 1:305 ter
hoogte van:
(a) de gemiddelde provisie over overeenkomsten met nieuwe klanten en over toegenomen
handelmet bestaande klanten berekend over de laatste twaalf maanden, vermenigvul-
digd met:
(b) het aantal jaren dat de principaal naar verwachting voordeel zal hebben van deze
overeenkomsten.
(2) De vergoeding moet worden aangepast in overeenstemming met:
(a) het gemiddelde migratiepercentage in het afzetgebied van de handelsagent; en
(b) het gemiddelde rentepercentage.
(3) In elk geval mag de vergoeding niet hoger zijn dan de beloning voor n jaar, berekend naar
de gemiddelde beloning van de handelsagent over de voorafgaande vijf jaar of, indien de
overeenkomst korter heeft geduurd, over die periode.
Artikel 2:313: Del credere beding

(1) Een overeenkomst waarbij de handelsagent zich garant stelt voor de betaling door de klant
van de prijs van de producten die onderwerp van de overeenkomsten zijn waarover de
handelsagent heeft onderhandeld of die door hem zijn gesloten (del credere beding), is
alleen geldig indien en voorzover:
(a) het beding schriftelijk is overeengekomen, en
(b) het beding specifieke overeenkomsten betreft waarover de handelsagent heeft onder-
handeld of die door hem zijn gesloten of overeenkomsten die zijn gesloten met
bepaalde klanten die zijn gespecificeerd in het beding, en
(c) de clausule redelijk is, gezien de belangen van partijen.
21
Text of Articles
(2) De handelsagent heeft recht op een redelijke provisie over overeenkomsten waarop de del
credere-garantie van toepassing is (del credere provisie).
Hoofdstuk 3:
Franchise
Titel 1:
Algemeen

Dit Hoofdstuk is van toepassing op overeenkomsten waarbij de ene partij (de franchisegever) de
andere partij (de franchisenemer) tegen vergoeding het recht verleent, een onderneming te drijven
(franchise onderneming) binnen het netwerk van de franchisegever met als doel de verkoop van
specifieke producten op naam en voor rekening van de franchisenemer en waarbij de franchise-
nemer het recht en de verplichting heeft om de handelsnaam of het handelsmerk en andere
intellectuele eigendomsrechten, knowhow en de werkwijze van franchisegever te gebruiken.
Artikel 3:102: Precontractuele informatie

(1) De verplichting om precontractuele informatie te verschaffen (Artikel 1:201) vereist van de
franchisenemer in het bijzonder dat hij de franchisegever tijding voorziet van adequate
informatie met betrekking tot:
(a) het bedrijf en de ervaring van de franchisegever,
(b) de relevante intellectuele eigendomsrechten,
(c) de eigenschappen van de relevante know-how,
(d) de handelssector en de marktomstandigheden,
(e) de betreffende franchise-methode en haar werking,
(f) de structuur en de omvang van het franchise-netwerk,
(g) de fee, royalties en andere periodieke betalingen,
(h) de voorwaarden van de overeenkomst.
(2) Zelfs indien de niet-naleving van lid 1 door de franchisegever niet leidt tot een fundamen-
tele dwaling als bedoeld in Artikel 4:103 PECL, heeft de franchisenemer recht op schade-
vergoeding in overeenstemming met Artikel 4:117 (2) en (3) PECL, tenzij de franchisegever
mocht aannemen dat de informatie adequaat was en binnen een redelijk termijn gegeven.
Titel 2:
Verplichtingen van de franchisegever
Artikel 3:201: Intellectuele eigendomsrechten

(1) De franchisegever moet de franchisenemer het recht verlenen gebruik te maken van de
intellectuele eigendomsrechten voorzover dit noodzakelijk is om de franchise-onderneming
te drijven.
(2) De franchisegever moet zich inspannen om de franchisenemer het ongestoord en voort-
durend gebruik van de intellectuele eigendomsrechten te verzekeren.
22
Artikel 3:202: Knowhow

(1) Tijdens van de gehele duur van de overeenkomst moet de franchisegever de franchisenemer
voorzien van de knowhow doe noodzakelijk is om de franchise-onderneming te drijven.
Artikel 3:203: Hulp

(1) De franchisegever moet de franchisenemer, zonder bijkomende kosten voor de franchise-
nemer, helpen in de vorm van opleidingscursussen, richtlijnen en advies, voorzover dit
noodzakelijk is voorzover dit noodzakelijk is om de franchise-onderneming te kunnen
drijven.
(2) De franchisegever moet, op een redelijk verzoek van de franchisenemer, tegen een redelijke
prijs, verdere hulp verlenen.
Artikel 3:204: Levering

(1) Wanneer de franchisenemer verplicht is om producten exclusief af te nemen van de
franchisegever of van een door hem aangewezen leverancier, moet de franchisegever ver-
zekeren dat de door de franchisenemer bestelde producten worden geleverd binnen een
redelijke termijn, voorzover dit uitvoerbaar is en mits de bestelling redelijk is.
(2) Lid 1 is ook van toepassing op gevallen waarin de franchisenemer, hoewel niet rechtens
verplicht om af te nemen van de franchisegever of een door hem aangewezen leverancier, in
feite daartoe wel genoodzaakt is.

De informatieplicht (Artikel 1:203) vereist van de franchisegever in het bijzonder dat hij de
franchisenemer voorziet van informatie met betrekking tot:
(a) de relevante marktomstandigheden,
(b) de commercile resultaten van het franchise-netwerk,
(c) de eigenschappen van de producten,
(d) de prijzen en voorwaarden van de verkoop van producten,
(e) alle geadviseerde prijzen en voorwaarden voor de doorverkoop van producten,
(f) alle relevante communicatie tussen de franchisegever en clinten in het afzetgebied,
(g) alle reclamecampagnes die relevant zijn voor het drijven van de franchise.
Artikel 3:206: Waarschuwing ingeval van verminderde leveringscapaciteit

(1) Wanneer de franchisenemer verplicht is producten exclusief af te nemen van de franchi-
segever of van een door hem aangewezen leverancier, moet de franchisegever de franchise-
nemer binnen een redelijke termijn waarschuwen wanneer hij voorziet of zou moeten
voorzien dat zijn leveringscapaciteit of de leveringscapaciteit van de aangewezen leveran-
ciers substantieel lager zal zijn dan de franchisenemer redelijkerwijs mocht verwachten.
(2) Lid 1 is ook van toepassing op gevallen waarin de franchisenemer, hoewel niet rechtens
verplicht om af te nemen van de franchisegever of een door hem aangewezen leverancier, in
feite daartoe wel genoodzaakt is.
(3) Partijen kunnen niet ten nadele van de franchisenemer van deze bepaling afwijken.
23
Text of Articles
Artikel 3:207: Reputatie van het netwerk en reclame

(1) De franchisegever moet zich inspannen om de reputatie van het netwerk te bevorderen en
hoog te houden.
(2) In het bijzonder moet de franchisegever passende reclamecampagnes, ontwerpen en co-
rdineren die gericht zijn op de promotie van het franchise-netwerk.
(3) De activiteiten voor de promotie en het behoud van de reputatie van het franchise-netwerk
moeten worden uitgevoerd zonder bijkomende kosten voor de franchisenemer.
Titel 3:
Verplichtingen van de Franchisenemer
Artikel 3:301: Fees, royalties en andere periodieke betalingen

(1) De franchisenemer moet franchisegever de overeengekomen fees, royalties en andere peri-
odieke betalingen betalen.
(2) Wanneer fees, royalties of andere periodieke betalingen eenzijdig worden vastgesteld door
de franchisegever is Artikel 6:105 PECL van toepassing.

De informatieplicht (Artikel 1:203) vereist van de franchisenemer in het bijzonder, de franchi-
segever te voorzien van informatie met betrekking tot:
(a) iedere vordering die is ingediend of waarmee is gedreigd door derden met betrekking tot de
intellectuele eigendomsrechten van de franchisegever.
(b) iedere inbreuk door een derde op de intellectuele eigendomsrechten van de franchisegever.
Artikel 3:303: Werkwijze en instructies

(1) De franchisenemer moet zich inspannen om de franchise-onderneming te drijven in over-
eenstemming met de werkwijze van de franchisegever.
(2) De franchisenemer moet redelijke instructies opvolgen die de franchisegever hem geeft met
betrekking tot de werkwijze en het hoog houden van de reputatie van het netwerk.
(3) De franchisenemer moet redelijke zorg betrachten teneinde het franchise-netwerk geen
schade te berokkenen.
Artikel 3:304: Inspectie

(1) De franchisenemer moet, voorzover dit noodzakelijk is om de doelen van het contract te
verwezenlijken, de franchisegever redelijke toegang verlenen tot zijn bedrijfsruimte teneinde
de franchisegever in staat te stellen te controleren of de franchisenemer de werkwijze en
instructies van de franchisegever opvolgt.
franchisee.
(3) De franchisenemer moet de franchisegever redelijke toegang bieden tot zijn boekhouding.
24
Hoofdstuk 4:
Distributie
Titel 1:
Algemeen
Artikel 4:101: Toepassingsgebied en definities

(1) Dit hoofdstuk is van toepassing op exclusieve distributie, selectieve distributie en exclusieve
koopovereenkomsten.
(2) Een distributieovereenkomst is een overeenkomst waarbij de ene partij (de leverancier) zich
verbindt om de andere partij (de distributeur) gedurende zekere tijd producten te leveren en
waarbij de distributeur zich verbindt om deze producten te kopen en op eigen naam en voor
eigen rekening te verkopen.
(3) Een exclusieve distributieovereenkomst is een distributieovereenkomst waarbij de leverancier
zich verbindt om producten te leveren aan slechts n distributeur in een bepaald afzet-
gebied of met een bepaalde groep klanten.
(4) Een selectieve distributieovereenkomst is een distributieovereenkomst waarbij de leverancier
zich verbindt om slechts producten te leveren, direct dan wel indirect, aan distributeurs die
zijn geselecteerd op basis van gespecificeerde criteria.
(5) Een exclusieve koopovereenkomst is een overeenkomst waarbij de distributeur zich verbindt
om alleen producten van de leverancier of van een door de leverancier aangewezen partij te
kopen.
Titel 2:
Verplichtingen van de leverancier
Artikel 4:201: Levering

De leverancier moet de door de distributeur bestelde producten leveren voorzover dit doenlijk is
is en mits de bestelling redelijk is.

De informatieplicht (Artikel 1:203) brengt met zich dat de leverancier de distributeur moet
voorzien van informatie met betrekking tot:
(a) de eigenschappen van de producten,
(b) de prijzen en de verkoopvoorwaarden van de producten,
(c) alle geadviseerde prijzen en voorwaarden voor de doorverkoop van producten,
(d) alle relevante communicatie tussen de leverancier en klanten,
(e) alle reclamecampagnes die relevant zijn voor het drijven van de onderneming.
Artikel 4:203: Waarschuwing ingeval van verminderde leveringscapaciteit

(1) De leverancier moet de distributeur binnen een redelijke termijn waarschuwen wanneer hij
voorziet of zou moeten voorzien dat zijn leveringscapaciteit aanzienlijk lager zal zijn dan de
distributeur redelijkerwijs mocht verwachten.
(2) Bij een exclusieve koopovereenkomst mogen partijen niet ten nadele van de distributeur van
deze bepaling afwijken.
25
Text of Articles
Artikel 4:204: Reclamemateriaal

De leverancier moet de distributeur tegen een redelijke prijs voorzien van alle reclamematerialen
die de leverancier heeft, die nodig zijn voor de behoorlijke distributie en promotie van de
producten.
Artikel 4:205: Reputatie van de producten

De leverancier moet zich inspannen om de reputatie van de producten niet te schaden.
Titel 3:
Verplichtingen van de distributeur
Artikel 4:301: Distributie

Bij exclusieve en selectieve distributieovereenkomsten moet de distributeur zich, voorzover
doenlijk, een redelijke inspanning leveren om de verkoop van de producten te bevorderen.

Bij exclusieve en selectieve distributieovereenkomsten brengt de informatieplicht (Artikel 1:203)
van de distributeur in het bijzonder met zich dat de distributeur de leverancier voorziet van
informatie met betrekking tot:
(a) iedere vordering die is ingediend of waarmee is gedreigd door derden met betrekking tot de
intellectuele eigendomsrechten van de leverancier,
(b) iedere inbreuk door een derde op de intellectuele eigendomsrechten van de leverancier.
Artikel 4:303: Waarschuwing bij verminderde leveringsbehoefte

Bij exclusieve en selectieve distributieovereenkomsten moet de distributeur de leverancier bin-
nen een redelijke termijn waarschuwen wanneer hij voorziet of zou moeten voorzien dat zijn
leveringsbehoefte aanzienlijk lager is dan de leverancier redelijkerwijs mocht verwachten.
Artikel 4:304: Aanwijzingen

Bij exclusieve en selectieve distributieovereenkomsten moet de distributeur de redelijke instruc-
ties van de leverancier opvolgen die bedoeld zijn om de behoorlijke distributie van de producten
te verzekeren of om de reputatie of het onderscheidend karakter van de producten te behouden.
Artikel 4:305: Inspectie

Bij exclusieve en selectieve distributieovereenkomsten moet de distributeur de leverancier rede-
lijke toegang verlenen tot zijn bedrijfsruimten teneinde de leverancier in staat te stellen te
controleren of de distributeur de overeengekomen normen en redelijke instructies naleeft.
Artikel 4:306: Reputatie van de producten

Bij exclusieve en selectieve distributieovereenkomsten moet de distributeur zich inspannen om
de reputatie van de producten niet te schaden.
26
French2
Contrats d’Agence Commerciale,
de Franchise et de Distribution
Chapitre 1:
Dispositions gnrales
Section 1:
Champ d’application du chapitre 1
Article 1:101: Champ d’application

Le prsent chapitre s’applique aux contrats d’agence commerciale, de franchise et de distribu-
tion ainsi que, sous rserve des modifications adquates, aux autres contrats dans lesquels une
partie, engage dans des activits commerciales titre indpendant, consacre ses comptences
et ses efforts mettre les produits de l’autre partie sur le march.
Section 2:
Obligations
Article 1:201: Informations prcontractuelles

(1) Chacune des parties doit fournir l’autre les informations adquates dans un dlai raison-
nable avant la conclusion du contrat. dfaut, le paragraphe 3 sera applicable.
(2) Par informations adquates, il faut entendre des informations suffisantes pour permettre
l’autre partie de dcider, sur la base d’informations raisonnables, de conclure ou non un
contrat du type et aux conditions envisags.
(3) Si le manquement d’une partie aux obligations nonces au paragraphe 1 amne l’autre
conclure un contrat alors que la premire partie savait, ou aurait raisonnablement d savoir
que l’autre, si elle avait dispos d’informations adquates en temps opportun, n’aurait pas
conclu le contrat ou ne l’aurait conclu qu’ des conditions fondamentalement diffrentes,
les recours pour erreur du Chapitre 4 des PDEC seront applicables.
(4) Les parties ne peuvent droger aux prsentes dispositions.
Article 1:202: Coopration

(1) L’obligation de cooprer (art. 1:202 des PDEC) dans les contrats d’agence commerciale, de
franchise et de distribution ainsi que dans d’autres contrats commerciaux de longue dure,
est fondamentale et particulirement stricte. Elle requiert notamment des parties une col-
laboration active et loyale ainsi qu’une coordination de leurs efforts respectifs afin de raliser
les objectifs du contrat.
2 Traduction propose par Jacques Ghestin.
27
Text of Articles
Article 1:203: Informations durant l’excution

(1) Pendant la dure du contrat, chaque partie doit fournir l’autre, en temps opportun, toutes
les informations dont la premire partie dispose et qui sont ncessaires la seconde afin de
raliser les objectifs du contrat.
(2) Les parties ne peuvent droger cette disposition.
Article 1:204: Confidentialit

(1) Une partie qui re oit des informations confidentielles de l’autre doit en prserver la confi-
dentialit et ne peut les divulguer des tiers, que ce soit pendant la dure du contrat ou
aprs son terme.
(2) Une partie qui re oit des informations confidentielles de l’autre ne peut les utiliser d’autres
fins que les objectifs viss par le contrat.
(3) Les informations dont disposait dj une partie ou qui faisaient partie du domaine public,
ainsi que celles qui devaient ncessairement Þtre communiques aux clients par suite de
l’exercice des activits commerciales ne sont pas considres comme des informations
confidentielles pour l’application des paragraphes 1 et 2.
Section 3:
Terme et rsiliation
Article 1:301: Contrat dure dtermine

(1) Un contrat conclu pour une dure dtermine prend fin l’expiration de celle-ci. A dfaut
de convention contraire, il ne peut Þtre unilatralement mis fin un tel contrat avant cette
chance.
(2) Une partie est libre de ne pas renouveler un contrat dure dtermine. Toutefois, si l’autre
partie lui a notifi son souhait, en temps opportun, de renouveler le contrat, la partie qui ne
le souhaite doit l’aviser de sa dcision dans un dlai raisonnable avant l’arrive du terme.
(3) Un contrat dure dtermine qui continue d’Þtre excut par les deux parties aprs
l’arrive du terme devient un contrat dure indtermine.
Article 1:302: Rsiliation unilatrale d’un contrat dure indtermine

(1) Chacune des parties un contrat dure indtermine peut rsilier celui-ci en donnant un
pravis d’une dure raisonnable (art. 6:109 des PDEC).
(2) La dure raisonnable d’un pravis dpend, entre autres facteurs :
(a) de la dure pendant laquelle le contrat a t en vigueur,
(b) des investissements raisonnables effectus
(c) du temps ncessaire pour trouver une autre solution raisonnable, et
(d) des usages.
(3) Un pravis d’un mois pour chaque anne pendant laquelle le contrat a t en vigueur, avec
un maximum de 36 mois, est rput raisonnable.
(4) Le pravis pour le commettant, le franchiseur ou le fournisseur ne peut Þtre infrieur un
mois pour la premire anne, deux mois pour la deuxime anne, trois mois pour la
troisime anne, quatre mois pour la quatrime anne, cinq mois pour la cinquime anne
et six mois pour la sixime anne ainsi que les annes suivantes pendant lesquelles le
contrat a t en vigueur. Les parties ne peuvent droger aux prsentes dispositions.
28
French. Contrats d’Agence Commerciale, de Franchise et de Distribution
(5) Des conventions stipulant des pravis plus longs que ceux qui rsultent des paragraphes 2
et 3 sont valables condition que le pravis observer par le commettant, le franchiseur ou
le fournisseur ne soit pas plus court que celui observer par l’agent commercial, le franchis
ou le distributeur.
(6) La partie lse n’a pas droit l’excution force du contrat durant la priode de pravis.
Toutefois, le tribunal peut ordonner l’excution force des obligations contractuelles et post-
contractuelles qui n’impliquent pas la coopration des parties.
Article 1:303: Dommages-intrÞts pour non-respect du pravis

(1) En cas de non-respect des dlais de pravis noncs l’art. 1:301.2) et 1:302.1), la partie
lse a droit des dommages-intrÞts.
(2) La mesure gnrale des dommages-intrÞts est gale la somme correspondant au profit
que la partie lse aurait obtenu pendant le dlai de pravis non respect.
(3) Le profit annuel est suppos Þtre gal au profit moyen que la partie lse a tir du contrat au
cours des 3 annes prcdentes ou, si le contrat a dur moins longtemps, au cours de cette
priode.
(4) Les rgles gnrales en matire de dommages-intrÞts pour non-excution (art. 9:501 ff des
PDEC) s’appliquent.
Article 1:304: Rsiliation pour non-excution

(1) Une partie ne peut rsilier le contrat pour non-excution que si le dfaut d’excution de
l’autre partie revÞt une importance fondamentale au sens de l’article 8:103.b) et de l’article
8:103.c) des PDEC (art. 9:301 des PDEC).
(2) Les parties ne peuvent droger cette disposition.
Article 1:305: Indemnit pour «Goodwill»

(1) Lorsqu’il est mis un terme au contrat pour un motif quelconque (y compris la rsiliation par
l’une ou l’autre des parties pour non-excution), une partie a le droit de percevoir de l’autre
une indemnit pour «Goodwill» si, et dans la mesure o
(a) la premire partie a sensiblement accru le volume des affaires de l’autre partie et cette
dernire continue tirer des profits substantiels de cette activit, et si
(b) le paiement de l’indemnit est raisonnable eu gard toutes les circonstances.
(2) L’octroi d’une indemnit n’empÞche pas une partie de chercher obtenir des dommages-
intrÞts en vertu de l’article 1:303.
Article 1:306: Stock, pices de rechange et matriaux

Si l’une des parties met un terme, rsilie ou annule le contrat, le commettant, le franchiseur ou
le fournisseur doit racheter le reste du stock, des pices de rechange et des matriaux de l’agent
commercial, du franchis ou du distributeur un prix raisonnable, sauf si l’agent commercial, le
franchis ou le distributeur peut raisonnablement les revendre.
29
Text of Articles
Section 4:
Autres dispositions gnrales
Article 1:401: Droit de rtention

Afin de garantir ses droits rmunration, compensation, dommages-intrÞts et indemnit,
l’agent commercial, le franchis ou le distributeur dispose d’un droit de rtention sur les objets
mobiliers du commettant, du franchiseur ou du fournisseur qui sont en sa possession jusqu’ ce
que ledit commettant, franchiseur ou fournisseur ait satisfait ses obligations.
Article 1:402: Document crit et sign

Chaque partie a le droit de recevoir de l’autre partie, sur demande, un document crit et sign
exposant les conditions du contrat.
Chapitre 2:
Agence commerciale
Section 1:

Le prsent chapitre s’applique aux contrats en vertu desquels une partie (l’agent commercial)
convient d’agir de fa on continue en tant qu’intermdiaire indpendant pour ngocier ou
conclure des contrats pour le compte d’une autre partie (le commettant) qui s’engage en
contrepartie rmunrer l’agent commercial pour ses activits.
Section 2:
Obligations de l’agent commercial
Article 2:201: Ngocier et conclure des contrats

L’agent commercial doit fournir des efforts raisonnables pour ngocier des contrats pour le
compte du commettant et conclure ceux qu’il a re u instruction de conclure.

L’agent commercial doit se conformer aux instructions raisonnables du commettant dans la
mesure o
elles ne portent pas atteinte, de fa on substantielle, son indpendance.

L’obligation d’informer (article 1:203) requiert en particulier que (de) l’agent commercial (qu’i)l
communique au commettant des informations concernant:
(a) les contrats ngocis ou conclus,
(b) les conditions pertinentes du march,
(c) la solvabilit et autres caractristiques concernant les des clients.
30
Article 2:204: Comptabilit

(1) L’agent commercial doit tenir jour une comptabilit adquate concernant les contrats
ngocis ou conclus pour le compte du commettant.
(2) Si l’agent commercial reprsente plus d’un commettant, il doit, tout particulirement, tenir
jour des comptes indpendants pour chacun des commettants qu’il reprsente.
(3) Si le commettant a des motifs importants de douter de la tenue de comptes adquats par
l’agent commercial, ce dernier doit, la demande du commettant, laisser un accs raison-
nable ses registres un comptable indpendant. Le commettant doit payer les services du
comptable indpendant.
Section 3:
Obligations du commettant
Article 2:301: Droit commission pendant la dure du contrat

(1) L’agent commercial a droit une commission sur les contrats conclus avec les clients
pendant la dure du contrat d’agence, si
(a) le contrat avec le client rsulte principalement des efforts de l’agent commercial; ou si
(b) le contrat a t conclu avec un tiers dont la clientle avait t prcdemment acquise
par l’agent commercial pour des contrats du mÞme type ; ou si
(c) l’agent commercial est charg d’un certain territoire gographique ou groupe de clients,
et si le contrat a t conclu avec un client faisant partie de ce territoire ou groupe, et
(2) Une commission n’est due que si
(a) le commettant a excut ou aurait d excuter les obligations qui lui incombaient en
vertu du contrat avec le client; ou
(b) le client a excut ses obligation rsultant du contrat ou s’est abstenu de les excuter
pour des motifs justifis (Article 9:201 des PDEC).
(3) Les parties ne peuvent droger au paragraphe 2 sous b) au dtriment de l’agent commercial.
Article 2:302: Droit une commission aprs le contrat

(1) L’agent commercial a le droit de percevoir une commission sur les contrats conclus avec les
clients lorsque le contrat d’agence a pris fin ou a t rsili, si
(a) le contrat avec le client rsulte principalement des efforts de l’agent commercial pen-
dant la dure du contrat d’agence, et si le contrat avec le client a t conclu pendant un
dlai raisonnable aprs l’expiration de ce contrat; ou si
(b) les conditions vises l’article 2:301, paragraphe 1, auraient t remplies si ce n’est que
le contrat avec le client n’a pas t conclu pendant la dure du contrat d’agence, alors
que l’offre du client est parvenue au commettant ou l’agent commercial avant que le
contrat d’agence prenne fin ou ait t rsili.
(2) Le droit commission n’a lieu que si
(a) le commettant a excut ou aurait d excuter les obligations qui lui incombaient en
vertu du contrat avec le client; ou si
(b) le client a excut ses obligations rsultant du contrat ou s’est abstenu de les excuter
pour des
motifs justifis (Article 9:201 des PDEC).
(3) Les parties ne peuvent droger au paragraphe 2 sous b) au dtriment de l’agent commercial.
31
Text of Articles
Article 2:303: Droits concurrents de plusieurs agents sur une mÞme commission
L’agent commercial n’a pas droit la commission vise l’article 2:301 si le prcdent agent
commercial avait droit cette commission conformment l’article 2:302, moins qu’il soit
raisonnable de la partager entre les deux agents commerciaux.
Article 2:304: Moment du paiement de la commission

(1) Le commettant doit payer la commission de l’agent commercial au plus tard le dernier jour
du mois qui suit le trimestre pendant lequel celui-ci a pu y prtendre.
(2) Les parties ne peuvent droger cette disposition au dtriment de l’agent commercial.
Article 2:305: Extinction du droit une commission

(1) Le droit de l’agent commercial une commission conformment aux articles 2:301 et 2:302
ne peut s’teindre que si, et dans la mesure o
il est tabli que le contrat avec le client ne
sera pas excut et pour un motif qui n’est pas imputable au commettant.
(2) En cas d’extinction du droit de l’agent commercial une commission, celui-ci doit rem-
bourser toute commission qu’il aurait dj per ue.
(3) Les parties ne peuvent droger au paragraphe 1 au dtriment de l’agent commercial.
Article 2:306: Rmunration

Toute rmunration qui dpend (en partie) du nombre ou de la valeur des contrats est rpute
Þtre une commission au sens du prsent chapitre.

L’obligation d’informer (article 1:203) requiert notamment du commettant qu’il communique
l’agent commercial des informations concernant:
(a) les caractristiques des produits ou services,
(b) les prix et conditions de vente ou d’achat.
Article 2:308: Informations sur l’acceptation, le refus et la non-excution

(1) Le commettant doit informer l’agent commercial, dans un dlai raisonnable, de
(a) son acceptation ou de son refus d’un contrat ngoci par l’agent commercial pour le
compte du commettant; et de
(b) toute non-excution d’un contrat ngoci ou conclu par l’agent commercial pour le
compte du commettant.
(2) Les parties ne peuvent droger aux prsentes dispositions au dtriment de l’agent commer-
cial.
Article 2:309: Avertissement relatif la diminution du volume des contrats

(1) Le commettant doit prvenir l’agent commercial dans un dlai raisonnable, lorsque le
commettant prvoit ou devrait prvoir que le volume des contrats qu’il sera en mesure de
conclure ou d’excuter sera nettement plus faible que le volume auquel l’agent commercial
pouvait (avait des raisons de) croire.
cial.
32
Article 2:310: Informations relatives la commission par le biais d’un

relev de compte et d’un extrait des registres
(1) Le commettant doit fournir l’agent commercial, dans un dlai raisonnable, un relev de
compte relatif la commission laquelle l’agent commercial a droit. Ce relev doit prciser
la fa on dont le montant de la commission a t calcul.
(2) Aux fins du calcul de la commission, le commettant doit fournir l’agent commercial, sur
demande, un extrait de ses registres.
cial.
Article 2:311: Comptabilit

(1) Le commettant doit tenir jour des comptes adquats concernant les contrats ngocis ou
conclus par l’agent commercial
(2) Si le commettant a plus d’un agent commercial, le commettant doit, tout particulirement,
tenir jour des comptes indpendants pour chacun.
(3) Le commettant doit accorder un comptable indpendant un accs raisonnable ses
registres, la demande de l’agent commercial, si
le commettant ne respecte pas les obligations dont il est tenu en vertu de l’article 2:310,
paragraphes 1 et 2, ou si
l’agent commercial a des motifs importants de douter de la tenue de comptes adquats par le
commettant.
L’agent commercial doit payer le comptable indpendant.
Article 2:312: Montant de l’indemnit

(1) L’agent commercial a droit une indemnit pour le «Goodwill» sur base de l’article 1:305,
laquelle doit s’lever :
(a) la commission moyenne sur les contrats conclus avec de nouveaux clients et sur
l’augmentation du volume des affaires avec les clients existants, calcule pour les 12
derniers mois, multiplie par:
(b) le nombre d’annes pendant lesquelles le commettant devrait continuer tirer profit de
ces contrats l’avenir.
(2) L’indemnit qui en rsulte doit Þtre corrige conformment:
(a) au taux moyen de migration sur le territoire de l’agent commercial; et
(b) aux taux d’intrÞts moyens.
(3) En tout tat de cause, l’indemnit ne peut excder la rmunration d’une anne, calcule
partir de la rmunration annuelle moyenne de l’agent commercial au cours des cinq
dernires annes ou, si le contrat existe depuis moins de cinq ans, partir de la moyenne
pendant la priode en question.
cial.
33
Text of Articles
Article 2:313: Clause de ducroire

(1) Une convention par laquelle l’agent commercial garantit qu’un client paiera le prix des
produits faisant l’objet du (des) contrat(s) ngoci(s) ou conclu(s) par l’agent commercial
(clause de ducroire) n’est valable que si et dans la mesure o
:
(a) la clause est conclue par crit, et si
(b) la clause couvre des contrats particuliers qui ont t ngocis ou conclus par l’agent
commercial ou des contrats avec des clients particuliers qui sont spcifis dans la
convention, et si
(c) la clause est raisonnable eu gard aux intrÞts des parties.
(2) L’agent commercial a le droit de percevoir une commission d’un montant raisonnable sur
les contrats auxquels la garantie de ducroire s’applique (commission de ducroire).
Chapitre 3:
Franchise
Section 1:

Le prsent chapitre s’applique aux contrats en vertu desquels une partie (le franchiseur) accorde
l’autre partie (le franchis), en contrepartie d’une rmunration, le droit d’exercer des activits
commerciales (franchise) au sein du rseau du franchiseur dans le but de vendre certains
produits pour le compte du franchis et au nom du franchis, et en vertu desquels le franchis a
le droit et l’obligation d’utiliser l’enseigne ou la marque du franchiseur ainsi que d’autres droits
de proprit intellectuelle, le savoir-faire et la mthode commerciale.
Article 3:102: Informations prcontractuelles

(1) L’obligation de dvoiler des informations prcontractuelles (Article 1:201) requiert notam-
ment du franchiseur qu’il fournisse au franchis des informations adquates et en temps
opportun concernant:
(a) l’entreprise et l’exprience du franchiseur,
(b) les droits de proprit intellectuelle pertinents,
(c) les caractristiques du savoir-faire pertinent,
(d) le secteur commercial et les conditions du march,
(e) la mthode de franchise particulire et sa mise en œuvre,
(f) la structure et l’tendue du rseau de franchise,
(g) les droits, redevances ou tout autre paiement priodique,
(h) les conditions du contrat.
(2) Si le non-respect des dispositions du paragraphe 1 par le franchiseur ne constitue pas une
erreur fondamentale en vertu de l’article 4:103 des PDEC, le franchis peut obtenir des
dommages-intrÞts conformment l’article 4:117(.2) et (3) des PDEC, sauf si le franchiseur
pouvait de croire que les informations taient adquates ou avaient t communiques en
temps opportun.
34
Section 2:
Obligations du franchiseur
Article 3:201: Droits de proprit intellectuelle

(1) Le franchiseur doit permettre au franchis d’utiliser les droits de proprit intellectuelle dans
la mesure ncessaire pour exercer les activits sous franchise.
(2) Le franchiseur doit consentir des efforts raisonnables pour assurer l’usage paisible et continu
des droits de proprit intellectuelle.
Article 3:202: Savoir-faire

(1) Pendant toute la dure du contrat, le franchiseur doit communiquer au franchis le savoir-
faire ncessaire pour exercer les activits sous franchise.
(2) Les parties ne peuvent droger la prsente disposition.

(1) Le franchiseur doit apporter au franchis une assistance sous la forme de cours de forma-
tion, d’une orientation et de conseils, dans la mesure ncessaire l’exercice des activits
sous franchise, sans frais supplmentaires pour le franchis.
(2) Le franchiseur doit apporter un supplment d’assistance dans la mesure o
le franchis en
fait une demande raisonnable, pour un cot raisonnable.
Article 3:204: Approvisionnement

(1) Lorsque le franchis est tenu d’acheter les produits exclusivement auprs du franchiseur, ou
d’un fournisseur dsign par le franchiseur, ce dernier doit veiller ce que les produits
commands par le franchis lui soient fournis dans un dlai raisonnable, dans la mesure du
possible et condition que la commande soit raisonnable.
(2) Le paragraphe 1 s’applique galement dans les cas o
le franchis, bien que n’tant pas
soumis l’obligation lgale d’acheter auprs du franchiseur ou d’un fournisseur dsign par
le franchiseur, est en fait oblig de le faire.

L’obligation d’informer (article 1:203) requiert notamment du franchiseur qu’il communique au
franchis des informations concernant:
(a) les conditions pertinentes du march,
(b) les rsultats commerciaux du rseau de franchise,
(c) les caractristiques des produits,
(d) les prix et conditions de vente des produits,
(e) tous prix et conditions recommands pour la revente des produits,
(f) toute communication pertinente entre le franchiseur et les clients sur le territoire,
(g) toute campagne publicitaire pertinente pour l’exploitation de la franchise.
Article 3:206: Avertissement relatif une diminution de la

capacit d’approvisionnement
(1) Lorsque le franchis est oblig d’acheter les produits exclusivement auprs du franchiseur,
ou d’un fournisseur dsign par le franchiseur, le franchiseur doit prvenir le franchis, dans
35
Text of Articles
un dlai raisonnable, lorsqu’il prvoit ou devrait prvoir que sa capacit d’approvisionne-

ment, ou la capacit d’approvisionnement des fournisseurs dsigns, sera sensiblement
infrieure celle que le franchis pouvait (avait des raisons) d’esprer.
(2) Le paragraphe 1 s’applique galement dans les cas o
le franchis, bien que n’tant pas
soumis l’obligation lgale d’acheter auprs du franchiseur ou d’un fournisseur dsign par
le franchiseur, est en fait oblig de le faire.
(3) Les parties ne peuvent droger aux prsentes dispositions au dtriment du franchis.
Article 3:207: Renomme du rseau et publicit

(1) Le franchiseur doit consentir des efforts raisonnables pour la promotion et le maintien de la
renomme du rseau de franchise.
(2) En particulier, le franchiseur doit concevoir et coordonner des campagnes publicitaires
appropries visant la promotion du rseau de franchise.
(3) Les activits de promotion et de maintien de la renomme du rseau de franchise doivent
Þtre ralises sans supplment de frais pour le franchis.
Section 3:
Obligations du franchis
Article 3:301: Droits, redevances et autres paiements priodiques

(1) Le franchis doit payer au franchiseur les droits, redevances ou autre paiement priodique
tels que convenus dans le contrat.
(2) Si les droits, redevances ou tout autre paiement priodique doivent Þtre dtermins uni-
latralement par le franchiseur, l’article 6:105 des PDEC sera applicable.

L’obligation d’informer (article 1:203) requiert notamment du franchis qu’il communique au
franchiseur des informations concernant:
(a) toute plainte que des tiers portent ou menacent de porter eu gard aux droits de proprit
intellectuelle du franchiseur;
(b) toute violation des droits de proprit intellectuelle du franchiseur par des tiers.
Article 3:303: Mthode commerciale et instructions

(1) Le franchis doit consentir des efforts raisonnables pour exercer les activits sous franchise
conformment la mthode commerciale du franchiseur.
(2) Le franchis doit se conformer aux instructions raisonnables du franchiseur en ce qui
concerne la mthode commerciale et la renomme du rseau.
(3) Le franchis doit raisonnablement veiller ne pas porter prjudice au rseau de franchise.

(1) Le franchis doit accorder au franchiseur un accs raisonnable ses locaux afin de permettre
au franchiseur de vrifier que le franchis se conforme sa mthode commerciale et ses
instructions.
(2) Le franchis doit accorder au franchiseur un accs raisonnable ses registres comptables.
36
Chapitre 4:
Distribution
Section 1:
Article 4:101: Champ d’application et dfinitions

(1) Le prsent chapitre s’applique aux contrats de distribution exclusifs, de distribution slectifs
et d’achat exclusifs.
(2) Un contrat de distribution est un contrat en vertu duquel une partie (le fournisseur)
convient de fournir l’autre partie (le distributeur) des produits de fa on continue et en
vertu duquel le distributeur convient de les acheter et de les vendre au nom et pour le
compte du distributeur.
(3) Un contrat de distribution exclusif est un contrat de distribution en vertu duquel le four-
nisseur convient de ne fournir des produits qu’ un seul distributeur dans un certain
territoire ou un certain groupe de clients.
(4) Un contrat de distribution slectif est un contrat de distribution en vertu duquel le four-
nisseur convient de ne fournir, soit directement soit indirectement, des produits qu’ des
distributeurs slectionns sur base de critres spcifiques.
(5) Un contrat d’achat exclusif est un contrat de distribution en vertu duquel le distributeur
convient de n’acheter des produits qu’au seul fournisseur ou une seule partie dsigne par
le fournisseur.
Section 2:
Obligations du fournisseur
Article 4:201: Approvisionnement

Le fournisseur doit fournir les produits commands par le distributeur, dans la mesure du
possible et condition que la commande soit raisonnable.

L’obligation d’informer (article 1:203) requiert du fournisseur qu’il communique au distributeur
des informations concernant:
(a) les caractristiques des produits,
(b) les prix et conditions de vente des produits,
(c) tous prix et conditions recommands pour la revente des produits,
(d) toute communication pertinente entre le fournisseur et les clients,
(e) toute campagne publicitaire pertinente pour l’exercice des activits.
Article 4:203: Avertissement relatif une diminution de la capacit

d’approvisionnement
(1) Le fournisseur doit prvenir le distributeur, dans un dlai de temps raisonnable, lorsque le
fournisseur prvoit ou devrait prvoir que la capacit d’approvisionnement du fournisseur,
sera sensiblement infrieure celle que le distributeur pouvait (avait des raisons d’) esprer.
37
Text of Articles
(2) Dans les contrats d’achat exclusifs, les parties ne peuvent droger cette disposition au
dtriment du distributeur.
Article 4:204: Matriaux publicitaires

Le fournisseur doit fournir au distributeur, un prix raisonnable, tous les matriaux publicitaires
dont il (le fournisseur) dispose et qui sont ncessaires pour la bonne distribution et la promo-
tion des produits.
Article 4:205: Renomme des produits

Le fournisseur doit consentir des efforts raisonnables pour ne pas porter prjudice la renom-
me des produits.
Section 3:
Obligations du distributeur

Dans les contrats de distribution exclusifs et slectifs, le distributeur doit, dans la mesure du
possible, consentir des efforts raisonnables pour promouvoir la vente des produits.
Article 4:302: Information durant l’excution

Dans les contrats de distribution exclusifs et slectifs, l’obligation d’informer (Article 1:203)
requiert notamment du distributeur qu’il communique au fournisseur des informations con-
cernant:
(a) toute plainte que des tiers portent ou menacent de porter eu gard aux droits de proprit
intellectuelle du fournisseur,
(b) toute violation des droits de proprit intellectuelle du fournisseur par des tiers.
Article 4:303: Avertissement concernant une diminution des besoins

Dans les contrats de distribution exclusifs et slectifs, le distributeur doit prvenir le fournisseur,
dans un dlai raisonnable, lorsqu’il prvoit ou devrait prvoir que ses besoins seront sensible-
ment infrieurs ceux que le fournisseur pouvait (avait des raisons d’) esprer.

Dans les contrats de distribution exclusifs et slectifs, le distributeur doit se conformer aux
instructions raisonnables du fournisseur visant assurer la bonne distribution des produits et
maintenir la renomme ou le caractre distinctif des produits.

Dans les contrats de distribution exclusifs et slectifs, le distributeur doit accorder au fournisseur
un accs raisonnable ses locaux afin de permettre au fournisseur de vrifier que le distributeur
se conforme aux normes convenues ainsi qu’aux instructions raisonnables qui lui ont t
donnes.
Article 4:306: Renomme des produits

Dans les contrats de distribution exclusifs et slectifs, le distributeur doit consentir des efforts
raisonnables pour ne pas porter prjudice la renomme des produits.
38
German3
Handelsvertreter-, Franchise- und Vertriebsvertrge
Kapitel 1:
Allgemeine Bestimmungen
Abschnitt 1:
Geltungsbereich von Kapitel 1
Artikel 1:101: Geltungsbereich

Dieses Kapitel ist anzuwenden auf Handelsvertreter-, Franchise- und Vertriebsvertrge sowie –
mit entsprechenden Anpassungen – auf sonstige Vertrge, in denen eine der Parteien als
unabhngiger Unternehmer ihre Fhigkeiten und Bemhungen einsetzt, um die Produkte der
anderen Vertragspartei auf den Markt zu bringen.
Abschnitt 2:
Pflichten
Artikel 1:201: Informationen vor Vertragsabschluss

(1) Jede der Parteien ist verpflichtet, die andere Partei innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist vor
Vertragsabschluss mit angemessenen Informationen zu versorgen. Bei Nichterfllung diesier
Pflicht gilt Absatz (3).
(2) Unter „angemessenen Informationen“ werden Informationen verstanden, die gengen, um
die andere Partei in die Lage zu versetzen, auf der Grundlage angemessener Informationen
zu entscheiden, ob sie einen Vertrag des erwogenen Typs und zu den erwogenen Bedin-
gungen eingehen soll oder nicht.
(3) Fhrt die Nichterfllung der Pflicht nach Absatz 1 durch eine der Parteien dazu, dass die
andere Partei einen Vertrag abschließt, obwohl die erste Vertragspartei wusste oder obwohl
von ihr vernnftigerweise htte erwartet werden drfen, zu wissen, dass die andere Partei,
wre sie angemessen und rechtzeitig informiert worden, den Vertrag nicht oder nur zu
grundlegend anderen Bedingungen abgeschlossen htte, dann gelten die Rechtsfolgen des
Irrtums gemß PECL Kapitel 4.
(4) Abweichende Vereinbarungen der Parteien sind nicht zulssig.
Artikel 1:202: Zusammenarbeit

(1) Bei Handelsvertreter-, Franchise- und Vertriebsvertrgen sowie bei sonstigen langfristigen
Handelsvertrgen ist die Pflicht zur Zusammenarbeit (Art.1:202 PECL) von grundlegender
Bedeutung und besonders intensiv. Sie verpflichtet die Parteien insbesondere, aktiv und
3 bersetzung vorgeschlagen von Ole Böger.
39
Text of Articles
loyal zusammenzuarbeiten und ihre jeweiligen Bemhungen zu koordinieren, um die Ver-
tragsziele zu verwirklichen.
Artikel 1:203: Informationen whrend der Laufzeit des Vertrages

(1) Whrend der Laufzeit des Vertrages muss jede der Parteien die andere zur gebotenen Zeit
mit smtlichen Informationen versorgen, ber welche die erste Partei verfgt und welche die
andere zur Verwirklichung der Vertragsziele bentigt.
Artikel 1:204: Vertraulichkeit

(1) Wenn eine Vertragspartei von der anderen Partei vertrauliche Informationen erhlt, muss sie
diese vertraulich behandeln und darf die Informationen weder whrend der Laufzeit des
Vertrages noch nach Ablauf des Vertrages an Dritte weitergeben.
(2) Wenn eine der Vertragsparteien von der anderen Partei vertrauliche Informationen erhlt,
darf sie diese zu keinen anderen Zwecken als den Vertragszielen verwenden.
(3) Informationen, ber die eine der Vertragsparteien bereits verfgte oder die der Allgemeinheit
zugnglich gemacht worden sind, sowie Informationen, deren Weitergabe an die Kunden
im Zuge der Geschftsttigkeit notwendig ist, sind nicht als vertrauliche Informationen im
Sinne dieser Bestimmung zu betrachten.
Abschnitt 3:
Vertragsbeendigung und Kndigung
Artikel 1:301: Vertrag auf bestimmte Zeit

(1) Ein fr eine bestimmte Zeit geschlossener Vertrag endet mit Ablauf des im Vertrag festge-
legten Zeitraums. Sofern die Parteien keine abweichende Vereinbarung getroffen haben,
kann ein derartiger Vertrag nicht vorzeitig einseitig beendet werden.
(2) Es steht jeder der Vertragsparteien frei, einen auf bestimmte Zeit geschlossenen Vertrag nicht
zu verlngern. Wenn allerdings eine der Vertragsparteien der anderen Partei innerhalb einer
angemessenen Frist mitgeteilt hat, dass sie den Vertrag verlngern mchte, dann muss die
andere Partei, die den Vertrag nicht verlngern mchte, diese Entscheidung der erstgenannten
Partei innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist vor Ablauf des Vertragszeitraums mitteilen.
(3) Ein auf bestimmte Zeit geschlossener Vertrag, den beide Parteien nach Ablauf der Laufzeit
des Vertrages weiterhin erfllen, wird ein Vertrag auf unbestimmte Zeit.
Artikel 1:302: Einseitige Beendigung eines auf unbestimmte Zeit

geschlossenen Vertrags
(1) Jede der Vertragsparteien eines Vertrages auf unbestimmte Zeit kann diesen Vertrag unter
Wahrung einer angemessenen Frist durch Kndigung beenden (Art. 6:109 PECL).
(2) Was unter einer „angemessenen Kndigungsfrist“ zu verstehen ist, hngt u. a. von folgen-
den Faktoren ab:
(a) der abgelaufenen Laufzeit des Vertrags,
(b) vorgenommenen angemessenen Investitionen,
(c) der erforderlichen Zeit, um eine angemessene Alternative zu finden, sowie von
(d) Gebruchen.
40
German. Handelsvertreter-, Franchise- und Vertriebsvertrge
(3) Eine Kndigungsfrist von einem Monat fr jedes abgelaufene Jahr der Laufzeit des Vertrages,
hchstens aber von 36 Monaten, gilt als angemessen.
(4) Die Kndigungsfrist fr den Auftraggeber, den Franchisegeber oder den Lieferanten darf
nicht weniger als einen Monat im ersten Jahr, zwei Monate im zweiten, drei Monate im
dritten, vier Monate im vierten, fnf Monate im fnften und sechs Monate im sechsten und
den folgenden Jahren der Laufzeit des Vertrages betragen. Abweichende Vereinbarungen der
Parteien sind nicht zulssig.
(5) Vereinbarungen ber lngere Kndigungsfristen als die in Absatz 2 und 3 festgelegten sind
gltig, sofern die von dem Auftraggeber, dem Franchisegeber oder dem Lieferanten zu
beachtende Kndigungsfrist nicht krzer ist als die von dem Handelsvertreter, dem Fran-
chisenehmer oder dem Vertreiber zu beachtende Frist.
(6) Die durch die Kndigung benachteiligte Partei hat whrend der Kndigungsfrist keinen
Anspruch auf Erbringung der vertraglich geschuldeten Leistung. Das Gericht kann jedoch
die Erfllung der Pflichten whrend der Laufzeit des Vertrages sowie der nachvertraglichen
Pflichten, fr die keine Zusammenarbeit erforderlich ist, anordnen.
Artikel 1:303: Schadensersatz bei Nichtbeachtung der Mitteilungs- und

Kndigungsfristen
(1) Im Falle der Nichtbeachtung der Kndigungsfristen der in den Artikeln 1:301 (2) und 1:302
(1) genannten Fristen hat die benachteiligte Vertragspartei Anspruch auf Schadensersatz.
(2) Der geschuldete Schadenersatz ist regelmßig derjenige Betrag, welcher dem Gewinn ent-
spricht, den die benachteiligte Partei whrend der Dauer der nichtbeachteten Kndigungs-
frist erzielt htte.
(3) Als Jahresgewinn gilt der Durchschnittsgewinn, den die benachteiligte Vertragspartei durch
den Vertrag whrend der 3 vorhergehenden Jahre erzielt hat, bzw. bei krzerer Vertragsdauer
der Durchschnitt fr den betreffenden Zeitraum.
(4) Die allgemeinen Bestimmungen ber Schadensersatz bei Nichterfllung (Art. 9:501 ff PECL)
gelten entsprechend.
Artikel 1:304: Aufhebung des Vertrages

(1) Eine Vertragspartei ist zur Aufhebung des Vertrages wegen Nichterfllung nur dann be-
rechtigt, wenn die Nichterfllung durch die andere Partei wesentlich im Sinne von Artikel
8:103 (b) sowie Artikel 8:103 (c) PECL (Art. 9:301 PECL) ist.
Artikel 1:305: Kundschaftsentschdigung (Goodwill)

(1) Bei Vertragsbeendigung aus jedwedem Grunde (einschließlich Aufhebung durch eine der
Vertragsparteien wegen Nichterfllung) hat eine Vertragspartei Anspruch auf Kundschafts-
entschdigung (Goodwill) durch die andere Partei, wenn und soweit:
(a) die erste Vertragspartei das Geschftsvolumen der anderen Partei deutlich ausgeweitet
hat und die andere Partei weiterhin Gewinne aus diesem Geschft erzielt; und
(b) die Zahlung einer Entschdigung unter Bercksichtigung smtlicher Umstnde ange-
messen ist.
(2) Die Gewhrung einer Entschdigung hindert eine Vertragspartei nicht daran, Schadensersatz
gemß Artikel 1:303 zu fordern.
41
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Artikel 1:306: Lager, Ersatzteile und Material

Wenn der Vertrag durch eine der Vertragsparteien beendet, gekndigt, aufgehoben oder ange-
fochten wird, muss der Auftraggeber, Franchisegeber oder Lieferant die verbleibende Menge an
Lagerbestand, Ersatzteilen und Material des Handelsvertreters, Franchisenehmers oder Vertrei-
bers zu einem angemessenen Preis zurckkaufen, außer wenn der Handelsvertreter, Franchise-
nehmer oder Vertreiber diesen Bestand zu einem angemessenen Preis weiterverkaufen kann.
Abschnitt 4:
Sonstige allgemeine Bestimmungen
Artikel 1:401: Zurckbehaltungsrecht

Zur Sicherung seiner Ansprche auf Vergtung, Abfindung, Schadensersatz und Entschdigung
hat der Handelsvertreter, Franchisenehmer oder Vertreiber ein Zurckbehaltungsrecht an dem
beweglichen Eigentum des Auftraggebers, Franchisegebers oder Lieferanten, das sich infolge des
Vertrages in seinem Besitz befindet, bis der (ehemalige) Auftraggeber, Franchisegeber oder
Lieferant seine Pflichten erfllt hat.
Artikel 1:402: Unterzeichnetes Schriftstck

Jede der Vertragsparteien hat Anspruch darauf, von der anderen Partei – auf Verlangen – ein
unterzeichnetes Schriftstck zu erhalten, in dem die Vertragsbedingungen festgelegt sind.
Kapitel 2:
Handelsvertretervertrag
Abschnitt 1:
Allgemeines
Artikel 2:101: Anwendungsbereich

Dieses Kapitel ist anzuwenden auf Vertrge, in denen eine Vertragspartei (der Handelsvertreter)
sich verpflichtet, als selbstndiger Gewerbetreibender stndig fr eine andere Person (den
Auftraggeber) Vertrge zu vermitteln oder abzuschließen, whrend der Auftraggeber sich ver-
pflichtet, den Handelsvertreter fr dessen Ttigkeit zu vergten.
Abschnitt 2:
Pflichten des Handelsvertreters
Artikel 2:201: Aushandeln und Abschluss von Vertrgen

Der Handelsvertreter muss angemessene Anstrengungen zur Vermittlung von Vertrgen fr den
Auftraggeber sowie zum Abschluss der Vertrge unternehmen, zu deren Abschluss er ange-
wiesen wurde.
42
Artikel 2:202: Anweisungen

Der Handelsvertreter muss den angemessenen Anweisungen des Auftraggebers Folge leisten,
sofern diese keine erhebliche Beeintrchtigung der Selbstndigkeit des Handelsvertreters dar-
stellen.
Artikel 2:203: Informationspflicht whrend der Laufzeit der Vertrages

Aufgrund seiner Informationspflicht (Artikel 1:203) muss der Handelsvertreter den Auftraggeber
insbesondere informieren ber:
(a) vermittelte oder abgeschlossene Vertrge,
(b) die Marktbedingungen,
(c) die Zahlungsfhigkeit und sonstige Eigenschaften der Kunden.
Artikel 2:204: Buchfhrung

(1) Der Handelsvertreter ist zu einer ordnungsgemßen Buchfhrung ber die fr den Auftrag-
geber vermittelten oder abgeschlossenen Vertrge verpflichtet.
(2) Wenn der Handelsvertreter fr mehr als einen Auftraggeber ttig ist, muss der Handelsver-
treter insbesondere eine getrennte Buchfhrung fr jeden von ihm vertretenen Auftraggeber
unterhalten.
(3) Hat der Auftraggeber gewichtige Grnde, daran zu zweifeln, dass der Handelsvertreter eine
ordnungsgemße Buchfhrung unterhlt, muss der Handelsvertreter auf Verlangen einem
unabhngigen Buchhalter angemessenen Einblick in die Bcher des Handelsvertreters ge-
whren. Die Kosten fr die Leistungen des unabhngigen Buchhalters hat der Auftraggeber
zu tragen.
Abschnitt 3:
Pflichten des Auftraggebers
Artikel 2:301: Provisionsanspruch whrend der Laufzeit des Vertrages

(1) Der Handelsvertreter hat Anspruch auf Provision fr whrend der Laufzeit des Handels-
vertretervertrags mit Kunden abgeschlossene Vertrge, wenn
(a) der Vertrag mit dem Kunden infolge der Bemhungen des Handelsvertreters abge-
schlossen worden ist, oder
(b) der Vertrag mit einer dritten Partei abgeschlossen worden ist, die der Handelsvertreter
zuvor als Kunde fr Vertrge der gleichen Art akquiriert hat, oder
(c) dem Handelsvertreter ein bestimmtes geographisches Gebiet oder eine bestimmte Kun-
dengruppe anvertraut worden ist und der Vertrag mit einem Kunden abgeschlossen
worden ist, der dem betreffenden Bereich bzw. der betreffenden Gruppe angehrt.
(2) Der Anspruch entsteht nur, wenn
(a) der Auftraggeber die Pflichten des Auftraggebers im Rahmen des Vertrags mit dem
Kunden erfllt hat oder htte erfllen mssen; oder
(b) der Kunde die Pflichten des Kunden aus dem Vertrag erfllt hat oder berechtigterweise
die Leistung des Kunden zurckbehlt (Artikel 9:201 PECL).
(3) Die Parteien drfen nicht zum Nachteil des Handelsvertreters von der Bestimmung des
Absatzes 2 Buchstabe (b) abweichende Vereinbarungen treffen.
43
Text of Articles
Artikel 2:302: Provisionsanspruch nach Ende der Laufzeit des Vertrages

(1) Der Handelsvertreter hat Anspruch auf Provision fr nach Ende des Handelsvertreterver-
trages mit Kunden abgeschlossene Vertrge, wenn
(a) der Vertrag mit dem Kunden hauptschlich infolge der Bemhungen des Handelsver-
treters whrend der Laufzeit des Handelsvertretervertrages abgeschlossen worden ist,
und der Vertrag mit dem Kunden innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist nach Ende des
Handelsvertretervertrages abgeschlossen worden ist, oder
(b) die Bedingungen gemß Artikel 2:301 Absatz 1 erfllt gewesen wren, außer dass der
Vertrag mit dem Kunden nicht whrend der Laufzeit des Handelsvertretervertrages
abgeschlossen worden ist, jedoch das Angebot des Kunden beim Auftraggeber oder
beim Handelsvertreter vor Ende des Handelsvertretervertrages eingegangen ist.
(2) Der Anspruch entsteht nur, wenn
(a) der Auftraggeber die Verpflichtungen des Auftraggebers im Rahmen des Vertrages mit
dem Kunden erfllt hat oder htte erfllen mssen; oder
(b) der Kunde die Pflichten des Kunden aus dem Vertrag erfllt hat oder berechtigterweise
die Leistung des Kunden zurckbehlt (Artikel 9:201 PECL).
Absatzes 2 Buchstabe (b) abweichende Vereinbarungen treffen.
Artikel 2:303: Vorrangiger Provisionsanspruch

Der Handelsvertreter hat keinen Anspruch auf die in Artikel 2:301 genannte Provision, wenn der
vorhergehende Handelsvertreter auf die betreffende Provision einen Anspruch gemß Artikel
2:302 hat, außer wenn es angemessen ist, die Provision zwischen den beiden Handelsvertretern
zu teilen.
Artikel 2:304: Zeitpunkt, zu dem die Provision zu bezahlen ist

(1) Der Auftraggeber muss die Provision des Handelsvertreters sptestens am letzten Tag des
Monats zahlen, der auf das Quartal folgt, in dem der Handelsvertreter den Anspruch auf
Provision erworben hat.
(2) Die Parteien drfen nicht zum Nachteil des Handelsvertreters von dieser Bestimmung
abweichende Vereinbarungen treffen.
Artikel 2:305: Erlschen des Provisionsanspruchs

(1) Der Anspruch des Handelsvertreters auf Provision gemß Artikel 2:301 und 2:302 kann nur
erlschen, wenn und soweit feststeht, dass es nicht zur Erfllung des Vertrages mit dem
Kunden kommen wird und dass diese Tatsache nicht durch den Auftraggeber zu verant-
worten ist.
(2) Bei Erlschen des Provisionsanspruchs des Handelsvertreters muss dieser etwaige bereits
erhaltene Provisionen zurckerstatten.
Absatzes 1 abweichende Vereinbarungen treffen.
Artikel 2:306: Vergtung

Jede Vergtung, die (teilweise) von der Anzahl oder dem Wert von Vertrgen abhngt, gilt als
Provision im Sinne dieses Kapitels.
44
Artikel 2:307: Informationspflicht whrend der Vertragserfllung

Aufgrund seiner Informationspflicht (Artikel 1:203) muss der Auftraggeber den Handelsvertreter
insbesondere informieren ber:
(a) die Eigenschaften der Waren oder Dienstleistungen,
(b) die Preise sowie die Kauf- und Verkaufsbedingungen.
Artikel 2:308: Informationen ber Annahme, Ablehnung und Nichterfllung

(1) Der Auftraggeber muss den Handelsvertreter – innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist – ber
folgende Punkte informieren:
(a) die Annahme oder Ablehnung eines durch den Handelsvertreter im Namen des Auf-
traggebers ausgehandelten Vertrags durch den Auftraggeber, und
(b) die etwaige Nichterfllung eines durch den Handelsvertreter im Namen des Auftrag-
gebers ausgehandelten oder abgeschlossenen Vertrages.
Artikel 2:309: Warnung vor verringerten Vertragsvolumina

(1) Der Auftraggeber muss den Handelsvertreter innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist warnen,
wenn der Auftraggeber vorhersieht oder vorhersehen msste, dass das Volumen der Ver-
trge, die der Auftraggeber wird abschließen oder erfllen knnen, deutlich geringer aus-
fallen wird, als der Handelsvertreter annehmen drfte.
Artikel 2:310: Informationen ber die Provision mittels Abrechnung und Buchauszug
(1) Der Auftraggeber muss dem Handelsvertreter innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist eine Ab-
rechnung ber die Provision liefern, auf die der Handelsvertreter Anspruch hat. Aus dieser
Abrechnung muss hervorgehen, wie der Provisionsbetrag errechnet wurde.
(2) Zur Berechnung der Provision muss der Auftraggeber dem Handelsvertreter auf Anfrage
einen Auszug aus den Bchern des Auftraggebers liefern.
Artikel 2:311: Buchfhrung

(1) Der Auftraggeber ist zu einer ordnungsgemßen Buchfhrung ber die durch den Handels-
vertreter vermittelten oder abgeschlossenen Vertrge verpflichtet.
(2) Sind fr den Auftraggeber mehrere Handelsvertreter ttig, so muss der Auftraggeber insbe-
sondere eine getrennte Buchfhrung fr jeden Handelsvertreter unterhalten.
(3) Der Auftraggeber muss auf Anforderung des Handelsvertreters einem unabhngigen Buch-
prfer angemessenen Einblick in die Bcher des Auftraggebers gewhren, wenn
(a) der Auftraggeber die Pflichten des Auftraggebers gemß Artikel 2:310 Absatz 1 und 2
nicht erfllt, oder
(b) dem Handelsvertreter gewichtige Grnde vorliegen, um daran zu zweifeln, dass der
Auftraggeber eine ordnungsgemße Buchfhrung unterhlt.
Die Kosten der Ttigkeit des unabhngigen Buchprfers trgt der Handelsvertreter.
45
Text of Articles
Artikel 2:312: Hhe der Entschdigung

(1) Der Handelsvertreter hat Anspruch auf Kundschaftsentschdigung (Goodwill) auf der
Grundlage des Artikel 1:305, die sich berechnet aus:
(a) der durchschnittlichen Provision auf Vertrge mit neuen Kunden sowie auf die Aus-
weitung des Geschftsvolumens mit vorhandenen Kunden, berechnet fr die letzten 12
Monate, multipliziert mit:
(b) der Zahl der Jahre, in denen der Auftraggeber wahrscheinlich in Zukunft Gewinne aus
diesen Vertrgen erzielen wird.
(2) Die so ermittelte Entschdigung ist anzupassen entsprechend:
(a) den durchschnittlichen Wanderungsbewegungen im Gebiet des Handelsvertreters; und
(b) den durchschnittlichen Zinsstzen.
(3) In keinem Fall darf die Entschdigung die Vergtung fr ein Jahr bersteigen, berechnet
aufgrund der durchschnittlichen jhrlichen Vergtung des Handelsvertreters whrend der
vorangegangenen fnf Jahre oder, wenn der Vertrag seit weniger als fnf Jahren besteht,
aufgrund des Durchschnitts whrend des betreffenden Zeitraums.
Artikel 2:313: Delkredere-Klausel

(1) Eine Vereinbarung, in welcher der Handelsvertreter garantiert, dass ein Kunde den Preis fr
die Waren zahlen wird, die Gegenstand des/der vom Handelsvertreter vermittelten oder
abgeschlossenen Vertrages/Vertrge sind (Delkredere-Klausel), ist nur gltig, wenn und
soweit:
(a) diese Klausel schriftlich abgeschlossen wird, und
(b) die Klausel sich auf bestimmte vom Handelsvertreter vermittelte oder abgeschlossene
Vertrge bezieht, oder auf derartige Vertrge mit bestimmten Kunden, die in der Ver-
einbarung bezeichnet werden, und
(c) die Klausel im Hinblick auf die Interessen der Vertragsparteien angemessen ist.
(2) Der Handelsvertreter hat Anspruch auf eine Provision in angemessener Hhe fr Vertrge,
auf die sich die Delkredere-Garantie erstreckt (Delkredere-Provision).
Kapitel 3:
Franchisevertrag
Abschnitt 1:
Allgemeines
Artikel 3:101: Geltungsbereich

Dieses Kapitel ist anzuwenden auf Vertrge, in denen eine Vertragspartei (der Franchisegeber)
der anderen Partei (dem Franchisenehmer) gegen eine Vergtung das Recht gewhrt, ein
Unternehmen (Franchisebetrieb) innerhalb des Netzwerkes des Franchisegebers zu betreiben,
mit dem Ziel des Verkaufs bestimmter Produkte auf Rechnung und im Namen des Franchise-
nehmers, wobei der Franchisenehmer das Recht und die Pflicht hat, den Handelsnamen oder
das Warenzeichen sowie sonstige geistige Eigentumsrechte, das Know-how und die Geschfts-
methode des Franchisegebers zu benutzen.
46
Artikel 3:102: Informationen vor Vertragsabschluss

(1) Aufgrund seiner Informationspflicht vor Vertragsabschluss (Artikel 1:201) muss der Fran-
chisegeber den Franchisenehmer insbesondere angemessen und rechtzeitig informieren
ber:
(a) das Unternehmen und die Erfahrung des Franchisegebers,
(b) die relevanten geistigen Eigentumsrechte,
(c) die Eigenschaften des relevanten Know-hows,
(d) den Wirtschaftszweig und die Marktbedingungen,
(e) die spezielle Franchisemethode und deren Anwendung,
(f) die Struktur und den Umfang des Franchisenetzes,
(g) die Gebhren, Lizenzgebhren und sonstige regelmßige Zahlungen,
(h) die Vertragsbedingungen.
(2) Sofern eine Nichterfllung von Absatz 1 durch den Franchisegeber keinen Irrtum gemß
Artikel 4:103 PECL zur Folge hat, hat der Franchisenehmer Anspruch auf Schadensersatz
gemß Artikel 4:117 (2) und (3) PECL, es sei denn, der Franchisegeber hatte Grund zur
Annahme, dass die Informationen angemessen waren bzw. innerhalb einer angemessenen
Frist geliefert wurden.
Abschnitt 2:
Pflichten des Franchisegebers
Artikel 3:201: Geistige Eigentumsrechte

(1) Der Franchisegeber muss dem Franchisenehmer das Recht einrumen, die geistigen Eigen-
tumsrechte in dem zur Fhrung des Franchisebetriebes erforderlichen Ausmaß zu nutzen.
(2) Der Franchisegeber muss angemessene Anstrengungen unternehmen, um die ungestrte
und laufende Nutzung der geistigen Eigentumsrechte zu gewhrleisten.
Artikel 3:202: Know-how

(1) Whrend der gesamten Laufzeit des Vertrages muss der Franchisegeber dem Franchiseneh-
mer das zur Fhrung des Franchisebetriebs erforderliche Know-how zur Verfgung stellen.
Artikel 3:203: Untersttzung

(1) Der Franchisegeber muss dem Franchisenehmer Untersttzung in Form von Schulungen,
Anleitung und Beratung gewhren, soweit dies fr die Fhrung des Franchisebetriebs er-
forderlich ist, und zwar ohne zustzliche Kosten fr den Franchisenehmer.
(2) Der Franchisegeber muss weitere Untersttzung gewhren, soweit diese vom Franchisegeber
angemessenerweise angefordert wird, und zwar zu angemessenen Kosten.
Artikel 3:204: Belieferung

(1) Wenn der Franchisenehmer verpflichtet ist, die Produkte vom Franchisegeber oder von
einem durch den Franchisegeber benannten Lieferanten zu beziehen, muss der Franchise-
47
Text of Articles
geber gewhrleisten, dass die durch den Franchisenehmer bestellten Produkte innerhalb
einer angemessenen Frist geliefert werden, soweit dies praktisch durchfhrbar ist und soweit
es sich um eine angemessene Bestellung handelt.
(2) Absatz 1 gilt auch fr Flle, in denen der Franchisenehmer zwar nicht rechtlich dazu
verpflichtet ist, die Produkte vom Franchisegeber oder von einem durch den Franchisegeber
benannten Lieferanten zu beziehen, aber tatschlich dazu gezwungen ist.

Aufgrund seiner Informationspflicht (Artikel 1:203) muss der Franchisegeber den Franchiseneh-
mer insbesondere informieren ber:
(a) die Marktbedingungen,
(b) die wirtschaftlichen Ergebnisse des Franchisenetzwerkes,
(c) die Eigenschaften der Produkte,
(d) die Preise und Bedingungen fr den Verkauf von Produkten,
(e) etwaige Preisempfehlungen und Bedingungen fr den Weiterverkauf von Produkten,
(f) relevante Kontakte zwischen dem Franchisegeber und Kunden im betreffenden Gebiet,
(g) Werbekampagnen.
Artikel 3:206: Warnung vor verringerter Lieferkapazitt

(1) Wenn der Franchisenehmer verpflichtet ist, die Produkte vom Franchisegeber oder von
einem durch den Franchisegeber benannten Lieferanten zu beziehen, muss der Franchise-
geber den Franchisenehmer innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist warnen, wenn der Fran-
chisegeber vorhersieht oder vorhersehen msste, dass die Lieferkapazitt des Franchise-
gebers bzw. der durch den Franchisegeber benannten Lieferanten deutlich geringer sein
wird, als der Franchisenehmer annehmen durfte.
(2) Absatz 1 gilt auch fr Flle, in denen der Franchisenehmer zwar nicht rechtlich dazu
verpflichtet ist, die Produkte vom Franchisegeber oder von einem durch den Franchisegeber
benannten Lieferanten zu beziehen, aber tatschlich dazu gezwungen ist.
(3) Die Parteien drfen nicht zum Nachteil des Franchisenehmers von dieser Bestimmung
Artikel 3:207: Guter Ruf des Netzwerks sowie Werbung

(1) Der Franchisegeber muss angemessene Anstrengungen unternehmen, um den guten Ruf
des Franchisenetzwerks zu frdern und zu erhalten.
(2) Insbesondere muss der Franchisegeber die geeigneten Werbekampagnen zur Frderung des
Franchisenetzwerks ausarbeiten und koordinieren.
(3) Die Aktivitten zur Frderung und Erhaltung des guten Rufs des Franchisenetzwerks sind
ohne zustzliche Kosten fr den Franchisenehmer durchzufhren.
Abschnitt 3:
Pflichten des Franchisenehmers
Artikel 3:301: Gebhren, Lizenzgebhren und sonstige regelmßige Zahlungen

(1) Der Franchisenehmer muss an den Franchisegeber die im Vertrag vereinbarten Gebhren,
Lizenzgebhren und sonstigen regelmßigen Zahlungen leisten.
48
(2) Wenn Gebhren, Lizenzgebhren und sonstige regelmßige Zahlungen einseitig durch den
Franchisegeber zu bestimmen sind, ist Artikel 6:105 PECL anzuwenden.

Aufgrund seiner Informationspflicht (Artikel 1:203) muss der Franchisenehmer den Franchise-
geber insbesondere informieren ber:
(a) durch Dritte erhobene oder angedrohte Ansprche hinsichtlich der geistigen Eigentums-
rechte des Franchisegebers,
(b) Verletzungen der geistigen Eigentumsrechte des Franchisegebers durch Dritte.
Artikel 3:303: Geschftsmethode und Anweisungen

(1) Der Franchisenehmer muss angemessene Anstrengungen unternehmen, den Franchisebe-
trieb gemß der Geschftsmethode des Franchisegebers zu fhren.
(2) Der Franchisenehmer muss die angemessenen Anweisungen des Franchisegebers hinsicht-
lich der Geschftsmethode und der Erhaltung des guten Rufs des Franchisenetzwerks
befolgen.
(3) Der Franchisenehmer muss angemessene Anstrengungen unternehmen, um dem Franchise-
netzwerk keinen Schaden zuzufgen.
Artikel 3:304: Inspektion

(1) Der Franchisenehmer muss dem Franchisegeber angemessenen Zugang zu den Geschfts-
rumen des Franchisenehmers gewhren, damit der Franchisegeber in der Lage ist zu ber-
prfen, dass der Franchisenehmer sich an die Geschftsmethode und die Anweisungen des
Franchisegebers hlt.
(2) Der Franchisenehmer muss dem Franchisegeber angemessenen Zugang zu der Buchhaltung
des Franchisenehmers gewhren.
Kapitel 4:
Vertriebsvertrag
Abschnitt 1:
Allgemeines
Artikel 4:101: Anwendungsbereich und Definitionen

(1) Dieses Kapitel ist anzuwenden auf Alleinvertriebsvertrge, selektive Vertriebsvertrge sowie
Alleinbezugsvertrge.
(2) Ein Vertriebsvertrag ist ein Vertrag, in dem eine Vertragspartei (der Lieferant) sich verpflich-
tet, die andere Partei (den Vertreiber) laufend mit Produkten zu beliefern, whrend der
Vertreiber sich verpflichtet, diese Produkte zu kaufen sowie im Namen und auf Rechnung
des Vertreibers zu verkaufen.
(3) Ein Alleinvertriebsvertrag ist ein Vertriebsvertrag, in dem der Lieferant sich verpflichtet,
innerhalb eines bestimmten Gebiets oder fr eine bestimmte Kundengruppe Produkte nur
an einen einzigen Vertreiber zu liefern.
49
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(4) Ein selektiver Vertriebsvertrag ist ein Vertriebsvertrag, in dem der Lieferant sich verpflichtet,
Produkte direkt oder indirekt nur an Vertreiber zu liefern, die auf Grund festgelegter Kriterien
ausgewhlt sind.
(5) Ein Alleinbezugsvertrag ist ein Vertriebsvertrag, in dem der Vertreiber sich verpflichtet,
Produkte nur vom Lieferanten oder von einem durch den Lieferanten benannten Dritten
zu beziehen.
Abschnitt 2:
Pflichten des Lieferanten
Artikel 4:201: Belieferung

Der Lieferant muss die durch den Vertreiber bestellten Produkte liefern, soweit dies praktisch
durchfhrbar ist und soweit die Bestellung angemessen ist.

Aufgrund seiner Informationspflicht (Artikel 1:203) muss der Lieferant den Vertreiber insbe-
sondere informieren ber:
(a) die Eigenschaften der Produkte,
(b) die Preise und Bedingungen fr den Verkauf der Produkte,
(c) etwaige Preisempfehlungen und Bedingungen fr den Weiterverkauf der Produkte,
(d) etwaige relevante Kontakte zwischen dem Lieferanten und Kunden,
(e) etwaige fr den Betrieb des Vertreibers relevante Werbekampagnen.
Artikel 4:203: Warnung vor verringerter Lieferkapazitt

(1) Der Lieferant muss den Vertreiber innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist warnen, wenn der
Lieferant vorhersieht oder vorhersehen msste, dass die Lieferkapazitt des Lieferanten
deutlich geringer sein wird, als der Vertreiber annehmen durfte.
(2) Bei Alleinbezugsvertrgen drfen die Parteien nicht zum Nachteil des Vertreibers von dieser
Bestimmung abweichende Vereinbarungen treffen.
Artikel 4:204: Werbematerial

Der Lieferant muss den Vertreiber zu einem angemessenen Preis mit allem Werbematerial
versorgen, ber welche der Lieferant verfgt und die zum ordnungsgemßen Vertrieb sowie
zur Absatzfrderung der Produkte erforderlich ist.
Artikel 4:205: Guter Ruf der Produkte

Der Lieferant muss angemessene Anstrengungen unternehmen, um den guten Ruf der Produkte
nicht zu schdigen.
50
Abschnitt 3:
Pflichten des Vertreibers
Artikel 4:301: Verpflichtung zum Vertrieb

Bei Alleinvertriebsvertrgen und selektiven Vertriebsvertrgen muss der Vertreiber – soweit
praktisch durchfhrbar – angemessene Anstrengungen zur Absatzfrderung der Produkte unter-
nehmen.

Bei Alleinvertriebsvertrgen und selektiven Vertriebsvertrgen muss der Vertreiber aufgrund
seiner Informationspflicht (Artikel 1:203) den Lieferanten insbesondere informieren ber:
(a) durch Dritte vorgebrachte oder angedrohte Forderungen hinsichtlich der geistigen Eigen-
tumsrechte des Lieferanten,
(b) Verletzungen der geistigen Eigentumsrechte des Lieferanten durch Dritte.
Artikel 4:303: Warnung vor verringertem Bedarf

Bei Alleinvertriebsvertrgen und selektiven Vertriebsvertrgen muss der Vertreiber den Lieferan-
ten innerhalb einer angemessenen Frist warnen, wenn der Vertreiber vorhersieht oder vorher-
sehen msste, dass der Bedarf des Vertreibers deutlich geringer ausfallen wird, als der Lieferant
annehmen durfte.
Artikel 4:304: Anweisungen

Bei Alleinvertriebsvertrgen und selektiven Vertriebsvertrgen muss der Vertreiber angemessene
Anweisungen des Lieferanten befolgen, die darauf abzielen, den ordnungsgemßen Vertrieb der
Produkte zu gewhrleisten oder den guten Ruf oder die Unterscheidungskraft der Produkte zu
bewahren.
Artikel 4:305: Inspektion

Bei Alleinvertriebsvertrgen und selektiven Vertriebsvertrgen muss der Vertreiber dem Lieferan-
ten angemessenen Zugang zu den Geschftsrumen des Vertreibers gewhren, damit der
Lieferant in der Lage ist zu berprfen, dass der Vertreiber die vertraglich vereinbarten Standards
einhlt und die erteilten angemessenen Anweisungen befolgt.
Artikel 4:306: Guter Ruf der Produkte

Bei Alleinvertriebsvertrgen und selektiven Vertriebsvertrgen muss der Vertreiber angemessene
Anstrengungen unternehmen, den guten Ruf der Produkte nicht zu schdigen.
51
Italian4
Contratti di Agenzia Commerciale,
Affiliazione Commerciale e Distribuzione
Capitolo 1:
Disposizioni generali
Sezione 1:
Campo di applicazione del Capitolo 1
Articolo 1:101: Campo di applicazione

Questo Capitolo si applica ai contratti di agenzia commerciale, affiliazione commerciale e
distribuzione, nonch, con le dovute modifiche, per altri contratti in cui una parte autonoma-
mente dedita ad un’attivit utilizza le proprie capacit e i propri sforzi per commercializzare sul
mercato i prodotti della controparte.
Sezione 2:
Obblighi
Articolo 1:201: Informazioni precontrattuali

(1) Ciascuna parte deve fornire alla controparte informazioni adeguate con ragionevole anticipo
sulla conclusione del contratto. Nei casi in cui ci non avviene viene applicato il paragrafo
tre (3).
(2) Le informazioni sono intese come adeguate quando sono sufficienti per consentire alla
controparte di decidere su basi ragionevolmente informate se aderire o meno ad un contrat-
to del tipo e con i termini in esame.
(3) Se l’inosservanza del paragrafo 1 da parte di una delle parti induce la controparte a
concludere un contratto, mentre la prima parte sapeva o poteva ragionevolmente aspettarsi
che la controparte, se avesse ricevuto tempestive ed adeguate informazioni, non avrebbe
aderito al contratto, o avrebbe aderito al contratto solo con termini fondamentalmente
differenti, vigono i rimedi giuridici all’errore come illustrati nel Capitolo 4 PECL (Principles
of European Contract Law – Principi della legge europea sui contratti).
(4) Le parti non possono derogare a questa disposizione.
Articolo 1:202: Collaborazione

(1) Nei contratti di agenzia commerciale, affiliazione commerciale e distribuzione, come in altri
contratti commerciali a lungo termine, l’obbligo di collaborazione (art. 1:202 PECL)
4 Proposta da Manola Scotton.
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Italian. Contratti di Agenzia Commerciale, Affiliazione Commerciale e Distribuzione
fondamentale e particolarmente profondo. Richiede in particolare alle parti di collaborare

attivamente e lealmente, e di coordinare i loro rispettivi sforzi al fine di raggiungere gli
obiettivi del contratto.
Articolo 1:203: Informazioni in corso di esecuzione

(1) Durante il contratto ciascuna parte deve fornire alla controparte nei tempi dovuti tutte le
informazioni che la prima parte ha a disposizione e che la seconda necessita al fine di
raggiungere gli obiettivi del contratto.
Articolo 1:204: Riservatezza

(1) Una parte che riceve informazioni riservate dalla controparte deve mantenere tali informa-
zioni riservate e non deve rivelare tali informazioni a terzi, n durante n dopo la con-
clusione del contratto.
(2) Una parte che riceve informazioni riservate dalla controparte non deve utilizzare tali in-
formazioni per scopi diversi da quelli che sono gli obiettivi del contratto.
(3) Qualsiasi informazione che una parte deteneva gi o che stata rivelata al grande pubblico,
e qualsiasi informazione che deve necessariamente essere rivelata ai clienti in seguito
all’esercizio dell’attivit, non deve essere considerata come un’informazione riservata a
questo scopo.
Sezione 3:
Cessazione e termine
Articolo 1:301: Contratto a tempo determinato

(1) Un contratto a tempo determinato termina allo scadere del periodo definito dal contratto. Se
le parti non si accordano diversamente, un contratto di questo tipo non pu essere
terminato in anticipo unilateralmente, salvo il caso di cessazione per motivo urgente ed
importante (art. 1:304).
(2) Una parte libera di non rinnovare un contratto a tempo determinato. Comunque, se la
controparte ha dato comunicazione per tempo riguardo la propria intenzione di rinnovare il
contratto, la parte che non desidera rinnovarlo deve avvisare la controparte riguardo la
propria decisione di non rinnovare il contratto con adeguato anticipo rispetto alla scadenza
del periodo di contratto.
(3) Un contratto a tempo determinato che entrambe le parti continuano ad adempiere dopo che
la scadenza del contratto diventa un contratto a tempo indeterminato.
Articolo 1:302: Cessazione unilaterale di un contratto a tempo indeterminato

(1) Ciascuna parte in un contratto a tempo indeterminato pu terminare il contratto dando un
preavviso di adeguata lunghezza (art. 6:109 PECL).
(2) I fattori che, tra gli altri, determinano se un preavviso di lunghezza adeguata dipendono
(a) da quanto tempo dura il contratto,
(b) dai ragionevoli investimenti che sono stati fatti,
(c) dal tempo che sarebbe necessario per trovare una ragionevole alternativa, e
(d) dagli usi.
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(3) Un periodo di preavviso della durata di un mese per ogni anno di durata del contratto, con
un massimo di 36 mesi, pu essere ritenuto ragionevole.
(4) Il periodo di preavviso per preponente, affiliante o fornitore non deve essere inferiore ad un
mese per il primo anno, due mesi per il secondo, tre mesi per il terzo, quattro mesi per il
quarto, cinque mesi per il quinto e sei mesi per il sesto e per i successivi anni di durata del
contratto. Le parti non possono derogare a questa disposizione.
(5) Accordi riguardo al periodo di preavviso pi
lunghi di quelli indicati nei paragrafi 2 e 3 sono
validi purch il periodo concordato che deve essere rispettato dal preponente, dall’affiliante
o dal fornitore non sia pi
breve di quello che deve essere rispettato dall’agente commer-
ciale, dall’affiliato o dal distributore.
(6) La parte lesa non ha la facolt di pretendere specifiche prestazioni contrattuali durante il
periodo di preavviso. Comunque, la corte potrebbe disporre l’esecuzione specifica di ob-
blighi contrattuali e post-contrattuali che non dipendono dalla collaborazione.
Articolo 1:303: Danni derivanti dall’inosservanza del periodo di preavviso

(1) In caso di inosservanza dei periodi di preavviso menzionati negli art. 1:301 (2) e 1:302 (1),
la parte lesa ha il diritto di pretendere un risarcimento danni.
(2) In generale la misura dei danni quella somma che corrisponde al vantaggio che la parte
lesa avrebbe ottenuto durante il periodo di preavviso non rispettato.
(3) Si presume che il vantaggio annuo corrisponda al vantaggio medio che la parte lesa ha
ottenuto dal contratto nel corso dei tre anni precedenti o, se il contratto stato di durata
inferiore, durante tale periodo.
(4) Le norme generali sui danni per inadempienza (art. 9:501 segg. PECL) vengono applicate di
conseguenza.
Articolo 1:304: Resoluzione per inadempimento

(1) Una parte pu risolvere il contratto per inadempimento solo se l’inadempimento della
controparte da considerarsi fondamentale ai sensi dell’Articolo 8:103 (b) e dell’Articolo
8:103 (c) PECL (art. 9:301 PECL).
Articolo 1:305: Indennizzo per la clientela

(1) Quando un contratto giunge al termine per qualsiasi ragione (inclusa la risoluzione di una
delle parti per inadempimento), una parte ha diritto ad un indennizzo dalla controparte per
la clientela, se e nella misura in cui
(a) la prima parte ha notevolmente incrementato il volume d’affari della controparte, e la
controparte continua a derivare considerevoli vantaggi da tale attivit, e
(b) il pagamento dell’indennizzo ragionevole in considerazione di tutte le circostanze.
(2) La concessione di un indennizzo non impedisce ad una parte di richiedere risarcimento
danni conformemente all’Articolo 1:303.
Articolo 1:306: Scorte, parti di ricambio e materiali

Se il contratto viene terminato, risolto o invalidato da una delle parti, il preponente, l’affiliato o
il fornitore deve riacquistare ad un prezzo ragionevole dall’agente commerciale, dall’affiliato o
dal distributore le scorte, le parti di ricambio e i materiali rimanenti, a meno che l’agente
commerciale, l’affiliato o il distributore non possano ragionevolmente rivenderli.
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Sezione 4:
Altre disposizioni generali
Articolo 1:401: Diritto di ritenzione

Al fine di tutelare i propri diritti alla remunerazione, alla compensazione, ai danni e all’inden-
nizzo, l’agente commerciale, l’affiliato o il distributore ha il diritto di trattenere beni mobili del
preponente, affiliante o fornitore che sono in suo possesso in seguito al contratto, finch il
(precedente) preponente, dell’affiliante o del fornitore non ha adempiuto ai propri obblighi.
Articolo 1:402: Documento scritto firmato

Ciascuna parte ha il diritto di ricevere dall’altra, su richiesta, un documento scritto e firmato che
illustra i termini del contratto.
Capitolo 2:
Agenzia commerciale
Sezione 1:
Informazioni generali

Questo capitolo si applica ai contratti nei quali una parte (l’agente commerciale) accetta di agire
su base continuativa in veste di intermediario indipendente, allo scopo di negoziare o con-
cludere contratti per conto di una controparte (il preponente), e il preponente accetta di
remunerare l’agente commerciale per le sue attivit.
Sezione 2:
Obblighi dell’agente commerciale
Articolo 2:201: Negoziare e concludere contratti

L’agente commerciale deve fare ragionevoli sforzi per negoziare contratti per conto del prepo-
nente, e per concludere i contratti che l’agente commerciale ha avuto disposizioni di conclu-
dere.
Articolo 2:202: Istruzioni

L’agente commerciale deve seguire le istruzioni ragionevoli del preponente, purch non incidano
in maniera considerevole sull’indipendenza dell’agente commerciale.

L’obbligo di informare (Articolo 1:203) richiede in particolare all’agente commerciale di fornire
al preponente le informazioni riguardanti:
(a) i contratti negoziati o conclusi,
(b) le condizioni di mercato rilevanti,
(c) la solvibilit ed altre caratteristiche relative ai clienti.
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Articolo 2:204: Contabilit

(1) L’agente commerciale deve tenere adeguate registrazioni contabili relative ai contratti ne-
goziati o conclusi per conto del preponente.
(2) Se l’agente commerciale ha la rappresentanza di pi
di un preponente, l’agente commerciale
deve, in particolare, tenere registrazioni contabili distinte per ciascun preponente che egli
rappresenta.
(3) Se il preponente ha particolari ragioni di dubitare che l’agente commerciale tenga adeguate
registrazioni contabili, l’agente commerciale deve consentire che un contabile indipendente
possa avere ragionevole accesso ai libri dell’agente commerciale su richiesta del preponente.
Il preponente deve pagare per i servizi prestati dal contabile indipendente.
Sezione 3:
Obblighi del preponente
Articolo 2:301: Diritto alla provvigione durante il contratto

(1) L’agente commerciale ha il diritto di ricevere una provvigione sui contratti conclusi con i
clienti nel corso del contratto di agenzia, se
(a) il contratto con il cliente stato concluso in seguito agli sforzi operati dall’agente
commerciale; oppure
(b) il contratto stato concluso con un terzo che l’agente commerciale ha precedente-
mente acquisito come cliente per contratti dello stesso tipo; oppure
(c) all’agente commerciale stata assegnata una determinata area geografica o un gruppo
di clienti, e il contratto stato concluso con un cliente che rientra in tale area o tale
gruppo, e
(2) Il diritto sussiste solo se
(a) il preponente ha o avrebbe dovuto adempiere agli obblighi del preponente ai sensi del
contratto con il cliente; oppure
(b) il cliente ha adempiuto agli obblighi del cliente ai sensi del contratto, oppure nega
l’adempimento in maniera giustificabile (Articolo 9:201 PECL).
(3) Le parti non possono derogare al Paragrafo 2 sub b) a discapito dell’agente commerciale.
Articolo 2:302: Diritto alla provvigione dopo il contratto

(1) L’agente commerciale ha il diritto di ricevere un provvigione sui contratti conclusi con i
clienti dopo che il contratto di agenzia stato terminato o risolto, se
(a) il contratto con il cliente soprattutto il risultato degli sforzi dell’agente commerciale
durante il contratto di agenzia, e il contratto con il cliente stato concluso entro un
ragionevole periodo dopo la fine del contratto di agenzia; oppure
(b) le condizioni dell’Articolo 2:301 Paragrafo 1 sarebbero state soddisfatte, se non che il
contratto con il cliente non stato concluso durante il contratto di agenzia, e l’offerta
del cliente pervenuta al preponente o all’agente commerciale prima che il contratto di
agenzia fosse terminato o risolto.
(2) Il diritto sussiste solo se
(a) il preponente ha o avrebbe dovuto adempiere agli obblighi del preponente ai sensi del
contratto con il cliente; oppure
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(b) il cliente ha adempiuto agli obblighi del cliente ai sensi del contratto, oppure nega
l’adempimento in maniera giustificabile (Articolo 9:201 PECL).
(2) Le parti non possono derogare al Paragrafo 2 sub b) a discapito dell’agente commerciale.
Articolo 2:303: Prevalenza del diritto alla provvigione

L’agente commerciale non ha diritto alla provvigione indicata nell’Articolo 2:301, se il prece-
dente agente commerciale ha il diritto a tale provvigione ai sensi dell’Articolo 2:302, a meno che
non risulti ragionevole che la provvigione venga ripartita tra i due agenti commerciali.
Articolo 2:304: Momento in cui la provvigione deve essere pagata

(1) Il preponente non deve pagare la provvigione dell’agente commerciale pi
tardi dell’ultimo
giorno del mese seguente al trimestre nel quale insorto il diritto dell’agente commerciale a
tale provvigione.
(2) Le parti non possono derogare a questa disposizione a discapito dell’agente commerciale.
Articolo 2:305: Annullamento del diritto alla provvigione

(1) Il diritto dell’agente commerciale alla provvigione conformemente agli Articoli 2:301 e 2:302
pu essere annullato solo se e nella misura in cui viene stabilito che il contratto con il
cliente non verr realizzato, e tale fatto dovuto ad una ragione per la quale il preponente
non responsabile.
(2) In seguito all’annullamento del diritto dell’agente commerciale alla provvigione, l’agente
commerciale deve rimborsare qualsiasi provvigione che egli ha gi ricevuto.
(3) Le parti non possono derogare al Paragrafo 1 a discapito dell’agente commerciale.
Articolo 2:306: Remunerazione

Si presume che qualsiasi remunerazione che dipende (parzialmente) dal numero o dal valore dei
contratti da considerarsi provvigione ai sensi di questo Capitolo.

L’obbligo di informare (Articolo 1:203) richiede in particolare al preponente di fornire all’agente
commerciale informazioni riguardanti:
(a) le caratteristiche di merci e servizi,
(b) i prezzi e le condizioni di vendita e acquisto.
Articolo 2:308: Informazioni su accettazione, rifiuto e inadempimento

(1) Il preponente deve informare l’agente commerciale, entro un ragionevole tempo, riguardo
(a) l’accettazione o il rifiuto da parte del preponente di un contratto che l’agente com-
merciale ha negoziato per conto del preponente; e
(b) qualsiasi inadempienza di un contratto che l’agente commerciale ha negoziato o con-
cluso per conto del preponente.
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Articolo 2:309: Avviso di diminuzione del volume di contratti

(1) Il preponente deve avvertire l’agente commerciale entro un tempo ragionevole quando egli
prevede o dovrebbe prevedere che il volume di contratti che il preponente sar in grado di
concludere o adempiere sar notevolmente inferiore di quanto l’agente commerciale ha
motivo di aspettarsi.
Articolo 2:310: Informazioni sulla provvigione per mezzo di

rendiconto ed estratto dai libri contabili
(1) Il preponente deve fornire in tempo ragionevole all’agente commerciale un rendiconto della
provvigione a cui ha diritto l’agente commerciale. Il rendiconto deve riportare la modalit in
base alla quale stato calcolato l’importo della provvigione.
(2) Allo scopo di calcolare la provvigione, il preponente deve fornire all’agente commerciale, su
richiesta, un estratto dei libri contabili del preponente.
Articolo 2:311: Contabilit

(1) Il preponente deve tenere adeguate registrazioni contabili relative ai contratti negoziati o
conclusi dall’agente commerciale.
(2) Se il preponente ha pi
di un agente commerciale, il preponente deve, in particolare, tenere
registrazioni contabili distinte per ciascun agente commerciale.
(3) Il preponente deve consentire che un contabile indipendente possa avere ragionevole
accesso ai libri contabili del preponente su richiesta dell’agente commerciale, se
(a) Il preponente non adempie agli obblighi del preponente ai sensi dell’Articolo 2:310
Paragrafi 1 e 2, oppure
(b) l’agente commerciale ha particolari ragioni di dubitare che il preponente tenga adeguate
registrazioni contabili.
L’agente commerciale deve pagare il commercialista indipendente.
Articolo 2:312: Importo indennizzo

(1) L’agente commerciale ha diritto ad un indennizzo per la clientela sulla base dell’Articolo
1:305 il cui importo deve essere pari a:
(a) la provvigione media sui contratti con nuovi clienti e sull’incremento del volume di
affari con clienti esistenti, calcolata per gli ultimi 12 mesi, moltiplicata per:
(b) il numero di anni nei quali si presume che il preponente continuer a derivare vantaggi
da questi contratti in futuro.
(2) L’indennizzo risultante deve essere corretto sulla base di:
(a) il tasso netto migratorio medio nel territorio dell’agente commerciale; e
(b) i tassi medi di interesse.
(3) In ogni caso, l’indennizzo non deve superare la remunerazione di un anno, calcolata sulla
base della remunerazione annua media dell’agente commerciale nei cinque anni precedenti
oppure, se il contratto stato in essere per meno di cinque anni, dalla media nel corso del
periodo in questione.
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Articolo 2:313: Clausola dello star del credere

(1) Un accordo in base al quale l’agente commerciale garantisce che un cliente pagher il
prezzo dei prodotti che rappresentano l’oggetto del/dei contratto/i che l’agente commerciale
ha negoziato o concluso (clausola dello star del credere), valido solo e nella misura in cui:
(a) la clausola stipulata per iscritto e
(b) la clausola copre particolari contratti che erano stati negoziati o conclusi dall’agente
commerciale, o ancora contratti con particolari clienti come specificato nell’accordo, e
(c) la clausola risulta ragionevole in considerazione degli interessi delle parti.
(2) L’agente commerciale ha il diritto di vedersi corrispondere una provvigione di importo
ragionevole sui contratti ai quali viene applicata la garanzia dello star del credere (provvi-
gione per lo star del credere).
Capitolo 3:
Affiliazione commerciale
Sezione 1:

Questo Capitolo si applica ai contratti in base ai quali una parte (l’affiliante) concede alla
controparte (l’affiliato), in cambio di una remunerazione, il diritto di svolgere un’attivit (attivit
in franchising) all’interno della rete dell’affiliante con lo scopo di vendere determinati prodotti
per conto dell’affiliato e a nome dell’affiliato, e in base al quale l’affiliato ha il diritto e l’obbligo
di utilizzare la denominazione commerciale o il marchio di fabbrica nonch altri diritti di
propriet intellettuale, il know-how e la metodologia commerciale dell’affiliante.
Articolo 3:102: Informazioni precontrattuali

(1) L’obbligo di rivelare informazioni precontrattuali (Articolo 1:201) richiede in particolare
all’affiliante di fornire all’affiliato informazioni adeguate e tempestive riguardanti:
(a) la societ e l’esperienza dell’affiliante,
(b) i diritti di propriet intellettuale rilevanti,
(c) le caratteristiche del know-how pertinente,
(d) il settore commerciale e le condizioni del mercato,
(e) il particolare metodo di affiliazione commerciale e il suo funzionamento,
(f) la struttura e l’estensione della rete di affiliazione commerciale,
(g) le commissioni, royalties o qualsiasi altro pagamento periodico,
(h) i termini del contratto.
(2) Se l’inosservanza da parte dell’affiliante del paragrafo 1 non d origine ad un errore
fondamentale ai sensi dell’Articolo 4:103 PECL, l’affiliato pu recuperare i danni conforme-
mente all’Articolo 4:117(2) e (3) PECL, a meno che l’affiliante non abbia ragione di credere
che le informazioni erano adeguate o erano state fornite in un tempo ragionevole.
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Sezione 2:
Obblighi per l’affiliante
Articolo 3:201: Diritti di propriet intellettuale

(1) L’affilante deve concedere all’affiliato il diritto di utilizzare i diritti di propriet intellettuale
nella misura necessaria allo svolgimento dell’attivit di affiliazione commerciale.
(2) L’affiliante deve fare sforzi ragionevoli per garantire l’utilizzo indisturbato e continuativo dei
diritti di propriet intellettuale.
Articolo 3:202: Know-How

(1) Per tutta la durata del contratto, l’affiliante deve fornire all’affiliato il know-how necessario
per svolgere l’attivit di affiliazione commerciale.
Articolo 3:203: Assistenza

(1) L’affiliante deve fornire all’affiliato assistenza sotto forma di corsi di addestramento, orien-
tamento e consulenza, nella misura necessaria allo svolgimento dell’attivit di affiliazione
commerciale, senza addebito supplementare per l’affiliato.
(2) L’affiliante deve fornire ulteriore assistenza, nella misura ragionevolmente richiesta dall’af-
filiato, a costi ragionevoli.
Articolo 3:204: Forniture

(1) Allorquando l’affiliato obbligato ad acquistare i prodotti esclusivamente dall’affiliante, o
da un fornitore designato dall’affiliante, l’affiliante deve garantire che i prodotti ordinati
dall’affiliato vengano consegnati entro un tempo ragionevole, per quanto attuabile e purch
l’ordine risulti ragionevole.
(2) Il Paragrafo 1 vale anche per quei casi in cui l’affiliato, malgrado non sia obbligato ad
acquistare dall’affiliante o da un fornitore designato dall’affiliante, in pratica tenuto a farlo.

L’obbligo di informare (Articolo 1:203) richiede in particolare all’affiliante di fornire all’affiliato le
informazioni riguardanti:
(a) le condizioni di mercato rilevanti,
(b) i risultati commerciali della rete di affiliazione commerciale,
(c) le caratteristiche dei prodotti,
(d) i prezzi e i termini per la vendita dei prodotti,
(e) qualsiasi prezzo e termine consigliato per la rivendita dei prodotti,
(f) qualsiasi comunicazione pertinente tra l’affiliante e i clienti nel territorio,
(g) qualsiasi campagna pubblicitaria pertinente all’attivit di affiliazione commerciale.
Articolo 3:206: Avviso di diminuzione delle capacit di fornitura

(1) Allorquando l’affiliato obbligato ad acquistare i prodotti esclusivamente dall’affiliante, o
da un fornitore designato dall’affiliante, l’affiliante deve avvertire l’affiliato entro un tempo
ragionevole quando l’affiliante prevede o dovrebbe prevedere che le capacit di fornitura
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dell’affiliante o le capacit di fornitura del fornitore designato saranno notevolmente inferiori

di quanto l’affiliato ha ragione di aspettarsi.
(2) Il Paragrafo 1 vale anche per quei casi in cui l’affiliato, malgrado non sia obbligato ad
acquistare dall’affiliante o da un fornitore designato dall’affiliante, in pratica tenuto a farlo.
(3) Le parti non possono derogare a questa disposizione a discapito dell’affiliato.
Articolo 3:207: Reputazione della rete e pubblicit

(1) L’affiliante deve fare ragionevoli sforzi per promuovere e mantenere la reputazione della rete
di affiliazione commerciale.
(2) In particolare, l’affiliante deve progettare e coordinare idonee campagne pubblicitarie con lo
scopo di promuovere la rete di affiliazione commerciale.
(3) Le attivit di promozione e mantenimento della reputazione della rete di franchising devono
essere svolte senza addebito supplementare per l’affiliato.
Sezione 3:
Obblighi dell’affiliato
Articolo 3:301: Commissioni, royalties e altri pagamenti periodici

(1) L’affiliato deve pagare all’affiliante commissioni, royalties o altri pagamenti periodici con-
cordati nel contratto.
(2) Se le commissioni, royalties o qualsiasi altro pagamento periodico devono essere stabiliti
unilateralmente dall’affiliante, viene applicato l’Articolo 6:105 PECL.

L’obbligo di informare (Articolo 1:203) richiede in particolare all’affiliato di fornire all’affiliante le
informazioni riguardanti:
a) qualsiasi rivendicazione o minaccia di terzi in relazione ai diritti di propriet intellettuale
dell’affiliante.
b) qualsiasi violazione di terzi dei diritti di propriet intellettuale dell’affiliante.
Articolo 3:303: Metodologia commerciale e istruzioni

(1) L’affiliato deve fare ragionevoli sforzi per svolgere l’attivit di affiliazione commerciale
conformemente alla metodologia commerciale dell’affiliante.
(2) L’affiliato deve seguire le istruzioni ragionevoli dell’affiliante in relazione alla metodologia
commerciale e al mantenimento della reputazione della rete di affiliazione commerciale.
(3) L’affiliante deve fare adeguata attenzione a non danneggiare la rete di affiliazione commer-
ciale.
(4) Le parti non possono derogare a questa disposizione
Articolo 3:304: Ispezione

(1) L’affiliato deve consentire all’affiliante ragionevole accesso alla sede dell’affiliato per con-
sentire all’affiliante di verificare che l’affiliato rispetti la metodologia commerciale e le
istruzioni dell’affiliante.
(2) L’affiliato deve consentire all’affiliante accesso ragionevole ai libri contabili dell’affiliato.
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Capitolo 4:
Distribuzione
Sezione 1:
1 Articolo 4:101: Campo di applicazione e definizioni

(1) Questo Capitolo vale per contratti di distribuzione esclusiva, distribuzione selettiva e di
acquisto esclusivo.
(2) Un contratto di distribuzione un contratto in base al quale una parte (il fornitore)
acconsente a fornire alla controparte (il distributore) prodotti su base continuativa, e il
distributore acconsente ad acquistarli e a venderli a nome del distributore e per conto del
distributore (contratto di distribuzione).
(3) Un contratto di distribuzione esclusiva un contratto di distribuzione in base al quale il
fornitore acconsente a fornire prodotti solo ad un distributore all’interno di un determinato
territorio o a un determinato gruppo di clienti.
(4) Un contratto di distribuzione selectiva un contratto di distribuzione in base al quale il
fornitore acconsente a fornire prodotti, direttamente o indirettamente, solo a distributori
selezionati o sulla base di specifici criteri.
(5) Un contratto di acquisto esclusivo un contratto di distribuzione in base al quale il
distributore acconsente ad acquistare prodotti solo dal fornitore o da una parte designata
dal fornitore.
Sezione 2:
Obblighi del fornitore
Articolo 4:201: Fornitura

Il fornitore deve fornire i prodotti ordinati dal distributore, per quanto attuabile e purch l’ordine
risulti ragionevole.

L’obbligo di informare (Articolo 1:203) richiede in particolare al fornitore di fornire al distribu-
tore le informazioni riguardanti:
(a) le caratteristiche dei prodotti,
(b) i prezzi e i termini per la vendita dei prodotti,
(c) qualsiasi prezzo e termine consigliato per la rivendita dei prodotti,
(d) qualsiasi comunicazione pertinente tra il fornitore e i clienti,
(e) qualsiasi campagna pubblicitaria pertinente allo svolgimento dell’attivit.
Articolo 4:203: Avviso di diminuzione delle capacit di fornitura

(1) Il fornitore deve avvertire il distributore entro un tempo ragionevole quando prevede o
dovrebbe prevedere che le capacit di fornitura del fornitore saranno notevolmente inferiori
di quanto il distributore ha ragione di aspettarsi.
(2) Nei contratti di acquisto esclusivo, le parti non possono derogare a questa disposizione a
discapito del distributore.
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Articolo 4:204: Materiale pubblicitario

Il fornitore deve fornire al distributore ad un prezzo ragionevole tutto il materiale pubblicitario di
cui il fornitore dispone e che necessario per un’adeguata distribuzione e promozione dei
prodotti.
Articolo 4:205: Reputazione dei prodotti

Il fornitore deve fare ragionevoli sforzi per non danneggiare la reputazione dei prodotti.
Sezione 3:
Obblighi del distributore
Articolo 4:301: Distribuzione

Nei contratti di distribuzione esclusiva e selettiva, per quanto attuabile, il distributore deve fare
ragionevoli sforzi per promuovere le vendite dei prodotti.

Nei contratti di distribuzione esclusiva e selettiva, l’obbligo di informare (Articolo 1:203)
richiede in particolare al distributore di fornire al fornitore le informazioni riguardanti:
(a) qualsiasi rivendicazione o minaccia di terzi in relazione ai diritti di propriet intellettuale del
fornitore,
(b) qualsiasi violazione di terzi dei diritti di propriet intellettuale del fornitore.
Articolo 4:303: Avviso di diminuzione del fabbisogno

Nei contratti di distribuzione esclusiva e selettiva, il distributore deve avvertire il fornitore entro
un tempo ragionevole quando il distributore prevede o dovrebbe prevedere che il fabbisogno del
distributore sar notevolmente inferiore di quanto il fornitore ha motivo di aspettarsi.
Articolo 4:304: Istruzioni

Nei contratti di distribuzione esclusiva e selettiva, il distributore deve seguire le istruzioni
ragionevoli del fornitore che sono volte a garantire la corretta distribuzione dei prodotti o a
mantenere la reputazione o il carattere distintivo dei prodotti.
Articolo 4:305: Ispezione

Nei contratti di distribuzione esclusiva e selettiva, il distributore deve consentire al fornitore
ragionevole accesso alla sede del distributore per consentire al fornitore di verificare che il
distributore rispetti gli standards concordati nel contratto e le istruzioni ragionevoli date.
Articolo 4:306: Reputazione dei prodotti

Nei contratti di distribuzione esclusiva e selettiva, il distributore deve fare sforzi ragionevoli per
non danneggiare la reputazione dei prodotti.
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Polish5
Umowa agencyjna, umowa franszyzowa oraz
umowa dystrybucyjna
Rozdział I.
Przepisy oglne
Dział 1.
Zakres rozdziału pierwszego
Art.1:101. Zakres
Rozdział niniejszy ma zastosowanie do umowy agencyjnej, umowy franszyzowej oraz umowy
dystrybucyjnej, a także odpowiednio do innych umw, na mocy ktrych jedna strona, samo-
dzielnie prowadza˛ca przedsie˛biorstwo, zobowia˛zuje sie˛ wykorzystywać swe umieje˛tności i
starania w celu umieszczenia produktw drugiej strony na rynku.
Dział 2.
Obowia˛zki
Art.1:201. Udoste˛pnianie informacji przed zawarciem umowy

(1) Każda ze stron obowia˛zana jest udoste˛pnić drugiej stronie odpowiednie informacje w
rozsa˛dnym czasie przed zawarciem umowy. W przeciwnym razie stosuje sie˛ przepis uste˛pu
trzeciego.
(2) Informacje poczytuje sie˛ za odpowiednie, jeżeli na ich podstawie druga strona może
postanowić o zawarciu umowy be˛da˛c w rozsa˛dnym zakresie poinformowana˛ o rodzaju
umowy oraz jej postanowieniach.
(3) Jeżeli naruszenie przez strone˛ przepisu uste˛pu pierwszego powoduje, iż druga strona
zawiera umowe˛ w sytuacji, w ktrej pierwsza strona wiedziała lub na podstawie rozsa˛d-
nych przypuszczeń powinna była wiedzieć, że druga strona, gdyby dostarczono jej na czas
odpowiednich informacji, nie zawarłaby umowy, albo zawarłaby umowe˛ o zasadniczo
odmiennych postanowieniach – stosuje sie˛ przepisy rozdziału 4 zasad europejskiego prawa
umw o błe˛dzie.
(4) Strony nie moga˛ umwić sie˛ w sposb odbiegaja˛cy od postanowień niniejszego przepisu.
Art.1:202. Wspłdziałanie
(1) W wypadku umowy agencyjnej, umowy franszyzowej, umowy dystrybucyjnej oraz innych
umw o charakterze cia˛głym obowia˛zek wspłdziałania (art. 1:102 zasad europejskiego
prawa umw) jest zasadniczy i szczeglnie wzmożony. Wynika z niego w szczeglności,
5 Przekład zaproponowany przez Rafała Mańko.
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Polish. Umowa agencyjna, umowa franszyzowa oraz umowa dystrybucyjna
by strony w sposb czynny i lojalny wspłdziałały ze soba˛ oraz koordynowały swe starania
w celu osia˛gnie˛cia celw umowy.
Art.1:203. Udoste˛pnianie informacji podczas wykonywania umowy

(1) Podczas wykonywania umowy każda ze stron obowia˛zana jest w odpowiednim czasie
udoste˛pniać drugiej stronie wszelkie posiadane przez siebie informacje, ktre drugiej stronie
potrzebne sa˛ w celu osia˛gnie˛cia celw umowy.
Art.1:204. Poufność
(1) Strona, ktra otrzymuje poufne informacje od drugiej strony, obowia˛zana jest zachować
takie informacje w tajemnicy i nie ujawnić ich osobom trzecim ani podczas trwania umowy,
ani po jej wygaśnie˛ciu.
(2) Strona, ktra otrzymuje poufne informacje od drugiej strony obowia˛zana jest wykorzysty-
wać je wyła˛cznie w celu wykonania umowy.
(3) Nie poczytuje sie˛ za poufne informacji, ktre strona już posiada albo ktre zostały ujaw-
nione do wiadomości publicznej, ani też tych informacji, ktrych udoste˛pnienie klientom
jest niezbe˛dne w zwia˛zku z działalnościa˛ przedsie˛biorstwa.
Dział 3.
Wypowiedzenie i odsta˛pienie od umowy
Art.1:301. Umowa zawarta na czas oznaczony

(1) Umowa zawarta na czas oznaczony wygasa z chwila˛ upływu terminu wskazanego
w umowie. O ile strony nie postanowiły inaczej, umowa taka nie może zostać wypowie-
dziana wcześniej.
(2) Strona może nie przedłużyć umowy zawartej na czas oznaczony. Jednak jeżeli druga strona
zawiadomiła w odpowiednim czasie, że pragnie przedłużyć czas trwania umowy, strona,
ktra sprzeciwia sie˛ temu, obowia˛zana jest zawiadomić druga˛ strone˛ o swoim sprzeciwie w
rozsa˛dnym czasie przed wygaśnie˛ciem umowy.
(3) Jeżeli po wygaśnie˛ciu umowy zawartej na czas oznaczony strony w dalszym cia˛gu ja˛
wykonuja˛, poczytuje sie˛ ja˛ za zawarta˛ na czas nieoznaczony.
Art.1:302. Wypowiedzenie umowy zawartej na czas nieoznaczony

(1) Każda ze stron umowy zawartej na czas nieoznaczony może wypowiedzieć ja˛ z zacho-
waniem rozsa˛dnego terminu (art. 6:109 zasad europejskiego prawa umw).
(2) Dokonuja˛c oceny, czy wypowiedzenie nasta˛piło z zachowaniem rozsa˛dnego terminu,
bierze sie˛ pod uwage˛ mie˛dzy innymi:
(a) czas trwania umowy;
(b) rozsa˛dne inwestycje poczynione przez strony;
(c) czas niezbe˛dny na znalezienie rozsa˛dnej alternatywy;
(d) ustalone zwyczaje.
(3) Domniemywa sie˛, że rozsa˛dnym terminem wypowiedzenia jest termin obliczony w ten
sposb, iż na każdy rok trwania umowy przypada jeden miesia˛c, jednak nie wie˛cej niż
ła˛cznie 36 miesie˛cy.
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(4) W przypadku daja˛cego zlecenie, franszyzodawcy lub dostawcy termin wypowiedzenia nie
powinien być krtszy niż jeden miesia˛c w pierwszym roku trwania umowy, dwa miesia˛ce
w drugim roku trwania umowy, trzy miesia˛ce w trzecim roku trwania umowy, pie˛ć miesie˛cy
w pia˛tym roku trwania umowy oraz sześć miesie˛cy w szstym i naste˛pnych latach trwania
umowy. Terminy te nie moga˛ być skracane.
(5) Strony moga˛ ustalić dłuższe terminy wypowiedzenia niż przewidziane w uste˛pie drugim
i trzecim, z zastrzeżeniem, że termin wypowiedzenia ustalony dla daja˛cego zlecenie,
franszyzodawcy lub dostawcy nie be˛dzie krtszy niż termin wypowiedzenia ustalony dla
agenta, franszyzobiorcy lub dystrybutora.
(6) Po wypowiedzeniu umowy druga strona nie może ża˛dać dalszego wykonywania obo-
wia˛zkw umownych przez strone˛, ktra ja˛ wypowiedziała. Sa˛d może jednak nakazać
wykonywanie tych obowia˛zkw umownych i poumownych, ktre nie wymagaja˛ wspł-
działania stron.
Art.1:303. Odszkodowanie za niedochowanie terminu wypowiedzenia

(1) W wypadku gdy wypowiadaja˛cy umowe˛ nie dochował terminw wypowiedzenia określo-
nych w art. 1:301 ust. 2 oraz 1:302 ust. 1, druga strona może ża˛dać naprawienia szkody.
(2) Przy ustalaniu wysokości szkody bierze sie˛ pod uwage˛ zysk, jaki strona poszkodowana
uzyskałaby w okresie odpowiadaja˛cym niedochowanemu terminowi wypowiedzenia.
(3) Domniemywa sie˛, że roczny zysk rwny jest średniemu zyskowi uzyskanemu na podstawie
umowy przez strone˛ poszkodowana˛ w okresie ostatnich trzech lat, a jeśli umowa obowia˛-
zywała przez krtszy czas – średniemu zyskowi uzyskanemu na podstawie umowy przez
strone˛ poszkodowana˛ w tym okresie.
(4) Oglne przepisy o naprawieniu szkody w razie niewykonania zobowia˛zania (art. 9:501
i naste˛pne zasad europejskiego prawa umw) stosuje sie˛ odpowiednio.
Art.1:304. Odsta˛pienie od umowy

(1) Strona może odsta˛pić od umowy z powodu zasadniczego niewykonania zobowia˛zania
przez druga˛ strone˛ w rozumieniu art. 8:103 litera b oraz 8:103 litera c zasad europejskiego
prawa umw (art. 9:301 zasad europejskiego prawa umw).
Art.1:305. Świadczenie wyrwnawcze

(1) Po wygaśnie˛ciu umowy z jakiejkolwiek przyczyny (w tym na skutek odsta˛pienia od umowy
przez ktra˛kolwiek ze stron z powodu niewykonania zobowia˛zania przez druga˛ strone˛),
każda ze stron może ża˛dać od drugiej strony świadczenia wyrwnawczego jeżeli:
(a) w sposb istotny zwie˛kszyła obroty przedsie˛biorstwa drugiej strony, a przedsie˛biorstwo
to w dalszym cia˛gu przysparza istotnych korzyści drugiej stronie; oraz
(b) wypłata świadczenia wyrwnawczego jest rozsa˛dna biora˛c pod uwage˛ wszelkie oko-
liczności.
(2) Przyznanie świadczenia wyrwnawczego nie wyklucza dochodzenia naprawienia szkody
na podstawie art. 1:103.
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Art.1:306. Zapasy, cze˛ści zamienne oraz materiały

Po wypowiedzeniu, odsta˛pieniu od umowy albo uchyleniu sie˛ od jej skutkw przez druga˛
strone˛, daja˛cy zlecenie, franszyzodawca lub dostawca zobowia˛zany jest odkupić od agenta,
franszyzobiorcy lub dystrybutora pozostałe zapasy, cze˛ści zamienne oraz materiały po rozsa˛d-
nej cenie, chyba że agent, franszyzobiorca lub dystrybutor może w sposb rozsa˛dny je od-
sprzedać.
Dział 4.
Inne przepisy oglne
Art.1:401. Prawo zatrzymania

Dla zabezpieczenia roszczenia o wynagrodzenie, naprawienie szkody lub świadczenie wyrw-
nawcze agentowi, franszyzobiorcy lub dystrybutorowi przysługuje prawo zatrzymania na ru-
chomościach daja˛cego zlecenie, franszyzodawcy lub dostawcy, ktre sa˛ w jego posiadaniu na
podstawie umowy, aż do chwili gdy daja˛cy zlecenie, franszyzodawca lub dostawca zaspokoi to
roszczenie.
Art.1:402. Podpisany dokument

Każda ze stron może ża˛dać od drugiej podpisanego dokumentu, stwierdzaja˛cego postanowie-
nia umowy.
Rozdział II.
Umowa agencyjna
Dział 1.
Przepis oglny
Art. 2:101. Zakres

Rozdział niniejszy stosuje sie˛ do umw, na podstawie ktrych jedna ze stron (agent) zobo-
wia˛zuje sie˛ do stałego negocjowania lub zawierania umw jako samodzielny pośrednik dzia-
łaja˛cy w imieniu i na rzecz drugiej strony (daja˛cego zlecenie) a druga strona zobowia˛zuje sie˛ do
zapłaty agentowi wynagrodzenia za jego działania.
Dział 2.
Obowia˛zki agenta
Art. 2:201. Negocjowanie i zawieranie umw

Agent obowia˛zany jest podejmować rozsa˛dne starania w celu negocjowania i zawierania umw
w imieniu daja˛cego zlecenie i przez niego wskazanych.
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Art. 2:202. Wskazwki

Agent obowia˛zany jest poste˛pować według rozsa˛dnych wskazwek daja˛cego zlecenie, pod
warunkiem że nie ograniczaja˛ one w sposb istotny jego samodzielności.
Art. 2:203. Udoste˛pnianie informacji w czasie wykonywania umowy

Z obowia˛zku udoste˛pniania informacji (art. 1:203) wynika, że agent obowia˛zany jest udoste˛p-
niać daja˛cemu zlecenie informacje dotycza˛ce w szczeglności:
(a) umw zawartych lub be˛da˛cych przedmiotem negocjacji;
(b) warunkw rynkowych;
(c) wypłacalności i innych cech klientw.
Art. 2:204. Ksie˛gowość

(1) Agent obowia˛zany jest prowadzić w prawidłowy sposb ksie˛gowość w zakresie umw
negocjowanych lub zawieranych w imieniu i na rzecz daja˛cego zlecenie.
(2) Jeżeli agent działa w imieniu i na rzecz wie˛cej niż jednego daja˛cego zlecenie, obowia˛zany
jest on w szczeglności do prowadzenia odre˛bnych ksia˛g dla każdego z daja˛cych zlecenie.
(3) Jeżeli daja˛cy zlecenie ma uzasadnione wa˛tpliwości, czy agent prowadzi ksie˛gowość
w prawidłowy sposb, może on ża˛dać, by agent w rozsa˛dnym zakresie udoste˛pnił ksie˛gi
biegłemu rewidentowi. Daja˛cy zlecenie obowia˛zany jest pokryć koszty biegłego rewidenta.
Dział 3.
Obowia˛zki daja˛cego zlecenie
Art. 2:301. Prawo do prowizji w czasie trwania umowy

(1) Agent może ża˛dać prowizji od umw zawartych z klientami podczas trwania umowy,
jeżeli:
(a) umowa z klientem została zawarta w wyniku starań agenta, lub
(b) umowa została zawarta z klientem, ktrego agent uprzednio pozyskał do umw tego
samego rodzaju, lub
(c) agentowi powierzono określony obszar geograficzny lub grupe˛ klientw, a umowa
została zawarta z klientem należa˛cym do tego obszaru lub zbioru.
(2) Prawo do prowizji powstaje jedynie, jeżeli
(a) daja˛cy zlecenie wykonał albo zobowia˛zany był wykonać swoje obowia˛zki wynikaja˛ce
z umowy z klientem, lub
(b) klient wykonał swoje obowia˛zki wynikaja˛ce z umowy albo w sposb usprawiedliwiony
powstrzymuje sie˛ ze spełnieniem świadczenia (art. 9:201 zasad europejskiego prawa
umw).
(3) Strony nie moga˛ umwić sie˛ w sposb odbiegaja˛cy na niekorzyść agenta od postanowienia
ust. 2 lit. b).
Art. 2:302. Prawo do prowizji po wygaśnie˛ciu umowy

(1) Agent może ża˛dać prowizji od umw zawartych z klientami po wygaśnie˛ciu umowy, jeżeli:
(a) umowa z klientem stanowi w przeważaja˛cej mierze wynik starań agenta w trakcie
obowia˛zywania umowy agencyjnej, a umowa z klientem została zawarta w rozsa˛dnym
czasie po wygaśnie˛ciu umowy agencyjnej; lub
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(b) zostałyby spełnione warunki określone w art. 2:301 ust. 1, poza tym, że umowa
z klientem nie została zawarta w okresie obowia˛zywania umowy agencyjnej, a oferta
klienta dotarła do daja˛cego zlecenie lub agenta przed wygaśnie˛ciem umowy agencyjnej.
(2) Agent ma prawo do prowizji jedynie jeśli:
(a) daja˛cy zlecenie wykonał lub zobowia˛zany był wykonać swoje obowia˛zki wynikaja˛ce
z umowy z klientem; lub
(b) klient wykonał swoje obowia˛zki wynikaja˛ce z umowy albo w sposb usprawiedliwiony
wstrzymuje świadczenie (art. 9:201 zasad europejskiego prawa umw).
ust. 2 lit. b).
Art. 2:303. Kolizja praw do prowizji

Agent nie może ża˛dać prowizji, o ktrej mowa w art. 2:301, jeżeli poprzedni agent może ża˛dać
tej prowizji na podstawie art. 2:302, chyba że byłoby rozsa˛dne, by agenci podzielili sie˛ ta˛
prowizja˛.
Art. 2:304. Wymagalność roszczenia o zapłate˛ prowizji

(1) Daja˛cy zlecenie obowia˛zany jest zapłacić agentowi prowizje˛ nie pźniej niż ostatniego dnia
miesia˛ca naste˛puja˛cego po kwartale, w ktrym powstało uprawnienie agenta do tej pro-
wizji.
(2) Strony nie moga˛ umwić sie˛ w sposb odbiegaja˛cy na niekorzyść agenta od postanowień
niniejszego przepisu.
Art. 2:305. Wyła˛czenie prawa do prowizji

(1) Agent nie może ża˛dać prowizji na podstawie art. 2:301 i 2:302 jedynie w wypadku, gdy
zostanie ustalone, iż umowa z klientem nie zostanie wykonana z powodu, za ktry daja˛cy
zlecenie nie odpowiada.
(2) W takim wypadku agent obowia˛zany jest zwrcić wszystko, co zostało mu świadczone na
poczet prowizji.
ust. 1.
Art. 2:306. Wynagrodzenie

Domniemywa sie˛, że wszelkie wynagrodzenie, ktre choć w cze˛ści zależy od liczby lub
wartości zawartych umw, jest prowizja˛ w rozumieniu niniejszego rozdziału.
Art. 2:307. Informacje w czasie wykonywania umowy

Obowia˛zek informowania (art. 1:203) wymaga w szczeglności, by daja˛cy zlecenie udzielał
agentowi informacji dotycza˛cych:
(a) charakterystyki towarw lub usług;
(b) cen i warunkw sprzedaży lub kupna.
Art. 2:308. Informacje dotycza˛ce przyje˛cia lub odrzucenia oferty

oraz niewykonania zobowia˛zania
(1) Daja˛cy zlecenie obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym czasie zawiadomić agenta o:
(a) przyje˛ciu lub odrzuceniu oferty zawarcia umowy, przy ktrej zawarciu agent pośred-
niczył;
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(b) wszelkich przypadkach niewykonania umowy, przy ktrej zawarciu pośredniczył lub
ktra˛ zawarł w imieniu daja˛cego zlecenie.
Art. 2:309. Zawiadomienie o zmniejszonej ilości i wartości umw

(1) Jeżeli daja˛cy zlecenie przewiduje albo powinien przewidzieć, że ilość lub wartość umw,
jakie be˛dzie on mgł zawierać lub wykonywać be˛dzie znacza˛co mniejsza niż agent mgłby
sie˛ normalnie spodziewać, obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym czasie zawiadomić o tym agenta.
Art. 2:310. Informacje o prowizji

(1) Daja˛cy zlecenie obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym czasie przekazać agentowi dokument
stwierdzaja˛cy prowizje, do jakich agent nabył prawo. W dokumencie be˛dzie wskazany
sposb obliczenia wysokości prowizji.
(2) W celu obliczenia należnej prowizji daja˛cy zlecenie na ża˛danie agenta udoste˛pni mu
wycia˛g ze swoich ksia˛g rachunkowych.
Art. 2:311. Ksie˛gowość

(1) Daja˛cy zlecenie obowia˛zany jest prowadzić w prawidłowy sposb ksie˛gowość w zakresie
umw, przy ktrych zawarciu agent pośredniczył lub ktre zawarł w imieniu daja˛cego
zlecenie.
(2) Jeżeli daja˛cy zlecenie ma wie˛cej niż jednego agenta, obowia˛zany jest on, w szczeglności,
prowadzić odre˛bna˛ ksie˛gowość dla każdego z agentw.
(3) Agent może ża˛dać udoste˛pnienia biegłemu rewidentowi w rozsa˛dnym zakresie ksia˛g da-
ja˛cego zlecenie, jeżeli:
(a) daja˛cy zlecenie nie wykonuje swoich obowia˛zkw określonych w art. 2:310 ust. 1 lub 2;
lub
(b) agent ma uzasadnione wa˛tpliwości, czy daja˛cy zlecenie prowadzi prawidłowa˛ ksie˛go-
wość.
Agent zobowia˛zany jest pokryć koszty biegłego rewidenta.
Art. 2:312. Wysokość świadczenia wyrwnawczego

(1) Agent może ża˛dać świadczenia wyrwnawczego na podstawie art. 1:305, ktre uwzgle˛-
dnia:
(a) średnia˛ prowizje˛ od umw z nowymi klientami oraz średnia˛ prowizje˛ od zwie˛kszonych
obrotw z dotychczasowymi klientami, obliczone za ostatnie 12 miesie˛cy, pomnożona˛
przez:
(b) liczbe˛ lat, przez jakie daja˛cy zlecenie be˛dzie prawdopodobnie osia˛gał korzyści z tych
umw w przyszłości.
(2) Tak obliczone świadczenie wyrwnawcze poprawia sie˛ z uwzgle˛dnieniem:
(a) średniego wskaźnika migracji na terytorium agenta; oraz
(b) średniej stopy odsetek.
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(3) Świadczenie wyrwnawcze nie może jednak przekroczyć jednorocznego wynagrodzenia,

obliczonego według średniego rocznego wynagrodzenia agenta w okresie ostatnich pie˛ciu
lat albo, jeżeli umowa obowia˛zywała przez czas krtszy niż pie˛ć lat, obliczonego według
średniego rocznego wynagrodzenia w tym czasie.
Art. 2:313. Zastrzeżenie prowizji del credere

(1) Zastrzeżenie, na mocy ktrego agent odpowiada za to, że klient zapłaci cene˛ produktw
stanowia˛cych przedmiot umowy lub umw, przy ktrych zawarciu agent pośredniczył, lub
ktre zawarł w imieniu daja˛cego zlecenie (zastrzeżenie prowizji del credere), jest ważne
jedynie wwczas, gdy:
(a) zastrzeżenie to zostało wyrażone na piśmie, i
(b) w zastrzeżeniu wskazano określone umowy, przy ktrych zawarciu agent pośredniczył
lub ktre zawarł lub takie umowy z poszczeglnymi klientami, ktrzy zostali wymieni
eni w postanowieniu, i
(c) zastrzeżenie to jest rozsa˛dne z punktu widzenia interesw stron.
(2) Agent ma prawo do prowizji w rozsa˛dnej wysokości z tytułu umw obje˛tych zobowia˛za-
niem del credere (prowizja del credere).
Rozdział III.
Franszyza
Dział 1.
Przepisy oglne
Art. 3:101. Zakres

Rozdział niniejszy stosuje sie˛ do umw, na mocy ktrych jedna ze stron (franszyzodawca)
zobowia˛zuje sie˛ za wynagrodzeniem zezwolić drugiej stronie (franszyzobiorcy) na prowadze-
nie przedsie˛biorstwa (przedsie˛biorstwo franszyzowe) w ramach sieci franszyzodawcy w celu
sprzedaży określonych produktw w imieniu i na rzecz franszyzodawcy, a franszyzobiorca
otrzymuje prawo i zobowia˛zuje sie˛ wykorzystywać firme˛ lub znak towarowy franszyzodawcy,
należa˛ca˛ do niego własność intelektualna˛, w tym wiedze˛ handlowa˛ oraz sposb prowadzenia
przedsie˛biorstwa.
Art. 3:102. Informacje przedumowne

(1) Z obowia˛zku udzielenia informacji przedumownych (art. 1:201) wynika w szczeglności,
że franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest udoste˛pnić franszyzobiorcy w stosownym czasie
odpowiednie informacje dotycza˛ce:
(a) przedsie˛biorstwa i doświadczenia franszyzodawcy;
(b) odnośnych praw do własności intelektualnej;
(c) cech charakterystycznych odnośnej wiedzy handlowej;
(d) dziedziny handlowej oraz warunkw rynkowych;
(e) sposobu prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa franszyzowego i jego działania;
(f) struktury i rozległości sieci franszyzowej;
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(g) opłat, tantiem i innych okresowych świadczeń pienie˛żnych;

(h) postanowień umowy.
(2) Jeżeli naruszenie przez franszyzodawce˛ obowia˛zkw określonych w uste˛pie poprzedzaja˛-
cym nie prowadzi do zasadniczego błe˛du w rozumieniu art. 4:103 zasad europejskiego
prawa umw, franszyzobiorca może ża˛dać naprawienia szkody na podstawie art. 4:117 ust.
2 oraz 3 zasad europejskiego prawa umw, chyba że franszyzodawca mgł sa˛dzić, że
informacje te były odpowiednie i zostały udzielone w stosownym czasie.
Dział 2.
Obowia˛zki franszyzodawcy
Art. 3:101. Prawa do własności intelektualnej

(1) Franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest udzielić franszyzobiorcy prawa do korzystania z jego
praw do własności intelektualnej w zakresie niezbe˛dnym do prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa
franszyzowego.
(2) Franszyzodawca obowia˛zuje sie˛ podejmować rozsa˛dne starania w celu zapewnienia nie-
zakłconego i cia˛głego korzystania z praw do własności intelektualnej.
Art. 3:202: Wiedza handlowa

(1) W czasie obowia˛zywania umowy franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest udoste˛pniać franszy-
zobiorcy wiedze˛ handlowa˛ niezbe˛dna˛ do prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa franszyzowego.
Art. 3:203. Pomoc

(1) Franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest nieodpłatnie udzielić franszyzobiorcy pomocy w postaci
szkoleń, wskazwek i porad w zakresie niezbe˛dnym do prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa
franszyzowego.
(2) Franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest udzielić franszyzobiorcy za stosowna˛ opłata˛ szerszej
pomocy na rozsa˛dne ża˛danie franszyzobiorcy.
Art. 3:204. Dostawa

(1) Jeżeli franszyzobiorca obowia˛zany jest nabywać produkty wyła˛cznie od franszyzodawcy
albo od dostawcy przezeń wskazanego, franszyzodawca zapewni, by produkty zamawiane
przez franszyzobiorce˛ były dostarczane w rozsa˛dnym terminie, w zakresie, w jakim jest to
użyteczne i pod warunkiem, że zamwienie jest rozsa˛dne.
(2) Przepis uste˛pu poprzedzaja˛cego stosuje sie˛ także w wypadku, gdy franszyzobiorca, nie
be˛da˛c zobowia˛zanym do nabywania produktw od franszyzodawcy lub wskazanego prze-
zeń dostawcy, jest do tego zmuszony przez okoliczności.
Art. 3:205. Informowanie w czasie wykonywania umowy

Z obowia˛zku udzielenia informacji przedumownych (art. 1:201) wynika w szczeglności, że
franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest udoste˛pnić franszyzobiorcy w stosownym czasie odpowied-
nie informacje dotycza˛ce:
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(a) odnośnych warunkw rynkowych;

(b) wynikw handlowych sieci franszyzowej;
(c) cech charakterystycznych produktw;
(d) cen i warunkw sprzedaży produktw;
(e) wszelkich zalecanych cen i zasad odsprzedaży produktw;
(f) wszelkich odnośnych komunikacji pomie˛dzy franszyzobiorca˛ a klientami na danym ob-
szarze;
(g) wszelkich kampanii reklamowych maja˛cych znaczenie dla działalności sieci franszyzowej.
Art. 3:206. Zawiadomienie o spadku możliwości dostawczych

(1) Jeżeli na franszyzobiorcy cia˛ży obowia˛zek nabywania produktw wyła˛cznie od franszyzo-
dawcy albo od wskazanego przezeń dostawcy, franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest w roz-
sa˛dnym czasie zawiadomić franszyzobiorce˛, gdy przewiduje albo powinien przewidzieć, że
jego zdolność do dokonywania dostaw przez niego lub wskazanych przez niego dostaw-
cw be˛dzie znacza˛co mniejsza, niż franszyzobiorca mgłby sie˛ normalnie spodziewać.
(2) Przepis uste˛pu poprzedzaja˛cego stosuje sie˛ także w wypadkach, gdy co prawda na frans-
zyzodawcy nie spoczywa prawny obowia˛zek nabywania produktw od franszyzodawcy lub
wskazanego przez niego dostawcy, jednak jest do tego zmuszony przez okoliczności.
(3) Strony nie moga˛ umwić sie˛ w sposb odbiegaja˛cy na niekorzyść franszyzobiorcy od
postanowień niniejszego przepisu.
Art. 3:207. Dobre imie˛ sieci oraz reklama

(1) Franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest podejmować rozsa˛dne starania w celu promocji i utrzy-
mania dobrego imienia sieci franszyzowej.
(2) Franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest w szczeglności opracować i nadzorować stosowne
kampanie reklamowe maja˛ce na celu promocje˛ sieci franszyzowej.
(3) Franszyzobiorca nie jest obowia˛zany do ponoszenia dodatkowych kosztw w zwia˛zku z
działaniami promocyjnymi oraz utrzymywaniem dobrego imienia sieci franszyzowej.
Dział 3.
Obowia˛zki franszyzobiorcy
Art. 3:301. Opłaty, tantiemy i opłaty okresowe

(1) Franszybiorca obowia˛zany jest płacić na rzecz franszyzodawcy opłaty, tantiemy lub inne
opłaty okresowe przewidziane umowa˛.
(2) Jeżeli opłaty, tantiemy lub inne opłaty okresowe maja˛ być jednostronnie określane przez
franszyzodawce˛, stosuje sie˛ art. 6:105 zasad europejskiego prawa umw.

Z obowia˛zku udzielenia informacji (art. 1:203) wynika, że franszyzodawca obowia˛zany jest
udoste˛pnić franszyzobiorcy informacje dotycza˛ce:
(a) wszelkich roszczeń zgłoszonych lub co do ktrych istnieje obawa, iż zostana˛ zgłoszone
przez osoby trzecie w zwia˛zku z prawami do własności intelektualnej franszyzodawcy;
(b) wszelkich naruszeń praw franszyzodawcy do własności intelektualnej dokonanych przez
osoby trzecie.
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Art. 3:303. Sposb prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa oraz wskazwki

(1) Franszyzobiorca obowia˛zany jest podejmować rozsa˛dne starania w celu prowadzenia
przedsie˛biorstwa franszyzowego zgodnie ze sposobem franszyzodawcy.
(2) Franszyzobiorca obowia˛zany jest stosować sie˛ do rozsa˛dnych wskazwek franszyzodawcy
w zakresie sposobu prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa oraz utrzymywania dobrego imienia
sieci.
(3) Franszyzobiorca obowia˛zany jest podejmować rozsa˛dne starania, aby nie wyrza˛dzić szkody
sieci franszyzowej.
Art. 3:304. Inspekcja

(1) Franszyzobiorca obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym zakresie umożliwić franszyzodawcy doste˛p
do swoich lokali, aby mgł on zbadać, czy franszyzobiorca stosuje sie˛ do jego sposobu
prowadzenia przedsie˛biorstwa oraz jego wskazwek w zakresie, w jakim jest to niezbe˛dne
do osia˛gnie˛cia celw umowy.
(2) Franszyzobiorca obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym zakresie umożliwić franszyzodawcy doste˛p
do swoich ksia˛g handlowych.
Rozdział IV.
Dystrybucja
Dział 1.
Przepisy oglne
Art. 4:101. Zakres i definicje

(1) Rozdział niniejszy stosuje sie˛ do umw dystrybucji wyła˛cznej, dystrybucji wybirczej oraz
umw o wyła˛czność nabywania.
(2) Umowa dystrybucyjna jest to umowa, na mocy ktrej jedna ze stron (dostawca) zobo-
wia˛zuje sie˛ stale dostarczać drugiej stronie (dystrybutorowi) produktw, a dystrybutor
zobowia˛zuje sie˛ nabywać i zbywać je w swoim imieniu i na swoja˛ rzecz.
(3) Umowa dystrybucji wyła˛cznej jest to umowa dystrybucyjna, na mocy ktrej dostawca
zobowia˛zuje sie˛ dostarczać produkty tylko jednemu dystrybutorowi na danym obszarze
albo pewnej grupie klientw.
(4) Umowa dystrybucji wybirczej jest to umowa dystrybucyjna, na podstawie ktrej dostawca
zobowia˛zuje sie˛ dostarczać produkty, bezpośrednio albo pośrednio, jedynie dystrybutorom
wybranym na podstawie określonych kryteriw.
(5) Umowa o wyła˛czność nabywania jest to umowa dystrybucyjna, na mocy ktrej dystrybutor
zobowia˛zuje sie˛ nabywać produkty jedynie od dostawcy lub od osoby wskazanej przez
dostawce˛.
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Dział 2.
Obowia˛zki dostawcy
Art. 4:201. Dostawa

Dostawca zobowia˛zany jest dostarczać dystrybutorowi produkty przez niego zamwione, na
tyle, na ile jest to użyteczne oraz z zastrzeżeniem, że zamwienie jest rozsa˛dne.

Z obowia˛zku udzielania informacji (art. 1:203) wynika, że dostawca obowia˛zany jest udoste˛p-
niać dystrybutorowi informacje dotycza˛ce:
(a) cech charakterystycznych produktw;
(b) cen i warunkw zbywania produktw;
(c) wszelkich wskazwek co do cen i zasad zbywania produktw;
(d) wszelkich istotnych kontaktw pomie˛dzy dostawca˛ a klientami;
(e) wszelkich kampanii reklamowych maja˛cych znaczenie dla wykonywania umowy.
Art. 4:203. Zawiadomienie o zmniejszeniu zdolności do dostarczania produktw

(1) Jeżeli dostawca przewiduje albo powinien przewidzieć, że jego zdolności do dostarczania
produktw be˛da˛ znacza˛co mniejsze, niż dystrybutor mgłby sie˛ normalnie spodziewać,
obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym czasie zawiadomić o tym dystrybutora.
(2) Strony umowy o wyła˛czość nabywania nie moga˛ umwić sie˛ w sposb odbiegaja˛cy na
niekorzyść dystrybutora od postanowień niniejszego przepisu
Art. 4.204. Materiały reklamowe

Dostawca obowia˛zany jest udoste˛pniać dystrybutorowi po rozsa˛dnej cenie wszelkie materiały
reklamowe, ktre sa˛ niezbe˛dne do prawidłowej dystrybucji i promocji produktw.
Art. 4.205. Renoma produktw

Dostawca obowia˛zany jest dołożyć rozsa˛dnych starań, by nie naruszyć renomy produktw.
Dział 3.
Obowia˛zki dystrybutora
Art. 4:301. Dystrybucja

W umowach dystrybucji wyła˛cznej i wybirczej w zakresie, w jakim jest to użyteczne, dy-
strybutor obowia˛zany jest podejmować rozsa˛dne starania w celu promowania sprzedaży pro-
duktw.
Art. 4:302. Udoste˛pnianie informacji podczas wykonywania umowy

W umowach dystrybucji wyła˛cznej i wybirczej z obowia˛zku udoste˛pniania informacji (art.
1:203) wynika, by dystrybutor udoste˛pniał dostawcy informacje dotycza˛ce:
(a) wszelkich roszczeń zgłoszonych lub co do ktrych istnieje obawa, iż zostana˛ zgłoszone
przez osoby trzecie w zwia˛zku z prawami do własności intelektualnej dostawcy;
(b) wszelkich naruszeń praw dostawcy do własności intelektualnej dokonanych przez osoby
trzecie.
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Art. 4:303. Zawiadomienie o zmniejszeniu zapotrzebowań

W umowach dystrybucji wyła˛cznej i wybirczej, jeżeli dystrybutor przewiduje albo powinien
przewidzieć, że jego zapotrzebowania be˛da˛ znacza˛co mniejsze, niż dostawca mgłby sie˛
normalnie spodziewać, obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym czasie zawiadomić o tym dostawce˛.
Art. 4:304. Wskazwki

W umowach dystrybucji wyła˛cznej i wybirczej dystrybutor obowia˛zany jest stosować sie˛ do
rozsa˛dnych wskazwek dostawcy, ktre maja˛ na celu zapewnienie prawidłowej dystrybucji
produktw lub zachowania renomy lub szczeglnego charakteru produktw.
Art. 4:305. Inspekcja

W umowach dystrybucji wyła˛cznej i wybirczej dystrybutor obowia˛zany jest w rozsa˛dnym
zakresie umożliwić dostawcy doste˛p do swoich lokali, aby mgł on sprawdzić, czy dystrybutor
stosuje sie˛ do standardw ustalonych w umowie oraz rozsa˛dnych wskazwek, ktrych do-
stawca mu udzielił.
Art. 4:306. Renoma produktw

W umowach dystrybucji wyła˛cznej i wybirczej dystrybutor obowia˛zany jest podejmować
rozsa˛dne starania, by nie naruszyć renomy produktw.
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Spanish6
Contratos Mercantiles de Agencia,
Franquicia y Distribucin
Captulo 1:
Disposiciones Generales
Seccin 1:
mbito de aplicacin del Cap tulo 1
Art culo 1:101: mbito de aplicacin

Este Captulo es de aplicacin a los contratos mercantiles de agencia, franquicia y distribucin, y
con las oportunas modificaciones, a aquellos contratos en los que una de las partes, dedicada a
la actividad empresarial de forma independiente, utiliza sus aptitudes y pone todo su empeo
para introducir en el mercado los productos de la otra.
Seccin 2:
Obligaciones
Art culo 1:201: Informacin pre-contractual

(1) Cada una de las partes debe proporcionar a la otra informacin adecuada, con una ante-
lacin razonable a la conclusin del contrato. En caso contrario, se aplicar el prrafo (3).
(2) Informacin adecuada significa informacin suficiente para que la otra parte pueda decidir,
lo suficientemente informada, si celebrar o no un contrato del tipo y en las condiciones en
cuestin.
(3) Si el incumplimiento del prrafo 1 por una de las partes lleva a la otra parte a celebrar un
contrato, sabiendo o debiendo haber sabido la parte incumplidora que la otra parte, de
haber recibido informacin adecuada y en tiempo, no hubiera concluido el contrato o lo
hubiera concluido en condiciones esencialmente diferentes, se aplican las acciones por
vicios del consentimiento del Captulo 4 de los PECL.
(4) Las partes no pueden obviar esta disposicin.
Art culo 1:202: Cooperacin

(1) En los contratos mercantiles de agencia, franquicia y distribucin y en otros contratos
mercantiles de larga duracin, la obligacin de colaborar (art. 1:202 PECL) resulta esencial y
particularmente intensa. A las partes se les exige concretamente que colaboren de forma
activa y leal y que coordinen sus esfuerzos para lograr los objetivos del contrato.
6 Traduccin propuesta por Odavia Bueno Dıáz.
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Art culo 1:203: Informacin durante el cumplimiento del contrato

(1) Mientras el contrato est en vigor, cada una de las partes debe proporcionar puntualmente a
la otra toda la informacin que tenga y que la otra necesite para conseguir los objetivos del
contrato.
Art culo 1:204: Confidencialidad

(1) Si una de las partes recibe informacin confidencial de la otra, deber mantener la confi-
dencialidad de la misma y no revelar dicha informacin a terceros, ni durante el perodo de
vigencia del contrato ni tras la extincin del mismo.
(2) Si una de las partes recibe informacin confidencial de la otra, no la podr utilizar para fines
distintos a la consecucin de los objetivos del contrato.
(3) La informacin que las partes tuvieran ya en su posesin o que haya sido hecha pfflblica, as
como la informacin que deba ser necesariamente revelada a los clientes como consecuen-
cia del funcionamiento de la actividad, no se considerar informacin confidencial a estos
efectos.
Seccin 3:
Finalizacin y Resolucin
Art culo 1:301: Contrato de duracin definida

(1) Los contratos que tienen una duracin definida finalizan cuando expira el perodo determi-
nado en los mismos. Salvo que las partes acuerden lo contrario, esos contratos no pueden
finalizarse unilateralmente de antemano.
(2) Las partes son libres de no renovar un contrato de duracin definida. No obstante, si una
de las partes ha notificado con la debida antelacin a la otra su deseo de renovar el
contrato, la parte que no desea renovarlo debe notificar a la otra su decisin en un plazo
razonable antes de que expire el contrato.
(3) Los contratos de duracin definida que continfflan vigentes tras la expiracin del perodo
convenido se convierten en contratos indefinidos.
Art culo 1:302: Finalizacin unilateral de un contrato de duracin indefinida

(1) Cualquiera de las partes firmantes de un contrato celebrado por un perodo indefinido
puede finalizar el mismo mediante notificacin realizada con un preaviso razonable (art.
6:109 PECL).
(2) El que una notificacin se realize o no con una antelacin razonable depende, entre otros
factores, de los siguientes:
(a) el tiempo que ha durado el contrato,
(b) las inversiones razonables que se han realizado,
(c) el tiempo que se necesitar para hallar otra alternativa, y
(d) la costumbre.
(3) Se considerar razonable una notificacin realizada con un preaviso de un mes por cada
ao que haya durado el contrato, con un mximo de 36 meses.
(4) La antelacin con que debe realizar su notificacin el principal, el franquiciador o el
proveedor ser de al menos un mes para el primer ao, dos meses para el segundo, tres
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Spanish. Contratos Mercantiles de Agencia, Franquicia y Distribucin
meses para el tercero, cuatro meses para el cuarto, cinco meses para el quinto y seis meses
para el sexto y los siguientes en que el contrato ha permanecido en vigor. Las partes no
pueden obviar esta disposicin.
(5) Son vlidos los acuerdos por los que se pacte un mayor plazo de preaviso que los
establecidos en los Prrafos 2 y 3, siempre que el plazo acordado que deba cumplir el
principal, el franquiciador o el proveedor no sea ms corto que el que deba cumplir el
agente, el franquiciado o el distribuidor.
(6) La parte perjudicada no tiene derecho a exigir el cumplimiento especfico del contrato
durante el plazo de preaviso. No obstante, el juez podr ordenar el cumplimiento especfico
de obligaciones contractuales y post-contractuales que no dependan de la cooperacin de
ambas partes.
Art culo 1:303: Da

os y perjuicios por incumplimiento del plazo de notificacin
(1) En caso de incumplimiento de los plazos de notificacin que se mencionan en los Artculos
1:301 (2) y 1:302 (1), la parte perjudicada podr reclamar una indemnizacin por daos y
perjuicios.
(2) La forma habitual de calcular los daos y perjuicios consiste en equiparar la suma de la
indemnizacin a los beneficios que la parte perjudicada habra obtenido durante el plazo de
preaviso que la otra parte incumpli.
(3) Se considera que los beneficios anuales equivalen a los beneficios medios que la parte
perjudicada ha obtenido del contrato durante los fflltimos 3 aos o, si el contrato ha durado
menos tiempo, durante ese perodo de vigencia.
(4) Las normas generales sobre indemnizacin por daos y perjuicios derivados del incumpli-
miento (art. 9:501 ff PECL) se aplicarn consecuentemente.
Art culo 1:304: Resolucin por incumplimiento

(1) Cualquiera de las partes puede resolver el contrato por incumplimiento, pero slo si el
incumplimiento de la otra parte resulta esencial, de acuerdo con lo que establece el Artculo
8:103 (b) y el Artculo 8:103 (c) PECL (art. 9:301 PECL).
Art culo 1:305: Indemnizacin por clientela

(1) Cuando el contrato llega a su fin por cualquier razn (incluida la resolucin por una de las
partes como consecuencia del incumplimiento de la otra), cualquiera de las partes tiene
derecho a percibir de la otra parte una indemnizacin por clientela, siempre que se den las
siguientes condiciones:
(a) que la primera parte haya aumentado de forma considerable el volumen de negocios de
la otra, y que esta parte siga obteniendo beneficios sustanciales de dicha actividad, y
(b) que el pago de la indemnizacin resulte razonable teniendo en cuenta todas las
circunstancias.
(2) La obtencin de una indemnizacin no impide la reclamacin de daos y perjuicios de
acuerdo con el Artculo 1:303.
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Art culo 1:306: Existencias, Piezas de recambio y Materiales

Si el contrato finaliza o es resuelto por alguna de las partes, el principal, el franquiciador o el
proveedor deben recomprar al agente, el franquiciado, o el distribuidor, por un precio razonable,
las existencias, las piezas de recambio y los materiales que les queden sin vender, salvo que el
agente, el franquiciado o el distribuidor puedan revenderlos de una manera razonable.
Seccin 4:
Otras Disposiciones Generales
Art culo 1:401: Derecho de Retencin

Con el fin de garantizar su derecho a percibir una remuneracin, compensacin, indemnizacin
por daos y perjuicios u otra indemnizacin, el agente, el franquiciado o el distribuidor tienen
un derecho de retencin sobre los bienes muebles del principal, el franquiciador o el proveedor
que estn en posesin del agente, el franquiciado o el distribuidor a consecuencia de la relacin
contractual, hasta que el (anterior) principal, franquiciador o proveedor haya cumplido con sus
obligaciones.
Art culo 1:402: Documento por escrito firmado

Cada una de las partes tiene derecho a recibir de la otra, bajo peticin, un documento por
escrito y firmado en el que se establezcan los trminos del contrato.
Captulo 2:
Agencia
Seccin 1:

Este Capitulo es de aplicacin a los contratos en virtud de los cuales una de las partes (el
agente) acuerda actuar de forma continuada como intermediario por cuenta propia, para ne-
gociar o firmar contratos en nombre de otra parte (el principal), y esta parte acuerda pagar al
agente una remuneracin por las actividades realizadas en calidad de agente.
Seccin 2:
Obligaciones del Agente
Art culo 2:201: Negociar y firmar contratos

El agente debe poner el empeo suficiente para negociar contratos en nombre del principal y
para firmar los contratos que se le han encomendado firmar.
Art culo 2:202: Instrucciones

El agente debe seguir las instrucciones del principal, siempre que no afecten de forma sustancial
a la independencia del agente.
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La obligacin de informar (Artculo 1:203) obliga al agente, en particular, a proporcionar al
principal toda la informacin sobre las siguientes cuestiones:
(a) los contratos negociados o firmados,
(b) las condiciones relevantes del mercado,
(c) la solvencia de los clientes y otras caractersticas relacionadas.
Art culo 2:204: Contabilidad

(1) El agente debe conservar la contabilidad correspondiente a los contratos negociados o
celebrados en nombre del principal.
(2) Si el agente representa a ms de un principal, deber conservar cuentas independientes para
cada uno de ellos.
(3) Si el principal tiene razones de peso para dudar que el agente mantenga las cuentas
adecuadas, el agente debe permitir que un contable independiente acceda a sus libros
previa peticin del principal. El principal debe pagar los servicios del contable indepen-
diente.
Seccin 3:
Obligaciones del Principal
Art culo 2:301: Derecho a percibir una comisin durante el contrato

(1) El agente tiene derecho a percibir comisiones por los contratos firmados con clientes
durante el perodo de vigencia del contrato de agencia, si:
(a) el contrato celebrado con el cliente se ha firmado como consecuencia de los esfuerzos
realizados por el agente; o
(b) el contrato se ha firmado con un tercero que ha sido previamente captado como cliente
por el agente para contratos del mismo tipo; o
(c) se le encomienda al agente una determinada zona geogrfica o un determinado grupo
de clientes, y el contrato se firma con un cliente perteneciente a dicho grupo o a dicha
zona, y
(2) El derecho a percibir una comisin se devenga solamente si:
(a) el principal ha cumplido o debera haber cumplido con sus obligaciones contractuales
frente al cliente; o
(b) el cliente ha cumplido con sus obligaciones contractuales o se niega a cumplirlas de
forma justificada (Artculo 9:201 PECL).
(3) Las partes no pueden derogar el Prrafo 2 (b) en perjuicio del agente.
Art culo 2:302: Derecho a percibir una comisin despus del contrato
(1) El agente tiene derecho a percibir comisiones por los contratos firmados con clientes tras la
finalizacin o resolucin del contrato de agencia, si:
(a) el contrato celebrado con el cliente es la consecuencia de los esfuerzos realizados por el
agente durante el perodo de vigencia del contrato de agencia y se ha firmado en un
plazo razonable desde la finalizacin del mismo; o
(b) las condiciones del Artculo 2:301 Prrafo 1 se habran cumplido salvo que el contrato
con el cliente no se firm durante el perodo de vigencia del contrato de agencia, y la
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oferta del cliente lleg al principal o al agente con anterioridad a la finalizacin o

resolucin del mismo.
(2) El derecho a percibir una comisin nace solamente si:
(a) el principal ha cumplido o debera haber cumplido con sus obligaciones contractuales
frente al cliente; o
(b) el cliente ha cumplido con sus obligaciones contractuales o se niega a cumplirlas de
forma justificada (Artculo 9:201 PECL).
(3) Las partes no pueden derogar el Prrafo 2 (b) en perjuicio del agente.
Art culo 2:303: Derecho preferente a comisin

El agente no tendr derecho a percibir la comisin a la que se refiere el Artculo 2:301 si el
anterior agente tiene derecho a percibir dicha comisin, de acuerdo con el Artculo 2:302, salvo
que resulte razonable compartir entre los dos agentes la comisin.
Art culo 2:304: Momento en que debe pagarse la comisin

(1) El principal debe pagar la comisin al agente antes del fflltimo da del mes siguiente al
trimestre en el que ste se hizo acreedor de la misma.
(2) Las partes no pueden derogar el Prrafo 2 sub b) en perjuicio del agente.
Art culo 2:305: Extincin del derecho a percibir la comisin

(1) El derecho del agente a percibir la comisin de acuerdo con los Artculos 2:301 y 2:302
puede extinguirse en la medida en que el contrato celebrado con el cliente no se cumpla por
motivos ajenos al principal.
(2) En caso de extincin del derecho del agente a percibir la comisin, ste deber devolver
todas las comisiones que haya recibido.
(3) Las partes no pueden derogar el Prrafo 2 sub b) en perjuicio del agente.
Art culo 2:306: Remuneracin

Las remuneraciones que (parcialmente) dependan del nfflmero o del valor de los contratos sern
consideradas comisiones conforme a lo establecido en este Captulo.

La obligacin de informar (Artculo 1:203) obliga al principal, en particular, a proporcionar al
agente toda la informacin sobre las siguientes cuestiones:
(a) las caractersticas de los bienes y servicios,
(b) los precios y las condiciones de la compra o la venta.
Art culo 2:308: Informacin sobre la Aceptacin, el Rechazo y el Incumplimiento

(1) En un plazo razonable, el principal deber informar al agente de las siguientes cuestiones:
(a) la aceptacin o el rechazo por su parte de un contrato negociado por el agente en
nombre del principal; y
(b) cualquier incumplimiento de un contrato negociado o firmado por el agente en nombre
del principal.
(2) Las partes no pueden derogar esta disposicin en perjuicio del agente.
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Art culo 2:309: Advertencia del descenso del volumen de contratos

(1) El principal debe advertir al agente dentro de un plazo razonable cuando prevea o debiera
haber previsto que el volumen de contratos que puede firmar o cumplir va a ser conside-
rablemente ms bajo que el que el agente puede fundadamente esperar.
Art culo 2:310: Informacin sobre la comisin a travs de un

Informe y un Resumen de los Libros
(1) El principal debe proporcionar al agente, en el plazo razonable, un informe de la comisin
que tiene derecho a percibir. Este informe tiene que indicar la forma en que se ha calculado
el importe de la comisin.
(2) A efectos de calcular la comisin, el principal debe proporcionar al agente, previa peticin,
un resumen de sus libros.
Art culo 2:311: Contabilidad

(1) El principal debe conservar la contabilidad correspondiente a los contratos negociados o
celebrados por el agente.
(2) Si el principal tiene ms de un agente, deber conservar cuentas independientes para cada
uno de ellos.
(3) El principal debe permitir que un contable independiente acceda a sus libros previa peticin
del agente, si
(a) el principal no cumple con sus obligaciones contractuales de acuerdo con el Artculo
2:310 (1) y (2), o
(b) el agente tiene rezones de peso para dudar que el principal mantenga las cuentas
adecuadas.
(4) El agente debe pagar los servicios del contable independiente.
Art culo 2:312: Importe de la Indemnizacin

(1) El agente tiene derecho a recibir una indemnizacin por clientela de acuerdo con el Artculo
1:305, por un importe que asciende a:
(a) la comisin media sobre los contratos celebrados con clientes nuevos y sobre el
aumento del volumen de negocios con los clientes existentes, calculada durante los
fflltimos doce aos, multiplicada por:
(b) el nfflmero de aos que probablemente continuar obteniendo beneficios el principal en
el futuro como consecuencia de esos contratos.
(2) El importe de la indemnizacin que resulta de esa operacin debe corregirse de conformidad
con lo siguiente:
(a) la tasa media de migracin en el territorio geogrfico del agente; y
(b) el tipo de inters medio.
(3) En cualquier caso, la indemnizacin no podr exceder la remuneracin de un ao, calculada
a partir de la remuneracin anual media del agente en los fflltimos cinco aos o, si el
contrato ha durado menos de cinco aos, de la remuneracin media durante el perodo de
duracin del contrato en cuestin.
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Art culo 2:313: Clusula de Riesgo de Impago

(1) Los acuerdos por los que el agente garantiza que el cliente pagar los productos objeto del
contrato(s) que el agente ha negociado o firmado (clusula de riesgo de impago) slo sern
vlidos en la medida en que:
(a) la clusula est firmada por escrito, y
(b) la clusula abarque los contratos particulares que negoci o firm el agente o los
contratos con clientes particulares que se especifican en el acuerdo, y
(c) la clusula sea razonable con relacin a los intereses de las partes.
(2) El agente tiene derecho a percibir una comisin por un importe razonable sobre los
contratos a los que se aplique la garanta de riesgo de impago (comisin de garanta).
Captulo 3:
Franquicia
Seccin 1:

Este Captulo es de aplicacin a los contratos en los que una de las partes (el franquiciador)
otorga a la otra (el franquiciado), a cambio de una remuneracin, el derecho a desarrollar una
actividad comercial (actividad de franquicia) en el mbito de la red de franquicia del franqui-
ciador, para la venta de determinados productos en el nombre y por cuenta del franquiciado, y
en los que el franquiciado tiene el derecho y la obligacin de utilizar el nombre comercial y la
marca del franquiciador, as como otros derechos de propiedad intelectual, el know-how y el
mtodo empresarial.
Art culo 3:102: Informacin previa al contrato

(1) La obligacin de informacin pre-contractual (Artculo 1:201) obliga al franquiciador, en
particular, a proporcionar puntualmente al franquiciado informacin adecuada sobre las
siguientes cuestiones:
(a) la experiencia y la empresa del franquiciador,
(b) los derechos de propiedad intelectual correspondientes,
(c) las caractersticas del know-how correspondiente,
(d) el sector comercial y las condiciones del mercado,
(e) el mtodo concreto de franquicia y su funcionamiento,
(f) la estructura y el lmite de la red de la franquicia,
(g) las comisiones, royalties u otros pagos peridicos,
(h) los trminos del contrato.
(2) En caso de que el incumplimiento del prrafo 1 por parte del franquiciador no provoque un
error esencial de acuerdo con el Artculo 4:103 PECL, el franquiciado puede percibir una
indemnizacin por daos y perjuicios en virtud del Artculo 4:117(2) y (3) PECL, salvo que
el franquiciador tuviera razones para pensar que la informacin era adecuada o que se dio
en un plazo de tiempo razonable.
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Seccin 2:
Obligaciones del Franquiciador
Art culo 3:201: Derechos de propiedad Intelectual

(1) El franquiciador debe otorgar al franquiciado el derecho a utilizar los derechos de propiedad
intelectual en la medida en que sea necesario para desarrollar la actividad de franquicia.
(2) El franquiciador debe poner todo su empeo para garantizar el uso pacfico y continuado de
los derechos de propiedad intelectual.
Art culo 3:202: Know-How

(1) Por el periodo de duracin del contrato, el franquiciador debe proporcionar al franquiciado
el know-how necesario para desarrollar la actividad de franquicia.
Art culo 3:203: Asistencia

(1) El franquiciador debe proporcionar al franquiciado asistencia en forma de cursos de forma-
cin, orientacin y asesoramiento que sean necesarios para el desarrollo de la actividad de
franquicia, sin coste adicional para el franquiciado.
(2) El franquiciador debe proporcionar asistencia adicional a un coste razonable, siempre que la
solicitud del franquiciado sea razonable.
Art culo 3:204: Suministro

(1) Si el franquiciado est obligado a comprar los productos exclusivamente al franquiciador, o
al proveedor que ste designe, el franquiciador debe garantizar que los productos que
encargue el franquiciado se suministren en un plazo razonable, en la medida de lo posible y
siempre que el pedido sea razonable.
(2) El Prrafo 1 tambin se aplica a los casos en que el franquiciado, sin estar obligado por
contrato a comprar los productos al franquiciador o al proveedor que ste designe, tenga
esta obligacin de hecho.
Art culo 3:205: Informacin durante el cumplimiento

La obligacin de informar (Artculo 1:203) obliga al franquiciador, en particular, a proporcionar
al franquiciado informacin sobre las siguientes cuestiones:
(a) las condiciones del mercado correspondientes,
(b) los resultados comerciales de la red de franquicia,
(c) las caractersticas de los productos,
(d) los precios y las condiciones para la venta de los productos,
(e) los precios y las condiciones recomendadas para la reventa de los productos,
(f) cualquier comunicacin que sea importante entre el franquiciador y los clientes en el
territorio,
(g) las campaas publicitarias correspondientes al funcionamiento de la franquicia.
Art culo 3:206: Advertencia sobre el descenso de la capacidad de suministro

(1) Si el franquiciado est obligado a comprar los productos exclusivamente al franquiciador o
al proveedor que ste designe, el franquiciador debe advertir al franquiciado con la ante-
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lacin suficiente cuando prevea o debiera haber previsto que su capacidad de suministro o
la del proveedor elegido por l ser bastante menor que la que el franquiciado puede
fundadamente esperar.
(2) El Prrafo 1 tambin se aplica a los casos en que el franquiciado, sin estar obligado por
contrato a comprar los productos al franquiciador o al proveedor que ste designe, tenga
esta obligacin de hecho.
(3) Las partes no pueden derogar esta disposicin en perjuicio del franquiciado.
Art culo 3:207: Reputacin de la Red y Publicidad

(1) El franquiciador debe poner el empeo suficiente para promocionar y mantener la repu-
tacin de la red de franquicia.
(2) Concretamente, el franquiciador debe disear y coordinar las campaas publicitarias apro-
piadas para promocionar la red de franquicia.
(3) Las actividades de promocin y salvaguarda de la reputacin de la red de franquicia deben
desarrollarse sin coste adicional para el franquiciado.
Seccin 3:
Obligaciones del Franquiciado
Art culo 3:301: Comisiones, Royalties y Otros pagos Peridicos

(1) El franquiciado debe pagar al franquiciador los cnones, los royalties y otros pagos peri-
dicos acordados en el contrato.
(2) En caso de que los cnones, los royalties u otros pagos peridicos sean determinados
unilateralmente por el franquiciador, se aplicar el Artculo 6:105 PECL.

La obligacin de informar (Artculo 1:203) obliga al franquiciado, en particular, a proporcionar
al franquiciador informacin sobre las siguientes cuestiones:
(a) reclamaciones efectuadas o amenazas de reclamaciones por parte de terceros en relacin
con los derechos de propiedad intelectual del franquiciador.
(b) violaciones de los derechos de propiedad intelectual del franquiciador por parte de terceros.
Art culo 3:303: Mtodo empresarial e Instrucciones

(1) El franquiciado debe poner el empeo suficiente para desarrollar la actividad de franquicia
de acuerdo con el mtodo empresarial del franquiciador.
(2) El franquiciado debe seguir las instrucciones del franquiciador en relacin con el mtodo
empresarial y la salvaguarda de la reputacin de la red.
(3) El franquiciado debe tener suficiente cuidado para no causar dao alguno a la red de
franquicia.
Art culo 3:304: Inspeccin

(1) El franquiciado debe permitir al franquiciador acceder a sus locales para que ste pueda
comprobar que el franquiciado est cumpliendo sus instrucciones y el mtodo empresarial,
en la medida en que sea necesario para alcanzar los objetivos del contrato.
(2) El franquiciado debe permitir al franquiciador acceder a sus libros de contabilidad.
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Captulo 4:
Distribucin
Seccin 1:
Disposiciones generales
Art culo 4:101: mbito de aplicacin y definiciones

(1) Este Captulo es de aplicacin a los contratos de distribucin exclusiva, distribucin se-
lectiva y compra exclusiva.
(2) Un contrato de distribucin es un contrato por el cual una de las partes (el proveedor)
acuerda suministrar a la otra (el distribuidor) ciertos productos de forma continuada, y el
distribuidor acuerda comprarlos y venderlos en su propio nombre y por su propia cuenta
(contrato de distribucin).
(3) Un contrato de distribucin exclusiva es un contrato de distribucin por el cual el proveedor
acuerda suministrar los productos a un fflnico distribuidor en un determinado territorio o a
un determinado grupo de clientes.
(4) Un contrato de distribucin selectiva es un contrato de distribucin por el cual el proveedor
acuerda suministrar los productos, directa o indirectamente, solamente a los distribuidores
elegidos segffln unos criterios especficos.
(5) Un contrato de compra exclusiva es un contrato de distribucin por el cual el distribuidor
acuerda adquirir los productos solamente al proveedor o a la parte que el proveedor designe.
Seccin 2:
Obligaciones del Proveedor
Art culo 4:201: Suministro

El proveedor debe suministrar los productos encargados por el distribuidor, siempre que sea
posible y que el pedido sea razonable.

La obligacin de informar (Artculo 1:203) obliga al proveedor, en particular, a proporcionar al
distribuidor informacin sobre las siguientes cuestiones:
(a) las caractersticas de los productos,
(b) los precios y las condiciones para la venta de los productos,
(c) los precios y las condiciones recomendadas para la reventa de los productos,
(d) cualquier comunicacin que sea importante entre el proveedor y los clientes,
(e) las campaas publicitarias correspondientes al desarrollo de la actividad.
Art culo 4:203: Advertencia del descenso de la capacidad de suministro

(1) El proveedor debe advertir al distribuidor con la antelacin suficiente cuando prevea o
debera prever que su capacidad de suministro ser bastante menor que la que el distri-
buidor puede fundadamente esperar.
(2) En los contratos de compra exclusiva, las partes no pueden derogar esta disposicin en
perjuicio del distribuidor.
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Art culo 4:204: Material publicitario

El proveedor debe proporcionar al distribuidor, a un precio razonable, todo el material publi-
citario que el proveedor tenga y sea necesario para la correcta distribucin y promocin de los
productos.
Art culo 4:205: Reputacin de los productos

El proveedor debe poner el empeo suficiente para no daar la reputacin de los productos.
Seccin 3:
Obligaciones del Distribuidor
Art culo 4:301: Distribucin

En los contratos de distribucin exclusiva y selectiva, el distribuidor pondr el empeo sufi-
ciente para promocionar las ventas de los productos en la medida de lo posible.

En los contratos de distribucin exclusiva y selectiva, la obligacin de informar (Artculo 1:203)
obliga al distribuidor, en particular, a proporcionar al proveedor informacin sobre las siguientes
cuestiones:
(a) reclamaciones efectuadas o amenazas de reclamaciones por parte de terceros en relacin
con los derechos de propiedad intelectual del proveedor,
(b) violaciones de los derechos de propiedad intelectual del proveedor por parte de terceros.
Art culo 4:303: Advertencia sobre el descenso de pedidos

En los contratos de distribucin exclusiva y selectiva, el distribuidor debe advertir al proveedor
con la antelacin suficiente cuando prevea o debiera haber previsto que sus pedidos sern
bastante menores de lo que el proveedor puede fundadamente esperar.
Art culo 4:304: Instrucciones

En los contratos de distribucin exclusiva y selectiva, el distribuidor debe seguir las instruccio-
nes del proveedor para garantizar la correcta distribucin de los productos o para salvaguardar la
reputacin o las caractersticas inconfundibles de los productos.
Art culo 4:305: Inspeccin

En los contratos de distribucin exclusiva y selectiva, el distribuidor debe permitir al proveedor
acceder a sus locales para poder comprobar que est cumpliendo con los standares acordados
en el contrato y con las instrucciones que sean razonables.
Art culo 4:306: Reputacin de los Productos

En los contratos de distribucin exclusiva y selectiva, el distribuidor debe poner el empeo
suficiente para no daar la reputacin de los productos.
88
Introduction
I. General
These principles deal with commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts, and
with other contracts where one party uses the other party’s skill and efforts to bring its
products to the market. Although these Principles are not directly applicable to other
long-term (commercial) contracts some of the Articles (e. g. the ones on co-operation
and on ending a contract) may be applied to such contracts by way of analogy where
appropriate.
II. Economic Function: Marketing (Vertical Agreements)
The economic function of all three contracts regulated in these Principles is that they
are instrumental in bringing products to the market. One could therefore speak of
marketing contracts, if that term was not usually used in a specific connection with
advertisements.
All three contacts are so-called vertical agreements. They are agreements between
economic actors on different levels in the production and distribution chain (as opposed
to horizontal agreements which are agreements between business entities on the same
level). This chain may consist of only one link (e. g. a distribution contract between the
producer and a reseller). However, between the producer and the final reseller there
may also be numerous links (European importer, wholesaler et cetera).
Obviously, the economic importance of these contracts is enormous since they form the
connection between producers and retailers who sell the products to consumers and
other final users. There are only very few economic sectors where producers regularly
sell their products directly to final consumer users (although the Internet has recently
facilitated such direct sales).
An alternative to a network of independent agents, distributors or franchisees who are

linked to the principal, supplier or franchisor by a contract would be a network of
subsidiaries or daughter companies which are connected to the mother company in a
proprietary (shareholders’) link. The advantage for the mother company would be
absolute control and a more extensive knowledge of the market. The drawback, how-
ever, would be that it would fully bear the economic risk, whereas in commercial
agency, franchise and distribution contracts the risk is shifted, in part or entirely, to
another independent business. The Coase theorem explains that the choice between
contract or company is ultimately determined by the amount of transaction costs in-
volved in the contractual solution.
91
Principles of European Law on Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Contracts
III. Relation to General Contract Law (PECL)
The Principles of European Contract Law provide general rules of contract law. Those
rules are meant to be applied, in principle, to all possible types of contracts, indepen-
dent of their object (e. g. sales, insurance, medical treatment, construction and joint-
venture) or the status of the parties (consumer, citizen, small business, multinational).
As a result, these rules are necessarily rather general and abstract. Although abstract
rules certainly have an important function – they warrant normative integrity –, prac-
tice also needs some more specific rules. Therefore, in addition to the general contract
law contained in the PECL the Study Group on a European Civil Code has also
developed sets of specific rules relating to the most recurrent specific contracts.
As to commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts, goodwill compensation

after the ending of a distribution contract, the moment at which the agent’s commission
is due, the franchisor’s obligation to maintain the good reputation of the network are but a
few examples of issues where specific rules are needed in order to give legal practice some
guidance and to provide practitioners with a reasonable degree of legal certainty.
The European Community has long recognised the need for specific rules in this area.
Indeed, the first Directive it enacted in the field of contract law was the Council
Directive of 18 December 1986 on the Coordination of the Laws of the Member States
relating to Self-employed Commercial Agents (86/653/ EEC) (hereafter: the Directive).
However, it would be arbitrary to regulate only commercial agency contracts since
franchise and distribution contracts are very similar as regards their economic function
(see above, II), the main problems that may arise during the course of the contractual
relationship and many other respects (of course, there are also important differences; see
below, VI).
IV. Relation To Competition Law
The EC Directive on Self-employed Commercial Agents of 1986 is not the only leg-
islative action which the European Community has taken with regard to the type of
contracts which are under discussion here (commercial agency, distribution, franchise).
Article 81 (1) (ex Article 85 (1)) EC declares invalid, in short, all agreements and
concerted practices which may affect trade between Member States and which have as
their object or effect the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition within the
common market. The European Commission and the European Court of Justice have
long held that not only horizontal agreements but also vertical ones may fall within the
scope of application of art. 81 EC. As a result, they may be invalid for restraint of trade.
However, on the basis of Section 3 the European Commission may provide exemptions,
both individual ones and for whole categories of contracts (block exemptions). The
European Commission has indeed enacted a whole series of regulations. Recently, it has
thoroughly revised its policy. It has now adopted a more general approach in Commis-
sion Regulation (EC) 2790/1999 on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty to
categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices. In addition to this general
approach the European Commission has adopted specific rules for certain specific
92
Introduction
sectors, e. g. Commission Regulation (EC) 1400/2002 on the application of Article

81(3) of the Treaty to categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices in the
motor vehicle industry (OJ 2002 L 203/30).
Therefore, as a result of EC competition law (and national competition law) a com-

mercial agency, distribution or franchise contract may be invalid. The general conse-
quences of invalidity (e. g. the doctrine of partial invalidity, the question of ‘unclean
hands’) are left to national laws by the EC Treaty. Within the European Civil Code
project they are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the PECL (Validity).
Neither the PECL nor the present Principles contain any additional rules on the in-
validity of clauses in commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts which are
in restraint of trade. In other words, competition law is left entirely to the EC Treaty
and to the national competition laws of the Member States. Where relevant, the
existing European competition rules will be referred to, and will sometimes summarily
be described, in the Comments to the Articles of the present Principles.
V. Mainly Default Rules; Some Mandatory Protection
Commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts are commercial contracts in

the sense that both parties are merchants: being a principal, supplier, franchisor, agent,
distributor or franchisee is their profession. If they do not have the qualities and skills
which are needed in this particular business, then they should be in another business.
Therefore, in principle, they do not need any specific protection in addition to the
general protection which general contract law provides to any party to any contract
(e. g. Article 4:109 PECL (Excessive Benefit or Unfair Advantage) and Article 4:110
PECL (Unfair Terms not Individually Negotiated)). Therefore, in principle the rules
contained in the present Principles are not of a protective nature. As a result, most rules
are default rules; the parties are free to deviate therefrom.
However, the successful performance of contracts of this type frequently requires sig-
nificant initial and subsequent investments. Some of those investments will be of a
generic kind (e. g. the acquisition of retail premises). Other investments, however, will
be of a more specific kind, and will therefore largely be lost if the contract turns out to
be less profitable than anticipated or if the other party inadvertently brings the con-
tractual relationship to an end. These two risks can usually not be avoided, even by a
professional and particularly skilled party.
The first risk (the disappointing profitability of the contract for the commercial agent,
distributor and franchisee) cannot usually be avoided because most of the information
which is necessary in order to assess the profitability and the economic risks which are
involved in the performance of the contract (characteristics of the product, envisaged
advertising and marketing strategies, know-how) lie exclusively in the hands of the
principal, supplier, and franchisor, who regards them as its trade secrets. Therefore,
under the present Principles prospective commercial agents, distributors and franchisees
are in need of specific legal protection in the form of a pre-contractual obligation for the
93
principal, supplier, and franchisor spontaneously to provide the prospective commercial

agents, distributors and franchisees with this crucial information.
A similar obligation has long been recognised by specific legislation in a number of

jurisdictions around the world, especially with regard to franchisees, and especially in
those countries where the franchise system has celebrated its first economic successes, in
particular the United States. Recently, UNIDROIT has developed a Model Franchise
Disclosure Law (2002). In Europe, the French Loi Doubin has a slightly broader scope
(Law No. 89-1008 of December 31, 1989). Since such protection would be futile if the
parties were free to exclude this obligation by their agreement, these protective rules are
of a mandatory character.
The second risk is intrinsic in a long-term relationship. In order for such a relationship
to be successful each party will have to invest in their mutual co-operation. To the
extent that those investments are relationship-specific, a party becomes dependant on
the continuity of the relationship. Therefore, in order to allow parties to make rational
investments in such a relationship the law should to some extent protect such invest-
ments. Therefore, the first Chapter of the present Principles contains some general rules
on the ending of long-term commercial contracts which oblige a party which wishes to
end the relationship to give the other party notice of reasonable length. This allows the
latter to adapt to the new situation and it avoids the situation where this party will
make useless further investments. Like the precontractual-information-rules these rules
are, in part, of a mandatory character.
These rules are in line with both the wording and the object of the EC Directive on
Self-employed Commercial Agents. The protective scope of that directive has been
underlined on several occasions by the European Court of Justice (see eg: case C-215/97
B. Bellone v. Yokohama SpA [1998] ECR I-2191, case C-456/98 Centrosteel SrL v.
Adipol GmbH [2000] ECR I-6007, case C-485/01 Francesca Caprini v. Conservatore
Camera di Commercio, Industria, Artigianato e Agricoltura (CCIAA) [2003] ECR I-
2371, opinion Advocate General Geelhoed in Case C-3/04 Poseidon Chartering BV v.
Marianne Zeeschip VOF and Albert Mooij and Sjoerdtje Sijswerda and Gerrit Schram
(28 April 2005)).
Finally, there is often a strong discrepancy in bargaining power between the parties.
Frequently, the principal, franchisor or supplier is at the top of an extensive network of
agents, franchisees or distributors, whereas, on the other hand, the agent, franchisee or
distributors is merely a medium-sized or even a small business entity. As said, however,
this difference in bargaining power does not in itself introduce a need for protective
mandatory rules.
Finally, these Principles contain many rules, especially when there is a reasonable
assumption that the stronger party will take care of its own interests. Therefore, the
present Principles do not contain many rules which particularly protect the interests of
the party who presumably has the strongest bargaining power. On the other hand, they
do contain a number of obligations in the interest of the commercial agent, the fran-
chisee and the distributor. The parties are free to deviate therefrom in their contract.
94
Introduction
However, if they fail to do so the default rules, which favour the commercial agent, the
franchisee or the distributor will apply, (Chapters 2 (Commercial Agency), 3 (Fran-
chise) and 4 (Distribution)), which are presumed to be needed in commercial agency,
franchise or distribution contracts. These rules are ordinary default rules which, by
providing for possible solutions which parties would presumably agree to, are merely
meant to save the parties transaction costs.
VI. The Structure: General And Specific Rules
Commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts have many characteristics in

common. First, they share the same economic function of bringing goods and services to
the market. Secondly, they all usually share a relational character: typically, they are
meant to last for many years and their success usually strongly depends on loyal and
intense co-operation. These points of similarity justify a similar or even uniform reg-
ulation.
However, there are also major differences. Although a commercial agent is an inde-
pendent entrepreneur, generally it does act in the name of its principal, contrary to a
franchisee and a distributor who act in their own names. In other words, whereas the
commercial agent sells the principal’s products to the public, the franchisee and the
distributor sell their own products (which they have bought from the franchisor or
supplier, or from a third party indicated by it). This implies different – and usually more
extensive – risks. Another difference is that in franchise contracts the granting of
intellectual property rights is a central issue whereas most commercial agency contract
and many distribution contracts do not involve any intellectual property rights at all.
These are merely a few examples; there are many more differences.
These characteristics justify the structure of the present Principles. It contains a first
Chapter with General Provisions which apply to all Commercial agency, franchise and
distribution contracts, and three further Chapters (Chapter 2 Commercial Agency,
Chapter 3 Franchise, Chapter 4 Distribution), with specific rules which are only appro-
priate to one of these specific contracts.
There is a special interest in adopting, where possible, general rules for similar contracts.
They help to avoid litigation on the qualification of the contract. This is especially true
for mandatory rules from which the parties cannot derogate. For example, in many
European jurisdictions today there are high stakes at issue as to whether a certain
contract can be qualified as a commercial agency contract, since if it does a whole
range of statutory rules apply which are both protective of the agent and mandatory,
whereas in many jurisdictions similar statutory rules do not exist for franchise and
distribution contracts. (The explanation lies in the fact that the 1986 EC Directive
exclusively deals with commercial agency contracts). In order to avoid such litigation
on qualification the present Principles provide, where possible, common rules (the rules
on ending the contract are the best example) or specific rules which are based on the
same policy (see, for example, the three rules on pre-contractual information), espe-
cially where mandatory rules are concerned.
95
Of the three types of contracts which are specifically regulated in the present Principles,
the most hybrid one is distribution. There are many types of distribution contracts and
there are only a few rules which are suitable for all of them. Therefore, Chapter 4
further distinguishes between exclusive distribution, selective distribution and exclusive
purchasing contracts, and other distribution contracts (a generally recognised classifi-
cation both in competition law and in distribution practice), and provides that some
rules only apply to one or more of these categories.
VII. External Relationship Not Dealt With
The present Principles exclusively deal with the internal relationship between principal
and commercial agent, between supplier and distributor, and between franchisor and
franchisee. Therefore, external relationships with third parties are not dealt with here.
As a consequence, the answer to the question of when the principal is bound to a client
as a result of the intervention of an agent is not to be found here, but in Chapter 3 PECL
(Authority of Agents). Similarly, the question whether a consumer may have recourse
against the franchisor or the supplier in the case of a defective product, is not dealt with
in the present Principles either. For dangerous products the answer is to be found in the
forthcoming European principles of tort law where Directive 85/374 / EEC on liability for
defective products will be codified. For merely inadequate products which have not
caused any injury or other personal damage the question of whether (in some cases) a
customer (consumer) may have direct recourse against the supplier or franchisor is still
open within the European Civil Code Project, except where the supplier or the fran-
chisor is also the producer. In the latter case the rules on consumer guarantees will
apply, which are to be found in the forthcoming European Principles of Sales Law.
However, they only apply to goods; not to services. Finally, for the same reason the
present Principles do not contain any specific rules on whether agents, franchisees and
distributors who are part of the same network are under certain obligations vis--vis
each other (e. g. whether a franchisee who ruins the reputation of the brand may be
liable towards the other franchisees).
96
Chapter 1:
General Provisions
Section 1:
Scope of Chapter 1
This Chapter applies to commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts and with
appropriate modifications to other contracts where one party, engaged in business indepen-
dently uses its skills and efforts to bring another party’s products on to the market.
Comments
A. General Idea
The rules in this Chapter apply to commercial agency, franchise and distribution con-
tracts. These contracts have many characteristics in common, especially their economic
function (marketing). The rules relating to these common characteristics are to be
found in this Chapter (Chapter 1). However, there are also some differences. Therefore,
these Principles also contain separate Chapters on commercial agency (Chapter 2),
franchise (Chapter 3) and distribution (Chapter 4).
The Articles contained in this Chapter not only apply to these contracts, but also to
contracts which do not fall exactly within one of these three categories (see the scope
rules contained in Articles 2:101, 3:101 and 4:101) but which nevertheless have the
same economic function (vertical agreements; compare Article 2(1) EC Regulation
2790/1999 and Guidelines on Vertical Restraint, no.24), i. e. to all other contracts
where an independent business person uses its skills and efforts to bring another party’s
products on to the market.
B. Interests at Stake and Policy Considerations
Commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts are sufficiently similar to

justify a unitary regulation of some of their aspects. This holds true especially for some
general obligations (pre-contractual and contractual obligations to inform, obligation to
co-operate and obligation of confidentiality) and for general rules on ending and ter-
mination. For those common aspects of these contractual relationships, in principle
classification as a commercial agency, franchise or distribution contract should make no
difference.
97
However, in some other respects these three contracts differ. These differences call for a
differentiated regulation. Therefore, in addition to the general rules contained in this
Chapter (General Provisions), these Principles also contain some separate rules for each
of the three types of contracts, in Chapters 2 (Commercial Agency), 3 (Franchise) and
4 (Distribution) respectively.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL contain a rule on contracts for an indefinite period (6:109). Moreover,
Article 6:111 (Change of Circumstances) is likely to apply most frequently in cases
concerning long-term contracts, whereas Articles 6:104 (Determination of Price) and
6:105 (Unilateral Determination of Price) may also be of special relevance to long-term
contracts.
D. Three Contracts: Commercial Agency, Franchise, Distribution
The rules contained in this Chapter apply to commercial agency, franchise and distri-
bution contracts. These contracts are defined in Articles 2:101, 3:101, and 4:101 re-
spectively. In addition to the general provisions contained in this Chapter which apply
to all three contracts, Chapters 2 (Commercial Agency), 3 (Franchise), and 4 (Dis-
tribution) contain specific rules for each of these contracts.
E. Other Vertical Agreements; not Advertisement
This Chapter does not only apply to commercial agency, franchise and distribution
contracts but also to all other contracts where an independent business person uses its
skills and efforts to bring another party’s products on to the market (so-called vertical
agreements). Therefore, it is of no use for parties to try to avoid the applicability of the
rules contained in this Chapter (especially the mandatory ones) by labelling, classifying
or drafting their contract in a slightly different manner.
However, the formula ‘other contracts where an independent business person uses its
skills and efforts to bring another party’s products on to the market’ is not meant to refer
to advertisement contracts which are contracts of a different nature than the ones under
discussion here: an advertisement company will never itself sell the other party’s pro-
ducts (goods or services) to the public (or to another link in the distribution chain),
neither in its own name (as distributors and franchisees do) nor in the name of the
principal (as an agent may do). In other words, they are not a link in the chain between
producers and final users. Rather, they provide a service to one of the links which is
meant to assist it to be more effective in bringing its products on to the market.
98
F. Independent Business Persons; not Employees
The concept of independent business person includes both natural persons and legal
persons. Indeed, in practice commercial agents, franchisees and distributors (especially
the larger ones) are frequently companies which have legal personality according to the
applicable national law.
However, it does not include – and therefore the rules contained in Chapter 1 do not
apply to – persons who bring another party’s products on to the market in case these
persons do not act as independent business persons. The typical example of a person
who is not independent is an employee. In other words, neither Chapter 1 nor indeed
the other Chapters (Chapters 2 (Commercial Agency), 3 (Franchise), and 4 (Distribu-
tion)) are meant to cover labour contracts.
G. Other Long-Term Contracts
These rules are directly applicable to commercial agency, franchise and distribution
contracts as well as to other vertical agreements (marketing contracts), but not to other
long-term contracts. However, it may be appropriate to apply the rules contained in this
Chapter, or at least some of them (e. g. the rules on co-operation and on unilateral
ending), by way of analogy, to some other long-term contracts. This may be the case, for
example, for licensing contracts and, at least in part, for some joint-venture contracts.
However, there are also some long-term contracts, like labour contracts and rental
contracts of houses where the application of these rules will probably be inappropriate
because of the specific need for and, in most European countries, the existence of rules
which protect workers and tenants (compare also Article 30 Charter of Fundamental
Rights of the European Union (Article II-31 of the Constitution)).
H. Products
This Article refers to ‘products’ (’bringing products on to the market’). The concept of
‘products’ includes here and throughout these Principles both goods and services. (In
the same sense Article 1 (a) EC Regulation 2790/1999; see also Guidelines on Vertical
Restraints (2000 /C 291/01, no. 2)).
I. Character of the Rule
This is a scope rule: the parties cannot by their agreement classify the contract as a
contract to which the rules contained in this Chapter would not apply if their agree-
ment contains the essential elements included in the present provision, i. e. if it either
falls within the scope of a commercial agency, franchise or distribution contract (see
Articles 2:101, 3:101 and 4:101 respectively) or is a vertical agreement (i. e. another
contract ‘where one party uses its skills and efforts to bring the other party’s products on
to the market’). Conversely, if the parties label their contract as a type of contract to
99
which the rules contained in this Chapter would apply (i. e. commercial agency, fran-
chise, distribution or another vertical agreement) although it does not contain the
essential elements set out in this Article, the rules contained in this Chapter will, in
principle, not be directly applicable (but may be applied by way of analogy – see above,
Comment G).
J. Remedies
No remedies follow from this provision since, as a scope rule, it does not itself establish
obligations for the parties. The obligations of the parties are formulated by means of
specific Articles (both in this Chapter and in Chapters 2, 3 and 4) in which remedies
are provided.
Notes
1. In General
None of the European legal systems include a set of specific rules which apply to
commercial agency, franchising and distribution contracts. However, under all Eur-
opean systems of law there are specific rules that apply to commercial agency. In
addition, under BELGIAN law there is a specific Act that applies to distribution
contracts and ITALIAN law includes a specific statute on franchise contracts. In some
legal systems the rules concerning commercial agency are applied by way of analogy to
franchise and distribution contracts as well. Where this is not the case, general con-
tract law applies or the rules concerning other nominate contracts.
2. Specific Rules concerning Commercial Agency

All European legal systems contain specific rules on commercial agency as a result of
the transposition of the Council Directive of 18 December 1986 on the coordination of
the laws of the Member States relating to self-employed commercial agents (hereafter:
the Directive). These rules are laid down in the AUSTRIAN Handelsvertretergesetz
1993 (HvertrG), the BELGIAN Wet van 13 april 1995 betreffende Handelsagentuurover-
eenkomsten, B. S. 2 juni 1995/Loi du 13 avril 1995 rélative au contrat d’agence commerciale
(M. B. 2 juin 1995), the ENGLISH Commercial Agents (Council Directive) Regula-
tions 1993 (S. I. 1993/3053), as amended by the Commercial Agents (Council Direc-
tive) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S. I. 1993 No. 3173) and 1998 (S. I. 1998
No. 2868), the FINNISH Act on Commercial Agents and Salesmen (1. 1. 1976) which
was replaced by a new Act on 8 May 1992, in arts. L. 134-1–L. 134-17 of the FRENCH
C. com., §§ 84-92 c of the GERMAN HGB, the GREEK Presidential Decree 219/1991,
in arts. 1742-1753 of the ITALIAN cc, arts. 7:428-7:445 of the DUTCH BW, art. 758-
764IX of the POLISH KC, the PORTUGUESE DL no. 178/86, the SPANISH Ley 12/
1992, del Contrato de Agencia (LCA) and the SWEDISH Lag om handelsagentur (HaL).
See also the notes to Article 2:101.
100
3. Specific Rules concerning Franchise Contracts

Under ITALIAN law there is a specific act that concerns franchise contracts: L n. 129/
2004 Norme per la disciplina dell’ affiliazione commerciale.
4. Application of Commercial Agency Rules by Way of Analogy to Franchise Contracts

In some legal systems the rules concerning commercial agency are applied by way of
analogy to franchise contracts in so far as this is appropriate. (AUSTRIA, BELGIUM:
Verbraeken & De Schoutheete no. 131; GERMANY; FINLAND: Halila-Hemmo (1996)
272; Bygglin (1978); PORTUGAL.) See also the notes to the specific provisions in
Chapter 3.
5. Specific Rules concerning Distribution Contracts

Under BELGIAN law there is a specific Act that concerns distribution contracts: (Loi
du 27 juillet 1961 relative à la résiliation unilatérale des concessions de vente exclusive à durée
indéterminée (M. B., 29 déc. 1961; Alleenverkoopwet)). Under FRENCH law there are
specific rules concerning the precontractual obligation to inform included in art. L.
330 C. Com. These rules apply to certain types of distribution contracts (see the notes
to Articles 1:201 and 4:101).
6. Application of Commercial Agency Rules by way of analogy to Distribution

In some legal systems the rules concerning commercial agency are applied by way of
analogy to distribution insofar as appropriate. (AUSTRIA; GERMANY; FINLAND:
KKO 1987:42, Aalto (2002) 2-3, 10, Telaranta (1993) 25, 149-163; PORTUGAL).
See also the notes to the provisions in Chapter 4.
Under SWEDISH law, the rules concerning commercial agency may be applied by way
of analogy only to cases of sole distribution. The scope of such application by way of
analogy is however uncertain, (Söderlund, 160 ff).
7. Other rules
Under GREEK law, in so far as is possible the rules concerning other long-term
nominate contracts may apply by way of analogy to commercial agency, franchising
and distribution contracts. They are the rules concerning lease contracts (LiŁ rhxrg
pqaŁclaso|) 574-618 AK, employment contracts (RtŁlbarg eqcariŁ a|) 648-680 AK,
mandate (EmsokgŁ) 713-729 AK, Partnership/Community (EsaiqiŁ a) 741-748 AK, loan
(DaŁmeio) 806-809 AK and deposit contracts (PaqajasahgŁjg) 822-833 AK).
As to franchising contracts, according to BELGIAN, GREEK, DUTCH law the rules of
general contract law apply (BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete, no. 131). Accord-
ing to FINNISH law apart from the rules on agency also the rules concerning employ-
ment law may be applied by way of analogy in so far as appropriate, Halila-Hemmo
1996, 272; Bygglin 1978.
Under FINNISH, GREEK and DUTCH law the rules of general contract law apply to
distribution contracts (THE NETHERLANDS: Barendrecht & van Peursem, no. 21).
According to Chitty-Reynolds it is more likely that under the law of ENGLAND
franchise and distribution contracts will be classified as contracts for purchase for
resale and the rules concerning those contracts apply accordingly (Chitty-Reynolds
no. 31-003.)
101
Under ITALIAN law the situation is again different. With respect to certain distribu-
tion contracts, arts. 1559 et seq. cc concerning somministratione may apply by way of
analogy (Baldi 84 et seq.). (Also see the notes to Article 4:101.) Some of these rules
which have developed with respect to distribution contracts apply by way of analogy to
franchising contracts. In addition, rules can also be inferred from the general rules
concerning good faith (Baldi 132).
Section 2:
Obligations
(1) Each party must provide the other party with adequate information a reasonable time before
the contract is concluded. If it does not, Paragraph (3) applies.
(2) Adequate information means information which is sufficient to enable the other party to
decide on a reasonably informed basis whether or not to enter into a contract of the type and
on the terms under consideration.
(3) If a party’s failure to comply with Paragraph 1 leads the other party to conclude a contract
when the first party knew or could reasonably be expected to have know that the other
party, had it been provided with adequate and timely information, would not have entered
the contract, or would have entered the contract only on fundamentally different terms, the
remedies for mistake under PECL Chapter 4 apply.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article imposes upon each party a pre-contractual obligation to provide the other
with all the information which it needs to make a rational decision as to whether or not
to enter into a contract of the type and on the terms under consideration (Paragraphs 1
and 2). The provision includes a time requirement (Paragraph 1): the information must
be given within a reasonable time before the contract is concluded. Pursuant to Para-
graph (3) the remedy for non-compliance with this pre-contractual obligation to inform
is that the contract will be avoidable for mistake. This is a mandatory rule (Paragraph
(4)).
This obligation to provide pre-contractual information is aimed to guarantee that each

party will have all the relevant and necessary information in order to commit itself with
full knowledge of the relevant facts. This is important because commercial agency,
franchise and distribution contracts are often concluded for a long period and the
conclusion (’entrance fee’) and performance thereof frequently imply important invest-
ments whereas a party which is interested in concluding such a contract often has no
other possibility to obtain this qualified information.
103
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL contain pre-contractual duties to inform (Articles 4:103 (a) (ii) and 4:107).
These duties are formulated in general terms and do not specifically focus on the
commercial agency, franchise or distribution situations. A violation of a pre-contractual
obligation to inform may render the contract avoidable for mistake (Article 4:103) or
fraud (Article 4:107). Instead of avoidance for mistake the contract may be adapted
(Article 4:105 PECL).
The present Article provides a specific rule for the pre-contractual obligation to inform
in commercial agency, franchise and distribution. This rule may best be considered as a
special instance for these contracts of the general pre-contractual duty to inform.
Article 4:107 (3) PECL states: ‘In determining whether good faith and fair dealing
required that a party disclose particular information, regard should be had to all the
circumstances, including: (a) whether the party has special expertise; (b) the cost to it
of acquiring the relevant information; (c) whether the other party could reasonably
acquire the information for itself; and (d) the apparent importance of the information
to the other party.’ The present pre-contractual obligation to inform is based on policy
considerations which are closely related to these four factors (see above, under B.
Interests at Stake and Policy Considerations).
Also the remedies are best regarded as a specific instance of those available under the
PECL. Indeed, the present Article explicitly refers to Chapter 4 of the PECL.
D. Within a Reasonable Time
The time requirement included in the present provision aims to guarantee that the
other party has sufficient time at its disposal in order to ponder on the basis of the
information whether or not to enter the contract under consideration. In assessing
whether the pre-contractual information is given within a reasonable time the criteria
established under Article 1:302 PECL (Reasonableness) such as the circumstances of the
case or the applicable usage shall be taken into consideration.
E. Adequate Information
Adequate information means information which is sufficient to enable the other party
to decide on a reasonably informed basis whether or not to enter into a contract of the
type and on the terms under consideration. This means among other things that the
information must be correct, complete and transparent. Depending on the circumstan-
ces of the case, especially the type of contract and the branch of trade, the types of
information which must be given may include information regarding one’s own com-
pany and experience, intellectual property rights which are involved, particular features
of the commercial sector, market conditions, the structure and extent of the network,
remuneration and fees, the terms of the contract.
104
For franchise contracts Article 3:102 (2) provides a detailed list of information which
the franchisor must give to the franchisee before the conclusion of the contract. That
list is mandatory (see Article 3:102 (3)).
F. Character of the Rule
This rule is mandatory; any deviation by the parties to the detriment of the party which
is supposed to benefit from it, in a pre-contract or otherwise, remains without effect.
G. Remedies
The sanction for non-compliance with the obligation to adequately inform the other
party is that the contract will be avoidable for mistake (Article 4:103 PECL). All the
ordinary rules on mistake apply, including liability for damages due to incorrect infor-
mation (Article 4:106 PECL) and the remedy of adaptation (Article 4:105 PECL).
Finally, it should be reiterated that remedies for non-performance may be pursued
instead of or concurrently with remedies for a defect of consent (Article 4:119 PECL).
Notes
1. Specific Statutory Rules concerning Pre-Contractual Information
FRENCH, ITALIAN and SPANISH law contain specific statutory rules concerning pre-
contractual information in the case of franchising contracts. They are laid down in the
FRENCH Loi Doubin (art. L-330-3 C. com.), art. 8 of the ITALIAN L 129/2004 and in
art. 62 para 3 of the SPANISH Statute on Retail Trade (Ley de Ordenación del Comercio
Minorista) respectively. The FRENCH Loi Doubin may also apply to certain types of
distribution contracts, in so far as they meet the requirements of art. L-330-3 C. Com
(Malaurie & Aynès, no. 839). Under art. 8 of the ITALIAN Act, a contract can be
avoided if the other party provided incorrect information. The FRENCH and SPAN-
ISH rules do not include any specific private law remedies. See further the notes to
Article 3:102.
2. General Statutory Rules concerning Pre-Contractual Information

In GREECE and in PORTUGAL the general statutory provisions concerning pre-con-
tractual liability apply (GREECE: arts. 197, 198 AK; PORTUGAL: art. 227 CC). For
GREEK law it means that the parties must disclose any information that may reason-
ably be expected to influence the decision of the other party. A failure to do so
amounts to a serious ground for termination, except when the contract has been
performed without any problems. However, as to franchising the rules concerning the
doctrine of abuse of rights (art. 281 AK, see Voulgaris and Georgiadis) may also come
into play. Pre-contractual liability is limited to the reliance interest. In some cases a
lack of disclosure may give rise to a claim for the annulment of the franchise contract
and for damages on the basis of articles 140 et seq. Greek civil code for mistake or on
the basis of art. 147 AK for fraud. In other cases a lack of disclosure may give rise to the
105
annulment of the contract on the basis of arts. 178 and 179 AK with regard to acts
contrary to bonos mores, but the case law has been restrictive, see CA Patras 150/2000
DEE 8-9/2000, 890. For PORTUGUESE law it implies that the parties must inform
each other concerning facts relating to the contract and potential events during the
performance (Sinde Monteiro (1989) 355 ff., Menezes Cordeiro (1984) 505).
3. Other sources of an Obligation concerning Pre-Contractual Information

In other legal systems a pre-contractual obligation to inform follows from good faith.
(BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete, no. 147; FRANCE: Fabre-Magnan, 214; GER-
MANY: § 242 BGB, the closer the relationship, the more intense the pre-contractual
obligation to inform Martinek/Semler § 14 nos. 61, 62; ITALY, THE NETHERLANDS:
art. 6:228 BW, Asser-Hartkamp 4-II, no. 158, Hesselink, 259; SPAIN, SWEDEN)
Under FINNISH law a pre-contractual obligation to inform follows from the doctrine
of loyalty. Case law has introduced the pre-contractual obligation to inform in the case
of commercial agency contracts (KKO 1993:130, Tolonen (2000) 88, Nysten-Haarala
(1998), 126). As to distribution contracts the rules developed with respect to com-
mercial agency may apply by way of analogy (Telaranta (1994) 154). The obligation to
give all required information can be derived from the general principle of loyalty (good
faith and fair dealing) as well by applying the Commercial Agents Act by way of
analogy (KKO 1993:130). Case KKO 1996:27 also dealt with pre-contractual informa-
tion; however, the issue at stake was whether including an arbitration clause in a
franchise contract may be unfair towards the franchisee. According to scholarly opi-
nions the court would have adjusted the contract had there been a grave imbalance
between the contracting parties in access to information or had the franchisor given
misleading information (Saarnilehto 1997).
According to AUSTRIAN case law there is a pre-contractual obligation to inform in
the case of franchising contracts (OGH 19. 1. 1989, 7 Ob 695/88).
In contrast, under ENGLISH law there is no general duty of disclosure (Keates v.
Cadogan (1851) 10 CB 591, but only an obligation not to make misrepresentations,
Williams v. Natural Life Health Foods [1998] 2 All ER 577, Boyle v. Prontaprint, unre-
ported, 26 February 2000, CA; ANC v. Clark Golding, The Times 31 May 2000, CA.
(1) In commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts and in other long-term commer-
cial contracts the obligation to co-operate (art. 1:202 PECL) is fundamental and particularly
intense. It requires the parties in particular to collaborate actively and loyally and to co-
ordinate their respective efforts in order to achieve the objectives of the contract.
106
Comments
A. General Idea
Co-operation is essential to commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts and

indeed to most other long-term commercial contracts. Each party heavily depends on
the other party’s co-operation for attaining its objectives. The obligation spelled out
here explicitly recognises that the parties to such contracts are under an intense ob-
ligation to co-operate actively and loyally in order to achieve the objectives for which
the contract was concluded.
Indeed, many (if not most) of the specific obligations spelled out in these Principles
(both in this Chapter 1 (General Provisions) and in Chapter 2 (Commercial Agency),
Chapter 3 (Franchise) and Chapter 4 (Distribution)), may be regarded as special in-
stances of this general intense obligation to co-operate actively and loyally (e. g. specific
obligations relating to information, assistance, instructions, supervision, confidentiality
et cetera). In addition to these specific rules, this Article makes sure that both parties
are, more generally, under this intense duty to co-operate which may be the source of
other specific duties to be established and further elaborated by the courts and arbi-
trators.
Although the intensity of the required co-operation may vary among them (it is usually
strongest in franchise contracts), the obligation to co-operate in commercial agency,
franchise and distribution contracts is distinctly more intense than in most other con-
tracts. The general duty to co-operate in order to give full effect to the contract, which
each party to any contract owes to the other according to Article 1:202 PECL, is mainly
limited in some contracts (e. g. most sales contracts) to ‘a duty to allow the other to
perform its obligations and thereby earn the fruits of performance stipulated in the
contract’ (see Article 1:202 PECL, Comment A (p. 119)), which is similar to the
doctrine of mora creditoris in many civil law countries.
Although each party may have a short-term interest in exclusively pursuing its own
interests, even at the expense of the other party, in the long term both parties benefit
from a steady co-operation where each of them not only takes the other party’s interests
into account but actively helps the other party to realise its goals. Both parties have an
interest in actively demonstrating their commitment in the long term in order to pursue
the reciprocal advantages deriving from their cooperation. This Article aims to encou-
rage participation in exchange and to promote reciprocity between the parties. In
addition, the Article means to take into account the fact that during the course of
commercial agency, franchise, distribution contracts and similar long-term commercial
contracts contingencies may occur which the parties had not foreseen when they con-
cluded the contract, contingencies which do not necessarily make the performance
excessively onerous in the sense of Article 6:111 PECL. It follows from the present
Article that the parties should collaborate in overcoming such contingencies and in
107
adapting to the new situation in such a way that the objectives of the contract can be
achieved.
C. Relation to PECL
For long-term commercial contracts the duty to co-operate which is contained in

Article 1:202 PECL is particularly intense. It is not sufficient for a party to a commercial
agency, franchise or distribution contract to passively ‘allow the other party to perform
its obligations and thereby earn the fruits of performance stipulated in the contract’ (see
Article 1:202 PECL, Comment A (p. 119)). Rather, the parties should collaborate
actively and loyally in order to achieve the objectives for which the contract was
concluded. In order to avoid any doubt, this Article says so explicitly.
D. Co-Operate Actively and Loyally
In a commercial agency, franchise and distribution contract, a party must do more than
merely to refrain from obstructing the other party’s performance. In such contracts each
party must collaborate actively and make a serious effort to achieve the objectives for
which the contract was concluded. These objectives include, first of all, those that are
common but may also include individual objectives.
However, a party is not under an obligation to act contrary to its own interests. In other
words, the obligation to co-operate actively and loyally is meant to achieve win-win
situations. Moreover, the obligation to co-operate loyally does not turn the contractual
relationship into a fiduciary relationship in the sense of the law of trusts.
E. Non-discrimination
The obligation to co-operate implies an obligation for principals, franchisors and sup-
pliers to treat their commercial agents, franchisees and distributors equally. Thus, the
principal, the franchisor and the supplier must not discriminate against – i. e. make any
unjustified distinction between – their commercial agents, franchisees and distributors,
neither during the pre-contractual stage nor during the performance of the contract.
Similarly, a commercial agent, a franchisee (e. g. in shop corner franchising) or a
distributor, who has contracts with more than one principal, franchisor or supplier,
must not make any unjustified distinction between them.
F. Specific Obligations to Co-Operate
Many specific obligations in this Chapter and in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 may be regarded as
specific instances of the intense general obligation to co-operate in commercial agency,
franchise, distribution and other similar long-term commercial contracts. Some exam-
ples include: in this Chapter 1, Article 1:203 (Information), Article 1:204 (Confiden-
108
tiality), in Chapter 2 on commercial agency Article 2:202 (Instructions), Article 2:203

(Information during Performance), Article 2:307 (Information during Performance),
Article 2:308 (Information on Acceptance, Rejection and Non-Performance), Article
2:309 (Warning of Decreased Volume of Contracts), in Chapter 3 on franchise Article
3:201 (Intellectual Property Rights), Article 3:202 (Know-How), Article 3:203 (Assis-
tance), Article 3:204 (Supply), Article 3:205 (Information during Performance), Arti-
cle 3:206 (Warning), Article 3:207 (Reputation Network and Advertising), Article
3:302 (Information during Performance), Article 3:303 (Business Method and Instruc-
tions), 3:304 (Inspection), in Chapter 4 on distribution, Article 4:202 (Information
during Performance), Article 4:203 (Warning of Decreased Supply Capacity), Article
4:204 (Advertising Materials), Article 4:205 (Reputation Goods and Services), Article
4:302 (Information during Performance), Article 4:303 (Warning), Article 4:304 (In-
structions), Article 4:305 (Inspection), Article 4:306 (Reputation Goods and Services).
G. Character of the Rule
This is a mandatory rule; any deviation by the parties to the detriment of the party who
would benefit from it remains without effect. This means that in their contract the
parties cannot exclude the obligation to co-operate as such. However, what the obliga-
tion to co-operate specifically requires will to some extent depend on what was agreed
upon by the parties in their contract (compare Article 1:201 PECL on good faith and
fair dealing (Comment H, p. 116) where the same is provided for).
H. Remedies
The obligation to co-operate is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.

Therefore, in case of non-performance the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort to
any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Obligation to Co-Operate
According to the case law, legal doctrine, standard contracts and codes of conduct in
the Member States, the obligation to cooperate is the main obligation of both par-
ties.
Under GERMAN, GREEK, ITALIAN, DUTCH and SPANISH law there are no specific
rules for long-term commercial contracts in this respect. However, an obligation to co-
operate follows from the general principle of good faith under these legal systems. In
most legal systems the obligation to cooperate has not been defined clearly. However,
it has been accepted that in the case of long-term commercial contracts, such an
obligation is more intense than in other contractual relationships. (GERMANY: Hand-
kommentar-BGB, § 242 BGB no. 14; GREECE: art. 288 AK; ITALY: arts. 1175, 1375 cc,
Cass. civ., sez. lav., 8-2- 1999, n. 1078, Contratti, 1999, 1019; Cass. civ., sez. I, 20-4-
1994, n. 3775, Gius., civ., 1994, I, 2159; NETHERLANDS: Asser-Hartkamp 4-II,
109
no. 307 ff; POLAND: art. 760 KC in the case of commercial agency; SPAIN: art. 57
C. Co, Móxica (2000) 23, in particular concerning commercial agency: art. 9, para 1
(agent) and art. 10, para 1 (principal) LCA, for franchise contracts, Memento, 490, for
distribution contracts Memento, 483).
Under FINNISH law the obligation to co-operate was introduced to contract law by
legal scholars who were experienced in commercial arbitration. The obligation to co-
operate is connected with the general discussion concerning the doctrine of loyalty
(Muukkonen (1975), Taxell (1972) 1977, Ämmälä (1994), Häyhä (1991); Mähönen
(2000)). The FINNISH doctrine of loyalty corresponds with the principle of good
faith and fair dealing. Both district and appellate courts refer to the loyalty principle in
their case reports. However, there is only one case in which the Supreme Court has
accepted the principle of loyalty according to scholarly opinions (KKO 1993:130).
In SWEDISH law there is no general statutory obligation to cooperate with respect to
agency, distribution and franchising contracts. However, according to §§ 5(1) and 7(1)
HaL both the commercial agent and the principal must act dutifully and in good faith.
This probably includes an obligation to cooperate.
In ENGLISH general law an obligation to co-operate is imposed where this is necessary
in order to give business efficacy to the agreement (The Moorcock (1889) 14 PD 64,
Court of Appeal). Beyond this, it is difficult to identify the precise extent of the
obligation. However, it has been strongly recognised in employment contracts (Secre-
tary of State for Employment v. ASLEF (No. 2) [1972] 2 QB 455, CA) which bear some
analogy with long-term commercial contracts. Various commentators have argued that
co-operative behaviour in long-term contracts maximises returns and should be under-
pinned by default law, see e. g. Baird (1990) 583. However, as to franchising contracts,
express terms providing for ongoing co-operation would appear to be common, see e. g.
Adams/Prichard Jones Precedent I, which includes obligations on the part of the fran-
chisor to offer to the franchisee both consulting services (Clause 6.12) and general
support (Clause 6.19), and on the part of the franchisee, “to work diligently to protect
and promote the interests of the Franchisor”, (Clause 7.12), and, “in all matters to act
loyally and faithfully toward the Franchisor”, (Clause 7.20).
(1) During the contract each party must provide the other in due time with all the information
which the first party has and the second party needs in order to achieve the objectives of the
contract.
110
Comments
A. General Idea
Each party must disclose all information which is in their possession to the other party if
this is what the other party needs in order to achieve the objectives of the contract.
This obligation includes that a party must also provide the other party with all relevant
documentation where this is appropriate.
This general obligation is specified in Article 2:203 with respect to the commercial
agent, in Article 3:205 with respect to the franchisor and in Article 3:301 concerning
the franchisee, in Article 2:307 concerning the principal, in Article 4:202 with respect
to the supplier, and in Article 4:302 with respect to the distributor.
Both parties have an interest in being informed concerning facts and developments
which are relevant to their performance. It may render their performance easier and
more successful. On the other hand, an extensive obligation to inform the other party
may be very burdensome and, in any event, very costly. Therefore, the present obliga-
tion is limited in two significant respects. First, a party only has to pass on to the other
party such information which the first party already has. In other words, parties are not
under a duty to investigate in order to be able to inform each other. Second, the
obligation is limited to the information which the other party needs in order to achieve
the objectives of the contract.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL contain a general obligation of good faith and fair dealing (Article 1:201
PECL) which has particular significance in this situation. Compare Comment B to
Article 1:201 PECL: ‘In relationships which last over a period of time (Dauerschuldver-
hältnisse) such as ... agency and distributorship agreements ... the concept of good faith
has particular significance as a guideline for the parties’ behaviour.’ From this obliga-
tion, obligations to inform may follow. The present Article elaborates which specific
obligations to inform exist in commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts.
D. Actual Knowledge; No Duty to Investigate
This obligation relates to actual knowledge. A party is only under the obligation to
disclose the information which it actually has. In other words, a party is not under an
obligation to make (possibly expensive) investigations in order to obtain the relevant
information. In other words, if a party to a commercial agency, franchise or distribution
contract – which is under a particularly intense obligation to co-operate (Article 1:202
PECL) – comes across information which the other needs in order to achieve the
111
objectives of the contract, it is under an obligation to pass that information on to the

other party; it is not free to keep that information for itself.
E. In Due Time
The information must be given in due time in order to allow the other party to perform
its obligations under the contract and, more generally, to achieve the objectives of the
contract. When and how often information should be given depends, among other
things, on the contract, the type of information and the other circumstances of the case.
In the case of new developments, a party must, in principle, update the information
which has been provided within a reasonable period of time in order to allow the other
party to adapt to the new situation.
F. No Form Requirement
There is no general form requirement as to the way in which this information is to be

provided. The aim of the Article is merely to oblige parties to communicate.
This is a mandatory rule; any deviation by the parties to the detriment of the party who
would benefit from it remains without effect.
This means that in their contract the parties cannot exclude the obligation to inform
during performance as such. However, what the obligation to inform specifically re-
quires will to some extent depend on what was agreed upon by the parties in their
contract (compare Article 1:201 PECL on good faith and fair dealing (Comment H, p.
116) where the same is provided for). Thus the parties may explicitly agree that certain
specific types of information will not be provided.
H. Remedies
The obligation to provide information during the contractual stage is an obligation in

the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the ag-
grieved party may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Information to be Provided
For commercial agency mandatory obligations to inform are laid down in arts 3 1 (b)
(commercial agent), 4 2 (a), (b) (principal) and 5 of the Directive, which have been
transposed into the national legal systems. See below, the notes to Articles 2:203, 2:308.
112
As to franchising and distribution contracts, in most legal systems such an obligation

can be inferred from the general obligation of good faith or loyalty. (AUSTRIA, FIN-
LAND: KKO 1993:130; GERMANY: § 242 BGB Küstner/Thume, no. 1300, 1302, Mar-
tinek/Semler, § 14 nos. 63, 64, § 19 nos. 60-67; ITALY: arts. 1175, 1375 cc, concerning
distribution contracts see: Cass. 24 March 1999, n. 2788; NETHERLANDS: Asser-
Hartkamp 4-II no. 307, Barendrecht & Van Peursem, no. 107; PORTUGAL: Sinde Mon-
teiro (1989) 355 ff., Menezes Cordeiro (1984) 505; SPAIN: concerning distribution
contracts: Dominguez Garcıá (1997) 1354 ff).
In addition, under FINNISH and GERMAN law the rules on commercial agency are
applied by way of analogy to distribution contracts as well (FINLAND: Telaranta (1994)
154, GERMANY: Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 123, 165, § 8 no. 18, Küstner/Thume,
no. 1300; Martinek/Semler, § 14 nos. 63, 64, § 19 nos. 60-67).
Concerning franchising contracts, see also the notes to Articles 3:205 and 3:302.
Concerning distribution contracts see also the notes to Articles 4:202 and 4:302.
(1) A party who receives confidential information from the other, must keep such information
confidential and must not disclose the information to third parties either during or after the
end of the contract period.
(2) A party who receives confidential information from the other must not use such information
for other purposes than the objectives of the contract.
(3) Any information which a party already had in its possession or which has been disclosed to
the general public, and any information which must necessarily be disclosed to customers as
a result of the operation of the business is not be regarded as confidential information for
this purpose.
Comments
A. General Idea
Both parties to a commercial agency, distribution, franchise contract or other vertical

agreement should treat any sensitive information they receive from the other party as
confidential. This is especially true where key elements in the exploitation of the
business (know-how, financial data et cetera) are disclosed, which often happens espe-
cially in franchise contracts. These are business values essential to the franchisor’s (or
supplier’s) business concept and which must be kept within the network and saved from
competitors.
However, not all information has to be considered as confidential: the information

which a party already had or which was already publicly known when this party re-
ceived it, and any information which is necessarily disclosed to customers when running
the business is not to be treated as confidential.
113
This rule protects the reasonable interest of a party (usually the franchisor, the principal
or the supplier) and of the other members of the network in preventing its business
method and other secrets from ending up in the hands of competitors.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL contain in Article 2:302 an obligation of confidentiality with regard to pre-
contractual information received from the other party in the course of negotiations but
no rule on contractual confidentiality. Such an obligation may be based on the general
obligation of good faith (1:201 PECL) and on the general obligation to co-operate in
commercial agency, franchise and distribution contracts (1:202 PECL), but is here
explicitly spelled out for these three (and similar) contracts.
D. Protection of Know-how
In franchise contracts, throughout the duration of the contract, the franchisor must
provide the franchisee with the know-how which is necessary to operate the franchise
business (Article 3:202). Moreover, in some other long-term commercial contracts, e. g.
in certain specific types of distribution, a similar obligation may follow from the con-
tract. Where one party is under such an obligation to share its know-how with the
other, the obligation of confidentiality is of specific importance since it is the only way
to guarantee that the know-how, as a value essential and intrinsic to the development of
the franchisor’s method of business, remains in the hands of the franchisor and does not
benefit competitors.
E. Confidential Information
What kind of information is confidential largely depends on the circumstances of the

case. Such types of information may include product information, technology, market
research, purchase price lists, customers’ details et cetera. It is not a necessary require-
ment that the information should be sophisticated or complex. Information known by
the public can never be confidential.
Illustration 1
Franchisor A runs a franchise chain of travel agencies and provides its franchisees
with know-how concerning the marketing of holidays to students. This knowledge
is not generally known. Therefore, it is to be regarded as confidential information.
Illustration 2
Franchisor A runs a franchise network of travel agencies and provides its fran-
chisees with know-how concerning a specific booking system. Within the travel
114
business this booking system is used generally. Since this knowledge is generally
known in this business, it is not to be regarded as confidential information.
F. Contractual and Post-Contractual
Confidential information is usually a business value which allows the successful exploi-
tation of a business formula or commercialisation of the principal’s, the franchisor’s, or
the distributor’s products and which differentiates it from its competitors. If the infor-
mation falls into the competitor’s hands, it loses its value. Therefore, a party is required
not to disclose the confidential information neither during nor after the contract.
G. Information Already Public
All the information which a party already had in its possession, or which was already
known to the public when the party received it, and any information which is neces-
sarily disclosed to customers when properly running the business is not to be treated as
confidential (Paragraph 3).
H. Character of the Rule
This is a default rule; the parties may agree otherwise.
I. Remedies
The obligation of confidentiality is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.

Therefore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort
to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL. In addition, similar to Article 2:302
PECL, which relates to confidential information given in the course of negotiations, the
remedy for any violation of the contractual and post-contractual obligation of confi-
dentiality may include restitution of the benefit received by the other party.
Notes
1. Confidentiality during the Period of the Contract
In most legal systems there is a confidentiality obligation for the parties in commercial
agency, franchising and distribution contracts during the period of the contract. How-
ever, the sources of this obligation differ from country to country.
In SPANISH law such an obligation for the franchisee is laid down in a statutory
provision (art. 4 RD 2485/1998). The majority of legal authors defend the position that
a similar obligation of confidentiality is imposed on the franchisor even though art. 4
RD does not explicitly require this (see for example: Hernando, 2000).
115
According to other legal systems such an obligation is deduced from the doctrine of
good faith. With respect to commercial agency contracts, it follows from good faith
under BELGIAN, SPANISH and SWEDISH law (BELGIUM: Verbraeken & Schoutheete,
no. 87; SPAIN arts. 9, 10 LCA; SWEDEN §§ 5 (1) and 7(1) of the HaL, § 7
KommL).
As to franchise contracts, under GREEK law such an obligation follows from good faith
(art. 288 AK). In addition, arts. 17 and 18 of the GREEK Act 146/1914 on unfair
competition apply. They protect the franchisor against disclosure or unfair use (misuse)
of the information that a franchisor will customarily disclose to a franchisee. Accord-
ing to SWEDISH law the contract will always contain provisions concerning confi-
dentiality. Such clauses apply, for instance, to the content of the contract and manuals,
but not, for instance, to general sales tactics etc. (Sohlberg, 57 ff).
With respect to franchise and distribution contracts, it follows from good faith accord-
ing to DUTCH law (Barendrecht & Van Peursem, no. 173) and SPANISH law.
In GERMANY, § 86 I HGB (Interessenwahrnehmungspflicht) prohibits the disclosure of
business secrets to third parties (Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 HGB nos. 5, 10; Münchener
Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 57). This rule is applied by way of
analogy to franchise and distribution contracts. (Münchener Kommentar zum Handels-
gesetzbuch, Vor § 84 HGB nos. 16, 21, § 90 HGB no. 6).
Under ENGLISH law an obligation of confidentiality follows from general contract
law. According to a general equitable principle a recipient of information which it
knows or ought to know is confidential should not take unfair advantage thereof,
Seager v. Copydex Ltd. [1967] 1 WLR 923, CA.
2. Post-Contractual Obligation
Under GERMAN law this obligation results from § 90 HGB. However, this obligation
is less strict that the one during the contractual period, since ‘all circumstances of the
professional standards of a prudent businessman’ must be considered (see § 90 HGB;
Koller/Roth/Morck, § 90 HGB no. 2). Both § 86 I and § 90 HGB are applied by way of
analogy to franchisees and distributors (Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch,
Vor § 84 HGB nos. 16, 21; § 90 HGB no. 6).
The obligation of the principal not to disclose secrets of the commercial agent in the
contractual and in the post-contractual period rests on the general idea of § 86 a HGB
(Treuepflicht) and good faith (§ 242 BGB, Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetz-
buch, § 86 a HGB nos. 45, 46). The same is true for the franchisor and the supplier
(Koller/Roth/Morck, Vor § 84 HGB nos. 10, 11; Martinek/Semler, § 19 nos. 60-63).
3. Information already Disclosed to the Public

According to ENGLISH and GERMAN law any information that is already available to
the public is not confidential (ENGLAND: Att.-Gen. v. Guardian Newspapers (No. 2)
[1990] 1 AC 109, 285, House of Lords; GERMANY: Münchener Kommentar zum Han-
delsgesetzbuch, § 90 HGB nos. 9-10). Also DUTCH authors have defended this (Barend-
recht & Van Peursem, no. 172).
116
Section 3:
Ending and Termination
(1) A contract for a definite period ends upon the expiry of the period determined by the
contract. Unless the parties agreed otherwise, such a contract cannot be ended unilaterally
beforehand.
(2) A party is free not to renew a contract for a definite period. However, if the other party has
given notice in due time that it wishes to renew the contract, the party who wishes not to
renew the contract must give the other party notice of its decision not to renew within a
reasonable time before the expiry of the contract period.
(3) A contract for a definite period which continues to be performed by both parties after the
contract period has expired becomes a contract for an indefinite period.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article provides certainty to parties who have concluded a contract for a definite
period, even if this definite period is very long. Such a contract ends upon the expiry of
the period determined by the contract and cannot unilaterally be ended beforehand.
Moreover, this Article provides specific rules for two specific situations, non-renewal
and continued performance.
Parties are free not to renew a contract for a definite period of time after the expiry of its
term. However, if one party gives notice to the other in due time that it wishes to renew
the contract, the latter party, if it wishes not to renew the contract, has to respond
promptly. If it fails to give reasonable notice of its decision not to renew, the aggrieved
party is entitled to damages (see Article 1:303).
A contract concluded for a definite period of time would normally end upon the expiry
of the pertinent term. However, when the parties actually continue performing the
contract after the agreed term has expired, an agreement that was concluded for a fixed
term does not come to an end upon the expiry of the fixed term. Instead, the contract
becomes a contract for an indefinite duration, subject to the same conditions.
In principle, both parties have an interest in the binding force of their contract. More in
particular, it is in their interest to be certain that it will last for the period which they
117
have agreed upon. It allows them to determine proper and rational business planning
and to evaluate what investments they should make. However, during the course of the
performance their interests may change. One party may wish to abandon the contract,
e. g. because another contract is more favourable. If the other party agrees there is no
problem (consensual ending of the contract) but the other party will usually object. In
this rule the interest in legal certainty is upheld by guaranteeing the binding force of a
contract for the term which the parties have agreed upon. If a party wishes to retain the
right to end the contract at any time it should conclude a contract for an indefinite
period (see Article 1:302 – the party who ends may, however, be liable if it omits to
provide reasonable notice). The only exception to the binding force of a contract for a
definite period is the case of a change of circumstances which renders performance
excessively onerous (see 6:111 PECL: the court may end the contract).
The requirement to provide notice of non-renewal within a reasonable time – when the
other party has given notice that it wishes to renew the contract – even though a fixed
duration for the contract was agreed upon, is based on the notion that, sometimes, the
definite period may be very long and that even in a short period of time a party may
build up hope that the contract will be renewed and will act accordingly. Therefore, a
similar need for protection that arises for contracts of an indefinite nature occurs.
However, since the party has explicitly agreed upon a definite period, the type of
protection is somewhat different, it is necessarily weaker. The party which intends not
to renew does not have to give notice of non-renewal. The only thing it has to do is to
respond if the other party informs it, in due time, of its intention not to renew the
contract. Such a limited obligation to respond to a notice by the other party is not very
burdensome and may be expected from a party which is under an intense general
obligation to co-operate (Article 1:202).
The idea underlying the rule contained in Paragraph 3 is that parties have an ‘easy way
out’ at their disposal, which is the express term. It is presumed that if they do not decide
to end the contract upon the expiry of such a term (they continue performing once the
term expires or they expressly agree to prolong the relationship), it is because they are
satisfied with the ongoing contractual relationship. Thus, there is a presumption which
favours the continuation of the existing business relationship. A clear rule on continued
performance is important in practice in order to avoid the situation where continuation
may create legal uncertainty.
C. Relation to PECL
Paragraph 1 is based on the same policy considerations as the PECL: the binding force of
a contract (with an exception for a change of circumstances). Therefore, the same
results would follow from (the system determined by) the PECL. The rule is spelled out
in order to provide certainty to parties who have concluded a contract for a long
definite period.
The PECL do not contain a rule like the one in Paragraph 2. However, under the PECL
a similar rule could follow from good faith (1:201).
118
The rule in Paragraph 3 is based on the same idea as Article 2:111 (Contracts not
Concluded through Offer and Acceptance). See especially Comment A (p. 187): ‘many
contracts are made by conduct alone’. In most cases an implied contract can probably be
construed. However, this Article avoids uncertainty and clarifies that in the case of
continued performance there is a new contract, for an indefinite period.
D. Definite Period
Parties may have various reasons for concluding a contract for a definite period. One
such reason is that the contract cannot be ended unilaterally during the period which
the parties have agreed upon, as Paragraph 1 explicitly states. Another reason may be
the applicability of other rules. For example, ‘non-compete obligations’ benefit from the
block-exemption, and are therefore presumed to be valid from an EC competition law
perspective, if they do not exceed a period of five years (EC Regulation 2790/1999,
Article 5(a)). As a result, many distribution and franchise contracts are concluded for a
period of five years.
E. Notice of Renewal and Response to Non-Renewal
A proposal for renewal and a notice by the other party of its decision not to renew may
be given by any means appropriate in the circumstances (Article 1:303 (1) PECL). A
notice becomes effective when it reaches the addressee (Article 1:303 (e) PECL).
A notice by a party that wishes to renew the contract must be given in due time; the
responding notice by the other party of its decision not to renew must be given within a
reasonable time before the expiry of the contract. What constitutes due time and a
reasonable time respectively depends on the circumstances of the case. Obviously, the
second period depends, in part, on the first.
F. Continued Performance: A New Contract subject to the Old Conditions
In the case of continued performance the contract becomes a contract for an indefinite
period. But on what conditions? In most cases the same basic obligations on the part of
the parties will continue, unless the way in which the parties continue to perform the
contract shows otherwise. Other (ancillary) obligations, the prolongation of which is no
longer appropriate, may be dispensed with at the time of the expiry of the term.
Ultimately, this is a matter of interpretation (see Chapter 5 PECL), to be determined
by the court.
119
G. Right to End a Contract for an Indefinite Period
Obviously, as a result of continued performance the parties are not bound to each other
forever. As in any contract for an indefinite period, either party has the right to
unilaterally end the contract by giving notice of reasonable length (1:302).
The parties are free to agree that one (or both) of them has /have the right to end the
contract beforehand. However, in that case the mandatory rules on unilateral ending
will apply (reasonable notice et cetera; see Article 1:302, especially Paragraph 4).
However, the rule contained in Paragraph 2 is a default rule; the parties are free to agree
otherwise.
The rule contained in Paragraph 3 is also a default rule; the parties are free to agree
otherwise.
Illustration 1
In the contract between supplier A and distributor B it is stipulated that each time
parties continue to perform after the end of the period, the contract will be
prolonged for a definite period of four months. Such a stipulation is valid, and
therefore effective, since the rule laid down in Article 1:301 (3) is a default rule.
I. Remedies
The premature ‘unilateral ending’ of a contract for a definite period constitutes a non-
performance of that contract. Therefore, the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort to
The remedy in the case of non-observance of the period of notice relating to non-
renewal – where such an obligation exists – is liability in damages (see Article 1:303).
The refusal to perform after continued performance has transformed the contract into a
contract for an indefinite period constitutes non-performance. Therefore, the aggrieved
party may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. No Right to End a Contract for a Definite Period Unilaterally
According to a large majority of the legal systems a contract for a definite period of
time cannot be ended prior to the expiry of the period, unless parties have agreed
otherwise. In some countries there is an exception: i. e. the possibility to end a contract
120
for a definite period immediately in the case of an urgent and important reason.
(POLAND: art. 764 II KC)
Under the following legal systems it is not possible to end a contract for a definite
period unilaterally, unless the parties have agreed otherwise: ENGLISH law (Bowstead
& Reynolds §10-042), FINNISH law (Hemmo (1997) II 370), FRENCH law: Fabre-
Magnan, 512; GERMAN law § 620 I BGB (Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetz-
buch, § 89 HGB no. 9), GREEK law, DUTCH law as to commercial agency arts. 7:437,
7:438 BW, concerning distribution see HR 21-10-1988, NJ 1990, 439; HR 10-8-1994, NJ
1994, 688. In the PORTUGUESE law as to commercial agency this rule is included in
art. 26 DL 178/86 and art. 1051 CC (cf. Pinto Monteiro (1998) 94), which will be
applied by way of analogy to franchise and distribution contracts (Pinto Monteiro
(2002) 133; Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 75; Ribeiro (2001) 249), in the SPANISH
law as to commercial agency this rule is included in art. 24 para 1 LCA .
However, under SWEDISH law contracts concluded for a definite period may be ended
unilaterally prematurely. Nevertheless, in such a case the party ending the contract
will be liable for damages (KommL § 51 para 2). Concerning distribution, the E 93
establishes a contractual period of two years, which is prolonged by one year unless
notice is given six months before the expiry of the contract. In franchise contracts, the
contract is normally concluded for a determined period of time, in most cases three or
five years, (Sohlberg, 67). The most common solution, however, is that the contract is
concluded for a definite period of time, but with an additional possibility to end the
contract, provided a notice has been given within a certain notice period, (SOU
1986:17, 213). The most common length for such a notice period is six or twelve
months, (SOU 1986:17, 72).
2. Notices of Non-Renewal and of Renewal

According to ITALIAN law a party must notify the other party that it does not want to
renew the contract provided it concerns a commercial agency contract that falls within
the scope of the collective economic agreements (Accordi Economici Collettivi, AEC) of
2002 concerning agency. When the period of contract lasts for more than six months,
the principal has to communicate to the agent ‘at least 60 days before the expiry of the
term, his possible readiness to renew or prorogue the mandate’. However, non-obser-
vance of this provision does not affect the renewal of the contract. It may only be a
source of liability for damages (Baldi (2001) 226). The SWEDISH model contract
concerning distribution EA 93 includes a similar obligation. The EA 93 concerns a
contract for a definite period of two years, which is prolonged by one year at a time
unless notice is given six months before the expiry of the contract.
Under the other legal systems there are no specific obligations to inform the other
party of a possible renewal of a contract for a determinate period. However, depending
on the circumstances, such obligations may follow, in some systems, from the general
obligation of good faith.
3. Continued Performance
If parties continue to perform a contract for a definite period after the expiry of the
contract, in the majority of the legal systems the contract will be converted into a
contract for an indefinite period.
121
For commercial agency, this rule is laid down in specific statutory provisions (art. 14
Directive, § 20 of the AUSTRIAN HvertrG, art. 4 of the BELGIAN Handelsagentuur-
overeenkomstenwet, reg. 14 of the ENGLISH Regulations, art. L. 134-11 of the FRENCH
C. Com., art. 8 para 2 of the GREEK Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991, art. 1750
para 1 of the ITALIAN cc, art. 7:436 of the DUTCH BW, art. 764 of the POLISH KC,
art. 27/2 of the PORTUGUESE DL 178/86, art. 24 para 2 of the SPANISH LCA, § 25
(2) of the SWEDISH HaL).
This statutory rule is applied by way of analogy to franchise contracts under PORTU-
GUESE law and probably under SWEDISH law. Under SPANISH law the rule is not
clear. Some authors defend the application of the commercial agency rule by way of
analogy to franchising as well (Garcıá Herrera (1995), Echebarrıá Sáenz (1995)),
whereas others argue that the contract will be renewed as a definite contract for the
period initially agreed upon (Hernando Giménez, Gallego Sánchez (1991)). Also under
GREEK law it is not clear whether the agency rule may apply by way of analogy to
franchise contracts.
This statutory rule is applied by way of analogy to distribution contracts (PORTUGAL,
SPAIN and, most likely, SWEDEN). In the NETHERLANDS authors differ as to whe-
ther the commercial agency rule is applied to distribution contracts by way of analogy
(Barendrecht & Van Peursem, 145-146, Van de Paverd, 78). Also under GREEK law it is
not clear whether this rule may apply by way of analogy to distribution contracts.
(1) Either party to a contract for an indefinite period may end the contract by giving notice of
reasonable length (art. 6:109 PECL).
(2) Whether a notice is of reasonable length depends, among other factors, on
(a) the time the contract has lasted,
(b) reasonable investments made,
(c) the time it will take to find a reasonable alternative, and
(d) usages.
(3) A notice period of one month for each year during which the contract has lasted, with a
maximum of 36 months, is presumed to be reasonable.
(4) The notice period for the principal, the franchisor or the supplier is to be no shorter than one
month for the first year, two months for the second, three months for the third, four months
for the fourth, five months for the fifth and six months for the sixth and subsequent years
during which the contract has lasted. Parties may not derogate from this provision.
(5) Agreements on longer notice periods than those laid down in Paragraphs 2 and 3 are valid
provided that the agreed period to be observed by the principal, franchisor or supplier is no
shorter than that to be observed by the commercial agent, the franchisee or the distributor.
(6) The aggrieved party is not entitled to specific performance of the contract during the notice
period. However, the court may order specific performance of contractual and post-contrac-
tual obligations which do not depend on co-operation.
122
Comments
A. General Idea
A contract is for an indefinite period either when it does not contain any specific
duration or when it explicitly states that it is for an indefinite period. The present rule
provides that in either case the contract can be ended unilaterally by giving due notice.
In other words, each party has ‘a right to end’ such a contract.
However, the notice must be of reasonable length. Paragraph 2 gives guidance to the
parties and the courts in establishing what would be a reasonable period of notice in the
circumstances of a particular case. Although the list indicates the factors which are
most likely to be of relevance, it is not meant to be exhaustive: depending on the
circumstances of the case other factors may be relevant for establishing what period of
notice will be reasonable. This Article is based on the assumption that it is impossible
to indicate only one or two factors which will be decisive in all cases. The possible
uncertainty with regard to the relative weight of each of the factors is mitigated by the
presumption indicated in Paragraph 3.
For a principal, a franchisor or a supplier who wants to end the contract there is a
minimum period of notice: one month for the first year, two months for the second,
three months for the third, four months for the fourth, five months for the fifth and six
months for the sixth and subsequent years. This is a mandatory rule; parties may not
derogate from this provision (Paragraph 4).
Of course, the parties are free to agree on longer periods of notice than the ones
provided for in Paragraphs 3 and 4. However, if they do so the agreed period to be
observed by the principal, franchisor or supplier may not be shorter than the one to be
observed by the commercial agent, the franchisee or the distributor (Paragraph 5).
Ending upon a shorter notice than is reasonable does, in principle, end the contract: the
aggrieved party is not entitled to specific performance of the contract during (the
remainder of) the period of notice. There is an exception for contractual and post-
contractual obligations which do not depend on mutual co-operation (Paragraph 6).
However, the party which gives an unreasonably short period of notice will be liable to
pay damages (see Article 1:303).
On the one hand, there is the interest of the party who wishes to end the contract
which was concluded for an indefinite period. It may wish to do so for various reasons.
For example, it may wish to end its activity in this particular geographical area, or it
may have found another agent, franchisee or distributor whom it expects to be more
effective. In all these cases, without this provision the party who no longer wishes to
continue the contractual relationship would nevertheless be linked to the contract until
the end of time, unless the other party agrees to the ending (binding force of contract).
123
On the other hand, the other party usually has no interest in the ending of the contract.
On the contrary, especially when the performance of this contract is its main activity,
the contract may be the very basis of its economic existence. Moreover, this party may
have made important investments which will only see a return after a period of many
years. Also, it may be very difficult for this party to find an equally satisfactory alter-
native. Therefore, this party may be economically very dependant on the continuation
of the contractual relationship.
In this rule these interests are balanced in the following way. A party which wishes to
end a contractual relationship for an indefinite period will succeed: the notice of ending
will be effective. However, the other party’s interest in continuing the contractual
relationship for a reasonable period is protected, albeit (in principle) in a monetary
way. The party who wishes to end must give reasonable notice (Paragraph 2) in the
absence of which it will be liable to compensate the expectation interest (see Article
1:303).
This rule does not only balance the interests of the parties; it is also in the general
interest. First, by establishing that a party has a right to end unilaterally it provides legal
certainty which diminishes litigation. Secondly, it is economically efficient (compare
the theory of efficient breach): if a party (e. g. a franchisor) can derive a greater benefit
from a contract with another party (e. g. a new franchisee) than it costs to perform the
new contract and to properly compensate the aggrieved party (the first franchisee), then
ending creates a surplus, since at least one party is better off without anyone being worse
off.
The period of notice (and the damages in lieu of this) is meant to safeguard the interests
of the party which is confronted with unilateral ending by its counterpart. Therefore,
the factors mentioned in Paragraph 2 mainly focus on its position. However, this does
not mean that in establishing what notice period would be reasonable in the circum-
stances, only the interests of the aggrieved party should be taken into account. Not only
can the facts of the case relating to each of the factors point to a shorter period of notice
(e. g. the absence of investments by the aggrieved party, of a post-contractual competi-
tion clause, of difficulties in finding an alternative etc.), but also in the case of facts
which point towards a longer period, these factors must be weighed against the interest
of the party which wishes to end the contract.
C. Relation to PECL
Paragraph 1 of this Article repeats the rule contained in Article 6:109 PECL (Contract
for an Indefinite Period). However, the elaboration in the following Paragraphs and
Articles is slightly different, especially as far as the remedy of specific performance is
concerned.
124
D. Receipt Principle Governs Notice
Notice may be given by any means appropriate in the circumstances (Article 1:303 (1)
PECL). A notice becomes effective when it reaches the addressee (Article 1:303 (2)
PECL).
E. No ‘Good Reason’ Required for Ending the Contract
This rule does not subject a party’s right to end the contract to an evaluation of the
appropriateness of its reasons. Even where the party who gives notice has ‘no good
reason’ or ‘abuses’ its right to end, the notice is nevertheless effective.
F. Reasonableness of the Period of Notice
In assessing what is reasonable, the nature and purpose of the contract, the circum-
stances of the case and the usage and practices of the trade or profession involved
should be taken into account. See further Article 1:302 PECL.
The list in Paragraph 2 of specific factors which may play a role in assessing whether a
reasonable period of notice was provided, is not meant to be exhaustive. This means
that other factors may also determine what period of notice is reasonable in the cir-
cumstances. Conversely, not all these factors play a role in each case. Moreover, not all
factors have the same weight in each case. All this remains a matter for the court to
consider.
(a) The Time the Contract has Lasted
In most cases the period during which the contract has lasted will be an important
factor. Normally, the longer the contractual relationship has lasted the more a party
becomes dependant on it and the more difficult it will be to adapt to a new situation
and, as a consequence, the greater its damage in the case of unilateral ending by the
other party.
The importance of this factor is reflected in the fact that the minimum notice period for
the principal, the franchisor or the supplier in Paragraph 4 increases with each year
during which the contract has lasted.
However, although in most cases the assumption is that the longer the contract has
lasted the longer the notice period must be, this factor may, in certain circumstances,
also point in the opposite direction. If the contract has lasted for a long time, in some
cases this may have been sufficient for the parties to fully recover their investments.
Therefore, this factor may also point to a shorter period of notice.
125
(b) Reasonable Investments Made
Frequently, unilateral ending will occur at a moment when a party has not yet seen a
return on all the investments which it has made in view of the performance of the
contract. Unless it is protected by a rather long period of notice which allows it to
amortise its investments (or compensated by damages in lieu thereof) it may be con-
fronted with extensive losses. Conversely, if the aggrieved party has not made any
important investments this may be a reason to accept a rather short notice period.
Therefore, the investments made by the aggrieved party will usually play an important
role in assessing the length of a reasonable notice period.
However, not all investments made by the aggrieved party should be taken into ac-
count, but only those investments which were reasonable in the circumstances; exces-
sive investments are at a party’s own risk. Moreover, in principle only specific invest-
ments should be taken into account. General investments, for example investments in a
generic showroom which can be sold or (sub)let, should in principle not be taken into
account.
On the other hand, however, recovery is not limited to investments induced or even
requested by the other party. In principle, all reasonable investments may be taken into
account.
In principle, in the present system there is no room for complementary damages (i. e. in
addition to damages in lieu of the notice period) for the recovery of damages due to
useless investments not fully amortised by the notice period, as some European systems
are familiar with. Under the present system, such investments are always covered by the
notice period (and the damages in lieu thereof). This may in some cases lead to a very
long period of notice of more than one year. However, since this notice period is in
principle not specifically enforceable (the remedy being monetary compensation; see
Paragraph 6 and Article 1:303) this will not lead to any problems.
Within this system, however, there is a possibility that the aggrieved party will be
additionally entitled to a goodwill indemnity in accordance with Article 1:306.
(c) The Time it Will Take to Find a Reasonable Alternative
An important function of the period of notice is to allow the aggrieved party to adapt to
the new situation, especially to find an alternative, either a new principal, franchisor or
supplier, or to commence a different economic activity. The easier it is for this party to
find an acceptable alternative, the shorter the period of notice can be. What counts is a
reasonable alternative: it does not necessarily have to provide the same benefits or be
exactly in the same trading sector or in the same place.
Here post-contractual non-competition clauses may be of relevance. If the contract

contains a valid clause which restrains post-contractual competition, it may be more
difficult for the aggrieved party to find an alternative. Consequently, in such a case the
reasonable period of notice should in principle be longer. However, to the extent that
126
the aggrieved party’s difficulty in finding an alternative economic activity has already
been compensated by the compensation which is due under the contract or under the
law relating to post-contractual non-competition clauses, that difficulty should again be
taken into account here. Consequently, the reasonable notice period may be shorter
(and the damages in lieu thereof lower).
(d) Usages
Obviously, the reasonableness of the notice period may vary according to the type of
contract (commercial agency, franchise, distribution) and the sector of the trade (e. g.
within distribution: beer, cars, petrol). Especially the presence of usages in a particular
trade may be of relevance in establishing the reasonableness of a notice. Such usages
may sometimes be inferred from codes of conduct, although much depends on the
persons and organisations who/which were involved in drafting these codes (e. g. only
franchisors).
However, on the other hand, there is no presumption that periods of notice will be
generally longer for one type of contract than for another, as is the case in some
European jurisdictions. On the contrary, the minimum notice periods for the principal,
the supplier and the franchisor provided for in Paragraph 4 are the same for all contracts
concerned.
More generally, although usages may play a role in determining what is reasonable, they
will not supersede the reasonableness test. In other words: any unreasonable usage
(which may be the result of a monopoly or oligopoly leading to structurally unequal
bargaining power) should be disregarded, unless the parties have explicitly agreed
otherwise.
G. Presumption of Reasonableness
Paragraph 3 contains a presumption that a notice period of one month for each year
during which the contract has lasted, with a maximum of 36 months, is reasonable.
This presumption is rebuttable. The aggrieved party may prove that the presumably
reasonable period (including the maximum of three years) is unreasonably short in the
circumstances. Conversely, the party which has ended the contract may prove that the
presumed period is unreasonably long.
H. Minimum Period
For the principal, the franchisor or the supplier who wishes to end the contract there is
a minimum period of notice (see Paragraph 4): the period shall be no less than one
month for the first year, two months for the second, three months for the third, four
months for the fourth, five months for the fifth and six months for the sixth and
127
subsequent years during which the contract has lasted. Parties may not derogate from
this provision.
I. Agreed Longer Periods
If the parties agree on longer notice periods than those laid down in Paragraphs 2 and 3
then the agreed period to be observed by the principal, franchisor or supplier must be no
shorter than that to be observed by the commercial agent, the franchisee or the dis-
tributor. In other words, the parties are free to agree on longer notice periods than the
ones which are considered to be reasonable. However, they may not do so exclusively
for the benefit of the principal, franchisor or supplier. To the extent that they never-
theless do so, such an agreement is invalid.
J. Damages the Only Remedy; Specific Performance in Exceptional Cases
If a party ends the contract without giving notice of reasonable length, in principle
monetary compensation is the only remedy: the aggrieved party is not entitled to the
specific performance of the contract during the notice period which should have been
respected (Paragraph 6). As to the amount of damages see Article 1:303.
The reason why the specific performance of the notice obligation purporting to con-
tinue the contractual relationship for a reasonable time is not available is that specific
performance would normally be an inappropriate remedy for these contracts which are
based on intuitus personae, confidentiality, co-operation and mutual trust (see Article
1:202). It does not make sense to compel parties to co-operate and to trust each other.
However, if exceptionally these factors do not play a role whereas, on the other hand,
the aggrieved party has a specific and important interest in the actual continuation of
the contractual relationship for a reasonable time, a court may order the specific
performance of some or even all the obligations under the contract. The court must
then determine the conditions under which performance shall take place. Moreover, the
court may also order the specific performance of post-contractual obligations which do
not depend on co-operation (see Article 1:202).
K. Character of the Rule
This is a default rule; the parties are free to agree otherwise. However, the minimum
period of notice contained in Paragraph 4 is mandatory; any agreement on a shorter
period by the parties remains without effect. Moreover, Paragraph 5 is also mandatory:
the parties may not derogate from this provision.
128
Notes
1. Right to End (General)
Under all legal systems either party may end a commercial agency, franchise or dis-
tribution contract, provided that a notice has been given.
For commercial agency a rule to this effect is laid down in statutory provisions based
on art. 15 (1) of the Directive. (Art. 15 (1) of the Directive: ‘Where an agency contract
is concluded for an indefinite period either party may terminate it by notice.’ It must
be noted that the meaning of termination as included in the Directive differs from the
one provided in Article 1:304). See: AUSTRIA: § 21 (2) of the HvertrG; BELGIUM:
art. 18 § 1 Handelsagentuurwet; FINLAND: art. 23 of the Act on Commercial Agents;
FRANCE: art. L. 134-11 C.Com; GERMANY: § 89 I HGB; GREECE: art. 8 Law on
Commercial agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1750 cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7: 437 BW;
POLAND: art. 764 I KC; PORTUGAL: art. 178/86; SPAIN: art. 24 (1) LCA; SWEDEN:
§ 24 (2) HaL.
As to franchise and distribution contracts under GERMAN law, the rule concerning
commercial agency applies by way of analogy (Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsge-
setzbuch, § 89 HGB no. 6). However, under GREEK and PORTUGUESE law the rules
concerning commercial agency apply by way of analogy only to distribution contracts
(Pinto Monteiro (2002) 129; Menezes Cordeiro (2001) 513; Ribeiro (2001) 241; Pestana
de Vasconcelos (2000) 80; STJ 18/10/1994, BMJ 451 (1995) at 445; STJ 23/09/1997,
www.dgsi.pt; STJ 16/05/1996, BMJ 468 (1997) at 428; STJ 4/05/1992, BMJ 427 (1993)
at 524).
In BELGIAN law a rule to the effect of Article 1:302 is laid down in art. 2 of the
Alleenverkoopwet, which applies to distribution contracts.
As to franchise and distribution contracts under FRENCH and SPANISH law with
respect to a distribution contract either party may end the contract unilaterally,
provided a notice period is observed and there is no abuse of the right (FRANCE:
Art. L. 442-6 I 5 C. com., Leloup, no. 2065 et seq.).
However, as to franchise and distribution contracts under DUTCH law the point of
departure is that such contracts cannot be ended. However, based on good faith there
may be a right to end such a contract (art. 6:248 BW, Asser-Hartkamp 4-II, no. 310 ff.).
Whether a notice period must be observed and, if so, its length depends on the
requirements of good faith.
2. Fixed Notice Period

As to commercial agency contracts art. 15 (2) of the Directive includes a fixed mini-
mum mandatory notice period. (Art. 15 (2) of the Directive: ‘The period of notice shall
be one month for the first year of the contract, two months for the second year
commenced, and three months for the third year commenced and subsequent years.
The parties may not agree on shorter periods of notice.’) However, the Directive leaves
it to the Member States to include a minimum mandatory fixed notice period for the
fourth, fifth, sixth and subsequent years of the contract as well. (Art. 15 (3): ‘Member
States may fix the period of notice at four months for the fourth year of the contract,
five months for the fifth year and six months for the sixth and subsequent years. They
may decide that the parties may not agree to shorter periods.’)
129
The following countries include a fixed mandatory minimum notice period in their
legal systems for the first 6 years of the commercial agency contract: AUSTRIA: § 21 of
the HvertrG; BELGIUM: art. 18 Handelsagentuurwet; FINLAND: art. 23 of the Act on
Commercial Agents; GREECE: art. 8 Law on Commercial agency 219/1991; ITALY: art.
1750 III cc; SPAIN: art. 25 (2) LCA; SWEDEN: § 24 (2) HaL.
GERMAN law differs in the sense that the notice period is one month for the first year,
two months for the second year, three months for contracts that lasted for three to five
years and six months for contracts that lasted more than five years (§ 89 I HGB).
ENGLISH, FRENCH, DUTCH, POLISH, PORTUGUESE law have opted for art. 15 (2)
Directive. The minimum notice period for both parties is three months for contracts
that lasted for three years and longer (ENGLAND: Reg. 15 (2); FRANCE: art. L. 134-11
C.Com; NETHERLANDS art. 7:437 II BW; POLAND: art. 764 I KC; PORTUGAL: art.
28 (1) DL 178/86)
These minimum rules concerning commercial agency are applied by way of analogy to
franchise and distribution contracts under GERMAN law (Münchener Kommentar zum
Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 HGB no. 6). They apply to distribution contracts by way of
analogy under GREEK and PORTUGUESE law (Pinto Monteiro (2002) 129; Menezes
Cordeiro (2001) 513; Ribeiro (2001) 241; Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 80; STJ 18/10/
1994, BMJ 451 (1995) at 445; STJ 23/09/1997, www.dgsi.pt; STJ 16/05/1996, BMJ 468
(1997) at 428; STJ 4/05/1992, BMJ 427 (1993) at 524).
3. Reasonable Notice Period

In a number of countries, franchise or distribution contracts can be ended unilaterally
by giving reasonable notice. (art. 2 of the BELGIAN Alleenverkoopwet; FINNISH law
Cf. KKO 1982 II 1; under SPANISH law the decisions rendered with respect to distri-
bution contracts can be applied by way of analogy to franchising (STS 11-2-84, 3-12-92,
23-07-93, STS 24-02-93, RJ 1298; STS 25-01-96, RJ 319).
Under FRENCH law with respect to franchise and distribution contracts the notice
period to be observed depends on the length of the contract concerned and commer-
cial usages (art. L. 442-6 I 5 C. com.). In addition, if the contract involves the
distribution of goods under a trademark the notice period should be doubled (art. L.
442-6 I 5 C. com.).
Under DUTCH law a reasonable notice period must be observed with respect to
franchising and distribution contracts, which follows from case law (HR 23-12-1994,
NJ 1995, 263; HR 21-4-1995, NJ 1995, 437.)
4. Minimum Notice Period for the Principal, Franchisor or Supplier

According to Art. 15 (4) of the Directive the notice period which the principal must
observe, is not allowed to be shorter than the one observed by the commercial agent if
parties agree upon longer notice periods than the minimum notice periods provided for
in the Directive. (Art. 15 (4) of the Directive: ‘If the parties agree on longer periods
than those laid down in Paras 2 and 3, the period of notice to be observed by the
principal must not be shorter than that to be observed by the commercial agent.’).
Concerning commercial agency a similar rule is included in the following legal sys-
tems: (AUSTRIA: § 21 (3) HvertrG; BELGIUM: art. 18 § 1 Handelsagentuurovereen-
komstenwet; ENGLAND: Reg. 15 (3); FRANCE: art. L. 134-11 C.Com; GERMANY:
§ 89 II HGB; GREECE: art. 8 Law on Commercial agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1750
130
cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:437 (2) BW; POLAND: art. 764 I § 2 KC; PORTUGAL: art.
28 (1) DL 178/86); SPAIN art. 25 (3) LCA.)
As to distribution contracts under FINNISH law the notice period must be of such
length that it allows the distributor to amortise his investments. If a notice period does
not allow the distributor to do so, the notice period is considered to be unreasonable
and can be assimilated into a reasonable one according to art. 36 of the Contracts Act.
The same is valid with respect to franchise contracts.
With respect to franchise and distribution contracts no such rule has been found in the
legal systems.
5. Consequences of Disregarding the Notice Period

See the notes to Article 1:303.
(1) In the case of the non-observance of the notice periods mentioned in art. 1:301 (2) and
1:302 (1), the aggrieved party is entitled to damages.
(2) The general measure of damages is such sum which corresponds to the benefit which the
aggrieved party would have obtained during the non-observed period of notice.
(3) The yearly benefit is presumed to be equal to the average benefit which the aggrieved party
has obtained from the contract during the previous 3 years or, if the contract has lasted for a
shorter period, during that period.
(4) The general rules on damages for non-performance (art. 9:501 ff PECL) apply accordingly.
Comments
A. General Idea
The remedy for the non-observance of the period of notice is damages. A party which
ends a contract without giving a reasonable period of notice, is liable to compensate the
(concrete) damage thereby caused to the other party.
The aggrieved party’s compensatable damage amounts to the expectation interest (Para-
graph 2): it should be placed, as far as possible, in the position in which it would have
been if a notice of reasonable length had been provided. If reasonable notice had been
given the aggrieved party would have had all the usual benefits from the contract during
the remainder of its duration (i. e. the reasonable notice period). Therefore, the ag-
grieved party is, in principle, entitled to compensation for the loss of that benefit.
Compare Article 9:502 PECL (General Measure of Damages): ‘The general measure of
damages is such sum as will put the aggrieved party as nearly as possible into the
position in which it would have been if the contract had been duly performed. Such
damages cover the loss which the aggrieved party has suffered and the gain of which it
has been deprived.’
131
Paragraph 3 contains a presumption that the yearly benefit is equal to the average
benefit which the aggrieved party has received from the contract during the last three
years. The idea is to refer to a period of time which is indicative of the business of the
aggrieved party. Exceptional circumstances should not be taken as a general measure.
Finally, although, strictly speaking, these are not damages for non-performance (the
notice ends the contract, even if the period of notice was too short) but rather for not
giving notice in due time, the application of the PECL’s regime on damages for non-
performance (Chapter 9, Section 5) is appropriate here. Therefore, Paragraph 3 declares
that these rules (i. e. Articles 9:501 ff) apply accordingly.
The rule that damages are the only remedy is based on considerations of economic
efficiency: as long as a party is ready to pay (damages), it should be capable of ending
the contract without observing a period of notice. Compelling it to ‘wait’ until a
reasonable period of time has expired, could result in the loss of other opportunities.
Therefore, the system adopted here provides the most efficient solution: a party can
effectively end a contract, but will have to pay a ‘price’ (compensation). If the ‘price’ is
lower than the benefit it expects from ending the contract, at least one party is better
off without anyone else being actually worse off.
The ‘price’ to be paid amounts to full compensation of the interest the aggrieved party
had in the observance of the notice period, i. e. all the benefits it would have derived
from the contract during the (remainder of) the period of notice. In other words, the
expectation interest.
C. Relation to PECL
Paragraph 2 is based on the same idea as the rule on damages for non-performance in
the PECL. See Article 9:502 PECL (General Measure of Damages): ‘The general mea-
sure of damages is such sum as will put the aggrieved party as nearly as possible into the
position in which it would have been if the contract had been duly performed. Such
damages cover the loss which the aggrieved party has suffered and the gain of which it
has been deprived.’ Moreover, Paragraph 4 declares Chapter 9, Section 5 (i. e. Articles
9:501 ff) to be accordingly applicable.
D. Damages the Only Remedy
Unlike in the ordinary case of non-performance (see Article 8:101 PECL), here the
aggrieved party (in principle) has only one remedy at its disposal: damages. The reason
for this is that the remedy of specific performance (of the reasonable period of notice)
would be inappropriate here: if one party has made it clear that it does not want to
continue the contractual relationship, the courts cannot successfully force this party to
132
do so when, as in this case, the success of the contractual enterprise strongly depends on
intuitus personae, confidentiality, co-operation and mutual trust (see further Comment L
to Article 1:302).
The present system provides the parties with the certainty that the notice will effec-
tively end their contractual relationship (see Article 1:302 (6)).
E. Calculation of Damages
The general test for the amount of damages is the benefit which the aggrieved party
would have obtained during the non-observed period of notice (the expectation inter-
est).
What is meant here is the ‘net’ benefit: if the aggrieved party during that period has to
(continue to) incur expenses which cannot be (immediately) avoided (e. g., depending
on national labour law, laying off personnel which the aggrieved party cannot reason-
ably employ in another function or elsewhere), then these will also have to be com-
pensated.
The estimation of benefit is based on the benefit which the aggrieved party has ob-
tained from the contract during the previous 3 years. However, other factors may be
taken into account, either in order to raise or to mitigate the amount. One such factor
may be the aggrieved party’s right to transfer its contractual position to a third party. If
it can ‘sell its business’ to a successor, the benefit from this transfer will be taken into
account.
F. Concrete Damages
Damages are not calculated in an abstract fashion: what must be compensated is the
damage which has been (or will be) effectively suffered by the aggrieved party.
Therefore, although damages shall amount to the benefit which the aggrieved party
would have obtained during the non-observed period of notice, and although the
estimation of the benefit is based, in principle, on the average benefit which the
aggrieved party has obtained from the contract during the previous 3 years, liability
ultimately depends on the damage which the aggrieved party actually suffers.
Illustration 1
A distributor runs a petrol station. The petrol supplier ends the contract after four
years by observing a notice period of one month. According to Article 1:303 the
supplier ought to have observed the mimimum notice period of at least four
months, which is considered reasonable in this case. To run the petrol station
the distributor employs four persons. To make them redundant the distributor
must itself observe a notice period of five months. In other words, the distributor
must pay their salaries for another five months. The damages which the supplier
133
must pay are 3/12 of the average benefit of the last three years and the sum
resulting from the salary costs of the four persons for the forthcoming five months.
G. General Rules on Damages Applicable
Chapter 9, Section 5 PECL contains general rules on damages and interest for non-
performance. These Articles (Articles 9:501–9:510) apply here as well. They include
e. g. rules on foreseeability (9:503), loss attributable to the aggrieved party (9:504),
reduction of loss (9:505) and substitute transactions (9:506).
This is a default rule; the parties are free to agree otherwise.
Notes
1. Entitlement to Damages in the case of Non-Observance of the Notice Period
The national legal systems differ as to the consequences of the non-observance of a
notice period.
In some systems the aggrieved party is entitled to damages in lieu of a notice period.
This can be found in the following legal systems: BELGIAN law (art. 2 Alleenverkoop-
wet, art. 18 Handelsagentuurwet), FINNISH law (the general right to damages when the
notice period has not been observed was awarded in KKO 1982 II 1); GREEK law;
POLISH law (art. 764 II § 2 KC; SWEDISH law (KommL § 51 (2), HaL § 34 (1)).
In BELGIAN and DUTCH law, in the case of commercial agency the aggrieved party is
entitled to damages in lieu of a notice period, unless the contract was ended because of
important and urgent reasons, which is notified to the other party (art. 18 § 3, art. 19
Handelsagentuurwet; art. 7:439 (1) BW). Important and urgent reasons are such cir-
cumstances that cannot require the other party reasonably to continue the contract.
In contrast, under FRENCH and SPANISH law there is no entitlement to damages
unless the non-observance of the notice period also results in an abus de droit. (art. L
442-6 I 4 C. com.)
However, in other systems there is no entitlement to damages, although the notice
period will be substituted by one which is proper. (GERMAN law: Martinek/Semler,
§ 10 no. 9; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 HGB no. 62. However,
the aggrieved party may end the contract (without a notice period), since the non-
observance of the notice period can be considered an important reason for termination
(§ 89 a I HGB, BGH, BB 1966, p. 1410; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch,
§ 89 a HGB no. 56). In that case the aggrieved party is entitled to damages in accor-
dance with § 89 a II HGB. This provision also applies by way of analogy to franchise
and distribution contracts. Also according to FINNISH law both unfairly long or short
periods of notice can be adjusted according to art. 36 of the Contracts Act. There is,
however, no case law on such adjustments.
134
2. Calculation of the Damages

The calculation of damages differs from country to country and from contract to
contract. Under some legal systems there are specific rules concerning the calculation
of the damages, whereas according to others general contract law or the general law of
obligations determines the amount of damages. Moreover, in several systems the
calculation of damages is a question of fact, not of law.
Under the following legal systems there is a specific rule concerning the calculation of
damages.
Under BELGIAN law the ending party must pay a sum that equals the remuneration
that the other party would have obtained, had a proper notice period been observed
(art. 18 § 3 Handelsagentuurwet). Also under DUTCH law the ending party must pay a
sum that equals the award that a commercial agent would have obtained if the con-
tract had been properly ended. To calculate the amount, the commission earned prior
to the ending must be taken into account as well as all other circumstances (art. 7:441
(1) BW). The aggrieved party may also claim the actual damages instead, provided that
it proves the actual damages.
Under ITALIAN law there are authors who argue that the calculation of damages for
non-observance of the notice period may be inferred from collective economic agree-
ments (AEC) (Baldi (2001) 240). Pursuant to such collective agreements the amount
of damages corresponds to as many twelfths of the commissions earned in the previous
year (1 January-31 December) as the number of months of due notice period, or to a
sum which is proportional to this amount, in the case the notice period only had to be
partially observed. If the relationship has lasted for less than one year, the calculation
has to be done on the basis of the monthly average of the commissions earned during
that relationship.
As to distribution contracts, concrete damages must be paid under BELGIAN law (art.
3 Alleenverkoopwet). Under ITALIAN law, when it is the supplier who ends the con-
tract, it will have to provide the distributor with the lost net profit that it would have
obtained, had the notice period been respected (Baldi (2001) 92). Under DUTCH law
the elements taken into account to assess the amount of damages are the length of the
relationship and the legitimate expectations of the aggrieved party as a result of
statements made by the supplier. Moreover, the timing of the ending and its conse-
quences are to be taken into account as well. Sometimes the reasons for ending the
contract and the customs in the distributor’s branch are also taken into account (HR
21 June 1991, NJ 1991, 742).
Under other legal systems the amount of damages follows from general contract law.
Under ENGLISH law the measure of damages is as per Para 2 of the present Article
(Robinson v. Harman (1848) 1 Ex. 850, 855).
Also under FINNISH law general contract law applies to determine the amount of
damages. The objective of awarding damages is that the aggrieved party will be in the
same position had the contract been performed properly. Under GREEK law positive
and negative damage are compensated (art. 298 AK), whereas non-material damage is
compensated only where this is explicitly provided by a legal provision (art. 299 AK).
According to the case law the provisions of the civil code on mandate and, in parti-
cular art. 722 AK, apply by way of analogy to calculate damages. The damages cover at
least the expenses incurred in the proper performance of the contract, including
expenses incurred in the purchase and storage of stock and advertising (CA Piraeus
135
1251/1991 Epitheorisi Emporikou Dikaiou 1991, 625; CA Athens 1107719/91; First

Instance Court of Athens 1007/1993, Epitheorisi Emporikou Dikaiou 1995, 226). The
CA Piraeus considered the application of art. 723 AK, which provides that the prin-
cipal must compensate the mandatory for any damage suffered in the execution of the
mandate which was not due to his fault (CA of Piraeus 1251/91, Epitheorisi Emporikou
Dikaiou 1991, 625; see also First Instance Court of Athens 305/1997 Epitheorisi
Emporikou Dikaiou 1998, 531).
(1) A party may terminate the contract for non-performance only if the other party’s non-
performance is fundamental within the meaning of Article 8:103 (b) and Article 8:103 (c)
PECL (art. 9:301 PECL).
Comments
A. General Idea
In the case of non-performance a commercial agency, franchise or distribution contract

may only be terminated when (i) the non-performance substantially deprives the ag-
grieved party of what it was entitled to expect under the contract, or (ii) the non-
performance is intentional and gives the aggrieved party reason to believe that it cannot
rely on the other party’s future performance.
This rule is exactly the same as Article 8:103 in conjunction with Article 9:301 PECL,
except for one important difference. One type of fundamental non-performance men-
tioned in Article 8:103 PECL (the one under a), which allows for immediate termina-
tion, is absent here: the case where strict compliance with the obligation is itself of the
essence of the contract. Such a rule would be inappropriate for long-term commercial
contracts. Article 8:103 (a) PECL is mainly meant for international sales and similar
contracts where legal certainty and a quick response are essential. See the Comment to
Article 8:103 (a) (p. 364):
’Under Article 8:103(a) the relevant factor is not the actual gravity of the breach
but the agreement between the parties that strict adherence to the contract is
essential and that any deviation from the obligation goes to the root of the
contract so as to entitle the other party to be discharged from its obligations
under the contract. This agreement may derive either from express or from im-
plied terms of the contract. Thus, the contract may provide in terms that in the
event of any breach by a party the other party may terminate the contract. The
effect of such a provision is that every failure in performance is to regarded as
fundamental. Even without such an express provision the law may imply that the
136
obligation is to be strictly performed. For example, it is a rule in many systems of

law that in a commercial sale the time of delivery of goods or of the presentation
of documents is of the essence of the contact.’
This rule which is especially essential to commodity markets, where certainty is of the
essence, is not appropriate to contracts where parties sometimes make considerable
investments in long-term relationships, and where they are frequently dependant on the
continuity of such a relationship. Such a relationship may not be terminated by one
party on account of the other party’s mere non-performance of an obligation the
performance of which, as a result of a contractual stipulation, was deemed to be of the
essence of the contract, without this aggrieved party being substantially deprived by the
non-performance of what it was entitled to expect under the contract, or when the non-
performance is intentional and gives the aggrieved party reason to believe that it cannot
rely on the other party’s future performance.
Therefore, in long-term commercial relationships the contract may only be terminated

if indeed (i) the non-performance is intentional and gives the aggrieved party reason to
believe that it cannot rely on the other party’s future performance, or (ii) the non-
performance substantially deprives the aggrieved party of what it was entitled to expect
under the contract.
Illustration 1
An international chain of hamburger restaurants provides its franchisees with a
book containing hundreds of pages and thousands of very detailed instructions
relating to all aspects of hamburger selling. The franchise contract says that strict
compliance with each of these instructions is of the essence of the contract.
During a monthly inspection the franchisor discovers that hamburgers in one
particular restaurant are on average 2% too hot. The franchisor may not terminate
the contract.
Although the aggrieved party may have a considerable interest in strict compliance
with the contract, e. g. because it needs to maintain the good reputation of the product
or the trademark (in the case of a principal, a franchisor or a supplier) or because it risks
running out of stock (in the case of the commercial agent, the franchisee or the
distributor), the other party usually has an equally (or even more) important interest
in the continuity of the contractual relationship.
Therefore, the aggrieved party is only allowed to terminate the contract where the non-
performance is intentional and therefore undermines the relationship (Article 8:103 (c)
PECL) or it deprives the aggrieved party of most of the benefit under the contract
(Article 8:103 (b) PECL).
However, either party may always end the contract by giving notice of reasonable
length under Article 1:302. Thus, this provision should be read in connection with
137
the provisions on ending: whereas termination is more difficult than under the PECL,
ending is possible if the conditions imposed are respected. That is, unless it gives
reasonable notice the party who wishes to end the contract will have to pay damages
to the other party (Article 1:303).
C. Relation to PECL
This rule provides an exception for certain long-term contracts to the general rule in
Article 8:103 (a) PECL.
For the remainder the PECL apply normally. This means that all the other rules on
termination contained in Chapters 8 (Non-Performance and Remedies in General) and
9 (Particular Remedies for Non-Performance), Section 3 (Termination of the Contract)
of the PECL are normally applicable to termination for non-performance of commercial
agency, franchise and distribution contracts.
D. Remedies
In the cases provided for in this Article the aggrieved party may terminate the contract.
The rules on termination contained in Chapters 8 (Non-Performance and Remedies in
General) and 9 (Particular Remedies for Non-Performance), Section 3 (Termination of
the Contract) of the PECL apply.
E. Character of the Rule
This rule is mandatory: the parties cannot agree in their contract that the contract may
be terminated except for the two cases mentioned in this Article (a and b). In other
words, any deviation from this Article by the parties to the detriment of the party who
would benefit from it remains without effect (see Paragraph 2).
Notes
1. In General
Under the majority of the legal systems any party may terminate a commercial agency,
franchise or distribution contract for non-performance in the instances mentioned in
Article 1:304. However, it differs from country to country whether these rules are
included in general or specific contract law. For commercial agency contracts, the
Directive (art. 16 (a)) leaves this issue to the legal systems of the Member States
(Art. 16 of the Directive: ‘Nothing in this Directive shall affect the application of the
law of the Member States where the latter provides for the immediate termination of
the agency contract: (a) because of the failure of one party to carry out all or part of his
obligations; (b) where exceptional circumstances arise.’).
138
2. Termination for Substantial or Intentional Non-Performance
a) Specific Rules
In BELGIAN, POLISH, PORTUGUESE, SPANISH and SWEDISH law a specific rule
concerning the termination of a commercial agency contract is included in the stat-
utory provisions concerning commercial agency contracts. (BELGIUM: art. 20 Han-
delsagentuurwet; POLAND: art. 764 II § 1 KC; PORTUGAL: art. 30 DL 178/86; SPAIN:
art. 26 LCA; SWEDEN § 26 HaL.)
b) Non-specific Rules
In BELGIAN law it must concern a fundamental non-performance to terminate a
commercial agency contract (un manquement grave de l’autre partie à ses obligations).
Apart from this possibility to terminate the contract, there are also the possibilities
which general contract law provides. Under SPANISH law, art. 26 LCA does not
deviate from general contract law (art. 1124 cc) in the case of non-performance (SAP
Len 21-11-96, AC 2169, Domıńguez Gracıá, 1317, Móxica 176, Memento, 471). If a
distribution contract can be regarded as a commercial agency contract (“identity of
reason”, art. 4 CC) art. 26 LCA applies by way of analogy. In all other instances
general contract law applies.
In PORTUGUESE law in the case of commercial agency either party can terminate the
contract (i) in the case of a serious or reiterated non-performance that renders the
continuation of the contractual relationship impossible or (ii) in the case of unex-
pected circumstances that render the regular performance of the contract impossible.
However, an adequate term of notice of termination is still required (art. 30 DL 178/
86, Pinto Monteiro (1998) 106; Pinto Monterio (2002) 143). Art. 30 DL 178/86 is applied
by way of analogy to franchise and distribution contracts (Pinto Monteiro (2002) 142;
Pestana de Vasconcelos (2002) 85).
According to § 26 of the SWEDISH HaL, each party may terminate the contract
immediately if the other party has failed to fulfil his contractual or statutory obliga-
tions and the non-performance is fundamental for the terminating party and the other
party realised or should have realised this. Concerning commission agencies, there is
no liability for damages for premature termination if the other party has committed a
fundamental breach of his contractual duties, KommL § 51 (2). Concerning distribu-
tion, the rules on commission agencies can probably be used by way of analogy.
As to distribution contracts, art. 2 of the BELGIAN Alleenverkoopwet determines that
in the case of fundamental non-performance the contract can be terminated.
Under some legal systems, ending for important and urgent reasons also includes
termination for non-performance, see the notes for ending for important and urgent
reasons.
3. Ending for Important and Urgent Reasons

Under a number of legal systems a commercial agency, franchise or distribution con-
tract may be ended also for important and urgent reasons.
In some legal systems ending for important and urgent reasons also includes termina-
tion for non-performance.
As to commercial agency contracts, such a rule is included in the legal systems of the
following countries: AUSTRIA: § 22 HvertrG (vorzeitige Auflösung aus wichtigem Grund);
139
GERMANY: § 89 I (1), § 89 a I (2) HGB (Kündigung aus wichtigem Grund); FINLAND:

art. 25 of the Act on Commercial Agents; ITALY: Cass. applies art. 2119 cc by way of
analogy to commercial agency contracts: Cass. sez. lav. 2-5-2000, n. 5467, Disc. comm.,
2000, 1078, with note by F. di Ciommo, Diritto alle provvigioni e recesso dell’agente per
giusta causa, Cass. 5-11-1997, n. 10852, Rep. Foro. It., 1997, voce Agenzia, n. 25, Cass.
15-11-1997, n. 11376, Rep. Foro It., 1997, voce Agenzia, n. 24, Cass. 14-1-1999, n. 368,
Rep. Foro It., 1999, voce Agenzia, n. 8, Cass. 1-2-1999, n. 845, Rep. Foro It., 1999, voce
Agenzia, n. 12, Cass. 20-4-1999, n. 3898, Rep. Foro It., 1999, voce Agenzia, n.15 (guista
causa); NETHERLANDS: arts. 7:339, 7:440 BW; SWEDEN § 26 HaL.
Under AUSTRIAN law. the possibility of ending for urgent and important reasons has
generally been accepted for long-term contracts (OGH 1999/11/16 10Ob247/99t). As
to franchise contracts see OGH 1987/05/05 4 Ob 321/87, OGH 1987/10/21 1 Ob 641/
87, OGH 1989/05/09 4Ob52/89, OGH 1991/04/10 9 Ob A 8, 9/91. As to distribution
contracts see: OGH 1996/05/23 6Ob661/95. With respect to distribution contracts the
rules concerning commercial agency contracts may apply by way of analogy (OGH
2000/05/25 8Ob295/99m).
Under GERMAN law the rule concerning commercial agency contracts is applied to
franchising and distribution contracts by way of analogy (Küstner/Thume, no. 1789;
Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 a HGB no. 9). An ‘important rea-
son’ is determined by taking into account all the circumstances of the case and the
interests of the parties (Koller/Roth/Morck, § 89 a HGB no. 4). All the instances to
which Article 1:304 refers, are recognized as wichtiger Grund under GERMAN law.
(Koller/Roth/Morck, § 89 a HGB no. 4; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch,
§ 89 a HGB nos. 18, 29, 43).
Also under the SWEDISH law concerning all long-term contracts there is a right to
end the contract immediately for important reasons, mostly applicable in severe cases
of breach of contract by the other party.
According to the BELGIAN statutory rules on commercial agency, either party may
terminate the contract because of circumstances which render further future coopera-
tion impossible. (des circonstances exceptionelles rendent définitivement impossible toute
collaboration professionelle entre le commettant et l’agent art. 19 Handelsagentuurwet).
4. No Termination if Proper Performance was ‘of the Essence’

Under GERMAN law the rule concerning ending for important and urgent reasons,
which includes termination for non-performance within the meaning of Article 1:304,
is mandatory (§ 89a II HGB). That is to say parties cannot deviate therefrom by
contract.
However, under other legal systems parties may stipulate in their contracts which
circumstances justify the termination of the contract. This is the case under FINNISH
law. However, if such a stipulation is unfair, the court can adjust the contract (Article
36 of the Contracts Act). Also under DUTCH law, parties may stipulate circumstances
that justify termination. However, such an agreement is subject to good faith. This is
also the situation under BELGIAN law with respect to parties to commercial agency
and distribution contracts. However, such stipulations are policed by the courts.
Under FRENCH commercial agency law, parties are not allowed to stipulate that
certain obligations are of the essence and justify the termination of the contract (Cass.
28 May 2002).
140
(1) When the contract comes to an end for any reason (including termination by either party for
non-performance), a party is entitled to an indemnity from the other party for goodwill if and
to the extent that
(a) the first party has significantly increased the other party’s volume of business and the
other party continues to derive substantial benefits from that business, and
(b) the payment of the indemnity is reasonable having regard to all the circumstances.
(2) The grant of an indemnity does not prevent a party from seeking damages under Article
1:303.
Comments
A. General Idea
Irrespective of whether the contract was for an indefinite or a definite period and
irrespective of the way in which the contract ended (unilateral ending, termination
for non-performance), the mere fact that the contractual relationship comes to an end
may lead to a transfer of goodwill. To the extent that such a transfer has actually taken
place (a) and that indemnification would be reasonable in the circumstances (b), there
is a ground for the payment of an indemnity. This Article provides the other party with
a remedy.
Goodwill has its own value which must me differentiated from the expectation interest
under the contract. Therefore, it should always be refunded irrespective of the way the
contract is ended. Indemnity for the clientele does not depend on any sort of fault. It
will cumulate with damages in the case of the premature ending of the contract (see
Article 1:303).
The entitlement to an indemnity for transfer of goodwill is based on considerations of

the law of unjustified enrichment: a party should not be unjustifiably enriched as the
result of the ending or termination of a long-term commercial contract.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL contain no such rule. The general doctrine of unjustified enrichment that
this rule is based on will be dealt with in the Principles on European Unjustified
Enrichment Law.
141
D. Generated Goodwill
A party which claims an indemnity for the transfer of goodwill has to prove that it has
significantly increased the other party’s volume of business. In other words, it must
prove that the goodwill it had was transferred to the other party as a result of the
termination or ending of the contract. It is crucial that the agent, franchisee or dis-
tributor has played an active role in increasing the volume of business of the other party.
This means that where the volume has increased as a consequence of (a new client
from) a party’s exclusive territory, this party is not automatically entitled to an indem-
nity.
The most typical example of transfer of goodwill is where the principal, franchisor or
supplier has access to lists of clients and other similar data either because the commer-
cial agent, franchisee or distributor has handed such lists over after the termination or
ending of the contract or because the principal, franchisor or supplier otherwise has
access to such data (e. g. because the commercial agent, franchisee or distributor has
regularly passed such information on to the principal, franchisor or supplier during the
course of the contract).
E. Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Distinguished
In the case of commercial agency contracts the ending of the contract will normally
lead to a transfer of goodwill. Therefore, frequently there will be a right to compensa-
tion. See Article 2:312 on the calculation of the amount. On the other hand, in the case
of franchise the goodwill is rarely the goodwill of the franchisee since, typically, clients
are attracted by the image of the brand and the network. In the case of distribution
contracts, sometimes the goodwill (clientele) will be attracted by the supplier’s products
or its brand (especially in the case of exclusive distribution agreements). However, it
may also be the distributor who, like an agent, has created the market for the products.
In the latter case, the distributor may be entitled to goodwill compensation after the
ending of the contract.
F. Continuous Substantial Benefits
The party claiming an indemnity must prove that the generated goodwill stays with the
other party and that it is substantial. Normally, the benefits which the other party
continues to derive decrease gradually over time. This must be taken into account.
Moreover, the general turnover of this specific principal, franchisor or supplier may
decrease in time, e. g. because the general market for its products deteriorates. Such a
development should also be taken into account. However, the principal, franchisor or
supplier is presumed to continue to derive substantial benefits from the generated
goodwill even if it sells its business or client list to a third party if it can be shown
that the purchaser will use the clients base.
142
G. Reasonable Indemnity
A party who claims an indemnity for the transfer of goodwill also has to prove that the
indemnity it claims is reasonable in the circumstances. The concept of ‘reasonableness’
which is contained in this Article refers to Article 1:302 PECL, where it is defined.
Obviously, the ‘reasonableness’ test leaves some room for interpretation. It may be
helpful for this party to prove that the other party is unjustifiably enriched as a result
of this transfer of goodwill (see the Principles of European Unjustified Enrichment
Law).
For commercial agency, Chapter 2 provides a specific rule on how to calculate goodwill
compensation. (Article 2:312).
H. Relation to Damages for Irregular Ending
The grant of an indemnity for goodwill shall not prevent a party from seeking damages.
In other words, damages for non-observance of a reasonable notice period (see Articles
1:302 and 1:303) and an indemnity for goodwill can, in principle, cumulate.
However, when establishing whether an indemnity for goodwill is reasonable in the

circumstances the entitlement of the aggrieved party to damages for irregular ending
should be taken into account. In other words, the same loss shall not be compensated
twice, once as loss of benefit (damages amounting to the expectation interest) and once
as ‘loss’ of goodwill (indemnity for the transfer of goodwill).
I. Relation to Compensation for Post-Contractual Non-Competition
If a party, as a result of a valid post-contractual non-competition clause, is not allowed

to compete with its former principal, franchisor or supplier, and if, as a result, clients
which would have moved to it had it started a competing activity, now move to its
former principal or franchisor or supplier, the combined effect of ending (or termina-
tion) and the post-contractual non-competition clause may be a transfer of goodwill in
the sense of this Article, which gives rise to a right to be indemnified. However, if the
impossibility to compete is already compensated by an entitlement for the commercial
agent, franchisee or distributor to compensation (compensation for post-contractual
non-competition) (as will usually be the case), then the commercial agent, franchisee or
distributor is thus not impoverished, and is therefore, on the same grounds as under H,
not entitled to an indemnity for goodwill.
J. Relation to Commission Agent After Contract
Under certain circumstances the agent is entitled to commission for contracts conclu-
ded by the principal after the contract with the agent has ended. If a claim for a
goodwill indemnity under the present Article is considered, the entitlement to such
143
commission must be taken into account in two ways. First, if such entitlement exists no
indemnity is due for the transfer of the same clientele. Secondly, the fact that no
entitlement is due under Article 2:302 is a (strong) indication that no transfer of
goodwill has taken place, and that therefore the agent is not entitled to goodwill
compensation. In sum, it is very unlikely that a claim by an agent for goodwill com-
pensation under this Article will succeed.
K. Remedies
The obligation to pay an indemnity is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in case of non-performance the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort to
L. Character of the Rule
This is a default rule; the parties are free to agree otherwise. Similarly, the specific rule
on the calculation of the indemnity in agency contracts (2:312) is a default rule.
Notes
1. Indemnity for Goodwill
In the case of commercial agency, after the ending or termination of the commercial
agency contract the commercial agent is entitled to either indemnity for goodwill (art.
17 (2) Directive) or compensation for damages (art. 17 (3) Directive). In transposing
the Directive into their legal systems the Member States had to choose one of these
options. Article 1:304 includes the option of art. 17 (2) Directive, which is also
transposed in the majority of the legal systems. (Art. 17 (2) of the Directive states:
‘(a) The commercial agent shall be entitled to an indemnity if and to the extent that:
– he has brought the principal new customers or has significantly increased the volume
of business with existing customers and the principal continues to derive substantial
benefits from the business with customers, and – the payment of this indemnity is
equitable having regard to all the circumstances and, in particular, the commission lost
by the commercial agent on the business transacted with such customers. Member
States may provide for such circumstances also to include the application or otherwise
of a restraint of trade clause, within the meaning of Article 20; (b) The amount of the
indemnity may not exceed a figure equivalent to an indemnity for one year calculated
from the commercial agent’s average annual remuneration over the preceding five
years and if the contract goes back less than five years the indemnity shall be calcu-
lated on the average for the period in question; (c) The grant of such an indemnity
shall not prevent the commercial agent from seeking damages.’)
However, Article 1:304 differs from the Directive to the extent that according to art.
18 of the Directive no indemnity is awarded in the case of fundamental non-perfor-
mance by the commercial agent (art. 18 (a) Directive) or when the commercial agent
has ended the commercial agent contract without any non-performance on the side of
144
the principal (art. 18 (b) Directive). Under Article 1:304 it is also possible to claim
indemnity in the case of non-performance by either party. (Art. 18 of the Directive:
‘The indemnity or compensation referred to in Article 17 shall not be payable: (a)
where the principal has terminated the agency contract because of default attributable
to the commercial agent which would justify immediate termination of the agency
contract under national law; (b) where the commercial agent has terminated the
agency contract, unless such termination is justified by circumstances attributable to
the principal or on grounds of age, infirmity or illness of the commercial agent in
consequence of which he cannot reasonably be required to continue his activities; (c)
where, with the agreement of the principal, the commercial agent assigns his rights
and duties under the agency contract to another person.’
Art. 17 (2) of the Directive is based on GERMAN law (Commission Report, 1). Under
GERMAN case law and literature specific criteria have been developed to establish
whether the conditions laid down in Art. 17 (2) are fulfilled. Similar criteria are
included in Article 2:312 (see also the notes on Article 2:312). Moreover, art. 17
(2) b includes a maximum amount of indemnity.
Art. 17 (2) of the Directive is transposed into the following national provisions: § 24 of
the AUSTRIAN HVertG (Ausgleichsanspruch); art. 20 of the BELGIAN Handelsagen-
tuurwet; art. 28 of the FINNISH Act on Commercial Agents; § 89 b I nos. 1 and 3 of
the GERMAN HGB. (However, in addition, § 89 I b no. 2 HGB requires that the
commercial agent loses its commission due to the ending of the contract with the
customers which the commercial agent acquired.); art. 9 of the GREEK Law on Com-
mercial Agency 219/1991; art. 1751 of the ITALIAN cc; art. 7:442 of the DUTCH BW;
art. 764 III of the POLISH KC; arts. 33, 34 and 35 of the PORTUGUESE DL 178/86;
art. 28 (1), (2) SPANISH LCA; § 28 (1) of the SWEDISH HaL.
Under ENGLISH law parties have the possibility of stipulating that the commercial
agent is entitled to indemnity for goodwill after the end of the commercial agency
contract. However, if the parties fail to do so the commercial agent will be entitled to
compensation for damages (Reg. 17).
2. Compensation for Damages

Art. 17 (3) of the Directive includes the possibility of compensation for damages,
which is based on French law and it states: ‘The commercial agent shall be entitled
to compensation for the damage he suffers as a result of the termination of his relations
with the principal. Such damage shall be deemed to occur particularly when the
termination takes place in circumstances: – depriving the commercial agent of the
commission which proper performance of the agency contract would have procured
him whilst providing the principal with substantial benefits linked to the commercial
agent’s activities, – and/or which have not enabled the commercial agent to amortize
the costs and expenses that he had incurred for the performance of the agency contract
on the principal’s advice. This provision of the Directive is based on FRENCH law
(Commission Report, 5) and is included in art. L. 134-12 of the FRENCH C. com.
Under FRENCH law the level of compensation is established according to the global
sum of the last two years’ commission or the sum of 2 years’ commission calculated
over the average of the last three years. However, a principal may prove that the
commercial agent’s loss is less. Moreover, there is no maximum level of compensation.
145
(Commission Report, 5 ff). The amount of compensation based on art. L 134-12 Code
Com and actual damages do not cumulate (Cass. 25-6-2002).
Under ENGLISH law the commercial agent is entitled to compensation for damage if
the parties fail to stipulate in their contract that the commercial agent is entitled to
indemnity (Reg. 17 (2)). Generally, the French method of establishing compensation is
taken as a starting point. However, in some cases less compensation has been provided
than the global sum of the last two years’ commission or the average sum of 2 years’
commission calculated over the average of the last three years (Ingmar GB Limited v.
Eaton Leonard Inc. [2002] ECC 5, [2001] EurLR 756). However, in a later case, it was
explicitly held that the French method is not to be followed. The amount of com-
pensation must be assessed taking into account inter alia the period of the agency, the
terms and conditions, the (non-)exclusivity of the agreement, and non-competition
clauses. Moreover, it was stated that the amount of compensation should equal the
actual damages (Tigana Limited v. Decoro Limited [2003] ECC 23, see also Smith v.
Reliance Water Controls Limited [2004] EWHC 1016). Further, the right to damages
exists under common law (Chitty 31-149, see also Smith v. Reliance Water Controls
Limited [2004] EWHC 1016); however, in one decision it was held that the award of
compensation under Reg. 17 does include damages (Tigana Limited v. Decoro Limited
[2003] ECC 23). From this case it is not clear whether it is still possible to claim
damages under common law (Tigana Limited v. Decoro Limited [2003] ECC 23).
3. Indemnity for goodwill in the case of distribution contracts

Under BELGIAN law, art. 3 of the Alleenverkoopwet entitles the distributor to an
indemnity payment after the ending or termination of a distribution contract. How-
ever, there is no entitlement to indemnity of goodwill if the distribution contract is
terminated because of the non-performance of the distributor. In order to asses the
amount of indemnity the following factors must be taken into account. First, the value
of the customers which the distributor acquired and from which the supplier will
benefit after the ending or termination of the contract. In addition, the costs which
the distributor incurred and from which the supplier benefits after the ending or
termination of the contract. The costs involved in employing employees.
4. Application of the Commercial Agency Rule concerning Indemnity for Goodwill by way of
analogy to Franchise or Distribution Contracts
Under AUSTRIAN and FINNISH law, the national rules resulting from the transposi-
tion of art. 17 (2) Directive are applied by way of analogy to franchise and distribution
contracts. (See the decisions of the AUSTRIAN OGH: OGH 2000/10/23 8Ob74/00s,
OGH 1999/12/15 6Ob247/99p, OGH 1999/03/30 10Ob61/99i, OGH 1998/11/24
1Ob251/98p, OGH 1997/12/17 9Ob2065/96h; FINNISH law: Halila-Hemmo (1996)
281.)
Under GREEK and PORTUGUESE law the commercial agency rule is applied by way of
analogy to distribution contracts (see for GREEK law Georgakopoulos (1999) 434;
Georgakopoulos (1998) 113, Marinos, annotation in First Instance Court of Athens
1097/1999, Epitheorisi Emporikou Dikaiou (1999) 49; see for PORTUGUESE law: STS 4-
5-1993, (1993-II) Colectânea de Jurisprudência 78; STS 22-11-1995, (1995-III) Colectânea
de Jurisprudência 115, STS 22-11-1995, (1995-III) Colectânea de Jurisprudência 115).
146
Under GERMAN law it is unclear whether § 89 b HGB applies by way of analogy to

franchise and distribution contracts. A majority of the decisions and legal authors
favour application by way of analogy to franchise and distribution contracts (pro: BGH,
BB 1959, 7; BGH, NJW 1983, 1789; BGH, WM 1993, 1466; Koller/Roth/Morck, Vor
§ 84 HGB nos. 10, 11; Küstner/Thume, no. 1466 – 1477; Küstner/Thume, nos. 1816 –
1823; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 b HGB nos. 18–24; contra:
Oberlandesgericht Köln, Entscheidungen zum Wirtschaftsrecht 1986, 1217; Bechtold,
NJW 1983, 1393; Kroitzsch, BB 1977, 1631).
Also in other member states authors differ as to whether the rule on commercial
agency can be applied way of analogy to franchising. See for ITALY: Pardolesi, Frignani
(1999) 191; SPAIN: Bogaert/Lohmann, 2000. In GREECE some authors argue that the
rules concerning commercial agency can be applied by way of analogy to franchise
contracts (Voulgaris, Georgiadis). Also in PORTUGAL authors do not agree as to
whether an indemnity is payable in the case of franchise contracts (pro: Alexandre
(1991) 368, Olavo (1988) 170, Ribeiro (1992) 58, Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 94;
contra: (Cordeiro (1988) 83).
5. No Indemnification for Goodwill in the case of Franchise and Distribution Contracts

Under ITALIAN law no goodwill is payable in the case of distribution contracts and
the same applies according to DUTCH law (Smit (1996) 18; Barendrecht & Van Peursem
164; Van de Paverd (1999) chapters 4 and 5) and SPANISH law.
According to FRENCH, ENGLISH and SWEDISH law no indemnification for goodwill
is payable in the case of franchise or distribution contracts. (For FRANCE see: Leloup,
no. 2101).
6. Entitlement to Damages because of Non-Observance of Notice Period

As stated in note 1, Art. 17 (2) c of the Directive establishes that the entitlement to
indemnity does not prevent the commercial agent from seeking damages. From the
Commission Report it follows that it concerns both damages for non-performance and
damages in lieu of a notice period (Commission Report, 5). If the facts of a case justify
a claim based on damages based on non-performance, tort or unjustified enrichment,
Article 1:305 does not prevent the aggrieved party from resorting to such a claim.
Art. 17 (2 c) of the Directive has been transposed into the following legal systems:
(ITALY: art. 1751 cc; POLAND: art. 764 III § 3 KC).
AUSTRIAN law does not include such a rule in the HvertrG nor does DUTCH law.
However, in Dutch literature it has been accepted that indemnity may cumulate with
the damages both in lieu of a notice period and for non-performance (Asser-Kortmann,
no. 236).
Under BELGIAN law (art. 21 Handelsagentuurwet) if the amount of indemnity does not
include the total amount of damages incurred by the commercial agent, the commer-
cial agent may claim the difference between the amount of indemnity and the damages
in fact incurred, if the commercial agent is able to prove this.
147
If the contract is ended, terminated or avoided by either party, the principal, franchisor or
supplier must repurchase the commercial agent’s, franchisee’s or distributor’s remaining stock,
spare parts and materials at a reasonable price, unless the commercial agent, franchisee or
distributor can reasonably resell them.
Comments
A. General Idea
If the agent, franchisee or distributor is left with excess stock, spare parts and advertising
and other materials after the contract has ended (either as a result of unilateral ending
or termination or avoidance), the principal, franchisor or supplier must repurchase those
objects, and it must do so at a reasonable price. However, if the agent, franchisee or
distributor can itself reasonably resell them, the principal, franchisor or supplier is under
no obligation to repurchase them and to incur useless transaction and transportation
costs.
This rule is normally more relevant to distribution and franchise relationships than to
commercial agency, since in the latter no property normally passes. However, where the
agent has actually bought advertisement materials or spare parts or other objects from
the principal this rule will also protect the agent.
After the premature ending of the contract, the commercial agent, franchisee or dis-
tributor will frequently be left with excess stock, spare parts and materials which will
usually no longer be of any value to it. With the ending of the contract the agent,
franchisee or distributor may even have lost the right to use or resell them (especially in
the case of a valid post-contractual non-competition clause). On the other hand, the
excess stock, spare parts and materials will normally still be useful to the principal,
franchisor or supplier which can either use them itself or sell them to the new or other
agents, franchisees or distributors. Therefore, the principal, franchisor or supplier must
repurchase them.
As a result of the ending of the contract the agent, distributor, or franchisee finds itself
in a weak bargaining position. Therefore, this Article provides that the principal,
franchisor or supplier must pay a reasonable price.
However, an obligation to repurchase stock, spare parts and materials would be ineffi-
cient where the agent, franchisee or distributor can itself reasonably resell them. There-
fore, in those cases no such obligation exists.
148
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain such a rule. Under the PECL (Article 6:109) the period of
notice is specifically enforceable. Thus, in some cases the commercial agent, franchisee
or distributor will be able to use up its stock, spare parts and materials during this period.
However, this will not always be the case, especially when it is under a contractual
obligation to have all products and materials available until the last day.
D. Reasonable Price; No Speculation
The concept of ‘reasonableness’ which is contained in this Article refers to Article

1:302 PECL, where it is defined. In many cases a reasonable price will be the price for
which the principal, supplier or franchisor can resell the objects in question to the new
or other agents, franchisees or distributors. For very old stock this may mean that the
price is very low. Another circumstance which may be relevant to establish whether it is
a reasonable price, is whether minimum obligations to buy were imposed unilaterally by
the principal, franchisor or supplier on the commercial agent, franchisee or distributor.
In principle, it should be practically impossible for the commercial agent, franchisee or

distributor to speculate with regard to the price to be paid by the principal, supplier or
franchisor by buying unusually large amounts, since normally the commercial agent,
franchisee or distributor will only hear of the principal’s, supplier’s or franchisor’s in-
tention to end the contract when the notice is given. However, should it be established
that the agent, franchisee or distributor has nevertheless bought unusually large
amounts on a falling market, successful speculation should be avoided by taking this
fact into account when establishing what amounts to a reasonable price in the circum-
stances.
Illustration 1
The distribution contract between supplier A and distributor B has been ended. It
concerned a distribution contract for pret-a-porter designer clothes. The distribu-
tor still has some clothes in stock from the collections of the present and the
previous year. The price which the supplier must pay the distributor, differs from
collection to collection. A reasonable price for the collection of the present year
probably corresponds to the price which the distributor paid. However, the price
which the supplier must pay for the collection of the previous year is probably
considerably lower.
E. No Obligation to Repurchase
There is no obligation for the principal, supplier or franchisor to repurchase stock, spare
parts and materials when the agent, franchisee or distributor can itself reasonably resell
them. The burden of proof is on the principal, supplier or franchisor. ‘Reasonably’ means
without great effort, for a reasonable price and within a reasonable time.
149
F. Relation to the Period of Notice
To the extent that the principal, franchisor or supplier has given its commercial agent,
franchisee or distributor, the opportunity (and, where necessary, the right) to use up its
exceeding stock, spare parts and materials or to resell them to the public or to the new
or other agents, franchisees or distributors, the former is not under an obligation to
repurchase them.
G. Remedies
The obligation to repurchase excess stock, spare parts and materials is an obligation in
the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance (i. e. when
the principal, supplier or franchisor refuses to repurchase) the aggrieved party may, in
principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Obligation to Repurchase Stock, Spare Parts and Materials
Many legal systems include a similar rule. However, they differ with regard to their
scope of application and the price to be paid.
Under GERMAN law such an obligation follows from the nachvertragliche Treuepflicht
for long-term commercial contracts, which is based on good faith (§ 242 BGB, Marti-
nek/Semler § 21 nos. 56-60, BGH, BB 1970, 1458). However, there is no such obliga-
tion in case the agent, distributor or franchisee ends the contract, since this would be a
case of venire contra factum proprium (BHG, BB 1970, 1460; Martinek/Semler, § 21 no. 59
et seq.).
With respect to franchising under ITALIAN law a lower court decided in a way which
is similar to Article 1:306 (Pretore di Roma, 11 June 1984, Sangemini s. p. a. e Soc.
Acqua minerale Ferrarelle c. Schweppes Int. Ltd. e Soc. Acqua minerale S. Benedetto, Foro
it., 1984, I, 2909 (with note by Pardolesi) and Giur. it. ,1985, I, 2, 711 (with note by
Frignani).
With regard to distribution, GREEK courts seem to apply the rules concerning man-
date, which include a similar rule to Article 1:306, by way of analogy (art. 722 AK, CA
Piraeus 1251/1991 Epitheorisi Emporikou Dikaiou 1991, 625; CA Athens 11077/1991;
First Instance Court of Athens 1007/1993, Epitheorisi Emporikou Dikaiou 1995, 226).
Moreover, if the principal refuses to repurchase the stock, the distributor may continue
to sell the stock. The price the supplier must pay is the price the distributor paid to
obtain the stock, spare parts and other materials. These rules may be applied by way of
analogy to agency and franchising. Also under SPANISH law in the case of distribution
there is such an obligation, which follows from good faith (Memento (2002) 487;
150
Sánchez Calero (2000) 178, Dominguez Garcıá (1997) 1372). However, the price to be
paid is the price for which the goods were sold to the distributor minus the possible
depreciation of the goods. (Dominguez Garcıá (1997) 1372, Sánchez Calero (2000)).
There is no such obligation if the distributor may continue to sell the goods.
Further, it must be noted that in some countries franchise contracts usually include a
similar obligation (SWEDEN: Sohlberg, 75). However, in GERMANY such a term is not
common in practice (Martinek/Semler, § 21 no. 56).
Under the minority of the legal systems there is no such rule. (AUSTRIA, ENGLAND,
FINLAND, THE NETHERLANDS, SWEDEN (Söderlund, 143; Håstad, 295). Also the
Directive does not include such a rule.
Under FRENCH law the supplier only has to repurchase the stock in the case of an
abusive ending of the contract (Cass. Com. 13. 05. 1975, JCP 1975.IV, 211; Cass. Com.
26. 10. 1982, Bull. civ. IV, 275).
Section 4:
Other General Provisions
In order to secure its rights to remuneration, compensation, damages and indemnity the com-
mercial agent, franchisee or distributor has a right of retention over the movables of the
principal, franchisor or supplier which are in its possession as a result of the contract, until
the (former) principal, franchisor or supplier has fulfilled its obligations.
Comments
A. General Idea
As a result of this Article the commercial agent, franchisee or distributor is entitled to

refuse to give movables which are owned by the principal, franchisor or supplier back to
the principal, franchisor or supplier (or, as the case may be, to the new owner) as long as
the principal, franchisor or supplier has not fully paid the remuneration, compensation,
damages, and indemnity to which the commercial agent, franchisee or distributor is
entitled. This right is of special significance as a means to exercise pressure on the
former principal, franchisor or supplier after the contract has expired or has been
terminated or ended.
The right of retention is effective not only towards the (former) principal, franchisor or
supplier but also towards third parties (e. g. the new owner of the goods).
This rule is normally more relevant to commercial agency relationships, in which

normally no property passes, than to franchise and distribution relationships. Never-
theless, where appropriate, this rule may also protect the claims of franchisees and
distributors.
This rule intends to protect the interests of the commercial agent, franchisee or dis-
tributor when its money claims towards its (former) principal, franchisor or supplier
remain unpaid. This Article provides it with some security.
152
C. Relation to PECL
The right of retention will be dealt with in the European Principles on Securities in
Moveables. The right of retention will usually be also a right to withhold performance
in the sense of Article 9:201 PECL. That is the case whenever the commercial agent,
franchisee or distributor is under a contractual obligation to restitute the goods it
retains. However, contrary to the right to withhold performance, the right of retention
is also effective towards third parties.
D. Right of Retention
All the ordinary rules relating to the right of retention apply. This means, among other
things, that such a right is also effective vis--vis third parties. See further the forth-
coming European Principles on Securities in Moveables.
E. Remedies
The right of retention in itself constitutes a remedy.
Notes
1. Right of Retention
In most legal systems there is a right of retention in such cases. However, the rules
differ from country to country.
Under PORTUGUESE and SWEDISH law there is a similar specific statutory rule with
respect to commercial agency (Art. 35 of the PORTUGUESE DL 178/86, 754 CC, Pinto
Monteiro (1998) 119; SWEDISH HaL § 15). Under PORTUGUESE law this rule is
applied by way of analogy to franchise and distribution.
Also in GERMANY there is a specific statutory rule that applies to commercial agency
contracts and is applied by way of analogy to franchise and distribution contracts.
However, under GERMAN law such a right only exists after the ending of the contract.
Moreover, the retention right is restricted to documents provided by the principal. In
addition, this right of retention may only concern entitlements to commission and the
compensation of expenditures. This rule is applied to franchise and distribution con-
tracts by way of analogy (Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 88 a HGB
no. 8). Also § 19 of the AUSTRIAN HvertrG includes a right of retention. However,
this right is restricted to merely samples.
In other countries a right of retention is inferred from general private or commercial
law. Under ENGLISH law the general rules concerning the possessory lien accordingly
153
apply to commercial agency, franchise and distribution (Bowstead & Reynolds 7-073,
Goode 619-621). Under GERMAN law, apart from § HGB, also the general rules con-
cerning a right of retention apply (§§ 273, 274 BGB, Zurückbehaltungsrecht or § 369
HGB kaufmännisches Zurückbehaltungsrecht). Depending on the applicable statutory
rule, different requirements must be met. Different from § 369 HGB, §§ 273, 274 BGB
require a connection between the right of the commercial agent, franchisee or dis-
tributor and the right of the principal, franchisor or supplier. Furthermore, § 369 HGB
also gives the retaining party, under particular circumstances, the right to satisfy his
claim from the goods which he has kept. Under DUTCH law either party has a right of
retention provided there is a sufficient connection between the obligation of the
commercial agent, franchisee or distributor on the one hand and the obligations of
the principal, franchisor and supplier on the other (arts. 6:52, 3:290 BW).
Each party is entitled to receive from the other, on request, a signed written document setting
out the terms of the contract.
Comments
A. General Idea
The function of this Article is twofold: (i) providing the requesting party with informa-
tion and (ii) facilitating evidence. It does not imply, however, that a written document
is a requirement for the validity of the contract.
Especially in the case of a dispute, the parties will usually need a written document on
which to rely for evidence. In most cases the obligation will not be very burdensome:
some written record of what was agreed upon usually exists. However, it should be kept
in mind that this written document can be requested either at the conclusion or during
the performance of the contract and even within a reasonable time after it has ended.
Therefore, a party must keep a record even some time after the end of the contract.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain such a rule.
154
D. No Form Requirement
This Article does not contain any form requirement. The function of this Article is
merely to provide a party with information and to facilitate the giving of evidence. It
does not therefore imply that a written document is a requirement for the validity of the
contract.
E. Terms of the Contract
The signed written document that a party may request must set out the terms of the
contract. This means that if a document is requested after changes have been made to
the initial contract, the party requesting the document is entitled to the most recent
version of the terms of the contract and not only to the initial one.
F. Written Document
Similar to other instances in the (forthcoming) Principles relating to other subjects, the
term ‘written document’ must be interpreted in a wide sense. Compare Article 1:303 (1)
PECL, which stipulates that notice may be given by any means, whether in writing or
otherwise (telex, fax, electronic mail), provided that the form used is appropriate to the
circumstances (see especially Comment B).
G. Remedies
The obligation to provide, upon request, a signed written document is an obligation in

the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance, the prin-
cipal may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
This rule is mandatory; any deviation therefrom by the parties to the detriment of the
party who would benefit from it remains without effect.
Notes
1. Written Document
This rule corresponds to Art. 13 (1) of the Directive which was transposed into the
legal systems of the Member States with respect to commercial agency. (Art. 13 (1) of
the Directive: ‘(1) Each party shall be entitled to receive from the other on request a
signed written document setting out the terms of the agency contract including any
terms subsequently agreed.’ § 4 of the AUSTRIAN HvertG; art. 5 of the BELGIAN
Handelsagentuurwet; ENGLAND: reg. 13; art. 3 of the FINNISH Act on Commercial
155
Agents; art. L.134-2 of the FRENCH C. Com; § 85 of the GERMAN HGB; GREECE
art. 8 Para 1b; art. 1742 of the ITALIAN cc; art. 7:428 para 3 of DUTCH BW;
PORTUGAL: art. 1 (2) Decreto-lei 178/86; SPAIN: art. 22 LCA.)
Under GERMAN law this rule also applies by way of analogy to franchise and dis-
tribution contracts (see Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 85 HGB
no. 1).
2. Formal Requirements
However, according to art. 13 II of the Directive the legal systems of the Member
States may provide that a contract in writing is a validity requirement for the contract.
(Art. 13 (2) of the Directive: ‘Notwithstanding paragraph 1 a Member State may
provide that an agency contract shall not be valid unless evidenced in writing.’).
According to the case law of the ECJ this is the only formal requirement that national
legal systems may provide in the case of commercial agency. (Case C-215/97 B. Bellone
v. Yokohama SpA [1998] ECR I-2191; Case C-456/98 Centrosteel SrL v. Adipol GmbH
[2000] ECR I-6007, Case C-485/01 Francesca Caprini v. Conservatore Camera di
Commercio, Industria, Artigianato e Agricoltura (CCIAA) [2003] ECR I-23716).
According to BELGIAN, FINNISH, GERMAN, DUTCH, SWEDISH law there are no
formal requirements as to the conclusion of these contracts.
However, under FRENCH, ITALIAN and SPANISH law there are form requirements in
the case of franchising contracts (see the notes on Article 3:102).
In addition, it must be noted that in some legal systems del credere stipulations in
commercial agency contracts must be in writing. See the notes on Article 2:313.
Moreover, it must also be noted that art. 20 (2) of the Directive requires that a
restraint of trade clause included in a commercial agency contract is only valid if it
is concluded in writing.
156
Chapter 2:
Commercial Agency
Section 1:
General
This Chapter applies to contracts under which one party (the commercial agent) agrees to act on
a continuing basis as a self-employed intermediary to negotiate or to conclude contracts on
behalf of another party (the principal) and the principal agrees to remunerate the commercial
agent for the commercial agent’s activities.
Comments
A. General Idea
The commercial agent’s main task consists of prospecting the market, attracting cus-
tomers, promoting the sale or purchase of products and negotiating the terms of con-
tracts which will be concluded between the principal and the customer or seller. The
agent may also be entrusted with concluding contracts for the principal. The commer-
cial agent always acts independently of and on behalf of the principal. A commercial
agency agreement may be concluded for a definite or indefinite period of time.
The principal must remunerate the commercial agent (Articles 2:301-306). If the par-
ties have stipulated that the agent will not be remunerated, this Chapter applies by way
of analogy where appropriate.
A principal that wants to be active in a certain area may conclude a contract with a
commercial agent in order to find out whether specific products will be successful in a
certain territory or with a certain group of customers. The agent will do all the pre-
paratory work, which enables the principal to conclude contracts more easily, namely
without making high investments and running high risks.
The agent may, as a self-employed intermediary, organise its activities as it thinks fit.
Although the agent must comply with reasonable instructions given by the principal
(Article 2:202), the latter cannot affect the agent’s independence.
157
The relevance of this Article is that it determines whether a certain contractual re-
lationship may be qualified as a commercial agency contract and, thus, whether the
Articles in this Chapter are applicable. Of special interest are the mandatory rules in
Articles 2:301 (1) sub b) sub ii) and 2:302 (1) sub b) sub ii) (Entitlement to Commis-
sion); 2:305 (1) (Moment when Commission is to be Paid); 2:306 (1) (Entitlement to
Commission Extinguished); 2:308 (Information on Acceptance, Rejection and Non-
performance); 2:309 (Warning of Decreased Volume); 2:310 (1) and (2) (Information
on Commission by means of Statement and Extract from Books) and 2:312 (Amount of
Indemnity).
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain a definition of commercial agency contracts. All rules
included in the PECL apply to commercial agency contracts, unless a provision in this
Chapter or Chapter 1 of these Principles deviates therefrom.
It may not be appropriate to apply these rules to contracts under which the agent agrees
to act as a self-employed intermediary with regard to financial and insurance contracts.
In the case of a commission agent, the external effects are covered by Chapter 3 PECL.
The contracts of sale or services which are concluded between the principal and the
customer or seller are governed by the rules concerning contracts of sales and those
concerning services. Comparable scope rules are laid down in Articles 3:101 and 4:101
for franchise and distribution contracts respectively.
D. Self-employed Intermediary
The concept of a ‘self-employed intermediary’ is taken from the Directive. ‘Self-em-

ployed’ refers to the fact that the agent in any case acts independently from the
principal, that it to say that the commercial agent is not its employee. A commercial
agent may either be a legal entity or a natural person. These rules may in principle apply
to commission agents. The concept of ‘intermediary’ is introduced in order to clarify
that the activity of the agent must lead to the conclusion of contracts between two
other parties, i. e. the principal and the customer or seller.
Illustration 1
A produces and sells perfume. A enters into a contract with B, according to which
B will negotiate contracts of sale with respect to the perfume on A’s behalf and on
A’s account. In the contract it is stipulated that A determines B’s working hours.
In such a situation B is not a self-employed intermediary.
158
E. Contracts with Customers
The purpose of the agency agreement is that the agent negotiates (and concludes)
contracts on behalf of (and in the name of) the principal. Although it is most common
that commercial agents are appointed for the sale or purchase of goods, in exceptional
cases they may be concerned with the promotion of services. This Chapter applies in
both situations. In this Chapter the resulting contract, i. e. the one to be concluded by
the principal or in the principal’s name, will also be referred to as the ‘contract with the
customer’. Hereinafter, the concept of ‘customer’ refers to the party (the reseller or
service provider) that enters into a contract with the principal.
F. Competition Law
Competition law may exceptionally affect the validity of some agency agreements. The
European Commission has declared Article 81 (1) EC to be applicable to agency
relationships whereby the agent bears important financial and commercial risks in
relation to the activities for which the commercial agent has been appointed by the
principal, the ‘non-genuine agency agreements’ (Guidelines on Vertical Restraints (OJ
2000, C291/01)). The Guidelines state that the question of risk must be assessed on a
case-by-case basis with regard to the economic reality of the situation rather than the
legal form (nos. 12-17). Nevertheless, the Commission considers that Article 81(1) will
generally not be applicable to the agent’s obligations.
The provisions included in this Chapter only apply to commercial agency contracts to
the extent that they are valid in the light of competition law.
This is a scope rule: parties cannot in their agreement classify a contract as a contract
which is different from a commercial agency contract if the agreement contains the
essential elements included in the present provision. Conversely, if the parties classify a
contract as a commercial agency contract although it does not contain the essential
elements set out in this Article, the rules contained in this Chapter will, in principle,
apply as far as they are consistent with the agreement of the parties, and as far as they do
not contrast with the applicable mandatory rules relating to another type of contract
(e. g. a labour contract).
H. Remedies
No remedies stem from this provision since, as a scope rule, it does not itself establish
obligations for the parties. The obligations of the parties are formulated by means of
specific Articles in this Chapter and in Chapter 1 where also remedies are provided.
159
Notes
1. Transposition of the Directive into National Legal Systems
The Directive has been transposed into all the legal systems of the Member States.
However, the definition of a commercial agent and the scope of application differ from
country to country. See also the notes to Article 1:101.
2. Self-Employed Intermediary
In the Directive (art. 1(2)) and in all the legal systems of the Member States the
commercial agent is an independent businessman, that can either be a natural person
or a legal entity (AUSTRIA: § 1(1) HvertrG; BELGIUM: art. 1 Handelsagentuurwet;
ENGLAND: Reg. 2 (1); FINLAND; FRANCE: art. L.134-1 C. Com.; GERMANY: § 84 I
(1) HGB; GREECE: art. 1 para 2 Law on Commercial Agency; THE NETHERLANDS:
art. 7:428 I BW; POLAND: art. 758 § 1 KC; PORTUGAL: art.1 DL 178/86; SPAIN: art.
1 LCA; SWEDEN: § 1 HaL). Under ITALIAN law this is not spelled out by the
statutory provisions. However, according to legal authors it is a requirement which
has to be met.
3. Contracts with Clients may include both Service and Sales Contracts
Under AUSTRIAN, BELGIAN, FRENCH, GERMAN, GREEK, ITALIAN, DUTCH,
PORTUGUESE and SPANISH law, the scope of application includes not only the sale
of goods but also service contracts (AUSTRIA: § 1 (1) HvertG.; BELGIUM: art. 1
Verbraeken & de Schoutheete Nr. 74, GERMANY § 84 I HGB; FRANCE: art. L.134-1
C. Com.; THE NETHERLANDS, art. 7:428 BW). Under ITALIAN law there is no
explicit reference in the statutory rules; however, its applicability to service agents is
defended by legal authors. Under AUSTRIAN law there is an exception: contracts
relating to immovables do not fall within the definition (§ 1 (1) HvertG.).
However, in the Directive, ENGLISH, FINNISH and SWEDISH law, the scope of the
commercial agency rules is restricted to contracts for the sale of goods. (Art. 1(2) of the
Directive; ENGLAND: Reg. 2(1); FINLAND: art. 2 Act on Commercial Agents;
SWEDEN § 1 HaL).
4. Remuneration
The commercial agency rules in the Directive, the legal systems of BELGIUM, ENG-
LAND, FINLAND, GREECE, ITALY, THE NETHERLANDS, POLAND, PORTUGAL,
SPAIN and SWEDEN only apply to commercial agency contracts which provide for
remuneration by the principal (art. 2 (1) Directive; AUSTRIA: § 1(1) HvertrG; BEL-
GIUM: art. 1 Handelsagentuurwet, ENGLAND: Reg. 2 (2); FINLAND: art. 2 Act on
Commercial Agents and Salesmen; GREECE: art. 1 para 2 Law on Commercial Agen-
cy; ITALY: art. 1742 cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:428 I BW; POLAND: art. 758 § 1 KC;
PORTUGAL: art. 1 DL no. 178/86; SPAIN: art. 1 LCA; SWEDEN: § 1 HaL).
160
Section 2:
Obligations of the Commercial Agent
The commercial agent must make reasonable efforts to negotiate contracts on behalf of the
principal and to conclude the contracts which the commercial agent was instructed to conclude.
Comments
A. General Idea
The commercial agent must actively negotiate contracts for the principal. The agent
may be engaged in negotiations either in its own name or in the principal’s name. The
agent may also be charged with the conclusion of contracts on the principal’s behalf.
The agent who is authorised to do so, must undertake proper efforts in the performance
of this obligation.
Where parties have a commercial agency relationship, the agent is under an obligation
to act as an intermediary for the principal by negotiating contracts. The commercial
agent must only conclude contracts on the principal’s behalf if the parties have agreed
thereon. In both situations the agent is obliged to use its best endeavours.
This provision is protective of the principal. It is meant to avoid negative effects on the
principal’s business because of the agent’s non-compliance with its obligations. The
agent should not affect the relationship between the principal and the customers by
acting without due care. The principal may lose its good reputation and the customers
may refrain from contracting with it and its turnover may decrease. This rule is of
special importance where the agent is charged with concluding contracts, because then
the transactions entered into by the agent create legal consequences for the principal.
On the other hand, the agent, too, has an important reason to comply with this
obligation: its income is directly or indirectly related to the amount of contracts which
are concluded between the principal and the customer (Articles 2:301 and 2:302).
Moreover, this obligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the agent: it does not
mean that it must always succeed in negotiating and concluding (a certain amount of)
contracts. The agent does not fail to comply with this obligation by the mere fact that a
contract is not concluded.
161
C. Relation to PECL
The general obligation of good faith in Article 1:201 PECL also applies to agency
contracts, as well as the fundamental obligation to co-operate in Article 1:202. The
present obligations may be regarded as a special instance of those two more general
obligations.
D. Reasonable Efforts
The commercial agent must do its best to negotiate and, if the parties so agree, to
conclude contracts. Reasonableness in the context of the Article is to be judged by the
criteria included in Article 1:302 PECL. For instance, the circumstances of the case or
the applicable usages must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as
commercial agent and principal in the same situation would consider reasonable. The
agent cannot sit back, wait and incidentally pass on orders to the principal, but must
actively search for potential customers and convince them to conclude contracts with
the principal. The agent cannot guarantee, however, that its negotiations will always be
successful. The agent must use its best endeavours.
This ‘objective standard of care’ may require adaptations for two reasons. In the first
place, a higher or lower standard of care may be required according to the principal’s
expectation of the agent’s reputation or experience, which is justified given the cir-
cumstances of the case. In the second place, it is possible that the contract contains
specific requirements regarding the standard of care to be exercised by the agent.
Whether or not the agent uses its best efforts may affect its right to commission (cf.
Article 2:301, comment E).
E. Negotiate Contracts
The task of the commercial agent, who negotiates contracts on behalf of the principal,
is to prepare transactions by searching for customers and convincing them to enter into
a contractual relationship with the principal. The fact that the agent negotiates con-
tracts on behalf of the principal neither creates obligations for the agent towards the
(potential) customers nor vice versa. The agent may however be liable vis--vis the
principal if it does not negotiate properly. The agent may, for instance, have neglected
the reasonable instructions given by the principal (Article 2:202). Moreover, mere
negotiations are not binding upon the principal and the (potential) customer. Only if
and to the extent that the principal and the customer have actually concluded a
contract, will they be bound.
F. Conclude Contracts
The principal may charge the commercial agent with the conclusion of contracts on its
behalf either on a permanent or incidental basis. In such cases the agent is only
162
empowered to conclude such transactions in the principal’s name, not in its own name.
Moreover, the commercial agent is under an obligation to undertake reasonable efforts.
This means, for instance, that the agent who has successfully negotiated a contract,
should approach the customer within a reasonable time in order to conclude the contract.
Where the agent has the right and the obligation to conclude contracts, the commercial
agent must also deal with complaints by customers regarding the products involved. The
parties may agree that the agent must also accept payments on the principal’s behalf
and, if so, under which conditions. Article 3:206 PECL allows the agent, under certain
conditions, to appoint a sub-agent to carry out the agent’s tasks (cf. Article 8:107
PECL).
H. Remedies
The obligation to make reasonable efforts is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101
PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance, the principal may resort to any of the
remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Reasonable Efforts to Negotiate
This element is taken from art. 3(2)a of the Directive, where it is stated that the
commercial agent must make proper efforts. A similar rule has been transposed into
the following national legal systems: AUSTRIA: § 1 para 1 HvertrG; ENGLAND: Reg.
3 (2) a; FINLAND: art. 5 Act on Commercial Agents; FRANCE: Art. L.134-4 C. com.;
GERMANY: § 86 I HGB; GREECE: art. 4 Law on commercial agency 219/1999; SPAIN:
art. 6 LCA; SWEDEN: HaL § 5 (2) a.
Under AUSTRIAN law the commercial agent must exercise ‘der Sorgfalt eines orden-
tlichen Kaufmanns’ (§ 5 HvertrG). Also under ITALIAN and SPANISH law, the com-
mercial agent must exercise the due diligence of a good businessman. (SPAIN: art. 9
para 2 LCA, art. 57 Cco, Moxica, 98). Under DUTCH law the principal must observe
the diligence of a good principal (zorg van een goed opdrachtnemer, art. 7:401 BW).
2. To Conclude Contracts
This element has been taken from art. 3(2)a of the Directive which has been trans-
posed in the following statutory provisions. AUSTRIA: § 1 para 2 HvertrG; BELGIUM:
art. 1, art. 6 sub 1 Handelsagentuurwet; FINLAND: art. 5 Act on Commercial Agents;
FRANCE: art. L. 134-1 C. com; GERMANY: § 86 I HGB; GREECE: art. 4 Law on
Commercial Agency; ITALY: art. 1752 cc; THE NETHERLANDS: art. 7:428 I BW;
POLAND: art. 758 (1) KC; SPAIN: art. 6 LCA.
163
The commercial agent must follow the principal’s reasonable instructions, provided they do not
substantially affect the commercial agent’s independence.
Comments
A. General Idea
The agent must comply with the instructions given by the principal. The agent only has
to follow instructions that are reasonable in view of the content and the nature of the
agreement. In order to be reasonable, instructions must be given in a timely fashion.
However, the principal may never substantially affect the agent’s independence. The
agent may arrange its activities and use its time as it thinks fit.
The commercial agent may, as an intermediary, bind the principal if it concludes

contracts in the principal’s name. Therefore, it is important for the principal that the
commercial agent closely follows the principal’s instructions. Without this obligation,
the agent could negotiate (and conclude) contracts on the principal’s behalf without
following instructions. This would be contrary to the principal’s purpose of appointing
an intermediary to represent its interests.
While this Article protects the interests of the principal, it also takes into account the
fact that the agent has an interest to remain autonomous. Moreover, the agent does not
have to follow any instructions by the principal, only those instructions that are reason-
able.
C. Relation to PECL
A right to give instructions may follow, in certain circumstances, from the obligation to
cooperate and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:201 and 1:202
PECL respectively. However, this Article makes it clear that the principal has a general
right to instruct the commercial agent. Comparable obligations are laid down in Ar-
ticles 3:303 (2) and 4:304.
164
D. Reasonable Instructions
The commercial agent is only required to follow those instructions which are reason-
able. Reasonableness in the context of this Article is to be judged by the criteria
included in Article 1:302 PECL. The circumstances of the case and the applicable
usages must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as a commercial agent
and principal in the same situation would consider reasonable.
The principal usually has its own business policies relating to the conditions of sale such
as the prices of the products, the production and delivery terms, the terms of payment
and the procedure for dealing with customers’ claims. Generally, instructions relating to
these policies will be considered reasonable.
Illustration 1
A principal instructs its commercial agent to see its customers once every week.
Such an instruction is unreasonable, since it substantially affects the commercial
agent’s independence.
F. Remedies
The obligation to follow instructions is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in the case of non-performance the principal may resort to any of the
Notes
1. Reasonable Instructions
According to art. 3 (1) c of the Directive a commercial agent must comply with
reasonable instructions given by his principal.
In BELGIAN, ENGLISH, FINNISH, GREEK, ITALIAN, POLISH, PORTUGUESE,
SPANISH and SWEDISH law an obligation for the commercial agent to follow in-
structions is included in the specific rules on commercial agency. (BELGIUM: art. 6
Handelsagentuurwet; ENGLAND: Reg. 3 (2) c; FINLAND art. 5 of the Act on Com-
mercial Agents; GREECE: art. 4 of the Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY:
art. 1746 cc; POLAND: art. 760 I § 1 KC; PORTUGAL: art 7 a. DL 178/86, Pinto
Monteiro (1998) 62, Pinto Monteiro (2002) 93, STJ 25/01/2000, AD, 467, 1519; SPAIN:
art. 9 para 2 LCA, Moxica, 24; SWEDEN: § 5 II a HaL, Söderlund 39).
Under AUSTRIAN, GERMAN, FRENCH and DUTCH law such an obligation is not
included explicitly in the statutory rules concerning commercial agency. Under AUS-
TRIAN and GERMAN law this obligation follows from the commercial agent’s ob-
165
ligation to behave as a good businessman (AUSTRIA: § 5 HvertG.; GERMANY: § 84

I(2) HGB, § 86 I HGB, § 665 BGB, Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 HGB no. 9; Martinek/
Semler, § 8 no. 58, BGH, NJW 1966, 883). Under FRENCH and DUTCH law such an
obligation follows from the general rules concerning mandate (FRANCE: Leloup
no. 1322-1330 ; Com. 24. 11. 1998, Bull. civ. IV, n8 277; Défr. 1999, 371
obs. D. Mazeaud; RTDciv. 1999, 98 obs. J. Mestre ; ibid., 646 obs. P.-Y. Gautier; Cont.
Conc. consomm. 1999, no. 56 note Malaurie-Vignal; JCP 1999.I.143, no. 6 obs. Jamin;
NETHERLANDS: art. 7:402 (1) BW).
According to all these legal systems the instructions from the principal may not affect
the commercial agent’s independence. (BELGIUM: art. 6 Handelsagentuurwet; ENG-
LAND: Reg. 3 (2) c; FINLAND art. 5 of the Act on Commercial Agents; GERMANY:
§ 84 I (2) HGB (BGH, NJW 1966, 883; Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 HGB no. 9); GREECE:
art. 4 of the Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1746 cc; PORTUGAL:
art 7 a DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro (1998) 62, Pinto Monteiro (2002) 93, STJ 25/01/2000,
AD, 467, 1519; SPAIN: art. 9 para 2 LCA, Moxica, 24; SWEDEN: § 5 II a HaL,
Söderlund 39).
The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the commercial agent in particular to provide
the principal with information concerning:
(a) the contracts negotiated or concluded,
(b) the relevant market conditions,
(c) the solvency of and other characteristics relating to customers.
Comments
A. General Idea
The agent must disclose all the information in its possession which the principal needs
for the proper performance of its part of the contract (Article 1:203). The agent must
inform the principal of its specific individual situation, concerning issues such as the
transactions which were prepared or concluded and with whom. In addition, the agent
also must inform the principal concerning more general issues, such as the market in
which the agent operates. The list of required information in this Article is not ex-
haustive.
While the principal is the party that will be bound by a sales or service contract
negotiated by the agent, the principal is not in a position to verify, for instance, the
customer’s solvency or reputation. It is thus important for the good functioning of the
166
principal’s business that the principal is provided with such information. The principal
needs to know how many and which contracts have been negotiated regarding its
products in order to decide whether it will conclude a certain contract. Information
about the market in which the agent operates enables the principal to judge whether
the agency contract will remain worthwhile.
This obligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the agent: the agent only has to
communicate the information which is available to him, in so far as this is needed by
the principal for the performance of its obligations in relation to the agent and the
customers.
C. Relation to PECL
This Article may be regarded as a further specification of the obligation to co-operate

(Article 1:202) and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:201 and
1:202 PECL. Comparable obligations are included in Articles 3:302 and 4:302 for the
franchisee and the distributor respectively.
D. Information to be Provided
The agent must inform the principal of its past, present and future activities, the
customers found and the market situation in which it operates.
The information is characterised by the need for the principal to perform the contract
with both the agent and the customer(s) properly. In other words, this obligation
concerns information regarding issues which could affect the principal’s rights and
duties under the contract.
Under this obligation the agent must make reasonable efforts to ensure that the in-
formation is correct. In this respect information concerning the market must be dis-
tinguished from information concerning the agent’s own activities. With respect to the
former it will be more difficult for the agent to obtain accurate information, since it
concerns more variable (unforeseeable) factors. However, concerning the latter, the
standard of care may be a higher one in the case of information concerning its own
activities.
(a) Contracts Negotiated or Concluded
Apart from informing the principal of the contracts concluded or negotiated, this
obligation includes, amongst other things, the obligation to transmit third parties’
complaints and/or claims which the agent has received or has become aware of and
special demands by customers concerning the products involved.
167
(b) Market Conditions
These conditions include, among other things, (modifications in) demands by custo-
mers, price developments and the state of competition. The obligation is limited to
information relating to the agent’s territory.
(c) The Solvency of and Other Characteristics relating to Customers
This obligation is limited to the customers’ relevant characteristics, the main one being
solvency. However, the principal does not need to know all the characteristics relating
to customers if the agent may conclude the contract on the principal’s behalf. In that
case the characteristics of the customers represent a value for the agent, which it is not
obliged to share with the principal.
E. No Formalities

provided. The aim of the Article is merely to oblige parties to communicate.
G. Remedies
The obligation to inform is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore,
in the case of non-performance the principal may resort to any of the remedies set out in
Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Information to Be Provided
According to the Directive the ‘ ... commercial agent ... must communicate to his
principal all the necessary information available to him’ (art. 3 (2) b of the Direc-
tive).
This obligation is laid down in a specific statutory rule in the following countries.
BELGIUM: art. 6 sub 2 Handelsagentuurwet; ENGLAND: Reg. 3 (2) b; FRANCE: art. 1
Dcret n 58-1345 du 23-12-1958; GERMANY: § 86 II HGB; GREECE: art. 4 of the Law
on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1746 cc; POLAND: art. 760 I § 1 KC;
SPAIN: art. 9 para 2 sub b LCA. Under DUTCH law it follows from the rules con-
cerning mandate (art. 7:401, 7:403 BW, Asser-Kortmann, no. 201 ff).
168
2. Contracts Negotiated or Concluded

Under AUSTRIAN, FINNISH and SWEDISH law it is laid down in statutory law that
the commercial agent must inform the principal about the contracts negotiated or
concluded (AUSTRIA: § 5 HvertG; FINLAND: art. 5 Act on the Commercial Agent;
SWEDEN: § 5 para 2 HaL). According to authors in the NETHERLANDS this obliga-
tion follows from the rules concerning mandate (arts. 7:401, 7:403 BW (Asser-Kort-
mann, no. 201 ff). Also according to GERMAN case law and legal literature the agent
must inform the principal with respect to contracts negotiated or concluded (BGH,
NJW 1966, 882; BGH, BB 1969, 1196; OLG Kln, BB 1971, 543; Koller/Roth/Morck,
§ 86 HGB no. 7; Martinek/Semler, § 8 no. 61; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsge-
setzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 50).
3. Market Conditions
This issue of market conditions is listed explicitly in SPANISH legislation (art. 9 2 b
LCA). BELGIAN and FINNISH literature, GERMAN case law and literature, ITALIAN
case law and SWEDISH literature mention market conditions as one of the subjects
concerning which the agent has to inform the principal (BELGIUM: Dambre, 1401;
FINLAND: Telaranta (1993), Aalto (2001); GERMANY: BGH, NJW 1966, 882; BGH,
BB 1969, 1196; OLG Kln, BB 1971, 543; Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 HGB no. 7; Marti-
nek/Semler, § 8 no. 61; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 50;
ITALY: Cass. 19-8-1996, n. 7644, Danno e resp., 1997, 256; SWEDEN: Söderlund, 38).
However, in GERMANY these market conditions are restricted to actual market con-
ditions.
4. Characteristics of Clients
The solvency of the client is one of the client’s main characteristics. The agent’s
obligation to inform its principal with regard to the client’s solvency is mentioned
explicitly in the SPANISH statute concerning commercial agency. Also BELGIAN,
FINNISH literature, GERMAN case law and literature, DUTCH case law and literature
and SWEDISH authors include the client’s solvency as one of the subjects about which
the commercial agent must inform its principal (BELGIUM: Dambre, 1401; FINLAND:
Telaranta 1993; Aalto 2001; GERMANY: BGH, NJW 1966, 882, BGH, BB 1969, 1196;
OLG Kln, BB 1971, 543, Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 HGB no. 7; Martinek/Semler, § 8
no. 61; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 50; NETHER-
LANDS: Rb. Amsterdam 27-3-1962, NJ 1962, 443, Asser-Kortmann no. 202 ff; HR 2-12-
1960, NJ 1962, 21; SPAIN: art. 9, para 2, b LCA; SWEDEN: Söderlund, 38).
(1) The commercial agent must maintain proper accounts relating to the contracts negotiated or
concluded on behalf of the principal.
(2) If the commercial agent represents more than one principal, the commercial agent must, in
particular, maintain independent accounts for each principal the commercial agent repre-
sents.
169
(3) If the principal has important reasons to doubt that the commercial agent maintains proper
accounts, the commercial agent must allow an independent accountant to have reasonable
access to the commercial agent’s books upon the principal’s request. The principal must pay
for the services of the independent accountant.
Comments
A. General Idea
Articles 1:203 and 2:203 oblige the agent to provide the principal with all the informa-
tion the principal needs for the proper performance of its obligations under the con-
tract. In order to fulfil this obligation properly the commercial agent has to keep proper
accounts, in particular relating to the contracts it has negotiated or concluded (Para-
graph 1). The agent has to keep documentation concerning the customers involved in
the contracts. Where appropriate, the agent must maintain accounts of payments re-
ceivable on the principal’s behalf and of the products of the principal. Where the agent
represents more than one principal, this obligation to keep accounts also obliges the
agent to keep separate accounts for each principal it represents (Paragraph 2). This
provision entitles the principal to verify whether the agent actually complies with the
obligation to keep proper accounts in Paragraph. 1, when the principal has reasons to
doubt that the commercial agent keeps proper accounts. This may be the case, for
instance, when the information provided by the agent is not correct, or the information
is not provided in due time or in the case of a sudden decrease in the number of
contracts negotiated (Paragraph 3).
For the performance of its obligations under the contract, the principal needs specific
information from the agent. Accordingly, it may be reasonably expected from the agent
that it should keep proper accounts. Proper accounts also include keeping separate
accounts for different principals.
This provision entitles the principal to verify whether the agent actually keeps proper
accounts. However, the principal may only inspect the agent’s books if the principal has
important reasons to believe that the agent does not keep proper accounts. The agent is
not obliged to disclose information in the books which it keeps in its relationship with
other principals, if the agent complies with its obligation to keep separate accounts
(Paragraph 2).
Although this provision seems mainly favourable for the principal, it is not unreason-
ably burdensome for the agent, who as a professional will usually keep proper accounts.
Where the agent complies with this obligation to keep accounts, it will be easier for it
to comply with the obligation to inform (Articles 1:203 and 2:203). The agent also
needs proper accounts for its own purposes, for instance because it has to know which
commission it is entitled to in relation to which contracts and from which principal.
170
After the contract, the commercial agent may require proper accounts in order to prove
that the principal cannot terminate the contract for non-performance.
C. Relation to PECL
This obligation may be regarded as a further specification of the obligation to cooperate

and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:201 and 1:202 PECL
respectively.
D. Proper Accounts
The agent is always obliged to keep books relating to the contracts it successfully
negotiates (and concludes) with customers on the principal’s behalf and/or in the
principal’s name. If the agent has the principal’s products at its disposal, the accounts
will include an overview of how the agent disposes of them. If the parties have agreed
that the agent must accept customers’ payments in the principal’s name, an overview of
all sums received and to be received are also to be included in the agent’s books. If the
commercial agent represents more than one principal, it must maintain independent
accounts for each principal represented.
F. Remedies
The obligation to keep accounts is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in the case of non-performance the principal may resort to any of the
remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL. The principal may in particular withhold the
payment of commission, terminate without paying additional costs (Article 1:305) and
claim payment of the additional costs incurred, for instance, by appointing an accoun-
tant.
Notes
1. Obligation to Keep Separate Accounts
Under SPANISH law, the agent must keep separate books of the accounts with regard
to the different principals it represents (art. 9 (2) e LCA). Also according to GERMAN
law the commercial agent must keep accounts. This follows from the general rules
relating to mandate (§ 666 BGB). The accounts must contain a proper written over-
view of the income and the expenditures under § 259 I BGB (Münchener Kommentar
zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 53). Furthermore, § 259 I BGB also requires that
171
the vouchers have to be submitted. If the parties have not agreed upon another
arrangement, the commercial agent has to fulfil the obligation regarding monthly
accounts by way of analogy to § 87 c I (1) HGB (Münchener Kommentar zum Handels-
gesetzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 53). An obligation to maintain independent accounts for
each principal represented is not required, but is common practice. Also under POR-
TUGUESE law there is a statutory obligation: art. 7 DL 176/86, Pinto Monteiro (1998)
63.
Under FINNISH law there are no explicit rules in this respect. However, these rules are
implied in the obligation to inform. Also according to DUTCH law authors seem to
derive this obligation from the obligation to inform (art. 7:403 BW, Asser-Kortmann,
no. 201). Under ITALIAN law there is no explicit obligation. However, the commer-
cial agent must specify and prove the facts from which its entitlement to remuneration
follow, and therefore, in particular the conclusion of the contracts which the com-
mercial agent promoted (Cass. n. 5467/00).
According to AUSTRIAN, GREEK law there is no explicit obligation with regard to
the obligation of the commercial agent to keep proper and separate accounts.
Section 3:
Obligations of the Principal
during the period of the agency contract, if
(a) the contract with the customer has been concluded as a result of the commercial agent’s
efforts; or
(b) the contract has been concluded with a third party whom the commercial agent has
previously acquired as a customer for contracts of the same kind; or
(c) the commercial agent is entrusted with a certain geographical area or group of custo-
mers, and the contract has been concluded with a customer belonging to that area or
group.
(a) the principal has or should have performed the principal’s obligations under the contract
with the customer; or
(b) the customer has performed the customer’s obligations under the contract or justifiably
withholds performance (Article 9:201 PECL).
(3) The parties may not derogate from Paragraph 2 (b) to the detriment of the commercial agent.
Comments
A. General Idea
One of the characteristics of a commercial agency contract is that the main part of the
agent’s remuneration typically consists of commission. During the contract period the
commercial agent is entitled to commission on contracts concluded during this period if
these contracts were entered into as a result of the agent’s activity or if these contracts
were concluded with customers which the agent has previously acquired as a customer
for contracts of the same kind (Paragraph 1 (a) and (b)).
However, the agent can also be entitled to commission on contracts which have not
been negotiated or concluded by the agent: when the customer belongs to the agent’s
(exclusive) area or group of customers (Paragraph 1 (c)).
The agent is entitled to commission as soon as the contract has or should have been
(partially) performed (Paragraph 2). The parties may agree that the entitlement to
commission arises before performance by either the principal or the customer, for
instance when the contract is concluded. However, they may not agree that the enti-
tlement to commission arises at a moment which is later than the customer’s perfor-
mance (Paragraph 2).
173
In the case of commission-based remuneration the interests of the agent and those of
the principal run parallel: both parties aim at a maximum number of (successfully
performed) contracts. If the agent does not find many customers that are willing to
conclude contracts, not only the gains of the principal are directly affected, but also the
agent’s income is reduced. This is no different when the agent has made important
investments. Thus, commission-based remuneration gives the agent an incentive to use
its best efforts to negotiate or conclude as many contracts as possible (cf. Article 2:201).
This Article gives the agent, in principle, a right to commission on contracts which are
the result of its activities. The agent’s interest in earning commission is well protected
in case the agent is entrusted with a specific area or group of customers. Then it is, in
principle, entitled to commission whether or not its activities have contributed to the
contract and whether or not it has an exclusive right to such an area or group of
customers: the mere fact that the customer belongs to that area or group is sufficient for
its entitlement.
Paragraph 2 provides incentives for the agent to negotiate contacts with reliable cus-
tomers, since the mere conclusion of the contract does not entitle the agent to com-
mission (Paragraph 2). Only when the contract is performed by one of the parties is the
agent entitled to commission. However, this duty does not burden the agent unreason-
ably. Paragraph 2 also provides that commission is earned in certain specific situations,
even though the contract has not (yet) been performed. This is the case when the
principal should have performed or the customer justifiably withholds its performance.
Paragraph 3 determines that, whatever the parties have agreed upon in their contract,
the agent’s entitlement to commission arises with the customer’s performance or the
customer’s justified exercise of its right to withhold its performance.
C. Relation to PECL
The question whether a contract was concluded between the principal and the custo-
mer is to be answered according to Section 2 Chapter 2 PECL, in particular Articles
2:203 (rejection), 2:204 (acceptance) and 2:205 (time of conclusion) PECL.
It should be noted that when commission is earned according to the second Paragraph
of this Article (’the entitlement arises’), the commission is not ‘due’ in the sense of
Article 9:508 PECL until the commission is ‘payable’ under Article 2:305 (the end of
the quarter or whatever period before the end of the quarter that the parties have agreed
upon).
D. Result of the Agent’s Efforts
In order to be entitled to commission, the agent must actively negotiate with customers
on the principal’s behalf, by locating potential (groups of) customers and convincing
174
them to conclude a contract with the agent or the principal. The negotiating agent
must communicate offers to the principal. The mere fact that the agent has mentioned a
customer is insufficient to amount to a right to commission. The agent must have
contributed to the conclusion of the contract between the customer and the principal in
an identifiable, considerable and useful manner (see Article 2:201). However, it is not
required that the agent has made efforts to acquire the customer with the purpose of
concluding a particular contract; the agent is also entitled to commission when it has
acquired the customer at an earlier stage for contracts of the same type.
Illustration 1
A has a mobile telephone network. B, as a commercial agent for A, procures
customers who will obtain a mobile telephone subscription to that network.
During the term of the agency contract between A and B, A directly approaches
the customers that B had procured, to subscribe to that mobile phone network. B
is also entitled to commission on the contracts with the customers that A ap-
proached directly, but which B had procured previously.
E. Customers from a Specific Geographical Area or Group
This Article entitles the agent to commission regardless of whether its efforts have led
to the conclusion of a contract between the principal and the customer. The fact that
the agent is working in a certain territory or with a certain group of customers and that
the principal concludes a contract with a customer belonging to this territory or group
during the term of the agency contract, creates for the agent a direct entitlement to
commission. In this case the agent does not have to prove that the conclusion of the
contract was the result of its actions.
F. Performance of the Contract with the Customer
The agent’s entitlement to commission only exists when its activities have proved to be
effective, i. e. when the contract has (or should have) been properly performed. The
principal then owes the agent the commission on that particular transaction. This
obligation to pay commission does not mean that the agent may immediately claim
the agent’s commission as the commission is to be paid periodically (see Article 2:305).
The agent may only demand payment from the expiry of the agreed period (at the latest
three months). If the agent claims payment before that period, the principal may
justifiably withhold performance until that moment.
G. Amount of Commission
This Article leaves it to the parties to agree upon the rate of the commission and the
method of calculating it. The parties usually explicitly stipulate in a detailed manner
the rate of the agent’s remuneration. The parties may agree that the rate of commission
will be higher for contracts concluded as a result of the agent’s efforts (Paragraph 1 (a)
175
and (b)) than for contracts concluded with customers belonging to the agent’s area or
group of customers (Paragraph 1 (c)).
In the absence of any agreement on this matter between the parties the contract is not
invalid; a reasonable commission is substituted in accordance with Articles 1:302 and
6:104 PECL. Factors which play a role in determining whether the amount of commis-
sion is reasonable include: the type and place of transactions, the type of goods or
services, their price, the efforts made by the agent et cetera. Also, for instance, the
length of the period during which the agent has to wait until it may claim the payment
of the commission which it has earned (Article 2:305) can be taken into account.
Paragraph 1 (a) and Paragraph 2 (a) are default rules; the parties are free to agree
otherwise. However, the parties may not derogate from Paragraph 2 (b) to the detriment
of the commercial agent.
I. Remedies
The agent’s right to commission corresponds to an obligation for the principal to pay
commission. However, the principal only has to pay from the moment provided for in
Article 2:304. Therefore, the agent may not resort to any of the remedies set out in
Chapter 9 PECL before that moment.
Notes
1. In General
Article 2:301 combines arts. 7 and 10 of the Directive. Art. 7 of the Directive deter-
mines under which circumstances there is an ‘entitlement’ to commission, whereas art.
10 establishes when the commission is ‘due’. (Art. 7 of the Directive: (1) A commercial
agent shall be entitled to commission on commercial transactions concluded during
the period covered by the agency contract: (a) where the transaction has been con-
cluded as a result of his action; or (b) where the transaction is concluded with a third
party whom he has previously acquired as a customer for transactions of the same kind.
(2) A commercial agent shall also be entitled to commission on transactions conclu-
ded during the period covered by the agency contract: – either where he is entrusted
with a specific geographical area or group of customers, or where he has an exclusive
right to a specific geographical area or group of customers, and where the transaction
has been entered into with a customer belonging to that area or group. Member States
shall include in their legislation one of the possibilities referred to in the above two
indents.)
176
2. Entitlement to Commission during the Contract

Art. 7 of the Directive has been transposed into the following national legal systems:
AUSTRIA § 8 (2) HvertrG.; ENGLAND: Reg. 7 (3); FINLAND: art. 10 of the Act on
Commercial Agents; FRANCE: art. L 134-6 C. com.; GERMANY: § 87 I, II HGB;
GREECE: art. 6 (1) Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1748 cc; Baldi
and Venezia, note to Cass. sez. lav., 2-5-2000, n. 5467, cit., 802; THE NETHERLANDS:
art. 7:431 BW; POLAND: art. 761 § 1 KC; PORTUGAL: art 16/3 DL 178/86, Pinto
Monteiro (1998) 77; SPAIN: art. 12 LCA; SWEDEN: § 9 (1) HaL.
The Directive gave the Member States a choice as to whether or not to limit the right
to commission to the case where the commercial agent’s right to a specific geogra-
phical area or group of customers is an exclusive right. The present Article does not
include such a limitation. Under the following legal systems the same option has been
adopted: AUSTRIA § 8 (2) HvertrG.; FINLAND: art. 10 of the Act on Commercial
Agents; FRANCE: art. L 134-6 C. com.; GERMANY: § 87 I, II HGB; GREECE: art. 6
(1) Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1748 cc; Baldi and Venezia, note
to Cass. sez. lav., 2-5-2000, n. 5467, cit., 802; THE NETHERLANDS: art. 7:431 BW;
SPAIN: art. 12 LCA; SWEDEN: § 9 (1) HaL.
ENGLISH, POLISH and SPANISH law have adopted the other option with respect to
exclusivity (ENGLAND: Reg. 7 (3); POLAND: art. 761 § 2 KC; SPAIN: art. 12 LCA,
STS 22-3-1988, RJ 1988\2224 and 14-5-2001, RJ 2001\6207).
3. The Moment when Commission is ‘Due’

In art. 10 the Directive contains a further rule with regard to the moment when the
agent becomes entitled to commission. However, in that article the directive uses the
concept of commission ‘due’. This is confusing, because in most legal systems (and in
the PECL) the moment when an obligation is due indicates the moment from which
the creditor can claim performance. Therefore, Para 2, which contains the require-
ments of art. 10 (1) and (2) of the Directive, does not refer to the concept of commis-
sion ‘due’.
The same requirements are included in the legal systems of the following countries:
AUSTRIA: § 9 HvertG.; ENGLAND: Reg. 10 (2) and (3); FINLAND: art. 12 Act on
Commercial Agents; FRANCE: art. L.134-9 C. com.; GERMANY § 87a I, III HGB;
GREECE: art. 6 (1) Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1748 cc; NETH-
ERLANDS: art. 7:343 BW; PORTUGAL: art. 18 DL 178/86; SPAIN: art. 14 LCA;
SWEDEN: § 11 (2) HaL.
after the agency contract has been ended or terminated, if
(a) the contract with the customer is mainly the result of the commercial agent’s efforts
during the period of the agency contract, and the contract with the customer was
concluded within a reasonable period after the agency contract ended; or
177
(b) the conditions of Article 2:301 Paragraph 1 would have been satisfied except that the
contract with the customer was not concluded during the period of the agency contract,
and the customer’s offer reached the principal or the commercial agent before the agency
contract had been ended or terminated.
(a) the principal has or should have performed its obligations under the contract with the
customer; or
(b) the customer has performed its obligations under the contract or justifiably withholds
performance (Article 9:201 PECL).
(3) The parties may not derogate from Paragraph 2 sub b to the detriment of the commercial
agent.
Comments
A. General Idea
Even if the agency contract has ended, the agent still is entitled to commission in two
situations. First, when the contract is concluded within a reasonable time after the term
of the agency contract (Paragraph 1 (a)). Secondly, when the offer from the customer
has reached either the principal or the agent before the end of the agency contract
(Paragraph 1 (b)). This rule merely deals with a transition period: although the parties
will not continue the contractual relationship in the future, they still have a relation-
ship in the sense that one party has undertaken activities during the term of the
contract for which it would have been remunerated had the contract not ended.
This Article applies for instance in the case where the agent has negotiated sales
contracts for the supply of goods to be ordered and delivered periodically after the
termination of the agency contract or where the principal has concluded contracts
which will only be performed after the termination of the contract. For the general idea
underlying the conditions mentioned under Paragraph 1 (b) and Paragraph 2, see the
last Paragraph of comment A under the previous Article.
In the two situations mentioned above, it is considered reasonable to entitle the agent
to commission on the contract(s) in question. It is assumed that the principal will
benefit from the transaction which will be concluded shortly after the ending of the
agency relationship. The rule protects the commercial agent’s interest in receiving
payment for its efforts made before the ending of the agency contract.
However, the agent cannot expect to receive commission on transactions concluded a

long time after the ending of the agency contract. This right to commission is limited to
a limited number of specific situations. This rule therefore also takes into account the
principal’s interests in not paying commission after the term of the agency contract.
178
For the interests involved in Paragraph 1 sub b and Paragraph 2, see the last Paragraph
of comment B under the previous Article.
C. Relation to PECL
The concept of reasonableness in this Article (under a) refers to Article 1:302 PECL.
The rules on offer and acceptance (Chapter 2 section 2 PECL) apply accordingly to the
situation referred to in this article, in particular Article 2:201 (offer) PECL. Article
1:303 (notice) PECL determines when an offer is effective.
See for the relation between this rule and Article 9:508 PECL comment D, last Para-
graph, under the previous Article.
D. Reasonable Period
The parties are free to agree upon a period other than a reasonable one as defined in
Paragraph 1 (a). Reasonableness in the context of this Article is to be judged by the
criteria included in Article 1:302 PECL. For instance, the nature and purpose of the
contract, the circumstances of the case, and the usages and practices of the trade or
profession involved must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as
commercial agent and principal in the same situation would consider reasonable. Fac-
tors which play a role in order to determine a reasonable period include, for instance,
the volume of the transactions and the time it normally takes the principal to conclude
a contract negotiated by the agent. A reasonable term is normally no longer than 6
months.
E. Mainly the Result of the Agent’s Efforts
The condition relating to the agent’s entitlement after the term of the contract is
stricter than the one in Article 2:301 (commission during the contract). The agent has
to prove not only that it played an active role in locating customers, negotiating with
them and concluding the contract, but also that the conclusion was mainly due to its
efforts. However, if the agent proves that the conclusion is primarily due to its actions,
the agent may be entitled to commission in two situations. First, when the contract is
concluded within a reasonable period after the ending of the agency contract. Secondly,
when the customer’s offer reached the agent or the principal before the ending of the
agency contract.
179
F. Performance of the Contract with the Customer
Another condition for the existence of the agent’s entitlement to commission is that
the agent’s activities have proven to be effective, i. e. when the contract has (or should
have) been properly performed. The principal then owes the agent the commission on
that particular transaction. This obligation to pay commission does not mean that the
agent may immediately claim commission; the commission is to be paid periodically
(see Article 2:305). The agent may only demand payment from the expiry of the agreed
period (at the latest three months). If the agent claims payment before that period, the
principal may justifiably withhold performance until that moment.
G. After the Contract
This Article applies to situations where a contract for a definite period has expired,
where a contract has been ended unilaterally, and where a contract has been terminated
for non-performance.
H. Relation to an Indemnity for Goodwill and to Damages for

Non-observance of the Period of Notice
The entitlement to commission after the contract may not cumulate with an entitle-
ment to an indemnity for goodwill (Article 1:306) when the agency contract is either
ended or terminated. Both rules are based on the same idea of restitution.
However, the entitlement to commission may cumulate with an entitlement to damages

(Article 1:303) for the non-observance of the period of notice which is required in the
case of the unilateral ending of a contract for an indefinite period (Article 1:302).
Illustration 1
After 15 years, A, the principal, ends the agency contract with B, the commercial
agent, by giving two months’ notice. B claims the payment of commission accord-
ing to Article 2:302, indemnity for goodwill and damages for non-observance of
the notice period. A court will grant either (i) the payment of commission
according to Article 3:302 and damages for non-observance of the notice period
or (ii) indemnity for goodwill and damages for non-observance of the notice
period.
Paragraph 1 sub a) and sub b) sub i. are default rules: the parties are free to agree
otherwise. However, the parties may not derogate from Paragraph 2 sub b) to the
detriment of the commercial agent.
180
J. Remedies
The agent’s right to commission corresponds to an obligation for the principal to pay
commission. However, the principal only has to pay from the moment provided for in
Article 2:304. Therefore, the agent may not resort to any of the remedies set out in
Chapter 9 PECL before that moment.
Notes
1. In General
Article 2:302 is a combination of arts. 8 and 10 of the Directive. Art. 8 of the Directive
determines under which circumstances there is an entitlement to commission, whereas
art. 10 establishes when the commission is ‘due’. (Art. 8 of the Directive: ‘A commer-
cial agent shall be entitled to commission on commercial transactions concluded after
the agency contract has terminated: (a) if the transaction is mainly attributable to the
commercial agent’s efforts during the period covered by the agency contract and if the
transaction was entered into within a reasonable period after that contract terminated;
or (b) if, in accordance with the conditions mentioned in Article 7, the order of the
third party reached the principal or the commercial agent before the agency contract
terminated.’)
2. Entitlement to Commission
Art. 8 of the Directive has been transposed into the following statutory provisions:
AUSTRIA: § 11 (1) HvertrG.; ENGLAND: Reg. 8; FINLAND: art. 11 Act on Com-
mercial Agents; FRANCE art. 134-7 C. Com.; GERMANY § 87 III HGB; GREECE: art.
6 para 2 Law on Commercial Agency; ITALY: art. 1748 cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:431
(2) BW; POLAND: art. 761 I KC.
Under SPANISH law there is a rule similar to art. 8 of the Directive (art. 13 LCA).
However, under the SPANISH rule, the contract with the client must have been
concluded within three months after the contract ended, rather than within a reason-
able period.
3. The Moment when Commission is ‘Due’

In art. 10 the Directive contains a further rule with regard to the moment when the
agent becomes entitled to commission. However, in that article the directive uses the
concept of commission ‘due’. This is confusing because in most legal systems (and in
the creditor can claim performance. Therefore, Para 2, which contains the require-
ments of art. 10 (1) and (2) of the Directive, does not refer to the concept of commis-
sion ‘due’. The same requirements are included in the following legal systems: AUS-
TRIA: § 9 HvertG.; ENGLAND: Reg. 10 (2) and (3); FINLAND: arts. 12, 14 the Act on
Commercial Agents; FRANCE: art. L.134-9 C. com.; GERMANY: § 87a I, III HGB;
ITALY: art. 1748 para 3 cc; PORTUGAL: art. 18 DL 178/86; SPAIN: art. 14 LCA;
SWEDEN: § 11 (2) HaL.
181
The commercial agent is not entitled to the commission referred to in Article 2:301, if the
previous commercial agent is entitled to that commission pursuant to Article 2:302, unless it is
reasonable that the commission is shared between the two commercial agents.
Comments
A. General Idea
This provision concerns cases in which Articles 2:301 and 2:302 may conflict, i. e.
where an agent has been replaced by another agent and both claim ‘their’ commission
on transactions which have been concluded. According to the present rule, usually the
first agent is entitled to the commission. However, certain circumstances may lead to
the conclusion that the first and second agent must share the commission on a transac-
tion, in particular when both of them have contributed to it.
Conflicts may arise between the first and the second agent relating to the question of
who should receive the commission on a particular transaction. This rule protects the
first agent’s interest. If the first agent shows that the transaction was mainly due to its
efforts and either the contract was concluded shortly after the ending of the agency
contract or the customer’s offer reached the first agent or the principal before the
ending of the contract, then it is assumed that the transaction is due to the first agent’s
efforts more than to those of its successor.
However, the entitlements for the first agent can only arise during a short period after
the ending of the contract and if all the conditions of Article 2:302 have been met. This
rule is therefore not unreasonably burdensome for the second agent. Moreover, it leaves
open the possibility that both agents should share the commission.
Finally, this rule takes care of the principal’s interest in the sense that the principal will
never have to pay commission twice on a certain transaction.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, the concept of ‘reasonableness’ in this
Article refers to Article 1:302 PECL.
182
D. Reasonableness of Shared Entitlement
Whether it is reasonable that the two agents share their entitlement to commission on a
particular transaction depends to a large extent upon their respective contributions to
the conclusion of the contract. In particular if the second agent’s contribution to the
conclusion of the contract was substantial, then the first agent’s right will not neces-
sarily prevail. If both agents are entitled to commission on the same transaction, each
party’s share must be reasonable. Whether this is the case must be assessed according to
the criteria included in Article 1:302 PECL (cf. Article 6:104 PECL).
F. Remedies
The rule entitles either the previous commercial agent or both commercial agents to
commission and obliges the principal to pay commission. However, unless the parties
have agreed otherwise, neither the first nor the second commercial agent may resort to
any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL before the moment provided for in
Article 2:304.
Notes
1. Prevailing Right to Commission
This rule has been taken from art. 9 of the Directive which has been transposed into
the national legal systems as follows: AUSTRIA: § 11 (2) HvertrG; BELGIUM: art. 12
Handelsagentuurwet; FINLAND: Article 11. 2 of the Act on Commercial Agents;
FRANCE: L. 134-8 C. Com.; GERMANY § 87 I (2), § 87 II (2), § 87 III (2) HGB;
ENGLAND: Reg. ITALY: art. 1748 para cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:431 (3) BW, Asser-
Kortmann, nos. 208, 213; POLAND: art. 761 II KC; PORTUGAL: art. 17 DL 176/86;
SPAIN Art. 13 (2) LCA.
2. Character of the Rule

Under ITALIAN, DUTCH law this rule is mandatory (NETHERLANDS
art.7:445(1)BW, Asser-Kortmann, nos. 208, 213). Under the other systems it is a default
rule, just as in the Directive.
183
(1) The principal must pay the commercial agent’s commission before the last day of the month
following the quarter in which the commercial agent became entitled to it.
Comments
A. General Idea
The parties may agree upon periodical payments of commission by the principal. The
present rule provides a minimum standard: while the parties may agree that the prin-
cipal must pay at an earlier date, they may not agree that the principal must pay at a
later date. If the parties have not agreed on a period for payment, the commission is to
be paid every three months. The moment of payment is usually also the moment when
the statement of the commission to which the agent is entitled has to be supplied (see
Article 2:310).
According to this rule, the agent may have to wait in claiming commission for up to
three months after it has earned it. The fact that the principal has free use of the money
for an extra period can be taken into account when the rate of commission is fixed (see
Article 2:301 comment H).
This Article, on the one hand, protects the agent in the sense that the parties may not
agree that the principal can pay at a later moment than once every three months, while
they remain free to agree on, for instance, monthly payments.
On the other hand, it allows the commission to be paid periodically which is mainly in
the interest of the principal. It means that the commission earned on separate contracts
is calculated over a certain period (three months) and paid at the end of that period.
C. Relation to the PECL
Article 7:102 PECL (Time of Performance) provides that, in the absence of a time or
period fixed by or determinable from the contract, a party has to effect its performance
within a reasonable time after the conclusion of the contract. That rule does not fit very
well with contracts in which one party has to make regular payments. Nevertheless, the
present rule may be regarded as a specification of the idea that an obligation must be
performed ‘a reasonable time’ after it arises.
184
However, the present rule deviates from Article 7:102 PECL in the sense that it limits
the parties’ freedom to determine the time of performance in their contract: the parties
may not agree that the principal must pay on a later moment than provided for in this
Article.
D. Character of the Rule
This rule is mandatory: the parties may not agree that the principal must pay later than
once every three months.
E. Remedies
The principal’s obligation to pay commission is an obligation in the sense of Article

8:101 PECL. Therefore, the commercial agent may resort to any of the remedies set out
in Chapter 9 PECL. The agent is in particular entitled to claim interest from the
moment when the principal has failed to pay the commission which became due,
i. e. at the end of the period fixed for payment (at the latest three months) from the
moment when the agent became entitled to it. Article 9:101 PECL entitles the agent to
enforce the monetary obligation of the principal.
Notes
1. Moment when Commission is to be paid
As stated in the notes to Articles 2:301 and 2:302 the Directive employs the concept
of commission ‘due’ in art. 10. This is confusing because in most legal systems (and in
the creditor can claim performance. Therefore these Principles do not use the concept
of commission ‘due’.
Art. 10 (3), (4) of the Directive includes: ‘(3) The commission shall be paid not later
than on the last day of the month following the quarter in which it became due. (4)
Agreements to derogate from paragraphs 2 and 3 to the detriment of the commercial
agent shall not be permitted.’ A similar rule to that of art. 10 (3), (4) of the Directive
has been transposed into the following legal systems. AUSTRIA: § 9 HvertrG; ENG-
LAND: Reg. 10(3), (4); FRANCE: art. L. 134-9 C. Com; GREECE art. 6 para 3 Law on
Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1748 CC; POLAND: art. 761 III § 3 KC;
PORTUGAL: art. 18 DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro 1998, 80; RP 28/03/2001, JTRP7,
www.dgsi.pt.; SPAIN: art. 14 LCA; SWEDEN: § 11 (1) HaL.
However, under GERMAN law the commission must be paid before the last day of the
month in which it became due (§§ 87 a IV, 87 c I HGB). But the minimum require-
ment – the last day of the month following the quarter in which it became due – is the
mandatory rule (FINLAND: art. 14.2 Act on Commercial agents; NETHERLANDS:
arts. 7:433, 7:434 BW). Under FINNISH and DUTCH law the default rule is that the
commission is due on a monthly basis (FINLAND art. 14.1 Act on Commercial agents;
NETHERLANDS: arts. 7:433. 434 BW).
185
(1) The commercial agent’s entitlement to commission in accordance with Articles 2:301 and
2:302 can be extinguished only if and to the extent that it is established that the contract
with the customer will not be performed and that fact is due to a reason for which the
principal is not accountable.
(2) Upon the extinguishing of the commercial agent’s entitlement to commission, the commer-
cial agent must refund any commission which the commercial agent has already received.
(3) The parties may not derogate from Paragraph 1 to the detriment of the commercial agent.
Comments
A. General Idea
In principle, each contract concluded by the principal as a result of either the agent’s
efforts or with a customer from the agent’s area entitles the agent to commission once
either the principal or the customer has performed the obligations under the contract
(see Articles 2:301 and 2:302). The parties may agree that such an entitlement extin-
guishes, if the contract with the customer is not (completely) performed. This extinc-
tion can retroactively remove the agent’s right to commission. However, the agent
cannot lose its right to commission when the principal is accountable for the non-
performance (Paragraphs 1 and 3).
The principal may recover any commission previously paid to the agent (Paragraph 2)
in accordance with the rules on undue payments and unjustified enrichment.
The principal has an interest in not paying commission on transactions which have not
been successfully brought to a successful end. Moreover, the present provision is ad-
vantageous to the principal because it entitles the principal to recover the commission
which it has already paid for such transactions.
The commercial agent is also protected in the sense that it cannot lose its right to
commission where the principal is itself responsible for the non-performance.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain a rule dealing with the extinction of rights in this particular
situation.
186
Recovery of the commission which the principal has already paid to the commercial
agent must be effectuated in accordance with the (forthcoming) European Principles of
Unjustified Enrichment.
D. Non-performance of the Contract with the Customer
Extinguishing the agent’s right to commission can only occur if it is established that the
contract with the customer will not be performed and that the non-performance is not
due to the principal. This rule may therefore be applicable when it is clear that the
customer can or will not perform the customer’s obligations under the contract or when
the principal can be excused non-performance under Article 8:108 PECL. If the prin-
cipal is however accountable for the principal’s for the non-performance, the agent is
entitled to commission.
Paragraph 1 of this rule is mandatory in the sense that the parties may not deviate
therefrom to the detriment of the commercial agent. The second Paragraph is a default
rule: parties are free to agree otherwise.
F. Remedies
If the commercial agent’s right to commission is extinguished, the principal is no longer

under an obligation to pay. If the agent has already received (part of) the commission,
the commercial agent is under an obligation to return that payment. This is an obliga-
tion in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of the agent’s non-
performance the principal may resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Entitlement to Commission Extinguished
This rule has been taken from art. 11 of the Directive which has been transposed into
the national legal systems of the Member States.
Art. 11 of the Directive: ‘The right to commission can be extinguished only if and to
the extent that: – it is established that the contract between the third party and the
principal will not be executed, and – that fact is due to a reason for which the principal
is not to blame. 2. Any commission which the commercial agent has already received
shall be refunded if the right to it is extinguished. ...’ AUSTRIA: § 9 (3) HVertrG.;
ENGLAND: Reg. 10(2); FINLAND: art. 13 Act on Commercial Agents and Salesmen;
FRANCE: art. L. 134-10 C.Com.; GERMANY: § 87 a III (2) HGB; GREECE: art. 7 paras
4-4a-7 Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1748 (6) cc; NETHER-
LANDS art. 7:426(2), 7:432(2) BW; the duty to refund commission is covered by the
more general rules of onverschuldigde betaling (undue payment), arts. 6:203-6:211 BW,
187
Asser-Kortmann, no. 215, Nuytinck, at 7:432, Smit (1996) 48-50); POLAND: art. 761 IV
KC; PORTUGAL: art. 19 DL 178/86 Pinto Monteiro (1998) 80; SPAIN: art. 17 LCA;
SWEDEN: § 12 HaL.
However, under FINNISH law there is an additional requirement: it must also be clear
that the contract is not going to be performed in the future (Art. 13.2 Act on Com-
mercial Agents).

Art. 11 (3) of the Directive provides: ‘Agreements to derogate from paragraph 1 to the
detriment of the commercial agent shall not be permitted.’ See also: AUSTRIAN law,
GERMANY: § 87a V HGB; ITALY: art. 1748 para 6 cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:445(1)
BW; SWEDEN: § 12 HaL.
Any remuneration which (partially) depends upon the number or value of contracts is presumed
to be commission within the meaning of this Chapter.
Comments
A. General Idea
If the parties have agreed that the agent is entitled to a remuneration which is com-
pletely or partially dependent upon the amount or value of the resulting transactions
without explicitly referring to it as ‘commission’, then the rules on commission will
nevertheless apply.
The presumption that any remuneration which depends upon the number or value of
contracts amounts to commission is in the commercial agent’s interest, because in such
cases the protective rules in this Chapter will apply. The parties cannot avoid the
applicability of Paragraph 1 of Articles 2:301-2:302 and Articles 2:304, 2:305 Paragraph
1 and 2:310.
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, as far as the amount of the commission
is concerned Articles 6:104 and 1:302 PECL are applicable: the parties are free to
determine the remuneration or the method for determining it. However, if the parties
have not regulated anything in this respect, they are considered to have agreed upon a
188
reasonable price. The reasonableness of the price is to be judged by persons acting in

good faith and in the same situation as the parties.
D. Basis of Remuneration
Although the remuneration is normally calculated on the basis of contracts with cus-
tomers which have been concluded and performed (Articles 2:301 and 2:302), the
parties may agree upon a remuneration which does not depend on the amount or value
of the contracts. Moreover, even though the agent will normally mainly or solely be
paid by commission, the parties may agree that it will in addition be entitled to a fixed
amount of money over a certain period or under certain conditions. Such remuneration
may give the commercial agent the security of some income at the beginning of the
relationship. At a later stage, the parties may agree on a fixed minimum sum in case the
principal does not have any work for the agent, or not as much as usual, as a result of the
principal’s production capacity or company policies. Such a fixed amount then entitles
the agent to a minimum income. It follows from the present Article that the rules on
commission in this Chapter do not apply to such a fixed income.
F. Remedies
This provision does not itself entitle the commercial agent to any remedy. However,
remedies are attached to the obligations in Articles 2:301-2:305.
Notes
1. Remuneration
In most European countries, this rule, which is laid down in Art. 6(2) of the Directive,
has been transposed into the national legal system. (Art. 6 (2) of the Directive: ‘Any
part of the remuneration which varies with the number or value of business transac-
tions shall be deemed to be commission within the meaning of this Directive.’ See:
BELGIUM: art. 17 Handelsagentuurwet; ENGLAND: Reg. 2; FINLAND: art. 15 Act on
Commercial Agents; FRANCE art. L. 134-5 C. Com.; GREECE: art. 5 Law on Com-
mercial Agency; POLAND: art. 758 I § 3 KC; PORTUGAL: art 15 DL 178/86, Pinto
Monteiro (1998) 73; SPAIN: art. 11 LCA.
§ 87 b I of the GERMAN HGB includes art. 6 of the Directive. However, it is less
detailed than Article 2:306 and art. 6 of the Directive. The German provision merely
determines that, in the absence of any agreement regarding remuneration, the com-
mercial agent is entitled to the remuneration which is customarily allowed. The place
where the commercial agent carries out his business determines the remuneration
189
(Koller/Roth/Morck, § 87 b HGB no. 2). If the commercial agent is unable to prove the
customarily allowed remuneration, he is allowed to determine the remuneration him-
self in accordance with ‘billigem Ermessen’ (§§ 315, 316 BGB, Koller/Roth/Morck, § 87 b
HGB no. 2; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 87 b HGB no. 13)
However, under AUSTRIAN, ITALIAN and DUTCH law, there is no such statutory
rule.
The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the principal in particular to provide the
commercial agent with information concerning:
(a) the characteristics of the goods or services,
(b) the prices and conditions of sale or purchase.
Comments
A. General Idea
During the agency contract, the principal must disclose all the information in its
possession which the agent needs for the proper performance of its part of the contract
(Article 1:203). The principal must inform the agent, in particular, concerning the
products to be sold or purchased and the conditions under which the principal will
conclude contracts with customers. This includes that the principal also provides the
agent with all relevant documentation where this is appropriate. The list of required
information is not exhaustive.
If the agent does not know which products the principal wants to sell or purchase and
for which price, it will not find many customers willing to conclude a contract. There-
fore, the principal must disclose information relating to the products involved and the
conditions under which the principal wants to contract. This duty to provide informa-
tion is not unreasonably burdensome for the principal: it only has to provide the agent
with the information and documentation available to it, in so far as this is required by
the agent for the performance of its obligations under the agency contract.
C. Relation to PECL

and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:202 and 1:201 PECL and
Articles 1:202 and 1:203 in these Principles.
190
The principal’s obligation to inform in the present Article is further developed in other
Articles in this Chapter: the principal must also inform the agent about the principal’s
acceptance, rejection and any non-performance of the negotiated contracts (Article
2:308), any decreased volume of business (Article 2:309) and the agent’s income from
commission (Article 2:310). Comparable obligations for the franchisor and the supplier
are included in Articles 3:205 and 4:202 respectively.

provided. Depending on the circumstances the principal may, for instance, communi-
cate the information to the agent by means of documents relating to the products, such
as leaflets and standard contract forms. Unless otherwise agreed, this documentation
must be provided free of charge.
The obligation is not an obligation of result as to the quality of the information: the
principal must make reasonable efforts to ensure that the information is correct.
(a) Characteristics of the Products
The principal must provide the agent with information concerning all the relevant
characteristics of the products involved. If the principal decides that it will purchase or
sell other products, it must inform the agent and provide it with all the relevant
information regarding the new products. The principal may be obliged to provide
relevant documentation, for instance samples and designs.
(b) Prices and Sales Conditions
Such information may include, for instance, information concerning the (minimum)
prices, the terms of payment, the terms of delivery, the principal’s commercial policy
(for what type of customers the goods are meant) and any modification thereto. This
obligation to inform may include the obligation on the part of the principal to provide
documentation, such as price lists and printed advertising material.
F. Remedies
in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may resort to any of the remedies set
out in Chapter 9 PECL.
191
Notes
1. Information during Performance
Under the Directive the obligation to inform has not been elaborated. Art. 4 (2) a, b
first sentence of the Directive merely states: ‘A principal must in particular: (a)
provide his commercial agent with the necessary documentation relating to the goods
concerned; (b) obtain for his commercial agent the information necessary for the
performance of the agency contract, ...’
The legal systems of the following countries contain a rule similar to the one included
in the Directive: AUSTRIA § 6 (1) 1 HvertrG; BELGIUM: art. 8 sub 1, 2 Handelsa-
gentuurwet; ENGLAND: Reg. 4 (2) a; FRANCE: Art. 2 Dcret n 58-1345, 23-12-1958;
GERMANY: § 86 II HGB; GREECE: art. 4 Law on Commercial Agency; ITALY: art.
1749 (1) cc; THE NETHERLANDS: art. 7:430 BW; POLAND: art. 760 § II KC.
2. Characteristics of the Goods or Services, Prices and Conditions of Sale or Purchase

In some legal systems the contractual obligation to inform has been specified. Under
GERMAN and SPANISH law the duty to provide the commercial agent with docu-
mentation is elaborated in the statutory provision itself. The principal must provide
the agent with a collection of samples, catalogues, price lists and other documents
necessary for its professional activity (GERMANY: § 86 a I HGB; SPAIN: art. 10 (2) a
LCA).
Under DUTCH and SWEDISH law such an elaboration of the obligation to provide
information is not included in the statutory provisions themselves. However, reference
is made to the items mentioned in Article 2:307 in the Parliamentary history of the
general statutory provision under note 1. (NETHERLANDS: MvT, Kamerstukken II
1988/1989, 20842, nos. 3, 4; Asser-Kortmann no. 207; Nuytinck, comment on arts.
7:430 (sub 2) and 7:611 BW; SWEDEN: Prop. 1990/91:63, 63 f).
Under GERMAN law the information regarding the characteristics of the products,
prices, conditions of sale, and the commission due are not mentioned explicitly in the
HGB. However, the courts and legal authors do agree that the principal also has to
inform the agent about these issues because this information is essential for the work of
the agent (BGH, BGHZ 49, 44; BGH, DB 1972, 525; Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 a HGB
no. 3; Martinek/Semler, § 8 no. 72; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 86 a
HGB no. 10-14).
(1) The principal must inform the commercial agent, within a reasonable period, of
(a) the principal’s acceptance or rejection of a contract which the commercial agent has
negotiated on the principal’s behalf; and
(b) any non-performance of a contract which the commercial agent has negotiated or
concluded on the principal’s behalf.
192
Comments
A. General Idea
The principal has to inform the agent, who negotiates contracts on its behalf (Article
2:101(1)), concerning any follow-up action relating to offers or orders procured by it.
The agent is entitled to know whether a transaction has been accepted, accepted
subject to condition(s) or rejected. This provision does not mean that the principal
has to provide reasons for refusing a transaction: the mere statement that a particular
transaction has been refused without specifying any detail will be sufficient. It does,
however, include an obligation for the principal to inform the agent on a more general
level whether, as a rule, the principal will refuse a certain type of customer or contract.
Where the contract with the customer has been concluded, the agent must be informed
regarding any non-performance of the contract. The agent is entitled to this informa-
tion within a reasonable period.
This obligation is important for the ‘negotiating agent’ because it enables the agent (i)
to calculate its commission, (ii) to verify whether refusals have been given system-
atically, arbitrarily or in bad faith, and (iii) to inform the customers regarding the
principal’s reaction. It is also relevant for the ‘concluding’ agent, because the fact that
a contract has not been (fully) performed, may either completely remove the agent’s
right to commission (Article 2:306) or (temporarily) prevent the commercial agent
from demanding commission (Paragraph 1 (b) of Articles 2:301 and 2:302). Where
appropriate, the performance also determines the agent’s del credere liability (Article
2:313). The agent itself cannot easily obtain information concerning the performance of
the contract with the customer, because after the negotiations (and the conclusion) the
agent is no longer involved in the transaction between the principal and the customer.
This rule also takes the interest of the principal into account. The principal serves its
own reputation if the agent can speedily answer a (potential) customer. Moreover, if the
principal informs the agent in due time that it does not want to conclude a certain
contract, no right to commission comes into existence. The present rule is not unrea-
sonably burdensome for the principal, who has this information available. The principal
knows whether it will accept or reject an order. The rule leaves the principal with
reasonable time to decide whether it wants to conclude the contract. The principal will
know more about the performance of the contract than the agent, because after the
negotiations on (and the conclusion of) the contract by the agent, it will directly
contact the customer and vice versa.
193
C. Relation to PECL
This obligation may be regarded as a specific instance of the general obligations to

cooperate and of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:201 and 1:202 PECL respec-
tively. The reasonableness of the period for communication is governed by Article 1:302
PECL.
This rule is mandatory; the parties may not deviate therefrom to the detriment of the
commercial agent (Paragraph 2).
E. Remedies
in the case of non-performance the commercial agent may resort to any of the remedies
set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Information on Acceptance, Rejection and Non-Performance
This rule has been taken from art. 4(3) of the Directive which has been transposed
into the legal systems of the Member States. Art. 4(3) of the Directive states: ‘A
principal must, in addition, inform the commercial agent within a reasonable period
of his acceptance, refusal, and of any non-execution of a commercial transaction which
the commercial agent has procured for the principal.’ AUSTRIA: § 6 (3) HvertG.;
BELGIUM: art. 8 Handelsagentuurwet; ENGLAND: Reg. 4 (3); FINLAND: art. 8 Act on
Commercial Agents; FRANCE: Art. 2 Dcret n 58-1345, 23-12-1958; GERMANY:
§ 86 a II (2) HGB. GREECE: Art. 4 Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY:
Article 1749 cc, NETHERLANDS: Art.430(4) BW; POLAND: art. 760 II § 2 KC;
PORTUGAL: art. 13 b DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro (1998), 71; SPAIN: art. 10, para 3
LCA).
2. Reasonable Period
Some legal systems contain a different rule as to the period within which the informa-
tion must be provided. Under AUSTRIAN and GERMAN law the principal must
inform the commercial agent immediately (unverzüglich) (AUSTRIA: § 6 (3) HvertG;
GERMANY: § 121 BGB). Under PORTUGUESE law the principal must fulfil this
obligation without delay (art. 13 b DL sem demora). According to SPANISH law the
acceptance or rejection must be communicated within 15 days and in the case of non-
performance within the shortest period considering the nature of the transaction (art.
10 (3) LCA). Pursuant to the ITALIAN collective economic agreements of 9 June 1988
for commerce and 16 November 1988 for industry, the period within which the
information is to be communicated is 60 days from the moment when the principal
194
receives the order procured by the agent. After the expiry of this period, if the
principal does not inform the commercial agent of his refusal, the transaction is
deemed to be accepted.

Under the directive this rule is mandatory (art. 5 of the Directive). See for transposi-
tion into the legal systems of the Member States: AUSTRIA: § 27 (2) HvertG.; ENG-
LAND: Reg. 5; FRANCE: Art. 3-1 Dcret n 58-1345, 23-12-1958; GERMANY: § 86 a III
HGB; ITALY: art. 1749 cc; THE NETHERLANDS: art. 7:445(1) BW; POLAND: art. 760
II § 4 KC; SPAIN.
(1) The principal must warn the commercial agent within a reasonable time when the principal
foresees or ought to foresee that the volume of contracts that the principal will be able to
conclude or perform will be significantly lower than the commercial agent had reason to
expect.
Comments
A. General Idea
This mandatory rule imposes an obligation on the principal to warn the agent regarding
changes in its business which are likely to affect the agent’s entitlement to commission.
This rule takes into account the fact that, within a commercial agency contract,
circumstances may change. If the principal foresees that its business capacity will
diminish to a greater extent than the agent could reasonably expect, this rule obliges
it to warn the agent.
If the principal does not inform the agent regarding, for instance, a decrease in the
principal’s production, the principal may refuse more orders than the agent would
reasonably expect. This warning may be essential for the agent, because the agent’s
income depends solely, or to a large extent, on the amount of contracts concluded. The
warning enables the agent to search for other means of income in time. This provision
also avoids that the agent incurs expenses in locating customers and negotiating con-
tracts that the principal will eventually not conclude.
This obligation to warn is also in the principal’s own interests. If the agent is warned a
sufficient time in advance, it will not negotiate with customers in vain; the customers
195
will not be disappointed and the principal’s reputation will not be affected. This ob-
ligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the principal, because the principal does
not have to provide the agent with the reasons why the volume of transactions will
change, nor does the principal have to warn that this may lead to the ending of the
agency contract. The principal must only warn the agent if it foresees a considerable
change in volume.
C. Relation to PECL

and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing contained in Articles 1:201 and 1:202
PECL respectively. The concept of ‘reasonableness’ in this Article refers to Article 1:302
PECL. According to Article 1:303 PECL, the principal’s warning becomes effective
when it reaches the agent. A similar obligation is included in Articles 3:206 and 4: 203.
D. Volume of Contracts
The volume of contracts is the total amount of contracts during a certain period of time.
The principal has to inform the agent both in situations where a decrease in volume is
due to factors within the principal’s control and where the decrease is due to a change
in the market.
E. Reasonable Time
The reasonableness of the time within which the warning is given must be assessed in
accordance with the criteria included in Article 1:302 PECL. Factors to be taken into
account include the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case,
and the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved.
F. Expectations of the Commercial Agent
A good test to determine the agent’s reasonable expectation will in most cases be the
average volume of contracts with customers over the previous 5 years, or if the contract
has been in existence for less than 5 years, over the whole period. The reasonableness of
the agent’s expectations is ultimately established by Article 1:302 PECL.
commercial agent (Paragraph. 2).
196
H. Remedies
The obligation to warn is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore,
in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may resort to any of the remedies set
out in Chapter 9 PECL. In particular, the agent is entitled to compensation for the costs
which the agent has incurred if these costs could have been avoided had the agent been
properly informed.
Notes
1. Warning of Decreased Volume
This rule is included in the Directive (art. 4(2) b of the Directive). (art. 4 (2) B of the
Directive: ‘A principal must in particular: ... (b) obtain for his commercial agent the
information necessary for the performance of the agency contract, and in particular
notify the commercial agent within a reasonable period once he anticipates that the
volume of commercial transactions will be significantly lower than that which the
commercial agent could normally have expected.’ All Member States have transposed
it into their national systems: AUSTRIA: § 6 (2) HvertrG; FINLAND: art. 8 Act on
Commercial Agents; FRANCE: Art. 2 Dcret no. 58-1345, 23-12-1958; ENGLAND:
Reg. 4 (2) b; GERMANY: § 86 a II (3) HGB; GREECE: art. 4 Law on Commercial
Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1749 (1) cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:403(3); POLAND:
art. 760 II § 4 KC; PORTUGAL: art. 14 DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro 1998, 73 ff; SPAIN:
art. 10 (2) b LCA; SWEDEN § 7 (3) HaL.
2. Reasonable Period
The following legal systems contain a different rule concerning the period within
which the warning must be given. Under PORTUGUESE law the principal must warn
the commercial agent immediately (art. 13 c DL 178/86). Under SPANISH law, the
principal must fulfil this obligation “as soon as he knows” of the decrease (art. 10 (2) b
LCA) and under SWEDISH law the principal must fulfil this obligation without un-
reasonable delay (SWEDEN: § 7 (3) HaL).

AUSTRIAN, FINNISH, FRENCH law include a similar default rule (AUSTRIA: art.
§ 27 (2) HvertrG.; FINLAND, art. 8 Act on Commercial Agents; FRANCE: art. 3-1
Dcret no. 58-1345, 23-12-1958).
However, under art. 5 of the Directive this rule is mandatory. In the same sense:
ENGLAND: Reg. 5 (1); GERMANY: § 86 a III HGB; ITALY: art. 1749 cc; NETHER-
LANDS art. 7:445 BW; POLAND: art. 760 II § 4 KC.
197
(1) The principal must supply the commercial agent in reasonable time with a statement of the
commission to which the commercial agent is entitled. This statement must set out how the
amount of the commission has been calculated.
(2) For the purpose of calculating commission, the principal must provide the commercial agent
upon request with an extract from the principal’s books.
Comments
A. General Idea
The agent has a right to obtain, within a reasonable period, a statement of the com-
mission that the agent has earned. The agent may furthermore request the principal for
an extract from the principal’s books, in so far as the information which the agent
requests concerns the agent’s entitlement to commission.
The commercial agent has a right to know the amount of the commission which it has
earned. However, the agent is not necessarily aware that a contract which it has
negotiated, and possibly concluded in the name of the principal, has actually been
performed. This information is typically information which the principal has in its
books. The principal must therefore provide the agent with regular overviews of the
commission which has become due and, in addition, enable the agent to verify this
statement by providing the agent with an explanation of the calculation used. The
statement, including the calculation method, should place the agent in a position to
make its own calculation.
This obligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the principal. The principal has
reasonable time to make and to provide the statement of the commission to which the
agent became entitled. This obligation does not require much extra effort, because the
principal has to make this calculation anyway in order to be able to comply with its own
obligation under the agency contract, i. e. to pay commission to the agent.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain such a rule. The concept of ‘reasonableness’ referred to in this
Article is defined in general terms in Article 1:302 PECL. Moreover, the statement is a
notice in the sense of Article 1:303(6) PECL. Therefore, the statement may be given by
any means appropriate to the circumstances and becomes effective when it reaches the
commercial agent.
198
D. Reasonable Period
The parties may agree upon the moment when the principal has to provide the state-
ment of commission. However, the term must be reasonable within the meaning of
Article 1:302 PECL. To assess what is reasonable, the nature and purposes of the
contract, the circumstances of the case and the usages and practices of the trade or
profession involved must be taken into account. However, normally it will be reason-
able for the principal to provide the agent with the commission statement at or before
the moment when the commission has to be paid (for this moment see Article. 2:304).
commercial agent.
F. Remedies
The obligation to provide a statement of the commission which is due and, upon
request, an extract from the books, is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in the case of non-performance the agent may resort to any of the remedies
set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Commission Statement
The present rule differs from the Directive and from ENGLISH, GREEK, ITALIAN and
SPANISH law to the extent that under these legal systems the principal is required to
provide a commission statement no later than the last day of the month following the
quarter in which the commercial agent has become entitled to the commission rather
than within a reasonable period. (Art. 12(1) of the Directive: ‘(1) The principal shall
supply his commercial agent with a statement of the commission due, not later than
the last day of the month following the quarter in which the commission has become
due. This statement shall set out the main components used in calculating the amount
of commission.’ AUSTRIA: § 16 (1) HvertrG; ENGLAND: Reg. 12 (1); GREECE art. 7
paras 5-6 Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY: art. 1749 (2) cc; POLAND:
art. 761 V § 1 KC; PORTUGAL art. 13 c DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro (1998) 71; SPAIN:
art. 15 (1) LCA).
In contrast, under DUTCH law the principal must supply the commercial agent with a
commission statement every month, unless they agree that the statement will be
provided every two or three months. (art. 7:433(1) BW). Under AUSTRIAN law the
commercial agent may request a statement of the commission to which he is entitled.
As a consequence, the law allows for no delay in the delivery of the statement (§ 16
HvertrG).
199
2. Extracts from the Principal’s Books

According to Article 12 (2) of the Directive a commercial agent may request its
principal to provide it with extracts from the books, which is available to the principle
and which he needs in order to check the amount of the commission due to the agent.
Under AUSTRIAN, ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, GREEK, ITALIAN, SPANISH law
there is a similar rule (AUSTRIA: § 16 (1) HvertrG; ENGLAND: Reg. 12 (2);
FRANCE: art. 3 Dcret n 58-1345, 23-12-1958; GERMANY: § 87c II HGB; GREECE
art. 7 paras 5-6 Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991; ITALY, art. 1749 cc, Cass. 2-10-
1998, n. 9802, in Mass. giur. ital., 1998, col. 9802; PORTUGAL: art. 13(2) DL 178/86,
Pinto Monteiro (1998), 72; SPAIN: art. 15 (2) LCA).
Under DUTCH law a commercial agent may require an inspection of the books.
However, it cannot demand an extract from the books (art. 7:433 (2) BW, HR 28-
2-1964, NJ 1964, 456 GJS; HR 5-2-1971, NJ 1971, 222 GJS).

Under AUSTRIAN, FRENCH, GERMAN, GREEK law there is a similar rule. (AUS-
TRIA: § 27 (1) HvertrG.; FRANCE: art. 3-1 Dcret n 58-1345, 23-12-1958; GERMA-
NY: § 87c V HGB; GREECE art. 7 paras 5-6 Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991).
However, according to ENGLISH, DUTCH law this rule is mandatory. (ENGLAND:
Reg. 12 (3); NETHERLANDS: art. 7:445 BW.)
(1) The principal must maintain proper accounts relating to the contracts negotiated or con-
cluded by the commercial agent.
(2) If the principal has more than one commercial agent, the principal must, in particular,
maintain independent accounts for each commercial agent.
(3) The principal must allow an independent accountant to have reasonable access to the
principal’s books upon the commercial agent’s request, if
(a) the principal does not comply with the principal’s obligations under Article 2:310
Paragraphs 1 and 2, or
(b) the commercial agent has important reasons to doubt that the principal maintains proper
accounts.
(4) The commercial agent must pay the independent accountant.
Comments
A. General Idea
Article 1:203 obliges the principal to provide the agent with all the information the
agent needs for the proper performance of the obligations under the contract. In order
to properly fulfil this obligation and the obligations in Articles 2:307-2:310 the principal
has to keep proper accounts, in particular relating to any follow-up action with regard to
200
contracts negotiated by the agent on the principal’s behalf, the agent’s right to com-
mission and the principal’s volume of business. The principal must also keep documen-
tation concerning the products involved in the contracts.
If the statement and/or the extract supplied by the principal in accordance with Article
2:310 Paragraphs 1 and 2 is incorrect, the commercial agent may have an important
reason to doubt that the principal keeps proper accounts. The agent may then request
an inspection of the principal’s books by an independent accountant.
For the performance of the commercial agent’s obligations under the contract, the agent
needs specific information from the principal. Accordingly, it may be reasonably ex-
pected from the principal that it keeps proper accounts. As a professional the principal
will usually do so. Where the principal complies with this obligation to keep proper and
separate accounts, it will be easier for the principal to comply with its obligation to
inform under Articles 2:203 and 2:307-310. The principal thus also needs proper ac-
counts for its own purposes.
This provision entitles the agent to verify, by means of an independent third party,
whether the principal actually keeps proper accounts. The agent is also allowed to have
such an inspection carried out, in the case where the principal does not comply with its
obligation to provide a commission statement and/or an extract from the books under
Article 2:310.
This provision takes into account the principal’s interests in keeping its administration
secret, because the agent is not granted direct access to the principal’s books. Moreover,
the agent has no general right to inspect the principal’s administration. The agent can
only do so in a limited number of situations, i. e. where the agent has important reasons
to suspect that the principal has failed to properly perform its obligations. Finally, the
inspection of the books by the accountant takes place at the agent’s expense.
C. Relation to PECL and ECC

and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:201 and 1:202 PECL
respectively.
D. Proper Accounts
The principal is always obliged to keep accounts relating to the products involved, the
commission due and the follow-up action relating to those contracts which are the
result of the agent’s activities.
201
F. Remedies
The obligation to keep accounts is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may resort to any of the
Notes
1. Reasonable Access to the Principal’s Books
Under FINNISH law if the principal does not give the necessary extracts from his
accounting to the agent, a chartered accountant has a right to inspect the accounts to
the extent that is required (Art. 20.2 Act on Commercial Agents). Under AUSTRIAN
law there is a similar rule when the principal refuses to give the commercial agent
access to his books. In such a case the court may then appoint a registered account to
check the books (§ 16 (2) ff. HvertrG).
Under GERMAN law there is a similar rule to Article 2:311 (3) b included in § 87c IV
HGB. However, it must be necessary to establish the amount of commission due.
(1) The commercial agent is entitled to an indemnity for goodwill on the basis of Article 1:305
which must amount to:
(a) the average commission on contracts with new customers and on the increased volume
of business with existing customers calculated for the last 12 months, multiplied by:
(b) the number of years the principal is likely to continue to derive benefits from these
contracts in the future.
(2) The resulting indemnity must be amended in accordance with:
(a) the average rate of migration in the commercial agent’s territory; and
(b) the average interest rates.
(3) In any case, the indemnity must not exceed one year’s remuneration, calculated from the
commercial agent’s average annual remuneration over the preceding five years or, if the
contract has been in existence for less than five years, from the average during the period in
question.
202
Comments
A. General Idea
This rule aims to provide a method for calculating the amount of indemnity to which
the agent may be entitled according to Article 1:305 (Indemnity for Goodwill). In order
to do so, two steps must be taken. The first step concerns the identification of the new
customers and the existing customers whose volume in the principal’s business increased
considerably.
Then, the agent’s average commission that was paid on these customers is calculated for
the last twelve months prior to the ending or termination of the contract. Subsequently,
the duration of these benefits for the principal must be estimated. Next, the rate if
migration must be considered. The rate of migration is calculated on a yearly basis and
is reduced for each year with a certain percentage of the commission for the migration
rate, and the average interest rate must be taken into account as well (Paragraph 2).
The second step concerns the comparison between the amount of indemnity calculated
on the basis of Paragraphs 1 and 2 and the annual average remuneration over the
preceding five years. If the amount of indemnity exceeds the annual remuneration, the
latter will be awarded. In other words, Paragraph 3 includes a maximum amount of
indemnity that can be awarded.
The policy consideration underlying this rule is that the increased volume of business
for the principal represents a benefit for the principal if the agency contract is ended or
terminated for which the agent should be indemnified. The present rule is in the
interest of both parties, because it provides legal certainty and avoids extensive trans-
action and litigation costs for establishing the exact value of the goodwill which has
passed between the parties.
In the interest of the commercial agents the calculation method contributes to ensure
that the agent is indemnified, as much as possible, for his loss of goodwill. On the other
hand, the interests of the principal are taken into account by the fact that the princi-
pal’s benefits usually decrease over time. Moreover, the provision also contains a max-
imum for the indemnity, which is also in the interest of the principal.
C. Relation to PECL
203
D. New or Old Customers
Each new customer acquired would usually entitle the agent to commission and must
therefore be taken into account when calculating the amount of indemnity. The income
which the agent would have earned from services (and other activities) provided to the
customers should not be taken into account when calculating the indemnity.
Whether the agent is entitled to an indemnity for goodwill with regard to contracts
concluded with previously acquired customers, depends on whether the commercial
agent has substantially increased the volume of business with them. The increase in
volume must be such that it equals the acquisition of a new customer in economic
terms.
E. Likely Future Duration of Benefits
The principal will not eternally benefit from the agent’s activities. In order to determine
how long the principal will profit from the continuous advantages which were generated
by the agent, an estimation must be made. This estimation depends to a large extent on
the market situation and the sector concerned. Usually these benefits last for 2 or 3
years, but they may last for as long as 5 years.
F. Migration Rate
Over time, the principal always loses customers. A customer may conclude just one
transaction with a principal without the intention to continue doing so on a regular
basis. Also, customers switch to another principal, for instance because the other
principal deals in another brand or different products, or they move to another area.
The rate of migration is variable and must be evaluated from the particular experience
of the agent in question. The rate of migration must be calculated as a percentage of the
commission on an annual basis.
G. Average Interest Rate
This factor is meant to calculate the present value of the transactions taking into
account that there is an accelerated receipt of income.
H. Maximum Amount of Indemnity
The third Paragraph provides a final amendment to the amount of indemnity. It is not
in itself a method of calculation, but it includes a limit to the amount of indemnity. The
limit is the average annual remuneration. To determine the maximum sum to be paid to
the commercial agent, the amount of indemnity calculated on the basis of Paragraphs 1
and 2 must be compared to the commercial agent’s average annual remuneration. To
204
establish the latter, all forms of payment (not only commission) and all customers (not
merely new customers or the ones generating more benefits for the principal) are to be
included. If the amount of the indemnity which results from the calculation on the basis
of the first two Paragraphs is less than the average annual remuneration then the
amount of indemnity calculated is awarded. If, however, the amount of indemnity
exceeds the annual average remuneration, the latter is granted. In practice, it is quite
unusual for this maximum to be reached.
I. Damages
The agent may decide to claim damages for the actual losses which it has suffered as a
consequence of the termination or ending of the agency contract: they may include the
loss of clientele, investments made and costs incurred in the performance of the ob-
ligations under the agency contract, and payments to third parties, for instance employ-
ees or sub-agents. In that case the agent must prove both the existence of damage and
the fact that the damage has arisen from the termination or ending of the agency
contract (see Article 1:303).
J. Character of the Rule
This rule is a mandatory rule; the parties may not derogate therefrom to the detriment
of the commercial agent.
K. Remedies
This rule entitles the agent to an indemnity of a certain amount. This amount is to be
calculated according to the formula in the present Article. The principal is therefore
under the obligation to calculate the amount of indemnity in accordance with this
formula and to pay that indemnity. These are obligations in the sense of Article 8:101
PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may resort to any
of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Calculating the Amount of Indemnity
The present article is based on the Report on the application of Article 17 of the
Council Directive on the co-ordination of the laws of the member states relating to
self-employed agents (86/653/ EC) (Presented by the Commission) COM (96) 364 final
(hereafter: Report of the Commission) which, in turn, was inspired by German case
law.
Under GERMAN law the amount of indemnity is calculated as follows. First, the
average commission on contracts with new customers is established (§ 89 b I (1)
no. 2 HGB) and also the significant increase in volume concerning business with
205
existing customers (see § 89 b I (2) HGB) for the last 12 month before the contractual
relationship ended (BGH, WM 1991, 826; BGH, NJW 1983, 2879; Münchener Kom-
mentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 87 b HGB no. 131). The result of this calculation must
be multiplied with the number of years the principal is most likely to benefit from
these customers in the future (Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 87 b
HGB no. 137). To determine which number of years should be considered, all circum-
stances have to be taken into account. Usually, these benefits last for two or three
years, but for long-lasting goods they may last for up to five years (BGH, NJW 1985,
860; OLG Frankfurt, BB 1973, 212; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch,
§ 87 b HGB no. 82). Subsequently the resulting amount of indemnity must be cor-
rected in accordance with: (a) The average rate of migration in the territory of the
agent (Abwanderungsquote, BGH, Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht 1987, 1387; OLG Kln,
Versicherungsrecht 1968, 966; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 b HGB
no. 133). This rate is not estimated, but is calculated on the basis of the migration rates
of the last years before the contract ended (Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetz-
buch, § 89 b HGB no. 133); and (b) The average interest rate due to the accelerated
receipt of income (the so-called Abzinsung, see BGH, NJW-RR 1991, 484; Münchener
Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 b HGB no. 139). (c) The average percentage of
customers that will most likely conclude only one contract with the principal and
refrain from further contracts in the future (so-called “Mehrfachkundenquote”, see
BGH, Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht 1987, 1387; Münchener Kommentar no. 132). (d)
The reasonableness of the indemnity considering all the circumstances under § 89 b I
(1) no. 3 HGB (BGH, NJW 1990, 2991; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch,
§ 89 b HGB no. 138; see also Note under article 1:108). This correction normally
entails a reduction in the agent’s amount of indemnity (Münchener Kommentar zum
Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 b HGB no. 138). The criteria for establishing reasonableness are
e. g. the duration of the contractual relationship and social or personal circumstances
(Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 89 b HGB no. 103).
From the Report by the European Commission it follows that the Member States apply
the rules which are the result of the transposition of art. 17 (2) of the Directive in
different forms. The AUSTRIAN courts use the GERMAN method of calculating the
amount of indemnity. However, the AUSTRIAN courts regularly reach the maximum
amount of indemnity, whereas the GERMAN courts never do so (Commission Report,
8).
In BELGIUM and SPAIN this is held to be a question which must be established by
the courts (Verbraeken & de Schoutheete, no. 113; Móxica, 32, STS 16-11-2000, RJ
2000\9339 and 14-5-2001, RJ 2001\6207).
In the NETHERLANDS, SWEDEN it is assessed whether the requirements of art. 17 (2)
of the Directive are met and subsequently a reasonable amount of indemnity is estab-
lished (Asser-Kortmann, no. 239; § 28 (3) HaL, Söderlund, 128). In PORTUGAL the
courts tend to assess directly whether an amount is reasonable and, if so, to award it
(Commission Report, 6).
In ITALY, a court continued to apply the rules which prevailed before the provisions
based on the Directive came into force. Another ITALIAN court applied the rules laid
down in a collective agreement. The amount of indemnity is measured on the basis of
the level of commission, the duration of the agency contract and the percentages set
out in the collective agreement (Commission Report, 8).
206
2. Maximum Amount of Indemnity

The Directive contains a rule concerning the maximum amount indemnity in art. 17
(2) sub b of the Directive, which states: ‘The amount of indemnity may not exceed a
figure equivalent to an indemnity for one year calculated from the commercial agent’s
average annual remuneration over the preceding five years and if the contract goes
back less than five years the indemnity shall be calculated on the average for the
period in question.’ These rules have been transposed into the following statutory
provisions: AUSTRIA: § 24 (4) HVertrG; ENGLAND: Reg. 17 (4); GERMANY: § 89 b
II HGB; ITALY: art. 1751 cc; NETHERLANDS: art. 7:442 (2) BW; POLAND: art. 764 III
§ 2 KC; SPAIN: art. 28 (3) LCA, Moxica 32; SWEDEN: § 28 (3) HaL.

Under art. 19 of the Directive ‘The parties may not derogate from Articles 17 and 18 to
the detriment of the commercial agent before the agency contract expires.’ This rule is
laid down in AUSTRIAN (§ 27 HvertG), BELGIAN (art. 23 handelsagentuurwet),
GERMAN, ITALIAN (art. 1751 cc), DUTCH law (art. 7:442, 7:445 (2) BW), POLISH
(art. 764 V KC), PORTUGUESE, SPANISH and SWEDISH law.
(1) An agreement whereby the commercial agent guarantees that a customer will pay the price
of the products forming the subject-matter of the contract(s) which the commercial agent
has negotiated or concluded (del credere clause) is only valid if and to the extent that:
(a) the clause is concluded in writing, and
(b) the clause covers particular contracts which were negotiated or concluded by the
commercial agent or such contracts with particular customers who are specified in the
agreement, and
(c) the clause is reasonable with regard to the interests of the parties.
(2) The commercial agent is entitled to be paid a commission of a reasonable amount on
contracts to which the del credere guarantee applies (del credere commission).
Comments
A. General Idea
A del credere clause is a clause in which the commercial agent ensures that the customer
will pay to the principal the price agreed upon in the contract between the customer
and the principal. Such a clause may increase the agent’s liability if the customer does
not perform. If the parties wish to include a del credere clause in the agency contract,
they can only do so in writing. The del credere clause may not extend to a general group
of (or to all) customers (Paragraph 1 (b). The del credere clause may not unreasonably
burden the commercial agent (Paragraph 1 (c)). Moreover, the agent is entitled to
specific compensation for the fact that it guarantees the customer’s payments. This
207
compensation is due from the moment of the conclusion of the contract between the
principal and the client.
A del credere clause gives the principal the possibility to control his risk in the case of a
customer’s insolvency. This is important, especially if the agent has the authority to
conclude contracts in the name of the principal. However, obviously such a clause may
also imply great financial risks for the commercial agent.
In practice, the principal is frequently in a position to force the agent to accept a far-
reaching liability for customers’ performance. Since it is usually the principal who
accepts or refuses a transaction, the agent may accept such liability for fear of losing
the right to commission. Therefore, the agent needs protection. The present provision
also protects the agent in the sense that the principal must pay separate commission on
the contract for which the agent guarantees the payment by the customer.
C. Relation to PECL and ECC
Articles 4:109 (Excessive Benefit or Unfair Advantage) and 4:110 (Unfair Terms not
Individually Negotiated) PECL may affect the validity of del credere clauses.
According to Article 2:101 PECL a contract is concluded if the parties intend to be

legally bound, and they reach a sufficient agreement without any further requirement.
In contrast, here the written form is required, in order to protect the agent.
E. Remedies
Paragraph 1 deals with the validity of the del credere clause. Paragraph 2 entitles the
commercial agent to a del credere commission. This is an obligation in the sense of
Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may
resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Del Credere Clause
BELGIAN, DUTCH, FINNISH, GERMAN, POLISH, PORTUGUESE, SPANISH law
include a specific provision concerning a del credere clause (BELGIUM: art. 25 Han-
208
delsagentuurwet; FINLAND: art. 17 of the Act on Commercial Agents; GERMANY:

§ 86 b HGB; NETHERLANDS art. 7:429 BW; POLAND: art. 761 (1,2) KC; PORTU-
GAL: art. 10 DL 178/86; SPAIN: art. 19 LCA). The requirements concerning those del
credere clauses included in those provisions will be discussed in the notes hereafter.
GERMAN law contains a slightly broader definition of a del credere clause. § 86 b I (1)
HGB states that the commercial agent can also guarantee the performance of an
obligation resulting from a transaction. This can e. g. also contain a guarantee for the
delivery of goods (Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 b HGB no. 5).
In contrast, the Directive does not contain any provision in this respect, nor do
AUSTRIAN, ENGLISH and FRENCH law.
2. In Writing
According to BELGIAN, DUTCH, FINNISH, GERMAN, POLISH, PORTUGUESE and
SPANISH law the del credere clause is invalid if it is not in writing. BELGIUM: art. 25
Handelsagentuurwet; GERMANY: § 86 b II (2) HGB; FINLAND: art. 17 Act on Com-
mercial Agents; NETHERLANDS art. 7:429 (2) BW; POLAND: art. 761 VII § 1 KC;
PORTUGAL: art. 10 (1) DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro (1998) 66. SPAIN: art. 19 LCA;)
However, under SWEDISH law there is no such requirement (Söderlund, 166).
3. Particular Contracts or Particular Clients

Under FINNISH, GERMAN, POLISH and PORTUGUESE law a del credere clause may
only be agreed upon in relation to either specific contracts or contracts with specific
clients. (GERMANY: § 86 b II (1) HGB; FINLAND: art. 17 of the Act on Commercial
Agents; POLAND: art. 761 VII § 1,2 KC; PORTUGAL art. 10 DL 178/86; Pinto Mon-
teiro (1998), 66).
In contrast, under BELGIAN, DUTCH, SPANISH and SWEDISH law there does not
seem to be such a requirement.
4. A Reasonable Cause Taking into Account the Interests of the Parties

THE NETHERLANDS: art. 7: 429 para 4 BW.
In the specific provision in GERMAN law the reasonability with regard to the interest
of the parties is not mentioned explicitly. However, it is to be considered under general
contract law.
FINNISH, SPANISH, SWEDISH law do not contain such a requirement.
5. Del Credere Commission

Under GERMAN, FINNISH, PORTUGUESE, SPANISH, SWEDISH law, the commer-
cial agent is entitled to a specific commission in the case of a del credere clause. (This
special commission accumulates with the normal one in PORTUGAL) (GERMANY:
§ 86 b I (1) HGB; Koller/Roth/Morck, § 86 b HGB no. 6; FINLAND, Art. 17 Act on
Commercial Agents; PORTUGAL: art. 13 f. DL 178/86, Pinto Monteiro (1998) 72;
Spain: art. 19 LCA; SWEDEN: Söderlund, 166.)
However, under GERMAN law there are two exceptions to this entitlement: (i), when
the principal or the customer have their branch /residence abroad (§ 86 b III (1) HGB)
or (ii) if the commercial agent’s authorisation for concluding transactions is unlimited
(see § 86 b III (2) HGB).
209
Chapter 3:
Franchise
Section 1:
General
This Chapter applies to contracts under which one party (the franchisor) grants the other party
(the franchisee), in exchange for remuneration, the right to conduct a business (franchise
business) within the franchisor’s network for the purposes of selling certain products on the
franchisee’s behalf and in the franchisee’s name, and whereby the franchisee has the right and
the obligation to use the franchisor’s tradename or trademark and other intellectual property
rights, the know-how and the business method.
Comments
A. General Idea
The essential elements which characterize a franchise relationship are: a) granting the
right to operate the franchisor’s method of business, which mainly includes licensing the
use of intellectual property rights and know-how (the business package); b) selling
certain types of products (distribution contract); c) the franchisee’s independence: in
the franchisee’s name and on the franchisee’s behalf; d) (direct or indirect) financial
remuneration for the franchisor. Providing assistance is not included in the present
definition. Hence, even when assistance is not provided, this Chapter applies. As a
consequence, this definition of franchising is broader than the one employed in EC
competition law.
Franchise contracts should be distinguished from (ordinary) distribution contracts. They

differ because of the following: first, although many franchise contracts have as their
object the distribution of products, this is not always the case; secondly, in a franchise
contract there is always the right to operate the franchisor’s business method (which
notably includes transferring the use of intellectual property rights and know-how);
more generally, franchise networks are characterised by a much stronger uniformity than
ordinary distribution networks. In fact, in the eyes of consumers there is frequently no
difference between a daughter company (or subsidiary) and a franchisee.
The relevance of this Article is that it determines whether a certain contractual re-
lationship is to be classified as a franchise contract. If so, the Articles in this Chapter
210
apply. Of special interest are the mandatory rules contained in Articles 3:102 (Pre-
Contractual Information), 3:201 (Intellectual Property Rights), 3:202 (Know-How),
3:204 (Supply), 3:206 (Warning of Decreased Supply Capacity), 3:303 (Business Meth-
od and Instructions).
Providing assistance is not considered an element of a franchising contract under the

present Article. This approach differs from the one taken by European competition
rules. According to European competition law, certain types of franchise agreements are
exempted from falling under Article 81(1) of the EC Treaty, which prohibits agreements
which are incompatible with the common market. In order to restrict the application of
these exemption benefits, antitrust rules include assistance as an integral component of
the business method being franchised. However, the aim of the present provision is that
this Chapter applies to a broader range of franchise agreements. Hence, even when
assistance is not provided, this Chapter applies.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain a definition of franchise contracts. In principle, all rules
contained in the PECL apply to franchise contracts unless a provision in Chapter 1 or
this Chapter deviates therefrom. The contracts of sale or services which are concluded
between the franchisee and a customer are governed by the rules concerning contracts
of sale and those concerning services. Comparable scope rules are laid down in Articles
2:101 and 4:101.
D. Mixed Contracts
Franchising agreements may draw specific elements from several contracts: for instance,
from a licence agreement relating to trademarks; a purchase or lease agreement con-
cerning specific machinery and equipment; a distributorship agreement concerning the
actual products to be marketed by the franchisee; a sales agreement to purchase the
goods from the franchisor; a lease agreement concerning the premises where the busi-
ness will be conducted, or an agreement on joint advertising along with the franchisor
and other franchisees for the marketing of the products.
E. Types of Franchise Contracts
On the basis of the subject-matter of franchising three main types of franchising are
usually distinguished: industrial, distribution and service franchising. In the case of an
industrial franchise, the franchisee produces goods according to the instructions of the
franchisor and sells them under the intellectual property rights of the franchisor,
whereas in the case of a distribution franchise, the franchisee simply sells certain goods
in a shop which bears the franchisor’s businessname or symbol. Finally, a service fran-
chise concerns situations where the franchisee offers a service under the businessname,
symbol or intellectual property rights of the franchisor.
211
F. Franchise Network
A franchise network consists of a franchisor and the group of all franchisees that operate
the same business method and the existing liaison among them.
G. Competition Law
Competition law may affect franchise contracts. It depends on the stipulations of the
franchise agreement at stake and its economic context whether this is the case. In its
Pronuptia decision (case 161/84 Pronuptia de Paris GmbH v Pronuptia de Paris Imgard
Schillgalis, [1986] ECR 353) the ECJ held that the terms of a franchise contract con-
cerning the confidentiality of assistance and know-how, the protection of the intellec-
tual property rights, maintaining the identity and the reputation of the network, do not
fall within the ambit of Article 81(1) EC. However, the terms of the contract that
concern the partition of the market territorially do fall within the ambit of Article
81(1) EC. Having said that, a franchise agreement may be exempted if it falls within the
block exemption laid down in the Commission Regulation EC No 2790/1999 of 22
December 1999 on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty to categories of
vertical agreements and concerted practices.
The provisions included in this Chapter only apply to franchise contracts to the extent
that they are valid in the light of competition law.
This is a scope rule: the parties cannot, in their agreement, classify a contract as a
contract which is different from a franchise contract if their agreement contains the
essential elements included in the present provision. Conversely, if the parties classify a
contract as a franchise contract although it does not contain the essential elements set
out in this Article, the rules contained in this Chapter will apply only in so far as they
are consistent with the agreement of the parties.
I. Remedies
obligations for the parties. The obligations are explicitly formulated by means of specific
Articles in this Chapter and in Chapter 1 where also remedies are provided.
212
Notes
1. Definition of a Franchise
ITALIAN and SPANISH law include a statutory definition of franchise (ITALY: art. 1. L
nr. 129/2004; SPAIN: art. 62 of Ley de Ordenación del Comercio Minorista, (Act 7/1996
of 15 January 1996, on Retail Trade).
However, European competition law includes several descriptions of franchises. See
Case 161/84 Pronuptia de Paris GmbH v Pronuptia de Paris Imgard Schillgalis, [1986] ECR
353; Regulation 4087/88 on the application of Article 85 (3) of the Treaty to cate-
gories of franchise agreements (OJ L 359/46) and the Guidelines of Vertical restraints
of 2000).
Under DUTCH, ITALIAN and SPANISH law the competition law definition as in-
cluded in Regulation 4087/88 is also used in private law issues. (ITALY: Pardolesi
(1990) 66, Pretore di Milano, 21 July 1992, Grimaldi s. p. a. c. Magatelli ed Effeci s. a. s.,
Contratti, 1993, 173, (note De Nova, Franchising e apparenza); NETHERLANDS: HR 25
January 2002, NJ 2003, 31 note J. B. M. Vranken).
Under other legal systems definitions of a franchise can be found in case law, literature
and model contracts. (FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 951). See also the notes to
Article 1:101.
The elements of all these definitions differ. Hereafter it will be considered to what
extent the elements included in the present Article are also included in the various
legal systems and model contracts.
2. Use of Franchisor’s Tradename, Trademark, Know-how and Business Method

These elements correspond with those given by European law and a large majority of
the legal systems and the model contracts.
Art. 3 a, b of Regulation 4087/88, Guidelines on Vertical Restraints 2000 nos. 32, 43,
199 and the Case 161/84 Pronuptia de Paris GmbH v Pronuptia de Paris Imgard Schillgalis,
[1986] ECR 353; AUSTRIA: OGH 26. 4. 1994, 4 Ob 535/94; ENGLAND: Adams/Pri-
chard Jones §1.02; FRANCE: CA Colmar, 9. 06. 1982, D. 1982, 553 note Burst. Com.
8. 07. 1997, D. Aff. 1997, 960; RJDA 1994, n8 795, CA Paris, 7. 06. 1990, D. 1990, IR.
176.; 31. 03. 1993, RJDA 1993, n8 613. Com. 19. 02. 1991, D. 1992 somm. 391,
obs. D. Ferrier, Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 952; GERMANY: Küstner/Thume, 1590-
1594; Rohe, 412; ITALY: art. 1 L. 124/2004, Frignani (1999) 6; NETHERLANDS: HR
25 January 2002, NJ 2003, 31 note J. B. M. Vranken, Wessels, 1991, 12, Barendrecht &
van Peursem, 11; PORTUGAL: Pinto Monteiro (2002) 120; Coutinho de Abreu (1996) 63;
Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 21; Ribeiro (2001) 143, STJ 14 April 1999, Agravo n/176/
99 ; SPAIN: art. 62 para 1 of the Statute on retail sales, STS of 27-90-96 and 4-3-97;
SWEDEN: definition by the Swedish franchise federation, Sohlberg, 32, 41; art. 1 of the
ECE, the preamble of the ICC MODEL CONTRACT and art. 2 of the Unidroit Dis-
closure Law.
3. To Conduct a Business in its Own Name and on its Own Behalf

These elements recur in the case law, legal literature or model contracts of all the legal
systems.
AUSTRIA: OGH 26. 4. 1994, 4 Ob 535/94; BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete
No.139; ENGLAND: Adams/Prichard Jones at §1.02; FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque,
213
no. 952, 958, Huet, no. 11624; GERMANY: Küstner/Thume, 1590-1594; Rohe, 412;
ITALY: art. 1 L. 129/2004, Frignani (1999) 6; NETHERLANDS: HR 25-1-2002, NJ
2003, 31 note J. B. M. Vranken, Wessels, 1991, 12, Barendrecht & van Peursem, no. 11,
Van der Heiden (1999) 86; PORTUGAL: Pinto Monteiro (2002) 120; Coutinho de Abreu
(1996) 63; Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 21; Ribeiro (2001) 143, STJ 14 April 1999,
Agravo n/176/99 ; SPAIN STS 27-9-1996, RJ 1996\6646, STS 4-4-1998, RJ
1998\3456, Aguil Pina (1986) 4810, Hernando Giménez 208; SWEDEN: definition
by the Swedish franchise federation. Art. 1 of the ECE.
4. In Exchange for Remuneration

This element is included in nearly all definitions in the case law, in European com-
petition law and in those formulated by legal scholars or in model contracts.
(European competition law: Art. 3 b of Regulation 4087/88; AUSTRIA: OGH
26. 4. 1994, 4 Ob 535/94; ENGLAND: Adams/Prichard Jones at §1.02; GERMANY:
Küstner/Thume, 1590-1594; Rohe, 412; ITALY: art. 1 L. affiliazione commerciale, Frignani
(1999) 6; NETHERLANDS: HR 25-1-2002, NJ 2003, 31 note J. B. M. Vranken, Wessels
(1991) 12, Barendrecht & van Peursem, no. 11; PORTUGAL: Pinto Monteiro (2002) 120;
Coutinho de Abreu (1996) 63; Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 21; Ribeiro (2001) 143, STJ
14 April 1999, Agravo no 176/99 ; SPAIN: art. 62 para 1 of the Statute on retail sales,
STS of 27-90-96 and 4-3-97; SWEDEN: definition of the Swedish franchise federation.
Art. 1 of the ECE, the preamble of the ICC Model Contract and art. 2 of the Unidroit
Disclosure Law.)
5. To Conduct a Business within the Franchisor’s Network

This element is laid down in the majority of the legal systems and in European
competition law. (Guidelines on vertical restraints, no. 42, 43, 199; AUSTRIA: OGH
26. 4. 1994, 4 Ob 535/94; FRANCE: Huet no. 11621; ENGLAND: Adams/Prichard Jones
at §1.02; GERMANY: Küstner/Thume, 1590-1594; Rohe, 412; ITALY: art. 1 L. 129/2004,
Frignani (1999) 6; THE NETHERLANDS: HR 25-1-2002, NJ 2003, 31 note J. B. M.
Vranken, Wessels (1991) 12, Kneppers/Heynert, Barendrecht & van Peursem, no. 11;
PORTUGAL: Pinto Monteiro (2002) 120; Coutinho de Abreu (1996) 63; Pestana de
Vasconcelos (2000) 21; Ribeiro (2001) 143, STJ 14 April 1999, Agravo no 176/99 ;
SPAIN: STS of 27-90-96 and 4-3-97; SWEDEN: cf the definition by the Swedish
franchise federation).
6. Written Requirement
See also the notes to Article 1:101. Under ITALIAN law a franchise contract must be
in writing otherwise it is void (art. 3 (1) L. 129/2004).
214
(1) The obligation to disclose pre-contractual information (Article 1:201) requires the franchisor
in particular to provide the franchisee with adequate and timely information concerning:
(a) the franchisor’s company and experience,
(b) the relevant intellectual property rights,
(c) the characteristics of the relevant know-how,
(d) the commercial sector and the market conditions,
(e) the particular franchise method and its operation,
(f) the structure and extent of the franchise network,
(g) the fees, royalties or any other periodical payments,
(h) the terms of the contract.
(2) If the franchisor’s non-compliance with Paragraph 1 does not give rise to a fundamental
mistake under Article 4:103 PECL, the franchisee may recover damages in accordance with
Article 4:117(2) and (3) PECL, unless the franchisor had reason to believe that the informa-
tion was adequate or had been given in reasonable time.
Comments
A. General Idea
In addition to the general obligation for the parties in franchising to provide the other
party with pre-contractual information (Article 1:201), this Article imposes a further
reaching obligation on the franchisor, since it specifies the types of information that
have to be provided. Paragraph 1 contains a list of items which must be disclosed. The
franchisee needs to have such information in order to be able to enter the contract with
full knowledge of all the relevant facts.
In addition to the remedies granted by the general obligation to provide pre-contractual

information, this specific provision establishes the specific remedy of liability in dama-
ges (Paragraph 2) in case the franchisor does not provide adequate and timely informa-
tion on the items specified in the provision even if the lack of information does not give
rise to a fundamental mistake.
This obligation protects the franchisee’s interests. The franchisee has to make impor-
tant investments without having any other possibility to obtain this qualified informa-
tion. This specific obligation to provide pre-contractual information is aimed at guar-
anteeing that the franchisee will have all the relevant and necessary information in
order to commit itself with full knowledge of the relevant facts.
215
The main reasons to oblige the franchisor to provide the franchisee with this informa-
tion may be summarized as follows. The essential information in a franchise agreement
is at the disposal of the franchisor, which owns or has legal rights concerning the
intellectual property rights and the know-how regarding the franchise business formula.
The franchisee has no other means to collect such information since it is part of the
‘business secrets’ of the franchisor and is therefore confidential. Some franchisors try to
attract investors by proposing that they enter a non-existent network and by promising
them the possibility to operate a formula which is either non-existent or not successful.
Whilst the franchisor actively asks the prospective franchisee to disclose the necessary
information by means of questionnaires, the prospective franchisee is usually not in a
position to direct similar questionnaires to the franchisor. As a result, the franchisee
completely depends on what the franchisor wants to disclose. The unilateral imposition
of standard clauses which can only be accepted on a ‘take it or leave it’ basis by the
franchisee justifies the latter receiving prior information regarding such terms.
This disclosure rule imposes a burdensome obligation on the franchisor. The franchisor
may be confronted with situations where it is not certain whether all the necessary
information has been provided. It may not be possible either for the franchisor to be
aware of all the facts which must be disclosed or to check whether those facts are
correct.
C. Relation to PECL
The present Article provides a specific rule for the franchisor’s pre-contractual obliga-
tion to inform. This rule may best be considered as a special instance of the general pre-
contractual duty to inform under Chapter 1 (see art. 1:201).
D. Adequate Information
The franchisor must provide the potential franchisee with the relevant information
regarding the franchise business in order to enable the franchisee to conclude the
contract with full knowledge of the relevant facts. The listing of the items in Paragraph
1 is a minimum requirement: i.e the franchisor may disclose more information but not
less. In particular, relevant information normally includes:
(a) The Franchisor’s Company and Experience
The information shall include the particulars which identify the franchisor, such as the
name or corporate denomination, the registered address and, where applicable, details of
inclusion in the register of franchisors, as well as, in the case of a company, the share
capital shown in the latest balance sheet, and details on registration in the mercantile
register.
In addition, the information shall also include essential information regarding the
experience of the franchisor in the sector and, more specifically, regarding the fran-
216
chisor’s experience with the particular business formula. In principle, this information
shall include the date on which the franchise was launched, the main stages in the
development of the business formula and the franchise network.
(b) The Relevant Intellectual Property Rights
In principle, this information shall include a certificate evidencing the granting and
current validity of the title of ownership or licence for the use of the trademark and
distinctive signs of the franchising company; and of possible legal proceedings against
such a company, if any, with express mention in any event of the duration of the
licence. The information must also indicate what will be the franchisee’s rights over
the intellectual property.
Here, and throughout these Principles, ‘intellectual property rights’ includes industrial
property rights, copyright and neighbouring rights.
(c) Characteristics of the Know-how
The know-how is one of the elements contained in the business package transferred by
the franchisor. It includes information concerning the franchisor’s business method
which is indispensable to the franchisee for the use, sale or resale of the contract
products.
(d) Commercial Sector and Market Conditions
In principle, this information shall include a general description of the franchise’s sector
of activity, which shall include the most noteworthy features thereof. In particular, it
shall include essential information regarding the state of competition, the state of
demand and price development.
(e) Franchise Method
In principle, this information shall include a general explanation of the system of business
to which the franchise refers, the characteristics of the ‘know-how’ and the assistance to
be provided by the franchisor, as well as an estimate of the investments and expenses
which are necessary for conducting a typical business. In the event that the franchisor
should provide the potential individual franchisee with sales forecasts or trading results,
these shall be based on experience or studies and shall be sufficiently justified.
(f) Structure and Extent of the Franchise Network
In principle, this information shall include the form of the organisation of the franchise
network and the number of establishments, distinguishing those exploited directly by
the franchisor from those operated by other franchisees, the place where they are
located and the number of franchisees which have recently ceased to belong to the
network, stating whether such a cessation occurred due to the expiry of the contractual
term or due to other causes for termination.
217
(g) Fees, Royalties and Other Periodical Payments
In practice, parties generally agree that financial remuneration comprises two elements:
the initial fee and ongoing periodical payments. Before entering into the agreement the
franchisees must be aware of the conditions of payment, especially of those periodical
fees which will be determined by the franchisor at a later stage. Information shall be
given regarding the criteria by which to determine the periodical payments to be made
during the whole duration of the contractual relationship.
(h) The Terms of the Contract
In principle, this information shall include the rights and obligations of the respective
parties, the duration of the contract, the fee system, the conditions for termination and,
if applicable, for the renewal thereof, economic considerations, exclusivity agreements,
and restrictions on the free disposal of the business by the franchisee.
This rule is mandatory; the parties are not free to agree otherwise.
F. Remedies
In accordance with the obligation of pre-contractual disclosure in Chapter 1 (Article

1:201), when the franchisor does not provide the franchisee with adequate and timely
information concerning the issues specified in the present Article and such a non-
compliance leads to a fundamental mistake, all the remedies for mistake in the PECL
apply.
In addition to the remedies for mistake, this Article provides the franchisee with the
specific remedy of liability in damages (Paragraph 2), when the franchisor does not
provide adequate and timely information on the items included in the specific list even
if the information does not give rise to a fundamental mistake, unless the franchisor had
reasons to believe that the information was adequate or given within a reasonable time
(Article 4:106 PECL).
Notes
1. Pre-Contractual Information
Under nearly all legal systems there is such an obligation.
Under FRENCH, ITALIAN and SPANISH law such an obligation is laid down in a
statutory rule. Under FRENCH law this is the Loi Doubin (art. L. 330-3 C. com. and the
Décret n 91-337 du 4 avril 1991, which elaborates art. L 330-3 C. com.). Under ITA-
LIAN law it concerns arts. 4, 6 L. 129/2004. Under SPANISH law it concerns art. 62,
para. 3 of the Statute on Retail Trade (Ley de Ordenación del Comercio Minorista of 15
218
January 1996, Act 7/1996) and the Real Decreto 2485/1998 of 13 November 1998,
which elaborates art. 62 of the Statute on Retail Trade.
Under the other legal systems there is no specific statutory duty. Nevertheless, case law
and literature have accepted such a pre-contractual duty under the general doctrine of
good faith in several countries. (AUSTRIA: OGH 19. 1. 1989, 7 Ob 695/88; BELGIUM
Verbraeken & de Schoutheete No.147 (b); GERMANY: § 242 BGB (good faith) Küstner/
Thume, no. 1637-1649; Martinek/Semler, § 19 nos. 1-4, Bundesarbeitsgericht, DB 1980,
2040; OLG München, BB 1988, 865; OLG München, NJW 1994, 667, see also number
3.2 of the Ethikkodex of the German Franchise Association; FINNISH law: KKO
1993:130; THE NETHERLANDS: Asser-Hartkamp II, nos. 71, 159, HR 15-11-1957
Baris/Riezenkamp, NJ 1958, 67).However, in a decision on 2002, the HR held that
there is no general obligation on the basis of good faith for the franchisor to provide
the franchisee with information concerning the expected profit.
Under GREEK and PORTUGUESE law the general statutory rule concerning pre-
contractual liability applies (arts. 197 and 198 of the GREEK Civil Code and art.
227 of the PORTUGUESE Civil Code). In addition, according to PORTUGUESE law
in extreme situations, the provisions of art. 253 (Misrepresentation) or art. 282 (Us-
ury) may be applied (Ribeiro (1992); Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000); Ribeiro (2000), 75).
Finally, the doctrine of abuse of a right could be applied under GREEK and PORTU-
GUESE law (GREECE: art. 281 CC, Voulgaris and Georgiadis and art. 334 of the
PORTUGUESE civil code).
In addition, under FINNISH law the Commercial Agent Act is applied by way of
analogy.
Also the ECE (art. 3 (3)) and the Unidroit Model Disclosure Law (art. 3 et seq.) include
an explicit pre-contractual obligation to provide information to the franchisee.
In contrast, under ENGLISH contract law there is no general duty of disclosure, Keates
v. Cadogan (1851) 10 CB 591, but only an obligation not to make misrepresentations,
Williams v. Natural Life Health Foods [1998] 2 All ER 577, Boyle v. Prontaprint, unre-
ported, 26 February 2000, CA; ANC v. Clark Golding, The Times 31 May 2000,
CAas.
2. Contents of the Information

FRENCH, ITALIAN and SPANISH law include a list concerning the items of informa-
tion to be provided, which broadly correspond with those in the present Article.
(FRANCE: a Decree has been adopted (n8 91-337, 4 April 1991, in relation to art.
L. 330-3 C. com.; ITALY: art. 3, 4 L. 129/2004; under SPANISH law a list of items is
included in Real Decreto 2485/1998 of 13 November 1998). Art. 6 of the Unidroit
Model Disclosure Law contains a more detailed list.
Under the other legal systems there are no specific statutory lists. However, the items
mentioned in Article 3:102 recur in the case law, legal literature and model contracts
in the following countries. GERMANY: OLG München, BB 2001, 1759; OLG München,
BB 1988, 865; Flohr, 18; Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 1-4, the OLG München, BB 1988,
865, OLG München NJW 1994, 667; GREECE: Georgiadis; PORTUGAL: Ribeiro (2000),
54.
In the NETHERLANDS the Hoge Raad has held that there is no general obligation for
the franchisor to inform the franchisee concerning future turn-over and profit expec-
tations (HR 25-1-2002, NJ 2003, 31, note J. B. M. Vranken). Further, concerning this
219
issue there is no consensus among legal authors. Some authors require a further reach-
ing obligation than the general one (Van der Heiden (1999) 47-48; Grosheide (1994)
382).
Under AUSTRIAN law there is only a general duty to disclose all the information
necessary to run the franchise business in a satisfactory manner.
3. Remedies
If the franchisor fails to provide the franchisee with pre-contractual information, the
franchisee usually has recourse to a remedy. However, these remedies differ from legal
system to legal system.
Under ITALIAN law, if the information provided is incorrect, the franchisee may avoid
the contract (art. 8 L.129/2004).
Art. L. 330-3 of the FRENCH C. Com. does not provide a specific remedy. From the
case law of the Cour de Cassation it follows that if the franchisor has failed to provide
the pre-contractual information, the franchise contract will be invalid, provided it has
been proven that there is a defective consent on the side of the franchisee (Cass. Com.
2-12-1997, D. 1998, somm., 334, obs. D. Ferrier, Cass. Com. 10-2-1998, D. 1998 somm.
334). Also under DUTCH law, it will result in invalidity of the contract on the basis of
defective consent (arts. 3:44, 6:228 BW). In addition, art. 6:230 BW provides the
franchisor the possibility to propose an adapation of the contract.
Under SPANISH law, the franchisee has private law remedies at its disposal as well
(art. 64 para 1 in fine Statute on Retail Law). However, there is no consensus among
authors concerning the type of remedy. Some argue that the rules on defective consent
apply (art. 1265 cc ff, Hernando, 128 ff). Then, the contract may be avoided and the
franchisee is entitled to claim restitution and damages.
Also, under GREEK and PORTUGUESE law the failure of the franchisor to provide
pre-contractual information results in the invalidity of the contract. In addition, the
franchisee may claim damages under the doctrine of culpa in contrahendo (GREECE:
arts. 140, 147, 178, 179 AK, with respect to arts. 178, 179 AK, the case law has been
restrictive CA Patras 150/2000 Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 8-9/2000 890; POR-
TUGAL: art. 227 CC, cf. Ribeiro (2000) 75).
Under GERMAN law non-performance of the obligation to provide pre-contractual
information may result in the obligation to pay damages (culpa in contrahendo),
recovering the negative Interesse (including: payments made to the franchisor, invest-
ments minus the re-sale-value, interests).
4. Form Requirements
Under FRENCH, ITALIAN, SPANISH and the Unidroit Model Disclosure Law two
form requirements must be fulfilled. The information must be provided in writing.
(FRANCE: art. L.330-3 C. com.; ITALY: art. 3(1) L. 129/2004; art. 62 para. 3 of the
SPANISH Statute on Retail Trade, art. 4 of the Unidroit Model Disclosure Law).
Moreover, the information must be provided within a certain period before the con-
clusion of the franchise contract. However, this precise period differs from country to
country. Under ITALIAN law it concerns 30 days before the conclusion of the fran-
chise contract (art. 4 (1) L. 129/2004), whereas under FRENCH and SPANISH law it
concerns 20 days before signing the contract or the precontract (FRANCE: art. L-330-3
C. Com.; art. 62 (3) of the SPANISH Statute on Retail Trade) and according to art. 3
220
of the Unidroit Model Disclosure law it concerns 14 days before the precontract or the
payment.
Under the other legal systems there are no form requirements, however in practise it is
common that the information is disclosed in writing. (GERMAN law: Martinek/Semler,
§ 19 no. 15-17; number 3.3. of the German Ethikkodex). See also the notes to Article
1:402 (Signed Written Document).
Section 2:
Obligations of the Franchisor
(1) The franchisor must grant the franchisee a right to use the intellectual property rights to the
extent necessary to operate the franchise business.
(2) The franchisor must make reasonable efforts to ensure the undisturbed and continuous use
of the intellectual property rights.
Comments
A. General Idea
Under Paragraph 1 of this provision, the franchisor is obliged to grant the franchisee the
licence to use the intellectual property rights related to the franchise business. It
necessarily implies that the franchisor owns or has legal rights to license the said rights
and that hence there are no third parties with better rights over the intellectual
property who may disturb the use of the proprietary rights by the franchisee.
Under Paragraph 2, the franchisor is compelled to undertake reasonable efforts to

prevent and to rectify situations where third parties claim that they have a better right
over the intellectual property and consequently attempt to disturb the use of the rights
by the franchisee.
Whilst Paragraph 1 imposes on the franchisor the obligation to attain a certain result,
which is to license the use of the property rights to the extent necessary to operate the
franchise business, Paragraph 2 merely requires the franchisor to observe due diligence
in providing an adequate response when there is an action, claim or proceeding brought
or threatened by a third party concerning such intellectual property rights.
The licensing of intellectual and industrial property rights is the cornerstone in the
proper functioning of the franchise business method. Consumer recognition of and
confidence in the product identified by the trademark is the lifeline of a successful
franchise system. In fact, this is the main reason for franchisees to be attracted by the
franchisor’s system of doing business.
222
Since it is the selling of products during the entire length of the agreement which forms
the object of the exploitation of the intellectual and industrial property rights it is
essential for the franchisee to be provided with the proper licences which are necessary
in order to be able to operate the attraction of the trademark and it is equally crucial
that the franchisor ensures the undisturbed and continued use of these rights.
The franchisor is interested in the expansion of its business and image. Therefore the
franchisor has on the one side to ensure that the members of the network utilize the
trademarks and other signs which identify the business and on the other side to prevent
and resolve situations where third parties intend to disturb the use of such rights. The
franchisor must be in the lead in any action, claim or proceeding brought or threatened
by a third party with regard to the intellectual property rights involved in the franchise
business.
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, the concept of ‘reasonableness’ in this
D. Granting Intellectual Property Rights
The exact meaning of the expression ‘granting the use of intellectual property rights’
depends on the intellectual property rules in each legal system. Neither ownership of
such rights nor registration is always a prerequisite for being able to assign them or to
grant their use. Thus, the franchisor may be the owner or merely have the legal rights to
grant or transfer the intellectual property rights involved in the franchise relationship.
E. Intellectual Property Rights Necessary for the

Operation of the Franchise Business
These words refer to the package of industrial and intellectual property rights relating to
trademarks, trade names, shop signs, logos, insignia, utility models, designs, copyrights
and related rights, software, drawings, plans or patents held by the franchisor for the
operation of the franchise business.
F. Undisturbed and Continuous Use of Intellectual Property Rights
The franchisor is required to make reasonable efforts to guarantee the undisturbed and
continuous use of intellectual property rights (Paragraph 2). In assessing what is reason-
able, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and the
usages and practices of the trade or profession involved should be taken into account.
(See further Article 1:302 PECL)
223
The franchisor’s intellectual property rights are protected against abuse by the franchi-
see. Apart from the rules in intellectual property law and the licence agreement, the
franchisee is under an obligation to strictly limit the use of the rights to the operation of
the franchised business and in the manner provided for by the franchisor (see Article
3:303). Moreover, the franchisee is to be identified as a mere licensee of such rights.
The obligation to guarantee the undisturbed and continuous use of these rights may
have different consequences depending on the national situation: e. g. the obligation to
fulfil validity requirements according to national legislation (for example, renewing
registration).
This is a mandatory rule; the parties are not free to agree otherwise.
H. Remedies
The obligation to grant the intellectual property rights involved in a franchise system is
an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-per-
formance the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in
Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Granting of Intellectual Property Rights
None of the European legal systems include a specific statutory provision of this type.
However, in a large majority of the legal systems either the granting of the right to use
intellectual property rights or the transfer of intellectual property rights is recognized
as an obligation of the franchisor in the case law, legal literature or model contracts.
The obligation to grant the franchisee a right to use intellectual property rights exists
under the following legal systems: FRENCH law (Ferrier, no. 687; Huet, no. 11621),
GERMAN law (Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 122; Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 10, art. 2.2. of
the Ethikkodex of the German Franchise Association), GREEK law (CA Thessaloniki
1043/1998 Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 1998 491; First Instance Court of Athens
23373/1998 Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 1999 864), NETHERLANDS: Pres. Rb.
Arnhem 29-04-1988, BIE 1989, 157-159 (Quick-sportschoenen), Hof ‘s-Hertogenbosch
23-05-1989, IER 1989, 93-94 (Mc Donald’s/Mc Mussel,) Van der Heiden (1999) 32, 38-
40). See also art. 1 III B EC Regulation 4097/88; art. 3.1 of the ICC Model Contract;
arts. 1, 2.2 of the ECE.
Under FINNISH law, even though there is no explicit obligation, it is considered to be
included in the duty to cooperate. Under ENGLISH law such an obligation is probably
considered to be an implied term (Adams/Prichard Jones Precedent I, (Clauses 4.1.4,
11.2)).
224
Under other legal systems the granting of intellectual property rights is a necessary
element to classify a contract as a franchise agreement. Without it, there is no fran-
chise contract, since the contract would not have a causa. This is the case in AUS-
TRIAN law; ITALIAN law: Tribunale di Milano, 30 April 1982, Soc. Standa c. Soc.
Arcobaleno Market, Foro it., 1982, I, 2042; PORTUGUESE LAW: Meneses Cordeiro
(1998) 76; Ribeiro (2000) 158; Pinto Monteiro (2002) 121; Pestana de Vasconcelos
(2000) 25, STJ 14 April 1999, Agravo n/ 176/99-2; SPANISH law: STS of 15 May
1985, Aranz. 1985/2393.
2. Undisturbed and Continuous Use

Such an obligation has been defended by BELGIAN and FRENCH authors. (BEL-
GIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete, no. 152; FRANCE: Ferrier, no. 687.) Also in
SPAIN, authors have defended such an application. They suggest the application of
the art. 1474 cc (concerning sales contracts) or art. 1554 cc concerning rent contracts
by way of analogy to franchise contracts. Both the seller and the sellor must provide
respectively the undisturbed us of the object sold or rented.
(1) Throughout the duration of the contract, the franchisor must provide the franchisee with the
know-how which is necessary to operate the franchise business.
Comments
A. General Idea
One of the franchisor’s main obligations is the obligation to provide the franchisee with
the relevant know-how, by means of operational manuals, or, in the case of general
knowledge and experience, through ongoing assistance.
Know-how is to be provided as part of the initial package to enable the franchisee to

start the operation of the business, but also during the entire duration of the agreement
in so far as necessary to operate the business activities correctly.
According to the present Article the franchisor must provide the franchisee with the
necessary know-how during the entire period of the contract. It implies that if during
the contract’s period the know-how is changed or updated, the franchisor must provide
the franchisee with the updated know-how.
225
Know-how plays a central role in the franchise system. The franchisor’s know-how is,
together with the appeal of the trademark, the most interesting value which the fran-
chisor has to offer to a franchisee. As a result, even relatively inexperienced entrepre-
neurs can start a sophisticated business concept. In addition, the franchisor and the
other franchisees have an interest in the franchisee being provided with relevant know-
how from the outset in order to maintain the standard and reputation of the whole
franchise chain. This guarantees that the same method of exploitation will be used,
which ensures the maintenance of the common image and reputation of the network
and therefore eventually benefits both parties in franchising. If, within that period, the
operational system has to be modified, the franchisee must be made aware of such
changes. In that way the franchisee will be able to adapt the operational method and
consequently continue the correct operation of the business.
D. Necessary Know-How
Know-how is defined by art. 1(f) of EC Regulation No. 2790/1999 as ‘ ... a package of

non-patented practical information, resulting from experience and tested by the sup-
plier, which is secret, substantial and identified: in this context “secret” means that the
know-how, as a body or in the precise configuration and assembly of its components, is
not generally known or easily accessible; “substantial” means that the know-how in-
cludes information which is indispensable to the buyer for the use, sale or resale of the
contract products; “identified” means that the know-how must be described in a suffi-
ciently comprehensive manner so as to make it possible to verify that it fulfils the
criteria of secrecy and substantiality.’
Necessary know-how includes technical information, financial data, advice on site

selection and the layout of the premises, the provision of start-up materials and any
other specifications specifically relating to the system and the intellectual property
rights and the utilisation thereof contained in the operating manuals or the agreement.
E. Regularly Reviewed Know-how
Any modification of the operational method has to be communicated promptly to the

franchisee. This is mainly done by updating the operational manuals and assisting the
franchisee in adapting to the changes.
226
F. Protection of Know-How
Protection of the franchisor’s know-how from misuse by franchisees and competitors is

taken care of by the provision which imposes on the franchisee the obligation to follow
the business method and instructions (Article 3:303) and by the confidentiality obliga-
tion in the general chapter (Article 1:204).
G. Relation to Article 3:205 (Information during the Contract)
The communication of know-how is a very particular manifestation of the franchisor’s

obligation to inform. It is considered to be one of the main obligations for the franchisor
since it concerns the indications as to how the business method is to be operated which
are vital to allow the franchisee to exploit the franchise business. Such information is
confidential because it forms part of the business secrets of the franchisor.
These specific characteristics justify that the obligation to communicate know-how,

although, strictly speaking, contained in a more general obligation to inform, is for-
mulated here as a specific obligation in a separate provision.
I. Remedies
The obligation to provide know-how is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101

PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may, in principle,
Notes
1. Know-How
The content of know-how in the present Article corresponds with the definition given
by art. 1 of the EC Regulation 2790/1999 on Vertical Agreements (see also note 1 to
Article 3:101). In ITALY a similar definition is included in art. 1 para 3 L 129/2004. A
corresponding definition is also used in BELGIAN, DUTCH, PORTUGUESE and
SPANISH case law or by the authors of these legal systems. (BELGIUM: Verbraeken
& de Schoutheete no. 150; THE NETHERLANDS: HR 25-1-2002, NJ 2003, 31 note
J. B. M. Vranken; SPAIN: STS 27-9-1997, RJ 1997\6646, STS 30-4-1998, RJ 1998\
3456, Hernando Giménez 245, Urıá 739, contra Echebarrıá Sáenz (1995) 307)
Art. 1 of the the EC Regulation 2790/1999 on Vertical Agreements defines know-how
as follows:
227
’... a package of non-patented practical information, resulting from experience and

testing by the supplier, which is secret, substantial and identified: in this context,
“secret” means that the know-how, as a body or in the precise configuration and
assembly of its components, is not generally known or easily accessible; “substantial”
means that the know-how includes information which is indispensable to the buyer for
the use, sale or resale of the contract goods or services; “identified” means that the
know-how must be described in a sufficiently comprehensive manner so as to make it
possible to verify that it fulfils the criteria of secrecy and substantiality;’
Under the ECE and in the comments of the ICC MODEL CONTRACT different
definitions are employed. However, within these definitions the common features of
know-how are: confidentiality, substantiality and identification.
2. Granting Know-How
Under none of the legal systems is there an explicit statutory obligation to provide the
franchisee with the necessary know-how. However, in a majority of the legal systems
such an obligation has been accepted in the case law, legal literature or model con-
tracts.
Under some legal systems such an obligation has been accepted as such, for instance
under DUTCH law: HR 25-1-2002, NJ 2003, 31 note J. B. M. Vranken; PORTUGUESE
law: Ribeiro (2000) 167, Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 27, Menezes Cordeiro (1998)
76.
Under other legal systems it is inferred from the duty to cooperate. FINLAND; GER-
MAN law: Flohr, 108; Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 116; Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 10;
GREEK law: Court of Appeal of Thessaloniki 1043/1998 Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai
Etairion 1998 491; First Instance Court of Athens 23373/1998 Dikaio Epixeiriseon
kai Etairion 1999 864
However, under the FRENCH and SPANISH legal systems granting know-how is to be
considered a validity requirement. Without this, the franchise contract is void, since
there is no causa (FRANCE: CA Paris, 7. 06. 1990, D. 1990, IR. 176.; 31. 03. 1993, RJDA
1993, n8 613. Com. 19. 02. 1991, D. 1992 somm. 391, obs. D. Ferrier; Huet, no. 11621;
SPAIN: SAP Barcelona 10-5-2000, JUR 2000\211264, SAP Barcelona 23-12-2003, AC
2004\433). However, another situation is distinguished as well. When there is know-
how, but the franchisor refuses to provide it to the franchisee, the contract can be
terminated by the court because of non-performance and damages can be granted
(Com. 24. 05. 1994, Cont. Conc. Consomm. 1994, n8 191 with note L. Leveneur).
See also art. 9 of the ICC Model Contract, art. 1 of the ECE.
(1) The franchisor must provide the franchisee with assistance in the form of training courses,
guidance and advice, in so far as necessary for the operation of the franchise business,
without additional charge for the franchisee.
(2) The franchisor must provide further assistance, in so far as reasonably requested by the
franchisee, at a reasonable cost.
228
Comments
A. General Idea
Providing the franchisee with the right to use the intellectual property rights and with
the know-how concerning the franchisor’s method is generally not sufficient to allow
the franchisee to successfully manage the business. In addition to such information, the
franchisee may need assistance from the franchisor on using the information concerned
in practice.
Paragraph 1 imposes on franchisors an obligation to assist the franchisees in order to

provide them with the necessary support in commencing the operation of the business
(initial assistance) and to solve problems which may arise throughout the duration of
the relationship regarding the operation of the business concept (ongoing assistance).
The franchisor is not only obliged to provide assistance actively but also to respond to
the franchisee’s demands for assistance when the requested assistance is necessary to
enable the franchisee to operate the business correctly.
The content of the obligation to assist is specified in the wording of the Article:
assistance is provided in the form of training courses, guidance and advice.
Paragraph 1 in fine indicates that the assistance that is necessary in order to allow the
franchisee to adequately operate the franchised business is to be provided without any
additional cost for the franchisee. It means that the payment to be made in exchange for
assistance is deemed to be included in the payments made by the franchisee for the right
to operate the franchisor’s business method.
Paragraph 2 concerns the obligation for the franchisor to respond to requests from the
franchisee for further assistance. The franchisor is obliged to provide such assistance
when the request is reasonable. The franchisor can charge the franchisee for the provi-
sion of further assistance in so far as the additional cost is reasonable.
This provision is mainly aimed at safeguarding the franchisee’s expectations concerning

the system which the franchisee has entered. Franchisees need certainty as to the proper
way in which to conduct the franchised business, and it is only the franchisor which can
provide this.
On the other hand, the obligation to assist (Paragraph 1) and to be responsive to

requests for further assistance insofar as they are reasonable (Paragraph 2), is a burden
imposed on the franchisor since it requires the franchisor continuously to keep up with
the activities of the franchisees and to collaborate actively with the members of the
network during the entire period of the agreement in order to guarantee that they
operate the business correctly.
229
However, by providing active assistance to the franchisees, the franchisor thus guaran-
tees a uniform exploitation throughout the network which is in the interest of all the
franchisees, and ultimately of the franchisor as well.
The PECL do not contain such a rule. The concepts of ‘reasonableness’ in this Article
refer to Article 1:302 PECL.
D. Necessary Assistance
Assistance is to be considered as a broad concept. It comprises the organisation of

training courses, the provision of advice based on general knowledge and experience,
e. g. advice on real estate and financial planning and visits to premises, in so far as is
required in order to allow the franchisee to adequately operate the franchise business.
Assistance in situ may include additional training (usually in an area of weakness or with
respect to a newly introduced service, good, method or technique), the identification of
the franchisee’s successes and weaknesses, the establishment of strategies to attain the
goals which have been set, conversations with employees and customers, and technical
assistance.
The obligation (in the interest of the franchisee) to provide assistance on-site must be
differentiated from the right (in the interest of the franchisor) of inspection under
Article 3:304.
E. Responsive to Reasonable Requests for Further Assistance
Standard assistance from the franchisor may not suffice to provide all franchisees with
sufficient certainty concerning the method by which to conduct the business. Franchi-
sees may need additional input from their franchisor. Through the present provision
franchisees are granted the right to demand further assistance from the franchisor at a
reasonable cost, in so far as such requests are reasonable. To assess whether requests are
reasonable, the nature and the purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case
and the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved should be taken into
account. (See further Article 1:302 PECL.) Normally, requests which are meant to
achieve guidance which serves to meet the specific needs of the franchisee in order to
guarantee the adequate operation of the business, will be considered reasonable.
F. Without Additional Cost
Necessary assistance, jointly with the intellectual property rights and know-how, are part
of the business package which the franchisor must transfer to the franchisee in exchange
230
for direct or indirect financial remuneration. Therefore, such remuneration covers the
provision of assistance which is necessary for the operation of the business. Only demands
for specific assistance which is not necessary in general terms, but which may be necessary
for the particular franchisee in order to meet the franchisee’s needs as regards the
adequate operation of the business and the maintenance of the quality standards, could
lead to extra costs for the franchisee, in so far as the additional cost is reasonable.
H. Remedies
The obligation to provide assistance is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. Obligation to Provide Assistance
In all legal systems the franchisor’s obligation to provide assistance is considered to be
one of the franchisor’s main obligations by case law, legal authors or model contracts.
(BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete No.151; FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque,
no. 955, Ferrier, no. 692, Huet, no. 11621; NETHERLANDS: Van der Heiden (1999),
58 PORTUGAL: Ribeiro (2000) 179 ff, Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 32; Menezes
Cordeiro (1998) 76; SPAIN SAP Valencia 21-05-1993 (AC 1993\1024), Hernando
Giménez 272 et seq.; under GREEK law the situation appears to be the same as under
the present Article.)
Under FINNISH, GERMAN and ITALIAN law this obligation follows from the doc-
trine of good faith or the duty to cooperate. (ITALIAN law: eg Lodo Arbitrale, Torino
11 July 1995, Società X c. Società Y, unpublished in Frignani, 157). In addition, under
GERMAN law the rule concerning commercial agency is applied by way of analogy to
franchising as well. (GERMANY Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 91; Küstner/Thume,
no. 1694, Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 10; Number 2.2. of the Ethikkodex of the German
Franchise Association).
Also ENGLISH authors seem to defend an obligation to provide assistance (Adams/
Prichard Jones 348).
See also art. 15 of the ICC Model Contract and arts. 1, 2.2 of the ECE.
2. Free of Extra Charge

The ICC Model Contract states, in Article 15.5: ‘The Franchisor shall use its reason-
able endeavours to also provide the Franchisee with additional specific training, at the
latter’s request, to meet its specific needs at the Franchisee’s sole expense and on the
dates and at the locations stipulated by the Franchisor.’Also according to the defini-
231
tion of the ECE assistance is free of charge: in exchange for the fee the franchisee is
entitled, among other things, to ongoing assistance. Also according to BELGIAN law
the price is included in the royalties (Verbraeken & de Schoutheete no.158).
from a supplier designated by the franchisor, the franchisor must ensure that the products
ordered by the franchisee are supplied within a reasonable time, in so far as practicable, and
required to do so.
Comments
A. General Idea
The present Article is meant to establish (under Paragraph 1) that in the case that the
franchisee is forced to obtain its goods or services only from the franchisor or from a
supplier that is appointed by the franchisor, the franchisor must guarantee that the
orders for the supply of the franchisee are rendered within a reasonable time, no matter
whether the supplier is the franchisor or a third party designated by the franchisor, in so
far as the demands for supply are reasonable.
This provision also concerns cases where parties do not explicitly agree on an exclusive
purchasing obligation for the franchisee but where the franchisee has recourse, in fact,
to no other source of supply than the one provided by the franchisor or by the suppliers
designated by the franchisor – e. g. when only the products supplied by the franchisor
and suppliers designated by the franchisor meet the quality standards required. Accord-
ing to Paragraph 2, the franchisor is also obliged to guarantee the delivery of the
products to the franchisee within a reasonable time when there is de facto exclusivity.
It is a very common practice in franchising that parties agree on an exclusive purchasing

clause in favour of the franchisor. This obligation means that the franchisee’s needs for
supply can only be met either by the franchisor or by suppliers designated according to
which the franchisee is obliged to purchase the products which are the subject of the
franchise exclusively from the franchisor or from other suppliers designated by the
franchisor.
232
Exclusive purchasing obligations are justified when they aim to assure that the products
distributed within the franchise network fulfil the objective quality standards of the
franchisor’s network. However, such a constraint is likely to have very negative con-
sequences for the franchisee when the franchisor or the designated suppliers refuse to
meet the franchisee’s orders for supply, restrict the amount to be delivered or delay
delivery without any business-related justification. This provision is meant to reduce
these negative effects by assuring that the decision whether or not to supply the
franchisee is not at the sole discretion of the franchisor or the designated suppliers.
This rule may be deemed a very burdensome obligation since the franchisor is obliged to
guarantee that the franchisee is provided within a reasonable time with the supplies
ordered, even when the counterpart of the franchisee in the sales contract is not the
franchisor but another supplier designated by the franchisor. The rationale of this rule is
that when the franchisee grants exclusivity to the franchisor, the former should obtain
some advantage in return.
The obligation is, however, limited to guarantee the delivery of reasonable orders. The
reasonableness test is meant to protect the supplier against orders for supply which
demand the delivery of products which are not actually needed to enable the franchisee
to operate the business. These are orders which exceed what the franchisee would
normally order according to the contract and to the franchisee’s actual needs for supply.
Furthermore, the franchisor is only obliged to guarantee delivery in so far as it is
practicable to do so (for the franchisor or for the designated suppliers) taking into
account the suppliers supply capacity.
A prompt delivery of the products is eventually beneficial for both parties. An adequate
supply permits the franchisee to continue with the operation of the distribution business
whilst at the same time it prevents temptations, on the side of the franchisee, to
purchase competing products in order to fulfil its need for supply. Such a reaction of
the franchisee would be certainly risky for the franchisor and the other franchisees
because it may alter the uniform quality of the products within the franchise network.
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, the concept of reasonableness within
this provision refers to Article 1:302 PECL. The performance of the obligations in the
sales contract concluded between the franchisor and the franchisee or between the
designated suppliers and the franchisee is governed by the provisions on sales.
D. Designated Suppliers
In correspondance with the franchisor’s prerogative to restrict the franchisees’ freedom

of business by compelling them to purchase the products from selected suppliers, the
franchisor is obliged to guarantee that the designated suppliers provide the franchisee
233
within a reasonable time with the products which the franchisee orders, provided that
these orders are reasonable.
E. Reasonable Time
The franchisor and the designated supplier are obliged to supply the franchisee within a
reasonable time from the moment the supply order is given. The reasonableness of the
period within which the franchisor must warn the franchisee is governed by Article
1:302 PECL.
F. Practicability
The franchisee is entitled to demand the fulfillment of the supply orders in so far as it is
not unreasonable for the franchisor and the third designated suppliers to fulfil such
demands in view of their actual supply resources. Supply would also be impracticable if
the supplier encounters an insuperable obstacle to perform or the fulfilment of such an
obligation would cause inconvenience or expenses on the supplier’s side which are
substantially disproportionate to the demands of the franchisee.
G. Reasonable Order
To assess whether an order is reasonable, the nature and the purposes of the contract,
the circumstances of the case and the usages and practices of the trade or profession
involved must be taken into account (see further Article 1:302 PECL). In this respect it
is particularly relevant whether the franchisee pursues delivery of products of the
quality, quantity and modality which is required by the franchise contract and which
enable the franchisee to operate the distribution activities adequately, and whether the
orders fall within the scope of the franchising contract, i. e. the franchisee is to be
provided with the products which are the subject of the franchise. Special market
conditions could justify demands for supply which exceed the franchisee’s normal re-
quests.
H. De Facto Exclusivity
Paragraph 2 concerns the situation where the parties have not agreed explicitly upon
exclusive purchasing obligations, but where there is an exclusivity de facto. Such is the
case when the franchisee has in fact no possibility to be supplied by any other supplier
because e. g. the other suppliers do not meet the quality standards imposed by the
franchisor or it is not possible to find the products which are the subject of the franchise
in the market. Other examples are situations where better prices of the products offered
by the franchisor have led the franchisee to purchase exclusively from the franchisor; or
where the franchisee has been buying exclusively from the franchisor from the start of
their contract and in fact an exclusive sales relationship is the result.
234
J. Remedies
The obligation to guarantee delivery is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Apart from the case of unreasonable orders, refusals may only be justified either by a
right to withhold performance (Article 9:201 PECL) or by an excuse due to an impedi-
ment (Article 8:108 PECL).
Notes
1. In General
A stipulation that the franchisee may only purchase certain goods from the franchisor
or designated sellers is rather common in franchise contracts. (See also Art. 18.1 ICC
Model Contract).
Only, under BELGIAN law does there seem to be a rule which is similar to the present
Article (Verbraeken & de Schoutheete, no. 153). For the other legal systems no rules
were found in the legislation, case law or literature.
The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the franchisor in particular to provide the
franchisee with information concerning:
(a) the relevant market conditions,
(b) the commercial results of the franchise network,
(c) the characteristics of the products,
(d) the prices and terms for the sale of products,
(e) any recommended prices and terms for the resale of products,
(f) any relevant communication between the franchisor and customers in the territory,
(g) any advertising campaigns relevant to the operation of the franchise.
235
Comments
A. General Idea
This provision includes an obligation for the franchisor to provide information (without
being requested by the franchisee) and specifies the types of information that should
normally be disclosed. The obligation to inform comprises more than communicating
know-how or providing assistance. It refers to all the relevant data concerning the
exploitation of the franchised business, such as general information concerning the
market, research projects, improvements made to the business method or commercial
results. The list of required information is not exhaustive.
In certain circumstances it may be reasonable for the franchisor to charge the franchisee
for the specific information to be provided.
Both parties have an interest in being kept informed concerning facts and developments
which are relevant to their performance. It can make their performance easier and more
successful. The reciprocal exchange of information throughout the franchise network
also benefits the whole network: it will lead to a continuous improvement of the
business method.
This provision is aimed at guaranteeing that the franchisee, that is obliged to conduct
the franchise business according to the concept of the franchisor, is provided with all
the relevant information regarding the franchisor’s business method which allows the
proper performance of the franchisee’s obligations. This obligation also serves to meet
the interests of the franchisor, since by providing such information the franchisor
guarantees that all franchisees operate the business in a uniform manner and meet the
quality specifications required.
C. Relation to PECL
This Article may be regarded as a further specification of the obligation to cooperate

(Article 1:202) and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing (Articles 1:201, 1:202
PECL). Comparable obligations are included in Articles 2:307 and 4:202.
D. Necessary Information
The franchisee must be provided in due time with all the information which the
franchisee needs for the proper operation of the franchise business (Article 1:203).
In particular, the information to be provided normally includes the disclosure of the

following features:
236
(a) Market Conditions
This mainly regards up-dated information concerning the state of competition and the
state of demand.
(b) Commercial Results of the Franchise Network
The welfare and success of the franchisor’s method requires that all the members of the
network operate the system in a uniform manner. It means that the achievement of the
expected profit by a franchisee does not only depend on its isolated efforts to operate
the franchise outlet but also depends on the business efforts of the other franchisees.
Therefore, the individual business activity of each franchisee has an impact on the
business results of the other members. The information on whether the other members
are achieving positive or negative commercial results is an indicator of whether the
system is working adequately.
This obligation imposes indirectly an obligation on each franchisee to inform the

franchisor concerning the individual commercial results, but this is in any case the
common practice in franchising since the ongoing payments are generally calculated on
the basis of the achieved benefits of each franchisee.
(c) Characteristics of the Products
Franchisees are intermediaries in the distribution channel since they undertake the
obligation to pass on the products of the franchisor to customers. The relevant infor-
mation regarding such products is in the hands of franchisors. In fact, it is for the
franchisor to establish the quality standards which are to be met by the products offered
to consumers. An adequate performance of the contractual obligations of franchisees
requires adequate and accurate knowledge concerning the products and services offered
to third parties during the time the franchisee carries out its task as a distributor.
Therefore the franchisor shall provide the franchisee with updated information on the
characteristics of the goods and services which are to be distributed.
(d) Prices and Conditions for the Sale of Products
Franchise contracts generally contain a sales agreement by which the seller (franchisor)
agrees with the buyer (franchisee) on the terms under which the sale of the products is
to be carried out. Among them is the sales price. Due to the generally long-term
character of franchise agreements, these conditions may change during the course of
the relationship. If such is the case it is for the franchisor, as the supplier of the products
and consequently the one which has access to such an information, to inform the
franchisee.
237
(e) Any Recommended Prices and Terms for the Resale of Products
In addition to the sales contract concluded between franchisor and franchisee, in

franchising agreements there is another sales contract. This is the sales contract con-
cluded between the franchisee and the customer for the resale of products. Usually
franchisors recommend which prices are to be charged to the customer. The franchisees
will typically respect such recommendations in order to ensure a competitive position in
the market and a certain harmonization with the price policy and the advertising
campaigns throughout the network which eventually benefits all franchisees.
(f) Relevant Communication with Customers in the Territory
Any contact between the franchisor and customers belonging to the territory where the
franchisee’s outlet is located which can be relevant as to the operation of the business
by the individual franchisee (e. g. preferences of customers, expected changes in de-
mand) is to be communicated to the franchisee.
(g) Advertising Campaigns
The success of franchisees in conducting the business depends on the maintenance of

the reputation of the network which is made known to customers through advertising.
The franchisor is under an obligation to ensure an adequate advertising strategy and to
coordinate the promotion activities of the members of the network (Article 3:207).
Such an obligation necessarily implies giving information to the franchisees regarding
the advertising initiatives taken by the franchisor, notably regarding those which do not
involve the participation of franchisees on a local level.
E. No Formalities
There is no formal requirement as to the way in which this obligation must be per-
formed, e. g.: in writing. Nevertheless, in practice such information will generally be
provided in writing.
This is a default rule; the parties are free to exclude all or some of the specific instances
mentioned in this Article.
G. Remedies

the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the ag-
grieved party may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
238
Notes
1. The Franchisor’s Obligation to Inform its Franchisee
Under none of the legal systems is there an explicit statutory obligation for the
franchisor to provide information to the franchisee during performance. However,
under a majority of the legal systems, such an obligation is considered to be included
in the obligation to cooperate or it follows from the doctrine of good faith by legal
authors. The items mentioned in Article 3:205 recur in the case law and legal litera-
ture of a majority of the legal systems. (DUTCH law, Van der Heiden (1999) 59 ff;
ENGLISH law; FINNISH law; GERMAN law: Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 123, 165, § 8
no. 18; Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 60-67; GREEK law: First Instance Court of Athens
1733/2000 Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 7/2000 746 with annotation by Kostakis;
ITALIAN law: eg Lodo Arbitrale, Torino 11 July 1995, Società X c. Società Y, published
in: Frignani (1999) 157; PORTUGAL: Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 32).
In addition, under GERMAN law the law on commercial agency (§ 86 a II HGB) is also
applied by way of analogy to franchising (Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 123, 165, § 8 no. 18;
Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 60-67).
However, under FRENCH law this obligation follows from the obligation to assist,
which is based on good faith. (See also: art. 11, 15.7 of the ICC Model Contract.)
from a supplier designated by the franchisor, the franchisor must warn the franchisee within
a reasonable time when the franchisor foresees or ought to foresee, that the franchisor’s
supply capacity or the supply capacity of the designated suppliers will be significantly less
than the franchisee had reason to expect.
required to do so.
(3) The parties may not derogate from this provision to the detriment of the franchisee.
Comments
A. General Idea
This provision concerns situations where the franchisee is obliged to purchase the
contract products only from the franchisor or from other suppliers designated by the
franchisor. This rule establishes that in such cases the franchisor must warn the fran-
chisee when the franchisor foresees or ought to foresee an important decrease in the
franchisor’s supply capacity or in the supply capacity of the authorized suppliers. This
obligation does not concern decreases in the supply capacity of the franchisor or
authorized third suppliers which can be reasonably expected by the franchisee. How-
239
ever, it regards situations where the supply capacity of the suppliers turns out to be
significantly less than what the franchisee had reasons to expect.
Paragraph 2 extends the obligation for the franchisor in franchise relationships where,
even though the parties have not agreed on a contractual obligation to exclusive
purchasing, the franchisee is, in fact, obliged to buy on an exclusive basis from the
franchisor or from authorized suppliers.
An exclusive purchasing obligation implies that the franchisee is not allowed to find
sources of supply other than the one provided by the franchisor or the designated
supplier. Eventually, this means that the franchisee entirely depends on the supply
capacity of the franchisor and the authorized suppliers. Therefore, also in the situation
that the franchisor or the authorized suppliers cannot supply the products involved in
the franchise business, the franchisee cannot approach other suppliers.
This provision intends to protect the franchisee in such situations. It aims to avoid
situations where it is not possible for the franchisee to continue operating the business
because the suppliers cannot deliver the required supplies due to a decrease in the
supply capacity. Due to the franchisor’s warning, the franchisee is able to adapt the new
availability of supplies to the demand of customers and hence to avoid orders that the
franchisor is not able to meet. In view thereof, the franchisor must warn the franchisee
as soon as possible, so that the latter may react promptly.
This obligation may be deemed burdensome for the franchisor. However, this strict
obligation is justified, since the franchisor is the one that imposes on the franchisee the
obligation to purchase exclusively from the selected suppliers (see Article 3:204). In
addition, this obligation is not unreasonably burdensome since the franchisor does not
have to provide the franchisee with the reasons as to why the supply capacity will
change and since there are two limits to the obligation of the franchisor: (1) the
decrease in the supply capacity must be foreseeable and (2) the decrease cannot be
reasonably expected by the franchisee.
This obligation to warn is also in the franchisor’s interests. If the warning is given a
sufficient time in advance, the franchisee will be able to adapt to the new supply
availability and find solutions which avoid the disappointment of customers when they
are not provided with the products they expect. Consequently the franchisor’s reputa-
tion will not be negatively influenced.
C. Relation to PECL

and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing contained in articles 1:201 and 1:202
PECL respectively. The concept of ‘reasonableness’ in this Article refers to Article 1:302
240
PECL. According to Article 1:303 PECL, the franchisor’s warning becomes effective
when it reaches the franchisee. Similar obligations to warn are included in Articles
2:309 and 4:203.
D. Supply Capacity
The supply capacity of the franchisor or of the designated suppliers concerns the
availability of products of the type which the franchisee has ordered or usually orders.
E. Designated Third Suppliers
In correspondance with the franchisor’s prerogative to restrict the freedom of business of

the franchisees by compelling them to purchase the products from selected suppliers,
the franchisor is obliged, according to this provision to warn the franchisee when the
franchisor foresees or ought to foresee that the supply capacity of the selected suppliers
will be significantly less than what the franchisee had reason to expect.
F. Reasonable Time
In principle, the warning must be given a sufficient time in advance in order to allow
the franchisee to react and adapt to the new supply availability. To assess what is
reasonable, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and
the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved should be taken into
account. (See further Article 1:302 PECL.)
G. Significant Decrease
The franchisor must warn the franchisee when the supply capacity will be significantly
less than expected. It follows that no obligation arises in the case of a minor or
temporary obstacle to supply.
H. Expectations of the Franchisee
The franchisee will normally expect to be provided with the amount of products
purchased from the franchisor or the designated suppliers and which corresponds
with the franchisee’s needs for supply with a view to an adequate operation of its
business.
241
I. De Facto Exclusivity
Paragraph 2 equates situations where the parties have explicitly agreed on exclusive
purchasing obligations with situations where there is no explicit agreement, but none-
theless there is a situation of actual exclusivity. This is the case when the franchisee has
in fact no possibility to buy from other suppliers because no one meets the quality
standards imposed by the franchisor or because it is impossible to find the products
which are the subject of the franchise in the market.
J. Character of the Rule
K. Remedies
The obligation to warn against decreased supply is an obligation in the sense of Article
8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may resort
Notes
1. In General
This rule has been taken from the Directive on commercial agency (art. 4(2)b). It can
be considered a specific instance of the obligation to provide information and to
cooperate. See the notes to Articles 1:202, 1:203. Under the legal systems studied no
specific information concerning such an obligation in relation to franchising was
found.
(1) The franchisor must make reasonable efforts to promote and maintain the reputation of the
franchise network.
(2) In particular, the franchisor must design and co-ordinate the appropriate advertising cam-
paigns aiming at the promotion of the franchise network.
(3) The activities of promotion and maintenance of the reputation of the franchise network are
to be carried out without additional charge to the franchisee.
242
Comments
A. General Idea
Under this provision the franchisor must make reasonable efforts to promote and
maintain the network. These efforts include maintaining the good reputation of the
intellectual property rights related to the franchise business. In the same manner it
requires the observation of due diligence in assuring that the know-how is up-dated and
is in conformity with the relevant circumstances. The maintenance of such a common
reputation also depends on the extent to which uniformity is preserved. Such uniformity
is achieved when all the members within the network follow the common guidelines for
conducting the business. All these aspects, pursuant to this provision, fall under the
franchisor’s control. In addition, the franchisor must actively promote the business.
Paragraph 2 stresses the importance of advertising as a crucial activity in maintaining

the good reputation of the network. Since the success of a franchise business largely
depends on the appeal of the formula and the trademark, the franchisor must make
reasonable efforts to promote the franchise chain through advertising campaigns. The
advertising efforts, the costs of which are to be borne by the franchisor, point to the
activities of design and coordination of the campaigns followed by the members of the
network (Paragraph 3).
This Article does not include advertising campaigns where the initiative is taken by the
franchisee as an independent entrepreneur and which are intended to promote the
franchisee outlet on a local level.
The reputation and image of the franchisor’s method of business with respect to con-
sumers attract businesses which are interested in adopting the same formula in order to
have a high possibility of making a profit. The economic profitability of the franchise
business for both franchisor and franchisee depends on the maintenance of the good
reputation and image of the network towards consumers. Therefore, both parties’ ac-
tivities will be aimed at maintaining the good reputation of the network.
Since the franchisor is in the position to exercise control over the intellectual property
rights and know-how related to the business concept and especially over the activities of
the members of the network, it is for the franchisor to devote reasonable efforts to
promote and maintain the good reputation of the network, especially by guaranteeing a
uniform operation of the business formula by the franchisees in the network.
The maintenance of the good reputation of the network necessarily requires an ade-
quate promotional activity to be carried out by the franchisor in co-ordination with all
its franchisees to guarantee a common image in the eyes of the public.
243
This obligation, which may seem very burdensome for franchisors, may not in practice
have such a negative impact. What generally occurs is that franchisors are reluctant to
grant a great deal of discretion to franchisees in promoting the franchise business. The
reason for this is that a uniform and reputable image of the system is normally made
known to customers through advertising. Therefore, contracts generally contain clauses
whereby the franchisor undertakes the obligation to control promotional activities.
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, the concept of reasonableness within
this provision refers to Article 1:302 PECL. Chapter 4 on distribution includes a similar
rule (Article 4:205).
The franchisor is required to make reasonable efforts to guarantee the maintenance of

the good reputation of the franchise network. To assess what is reasonable the nature
and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and the usages and practices
of the trade or profession involved, among other things, should be taken into account.
(See also further Article 1:302 PECL).
E. Appropriate Advertising Campaigns
Appropriate advertising campaigns mainly refer to advertising campaigns on an inter-

national, national or regional level which are aimed at promoting of the franchisor’s
business on a general level. The initiative is to be taken by the franchisor, who is
furthermore obliged to guarantee that all members of the network uniformly follow the
campaigns.
Some of the advertising campaigns may require the participation of franchisees on a

local level. The franchisee must participate on a local level in the advertising cam-
paigns launched by the franchisor in so far as these campaigns are reasonable.
F. Without Additional Cost
Pursuant to this Article, the costs of promoting and maintaining the reputation of the
network are to be paid by the franchisor. In other words, the price that the franchisee
has to pay as a contribution to the advertising campaigns launched by the franchisor is
deemed to be included in the periodical payments incurred by the franchisee. This is a
presumption against uncontrolled and unilateral ‘grossing-up’ of royalties in the guise of
advertising costs. It therefore intends to protect the franchisee in that the franchisee
does not have to pay for the advertising unless the contract explicitly says so and the
franchisee was properly informed of this during the pre-contractual stage.
244
The exception to this rule regards those situations where the franchisee must participate
on a local level in the advertising campaigns launched by the franchisor. If that is the
case, the costs of local advertising are to be covered by the franchisee provided that the
price is reasonable.
H. Remedies
The obligation for the franchisor to maintain the welfare of the franchise network is an
obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-perfor-
mance the franchisee may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter
9 PECL.
Notes
1. Reasonable Efforts to Promote and Maintain the Network’s Reputation
This obligation has been accepted by a large majority of the legal systems. However, its
legal basis and character differs from country to country.
Under some legal systems such an obligation has been accepted by legal authors.
(DUTCH law: Van der Heiden (1999) 87, Kneppers-Heynert; FRENCH law: Dutilleul
& Delebecque no. 955, Ferrier no. 691; PORTUGUESE law: Ribeiro (2000), 161 ff.;
SPANISH law: Echebarrıá Sáenz (1995) 376 et seq.; Hernando Giménez 269). The
situation appears to be the same under GREEK law. See also art. 15.7 of the ICC
Model Contract)
Under GERMAN law such an obligation may be inferred from the doctrine of good
faith (§ 242 BGB, Giesler/Nauschütt § 5 no. 143 et seq., BGHZ 136, 295)
Under FINNISH law there is no such specific rule ([reference]); the situation appears to
be the same under ENGLISH law.
2. Advertising
Under none of the legal systems there is such a specific statutory obligation.
However, under PORTUGUESE law such an obligation is inferred from the obligation
to maintain the reputation of the network (Ribeiro (2001) 196). Also under DUTCH
law a lower courts has recognized such an obligation (Praktijkgids, 1998, 105-106).
Under BELGIAN and SPANISH law such an obligation is included in the obligation of
assistance. However, this obligation is restricted to national or even international
campaigns (BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete no. 151 (c); SPAIN: Echebarrıá
Sáenz (1995) 311).
245
Most model contracts include an explicit contractual term in this respect. (Arts. 15.6
and 15.7 of the ICC Model Contract; ENGLAND: Adams/Prichard Jones Precedent I,
Clause 6.4; see for GERMAN law: Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 10; ITALY: Frignani, 291;
3. Costs
According to BELGIAN law sometimes these costs are regarded as being included in
the fee, whereas in other circumstances, the franchisee may be charged for this (Ver-
braeken & de Schoutheete no. 158).
According to Article 16.1 ICC Model Contract the franchisor must pay a certain
percentage of its gross quarterly sales to contribute to the Franchisor’s promotional
activities in relation to the business. It seems that the franchisor must bear the costs of
the initial advertising compaign (art. 15.6).
Section 3:
Obligations of the Franchisee
(1) The franchisee must pay to the franchisor fees, royalties or other periodical payments agreed
upon in the contract.
(2) If fees, royalties or any other periodical payments are to be determined unilaterally by the
franchisor, Article 6:105 PECL applies.
Comments
A. General Idea
In practice, the parties to a franchise contract generally agree on an initial payment,

which is viewed as an ‘admission ticket’ to enter the franchise network. It is normally a
fixed amount which essentially covers the franchisor’s initial training and recruitment
costs. In addition, parties further agree on periodical payments or royalties, which are to
be paid during the whole duration of the contractual relationship, in exchange for the
continuous exploitation of the business, ongoing assistance provided by the franchisor
and so on. This provision spells out the franchisee’s obligation to pay these fees,
royalties and periodical payments.
However, where the contract states that such fees are to be determined (at a later stage)
by the franchisor unilaterally and the franchisor’s determination of the price is unrea-
sonable, a reasonable price is substituted by law in accordance with Article 6:105 PECL.
In many franchise relationships periodical fees cannot be established at the moment of

concluding the contract for its whole duration. Sometimes it is not even possible to
establish an objective mechanism beforehand. In those cases it may be reasonable to
accept the validity of a contract which leaves the determination of a term, even one as
important as the periodical fee, to one party, which is very often the franchisor. How-
ever, the law must closely monitor the use which the franchisor makes of such a
discretionary power, especially in the case of franchise contracts where the franchisee
is frequently heavily dependant (as a result of extensive investments) on the continuity
of the contractual relationship.
This Article provides the franchisee with strong protection in the case of an abuse by
the franchisor of its discretionary power: the legal effect is not the invalidity of the
247
unreasonable term (and maybe as a result the invalidity of the whole contract) but the
substitution of a reasonable term by law. If the franchisor does not want to continue the
contractual relationship on these reasonable terms, it is left with no other choice but to
end the contract. However, in that case it will have to respect the rules contained in
Chapter 1. In particular, it will have to give reasonable notice.
Such strong protection is necessary in order to avoid the situation where a franchisor
can effectively end the contract without having to give reasonable notice simply by
unreasonably raising the fee, thus forcing the franchisee to end the contract.
C. Relation to PECL
This Article applies – specifically concerning fees, royalties or any other periodical
payments in franchise contracts – what Article 6:105 PECL generally states concerning
the price and any other contractual term in any contract. This Article aims to ensure
that any fees, royalties or any other periodical payments which are to be established
unilaterally by the franchisor are covered by the policy laid down in the PECL provision.
An additional justification for the presence of this specific Article is that the unrea-
sonable unilateral determination of fees is one of the most recurrent problems in
franchise relationships. Therefore, a clear and specific rule is appropriate.
D. Reasonable Fee
Reasonableness in the context of the Article is to be judged by the criteria included in

Article 1:302 PECL. For instance, the circumstances of the case and the applicable
usages must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as franchisor and
franchisee in the same situation would consider reasonable.
E. Calculation of Royalties and Periodical Payments
Royalties and periodical payments are frequently calculated on the basis of the fran-
chisee’s quarterly gross sales. Since these payments are to be made on a periodical basis
and during the entire course of the agreement, they are normally increased by the
franchisor to adapt the price to inflation and other circumstances relating to the con-
tract (for example, an increase in production costs, an increase in the value of the shares
of the franchise company, improvements to the system) and the franchisee. The con-
tract may provide for a mechanism or criteria which determine variations in the amount
which is periodically due.
This rule is mandatory, in accordance with Article 6:105 PECL.
248
G. Remedies
Strictly speaking, there is no remedy. In the case of an unreasonable unilateral deter-

mination of the fee by the franchisor, a reasonable fee is substituted by law. If the
franchisor fails to pay the reasonable fee the franchisee may, in principle, resort to any
Notes
1. Payment of Fees, Royalties or Other Periodical Payments
In most legal systems it is accepted by case law, legal authors or model contracts that
the franchisee must pay an entrance fee and subsequently royalties or other periodical
payments.
(BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete no. 158; FRANCE: Ferrier no. 695, Huet,
no. 11621; FINLAND; GREECE: Georgiadis, 203, Alepakos, 936, Voulgaris, 902, ITALY:
Frignagni, 291; NETHERLANDS: Van der Heiden (1999) 60 ff; PORTUGAL: Ribeiro
(2001) 184, Pestana de Vasconcelos (2000) 34; SPAIN The franchisee must pay an
entrance fee (pago de entrada) to the franchisor and periodic payments as agreed, e. g. a
payment on the profits obtained; SWEDEN (SOU 1987:17, 57); (See also art. 1 ECE;
arts 20, 21 of the ICC Model Contract.)
2. Unilateral determination of Fees, Royalties and Other Periodical Payments

If the fees, royalties and other periodical payments are determined unilaterally by the
franchisor in a large number of the legal systems such a price is substituted by a
reasonable one if the price concerned is unreasonable. (ENGLAND: Adams/Prichard
Jones §542; GERMANY: § 315 III (2) BGB. The paras regarding unfair contract terms
under § 305 BGB are not applicable even in case the term regarding the determination
is expressed within general terms of business (Giesler/Nauschütt, § 9 no. 22, 23; see also
§ 307 III BGB.)
Under FINNISH law any unfair term in a contract may be substituted by reasonable
ones under the general clause. (Article 36 of the Contracts Act).
Under a minority of the legal systems the contract is void if it includes an unreason-
able price unilaterally determined by the franchisor (SPAIN: art.1449 CC, art. 1555,
para. 1 CC).
The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the franchisee in particular to provide the
franchisor with information concerning:
(a) any claims brought or threatened by third parties in relation to the franchisor’s intellectual
property rights.
(b) any infringements by third parties of the franchisor’s intellectual property rights.
249
Comments
A. General Idea
In correspondance with the franchisor’s obligation to make reasonable efforts to ensure

the undisturbed use of intellectual property rights regarding the operation of the fran-
chise business (Article 3:201), under this provision the franchisee is required to inform
the franchisor if the franchisee becomes aware of any claim brought or infringement
made by a third party regarding the franchisor’s intellectual property rights – it will
mainly concern claims and infringements by third parties located in the local market
where the franchisee operates. This list of information obligations is not exhaustive.
Both parties have an interest in being kept informed concerning facts and developments
which are relevant to their performance. It can make their performance easier and more
successful. Reciprocal exchange of information throughout the franchise network also
benefits the whole network: it will lead to a continuous improvement of the business
method.
However, the present provision moderates the burden of the obligation to inform for
franchisees since in most cases only this information is relevant to the proper function-
ing of the franchising network.
C. Relation to PECL

(Article 1:202) and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing in Articles 1:201 and
1:202 PECL. A comparable information obligation is included in Article 4:302.
This is a default rule; the parties are free to exclude the franchisee’s obligation to
inform.
E. Remedies

the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the fran-
chisor may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in Chapter 9 PECL.
250
Notes
1. The Franchisee’s Obligation to Inform the Franchisor
According to legal authors there is such an obligation in BELGIAN law (Verbraeken &
de Schoutheete, no. 160). Under FRENCH law, the franchisee has the obligation to
contribute to the protection of intellectual property rights; the obligation to inform
the franchisor of infringements, claims brought or threatened by third parties can be
considered a part thereof (Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 955, Ferrier, no. 701). With
respect to the other legal systems no specific information has been found.
(1) The franchisee must make reasonable efforts to operate the franchise business according to
the business method of the franchisor.
(2) The franchisee must follow the franchisor’s reasonable instructions in relation to the busi-
ness method and the maintenance of the reputation of the network.
(3) The franchisee must take reasonable care not to harm the franchise network.
Comments
A. General Idea
The franchisee is under an obligation to conduct its business in accordance with the
franchisor’s method. This method is communicated to the franchisee through a business
package that comprises intellectual property rights, know-how and assistance. The
present provision is aimed at guaranteeing a uniform operation of the franchise business
and the protection of the franchisor’s business values. In other words, the franchisee
does not only have a right to obtain intellectual property rights (Article 3:201), know-
how (Article 3:202) and assistance (Article 3:203) from the franchisor. The franchisee
is also under an obligation to actually use intellectual property rights, know-how and
assistance.
Moreover, the franchisee must follow the instructions given by the franchisor regarding
the method by which to conduct the franchise system, in so far as such instructions are
reasonable in order to guarantee the correct functioning of the system.
This rule aims to guarantee that the intellectual property rights, the know-how and the
knowledge provided through assistance are followed by all franchisees within the net-
work. Such protection of the network is essential, both for franchisors and franchisees,
251
which equally depend on the economic strength of the trademark and which share a
common interest in guaranteeing the image and reputation of the franchise network.
In addition to the general obligation to follow the franchisor’s business method, the
franchisee is also required under Paragraph 2 to follow indications which may frequently
be given by the franchisor during the relationship. The maintenance of the quality
standards and uniformity of the franchise network may not be attainable unless the
franchisee follows such instructions.
Such an obligation is to be measured against the interest of the franchisee in managing

its business as an independent entrepreneur. As such, it is obliged to follow the method
and instructions of the franchisor provided that they do not hinder its independence.
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, the concept of reasonableness in this
Article refers to Article 1:302 PECL. Comparable obligations are laid down in Articles
2:202 and 4:304 concerning instructions.

Article 1:302 PECL. For instance, the circumstances of the case or the applicable usages
must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as franchisor and franchisee
in the same situation would consider reasonable.
E. Reasonable Instructions
Apart from being reasonable the instructions must also be necessary to guarantee the
maintenance of the quality standards required by the franchisor’s method; they must not
change the method articulated through intellectual property rights, know-how and
assistance and they must not hinder the legal status of the franchisee as an independent
entrepreneur -the franchisee may arrange its activities and use its time as it thinks fit.

Article 1:302 PECL. For instance, the circumstances of the case and the applicable
usages must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as franchisor and
franchisee in the same situation would consider reasonable.
252
F. Reasonable Care not to Harm the Franchise Network
Although it is in the franchisee’s own interests to ensure the reputation of the franchise
network, this provision stresses the importance thereof for the welfare of the franchise
network to avoid any misbehaviour on the part of franchisees which may result in
damaging the image of the franchise system. Consequently, the franchisee is expressly
required to take reasonable care not to harm the network.
H. Remedies
The obligations to follow the franchisor’s concept and instructions and to take reason-
able care not to harm the network are obligations in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in the case of non-performance the franchisor may, in principle, resort to any
Notes
1. Reasonable Efforts to Operate according to the Franchisor’s Business Method
Such an obligation has been accepted in most legal systems by case law or legal
authors.
AUSTRIA: Holzhammer, 103; Krejci, Grundriss, 404; BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schou-
theete, no. 159 (b); FINLAND; FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 955, Ferrier,
no. 696, Huet, no. 11623; GERMANY: Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 160; NETHER-
LANDS: Kneppers-Heynert 15-16, 99-100, Barendrecht & Van Peursem 114, Articles 4
and 10 NFV Model Franchise Agreement. Article 10.1 of the ICC Model Contract;
Art. 2.3 of the ECE.
2. Obligation to Follow Instructions

Such an obligation is accepted in various legal systems’ case law or by legal authors.
BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete no. 159 (b); FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque,
no. 955, Huet, no. 11623.3 ; art. 10.7 ICC Model Contract.
Under GERMAN law a majority of the legal authors and the courts apply § 86 HGB by
way of analogy to franchising. Under this provision the commercial agent must follow
the principal’s reasonable instructions (BGH, NJW 1984, 2102; Koller/Roth/Morck, Vor
§ 84 HGB no. 10, 11; Münchener Kommentar zum Handelsgesetzbuch, § 86 HGB no. 3).
253
3. Reasonable Care not to Harm the Franchise Network

Under a number of legal systems such an obligation is recognized by case law and legal
authors. FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 955, Huet, no. 11621.1; ITALY: The use
of the commercial symbols of the franchisor by franchisees that operate under the
common standards may result in discrediting the image connected to them, and may
thus damage not only the franchisor, but the whole network. Case law on the liability
of a franchisee for damaging the ‘commercial image’ of the franchisor is rather rare.
(E. g.: Tribunale di Milano, 23 November 1994, A. B. Sportsman Club s. r. l. c. Vico
s. r. l., in Giur. it., 1996, I, 2, 382 (note Cipriani, Sul danno all’immagine del “fran-
chisor”); PORTUGUESE law: Ribeiro (2000) 161 ff.; arts. 10.7, 10.11 of the ICC Model
Contract; art. 2.3 of the ECE.
(1) The franchisee must grant the franchisor reasonable access to the franchisee’s premises to
enable the franchisor to check that the franchisee is complying with the franchisor’s busi-
ness method and instructions in so far as it is necessary to achieve the objectives of the
contract.
franchisee.
Comments
A. General Idea
This provision imposes on the franchisee the obligation to allow the franchisor to enter
the franchisee’s premises to inspect whether the franchisee complies with the quality
standards of the franchisor’s business method and with the instructions given by the
franchisor regarding the operation of the franchised business (see Article 3:303).
Pursuant to Paragraph 2, the franchisee is also required to allow reasonable access to its
accounting books.
Inspection is an effective method for the franchisor to check whether the franchisee
manages the franchise business in accordance with the guidelines provided by the
franchisor and which must be respected by all franchisees in order to maintain the
common image and reputation of the network. Thus, it is indirectly beneficial for the
other franchisees.
254
The franchisor is granted the right to have reasonable access to the accounting books of
the franchisee in so far as this is required in order to ascertain the actual results of the
franchisee in the operation of the business which will allow the franchisor to determine
the amount of the ongoing payments to be made by the franchisee (see Article 3:301).
This right of the franchisor is to be measured against the right of the franchisee to
organise its business as an autonomous entrepreneur. Therefore, inspection as a control
activity is to be allowed by the franchisee, provided, however, that it is carried out
within the limits imposed by the independent status of franchisees.
The PECL do not contain such a rule. However, the concept of reasonabless in this
provision refers to Article 3:201 PECL. Comparable obligations are laid down in Article
2:204 Paragraph 3 concerning access to the books. As to inspection of the premises a
comparable obligation is included in Article 4:305.
D. Inspection
Inspection is a control activity exercised by the franchisor concerning the way in which
the franchisee carries out the operation of the business. An inspection is carried out by
visiting the franchisee’s premises in order to check in situ whether the franchisee is
conducting the business in conformity with the franchisor’s method and quality stan-
dards and by having access to the franchisee’s accounting books.
E. Reasonable Access

Article 1:302 PECL, for instance the circumstances of the case or the applicable usages
must be taken into account as well as what persons acting as franchisor and franchisee
in the same situation would consider reasonable.
Obviously, an inspection should not take place in the middle of the night or five times a
week. Reasonable access must take place during normal working hours and with a
normal frequency and, more generally, only in so far and in such a way as is necessary
to guarantee that the business is conducted in accordance with the franchisor’s business
method. Moreover, the inspection of the accounting books is to be done in so far as it is
necessary to assess the business results of the franchisee which will allow a determina-
tion of the ongoing payments.
255
G. Remedies
The obligation to allow an inspection is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101

PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the franchisor may, in principle, resort
Notes
1. Right to Inspect the Franchisee’s Premises
Under most legal systems such a right is recognized either by case law or by legal
authors or is included in model contracts. (BELGIUM: Verbraeken & de Schoutheete,
no. 165; FINLAND; FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 955; ITALY: Frignani, 117;
NETHERLANDS: Kneppers-Heynert, 15 et seq., cf. art. 20(1) NFV Model franchise
agreement; PORTUGAL: Ribeiro (2001) 191; SPAIN: STS 29-11-1996 and 4-3-1997,
Echebarrıá Sáenz (1995) 378, Hernando Giménez, 280 et seq.; art. 10 para 13 ICC Model
Contract; art. 2.3 ECE)
Under GERMAN law this obligation is inferred from good faith in some circumstances
(Giesler/Nauschütt, § 5 no. 165; Martinek/Semler, § 19 no. 12).
2. Access to the Books

Under FRENCH law authors recognize such an obligation and consider it to be part of
the franchisor’s right of inspection. (Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 955).
Under GREEK law the franchise must provide the franchisor with full access to his
financial data and client files (First Instance Court of Athens 1733/2000 Dikaio Epix-
eiriseon kai Etairion 7/2000 746 with annotation by Kostakis). Under BELGIAN law the
franchisee must provide the franchisor with the required financial data. However, it is
unclear whether the franchisor has access to the franchisee’s books. (Verbraeken & de
Schoutheete no. 165).
Under SPANISH law, from the obligation to pay the price in accordance with agreed
criteria, commentators tend to infer an obligation to inform and more specifically an
obligation to give account (art. 243 C.Co), since the franchisee must inform the
franchisor of its volume of sales or benefits to establish the periodical payments, and
there is also the franchisor’s right to control which is allowed in order to verify such
information (Hernando,).
Also in art. 2.3 of the ECE a right for the franchisor to have access to the franchisee’s
books is included. With respect to the other legal systems, no specific information has
been found.
256
Chapter 4:
Distribution
Section 1:
General
(1) This Chapter applies to exclusive distribution, selective distribution and exclusive purchas-
ing contracts.
(2) A distribution contract is a contract under which one party (the supplier) agrees to supply
the other party (the distributor) with products on a continuing basis and the distributor
agrees to purchase them and to sell them in the distributor’s name and on the distributor’s
behalf.
(3) An exclusive distribution contract is a distribution contract under which the supplier agrees
to supply products to only one distributor within a certain territory or to a certain group of
customers.
(4) A selective distribution contract is a distribution contract under which the supplier agrees to
supply products, either directly or indirectly, only to distributors selected on the basis of
specified criteria.
(5) An exclusive purchasing contract is a distribution contract under which the distributor
agrees to purchase products only from the supplier or from a party designated by the
supplier.
Comments
A. General Idea
Distribution contracts are agreements concluded between a supplier (which may also be
the manufacturer of the products) and a distributor (which may either be a wholesaler
or a retailer). The supplier agrees to supply the distributor with products. The distributor
commits itself to purchasing, distributing and promoting such products in its own name
and on its behalf.
There are different types of distribution contracts. The type of collaboration between
the parties differentiates these contracts from each other. The agreement itself addresses
what type of exclusivity, if any, is granted. However, exclusivity is not an essential
feature of a distribution agreement.
This Chapter contains rules, which only apply to specific types of distribution contracts:
exclusive distribution, selective distribution, and exclusive purchase agreements respec-
tively. Different obligations apply depending on the type of exclusivity the parties agree
257
upon. However, these rules may also apply to other distribution contracts (e. g. basic
framework agreements) by way of analogy. Furthermore, when the contract provides for
bilateral exclusivity, both regarding purchase and supply, all obligations listed in this
chapter will apply.
As said, under this Chapter the parties have different obligations depending on the type
of exclusivity they have agreed upon. The underlying notions are (i) that if parties agree
on any exclusivity, they normally have a closer relationship, which requires a higher
degree of collaboration and loyalty to each other and (ii) a party that grants exclusivity
to the other party does so in order to obtain some advantage in return.
Consequently, a supplier which refrains from dealing with other distributors by granting
exclusive or selective distributorship, is for instance entitled to give instructions and to
verify their compliance (Article 4:304). As to the distributor, if the distributor agrees to
buy a certain type of product exclusively from one supplier, the distributor receives
information, advertising materials, et cetera in exchange (Article 4:204).
In a limited number of cases the parties’ freedom of contract is restricted. This is

especially the case where exclusivity is granted unilaterally. These exceptional (man-
datory) rules are meant to compensate to some extent for imbalance in bargaining
power (see Article 4:203 Paragraph 2 concerning exclusive purchasing contracts).
In contracts where no exclusivity has been agreed upon, the parties do not have strong
commitments towards each other. As a result, only basic obligations apply. A non-
exclusive or a non-selective agreement could be regarded as nothing more than a loose
contract to co-operate and to have some points agreed upon when and if the parties
decide to buy/sell the products in question.
Distribution contracts, which include exclusivity clauses, are rather similar to franchise
contracts. For this reason, the obligations of the parties in these two different contracts
are dealt with in a consistent manner. This prevents any opportunistic classification of
the agreements by the parties aimed at circumventing a less favourable regime.
The PECL do not contain any definition of distribution contracts. All rules contained in
the PECL apply to distribution contracts unless a provision in Chapter 1 or this Chapter
deviates therefrom.
The rules contained in Chapter 1 apply to any distribution contract and those in this
Chapter apply to any distribution contract which includes exclusivity clauses. The
successive sales or service contracts concluded within the framework of the distribution
agreement are specifically regulated by the provisions on sales or services as regards, for
258
example, the delivery conditions, payments, documents to be provided by the supplier,

limitations of liability, et cetera or provisions on services. Comparable scope rules are
laid down in Articles 2:101 and 3:101 on commercial agency and franchise respectively.
D. Purchasing and Selling of Products
The term ‘products’ in these Principles refers to both goods and services. The same
terminology has been adopted by (European) competition law and is consistent with
commercial practice. In relation to services, ‘to purchase’ includes ‘to take and to pay
for’ and ‘to sell’ includes ‘to supply or to provide’.
E. Distribution of Services
By means of a distribution contract parties organize the distribution of both goods and
services. Some examples of the distribution of services include the distribution of music
on the Internet and the distribution of information concerning the financial markets.
F. Continuing Basis
A distribution relationship consists of a commercial co-operation between the parties,

which may last for a varying, but usually substantial period of time. This relationship
may last even if for some time no sales or service contracts are concluded. A single sales
contract or even a mere accidental succession of sales contracts between the same
parties do not amount to a distribution contract.
G. In the Distributor’s Name
This Chapter only applies where the party that distributes products to third parties does
so in its own name. In other words, the distributor sells the products which it has bought
from the supplier. This is the main difference with commercial agency where the
commercial agent.
H. On the Distributor’s Behalf
In promoting the sale of the products, the distributor pursues its own interest. This
implies that commission agents do not fall within the scope of this Chapter.
I. Framework Agreement
A distribution contract is a framework agreement (contrat cadre), which provides the

context for subsequent contracts (contrats d’application). A framework contract usually
259
only defines the basic elements of the subsequent contracts, without establishing the
specific modalities.
Whereas the contrat d’application is usually of short duration and binds the parties to
precise obligations, the framework agreement is meant to establish a relationship of
ongoing collaboration between the parties. The number of ‘application’ contracts will
usually result from the orders by the distributor to the supplier.
J. Exclusive Distribution Contracts
In exclusive distribution contracts, the supplier undertakes to supply the products only
to one distributor, to the exclusion of other potential distributors, in a specified territory
(territorial exclusivity) or to a certain group of customers (exclusive customer alloca-
tion). This provides the distributor with some protection against intra-brand competi-
tion (i. e. from products of the same brand brought on to the market by other distri-
butors). The extent of this protection depends on the agreement.
The definition in Paragraph (3) includes both sole distributorship and exclusive dis-
tributorship. In the case of a ‘sole distributorship’ the supplier is entitled to sell directly
to customers, whereas in the case of exclusive distributorship, the supplier also agrees to
refrain from direct sales.
Examples of exclusive distribution agreements first appeared in the motor industry.

Subsequently, these contracts have become common in virtually all branches of the
wholesale and retail sector (agricultural machinery, electrical appliances, furniture,
beauty products and computer equipment).
Examples of exclusive customer allocation include differentiation between the business

and consumer market, between the day and night-time market, et cetera.
In return for territorial exclusivity or exclusive customer allocation, the distributor

usually agrees only to buy the supplier’s products (exclusive purchasing contract (see
below, Comment L) or not to represent competing products (contractual non-competi-
tion clause).
K. Selective Distribution Contracts
Selective distribution contracts result in closed sales organisations. The supplier limits
the distribution of the products to those distributors that possess the qualifications that
correspond most closely to the supplier’s sales policy.
The selection may be based on either qualitative or quantitative criteria. Examples of

qualitative criteria are: the employment of technically qualified staff, the possibility to
display the products separately from others, the maintenance of a sufficiently represen-
tative selection or a sufficiently wide stock of products, et cetera. Quantitative criteria
260
are: the number of distributors in relation to the population of the territory to be served
and a minimum turnover in the products et cetera.
A supplier will opt for this form of distribution in order to maintain the prestige of its
brand or image (jewellery, cosmetics, et cetera), to ensure the efficient and speedy
distribution of perishable products (fish), to provide a high level of pre-sales and/or
after-sales services which is required because of the technological nature of the products
to be distributed (personal computers, electronics, cars, high-tech equipment, et cetera).
L. Exclusive Purchasing Contracts
If the distributor undertakes to purchase the products (belonging to a certain market

category) from the supplier only, the contract will be classified as an exclusive purchas-
ing contract. The exclusivity may be either total or limited to a certain percentage of
the distributor’s requirements. It may also result from an obligation to purchase a
quantity of products that in fact corresponds to the distributor’s needs (de facto exclu-
sivity). Normally, exclusive distribution agreements also include an exclusive purchase
clause. In exchange for the distributor’s control of the sale of the supplier’s products in a
given territory, the distributor then agrees not to buy the contract products from any
other than the given supplier. These types of contracts are recurrent, for example, in the
petrol and the beer distribution industries.
M. Mixed Contracts
Some contractual relationships have the characteristics of a distribution agreement as

well as another contract. This is the case, for example, where a distributor also sells
some products in the supplier’s name, thus acting as a commercial agent (see Chapter 2
on Commercial Agency). Or, the distributor may purchase with a view not only to
reselling the goods but also to transforming or incorporating them into a product for
resale. In such cases the rules on distribution regulate those aspects of the contractual
relationship which fall under the scope and definitions rule as set out in Article 4:101.
N. De Facto Distribution Contracts and De Facto Exclusivity
The relationship that provides the framework for consecutive application contracts is
the most characteristic element of distribution contracts. If such a relationship de facto
exists without the parties ever having formally agreed thereon, either in writing or
orally, the rules contained in this Chapter may nevertheless apply, together with the
general provisions contained in Chapter 1. This follows from the general rules on the
formation of contracts. See Article 2:211 PECL (Contracts not Concluded through
Offer and Acceptance). Comment A to this Article stresses that a contract may be
concluded by conduct alone. In such cases it is not easy to discern when the parties
reach an agreement which amounts to a binding contract.
261
The same holds true for distribution contracts presenting de facto exclusivities. Rather
than formally imposing exclusivity, the supplier may induce the distributor to obtain all
or the major part of the distributor’s supplies from the supplier. The latter may do so by
granting discounts which are conditional upon total or quasi-total loyalty to the sup-
plier’s products (loyalty discounts). In such a case, the rules in this Chapter on exclusive
purchase agreements apply in spite of the written contract that contains no exclusive
purchasing clause.
O. Competition Law
Distribution contracts may be invalid pursuant to the application of EC and national

competition law. In this respect, especially relevant is Commission Regulation (EC)
No. 2790/1999 of 22 December 1999 on the application of Article 81 (3) of the Treaty
to categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices, and the various exceptions
for specific branches of trade (e. g. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1400/2002 of 31
July 2002 on the application of Article 81 (3) of the Treaty to categories of vertical
agreements and concerted practices in the motor vehicle sector). The provisions pro-
vided in this Chapter only apply to exclusive distribution, selective distribution and
exclusive purchasing contracts to the extent that they are valid in the light of compe-
tition law.
P. Character of the Rule
This is a scope rule. Parties cannot, in their agreement, classify a contract as a contract
which is different from a distribution contract if their agreement contains the essential
elements included in the present provision. Conversely, if the parties classify a contract
as a distribution contract although it does not contain the essential elements set out in
this Article, the rules contained in this Chapter will, in principle, apply in so far as they
are consistent with the agreement of the parties.
Q. Remedies
obligations for the parties. The parties’ obligations are formulated as obligations by
means of specific Articles in this Chapter and in Chapter 1 where remedies are also
provided.
Notes
1. Scope
BELGIAN law is the only European legal system which contains specific statutory
provisions concerning distribution contracts. (BELGIUM: Wet 27 juli 1961 betreffende
de eenzijdige beëindiging van de voor onbepaalde tijd verleende concessies van alleenverkoop,
262
B. S., 5 oktober 1961, zoals gewijzigd door Wet 13 april 1971, B. S. 21 april 1971). As to
which rules are applied to distribution contracts in the other countries, see the notes to
Article 1:101.
2. Definition of Distribution
Apart from BELGIAN law, there are no statutory definitions of distribution contracts
under the legal systems studied. Under the other legal systems distribution contracts
are defined by legal authors and case law.
According to all these legal systems distribution includes the supply of products on a
continuing basis and the sale by the seller of the products to third parties in its own
name and on its own behalf. (AUSTRIA: EvBl 1990/96, EvBl 1998/104, EvBl 1991/76;
Krejci, 402; see Heller, Löber, 110; Hämmerle/Wünsch, 311; BELGIUM: art. 1 § 2 Al-
leenverkoopwet; FRANCE: Ferrier no. 1 et seq., Huet, no. 11596; FINLAND; GREECE:
distribution contract rtŁlbarg diamolgŁq/ simvasi dianomis, Georgakopoulos 1999 435;
ITALY: the words distribution contracts refer to different types of contracts that are
employed for the distribution of goods and services. Most commonly used in in com-
mercial practice are the following: rivendita autorizzata, concessione di vendita and fran-
chising Pardolesi (1988) 4, Cagnasso (1983) 17 ff; THE NETHERLANDS: distributie con-
tract, Barendrecht & Van Peursem, 3; Geel, 108; Van den Paverd, 13; PORTUGAL:
contrato de concessão commercial Pinto Monteiro, 108 ff.; Menezes Cordeiro, 509 ff.; Pinto
Monteiro, 45; Brito, 179 ff.; Coelho Vieira, 15; STJ 4/05/1993, BMJ 427, 1993, 530; STJ
22/11/1995, BMJ 451, 1995, 454; STJ 5/06/1997, BMJ 468, 1997, 434; STJ 23/01/1997,
www.dgsi.pt, JSTJ00032260; SPAIN: contratos de distribución o concesión STS of 17 May
1999, RJ 1999\4046 and 16 November 2000, RJ 2000\9339, Memento Lefebvre (2003-
2004) 522; SWEDEN: (återförsäljningsavtal) (Håstad, 295).
In BELGIAN statute law and AUSTRIAN, GERMAN and PORTUGUESE case law and
literature distribution contracts are defined to include only the distribution of goods
rather than the distribution of goods or services (AUSTRIA: Holzhammer, 104; BEL-
GIUM: art. 1 § 2 Alleenverkoopwet; GERMANY: Küstner/Thume, no. 1139-1150). More-
over, under GERMAN law there is an additional requirement in order to define a
distribution contract: i. e. the distributor’s integration into the supplier’s sales system
(BGH, NJW 1971, 30; OLG Zweibrücken, BB 1983, 1301; Küstner/Thume, no. 1142;
Rohe, 450; § 14 no. 1; Ulmer, 206).
However, under ENGLISH law, distribution contracts will be classified as contracts for
purchase for resale and the rules concerning those contracts apply accordingly (Chitty-
Reynolds no. 31-003).
3. Exclusive Distribution, Selective Distribution, Exclusive Purchasing

The definitions of exclusive agreements adopted in this Article correspond to the ones
in Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2790/1999 of 22 December 1999 on the applica-
tion of Article 81 (3) of the Treaty to categories of vertical agreements and concerted
practices.
The same distinction is made by GERMAN and DUTCH legal writers and courts
(GERMANY: Martinek/Semler, § 14 no. 1; Rohe, 449 Küstner/Thume, no. 1261-1278;
Ulmer, 138; NETHERLANDS: Barendrecht & Van Peursem, 10 et. seq.).
FRENCH and SPANISH authors distinguish between exclusive and selective distribu-
tion contracts. Under FRENCH law, exclusive distribution contracts also seem to
263
include exclusive purchasing contracts (FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 925, 930,
935, Huet, no. 11607 ff; 11615).
Also BELGIAN law seems to distinguish only between exclusive and exclusive pur-
chasing agreements. However, BELGIAN law does not seem to distinguish selective
distribution agreements. Art. 1 § 1 sub 3 Alleenverkoopwet refers to another category:
distribution contracts whereby the supplier imposes important obligations on the dis-
tributor and which are of such importance that in the case of ending of the contract,
the distributor incurs severe damages.
Under GREEK law the same distinction is made as under Article 4:101 i. e. between
common distribution contracts (koines simvaseis dianomis), selective distribution con-
tracts (simvaseis epilektikis dianomis) and exclusive distribution contracts (simvaseis
apokleistikis dianomis) (Georgakopoulos (1999) 435-6) However, also another distinction
is made between simple distribution (apli simvasi dianomis) and distribution with added
legal rights (simvasi dianomis me prostheto xaraktira dikaioxrisias).
Some ITALIAN legal scholars discern three different types of distribution contracts:
(i) sales of a certain amount of products to be determined, plus a clause of unilateral or
bilateral exclusivity, (ii) concession of (re)sale of the products within a certain area,
(iii) a commitment by the concedente to sell its products only to one concessionario and
(or) by the concessionario to buy them from only one concedente. (Oreste Cagnasso-
Gastone Cottino, 133).
Section 2:
Obligations of the Supplier
The supplier must supply the products ordered by the distributor, in so far as it is practicable and
Comments
A. General Idea
The supplier must consistently honour the supply orders of the distributor. However,
parties are free to agree that the supplier is not obliged to honour all the orders that the
distributor will place. This follows from the non-mandatory character of this rule.
Moreover, the supplier is only bound to supply products in so far as the supplier is in
a position to do so, taking into account the supplier’s actual possibilities (i. e. produc-
tivity capacity, stock capacity, et cetera). There is no obligation to supply in the case of
impracticability. Last, the supplier is not bound by orders placed by the distributor that
are not reasonable.
In most cases supply of the products ordered by the distributor will be in the interest of
both parties. The supplier sells the products to the distributor and the latter is able to
bring them to the market and to make a profit by reselling them. However, this may not
always be the case. The supplier, for various reasons, may either be unable or unwilling
to supply the distributor.
This Article obliges the supplier to honour the orders placed by the distributor, unless
there are pressing reasons not to do so. The aim is to prevent a supplier from arbitrarily
refusing to supply its distributors, and thus to provide the distributor with legal cer-
tainty.
However, this Article does not impose a mandatory obligation to supply upon the
supplier. The rationale is to preserve the supplier’s freedom of contract, so that the
supplier is not forced to enter into undesired sales contracts.
The distributor’s interest and the general interest are protected by the rules on unfair
contract terms (see Article 4:110 PECL) and by competition law.
265
Article refers to Article 1:302 PECL. As far as the performance of the contract of sale of
products is concerned, the rules on sales are applicable.
D. Obligation to Supply and Contrat d’Application
The obligation to supply stems from the framework agreement. This provision does not
define the terms of supplied goods. Provisions on sales or services provide the specific
modalities of the “application” contracts (e. g. the time of delivery, conformity of the
products, remedies, et cetera).
Non-performance of the contrat d’application may have consequences for the distribution
relationship. The latter issue is dealt with by the Article on termination (Article 1:304)
in Chapter 1. Under Article 1:304, the distributor may terminate the contract if the
non-performance of a contrat d’application, or a series of such contracts, amounts to a
fundamental non-performance.
E. In so far as Practicable
The distributor is entitled to demand the fulfilment of its orders as long as this is not
excessive for the supplier, taking into account the supplier’s actual resources. An order
will not be regarded as practicable if the supplier encounters insuperable obstacles or
fulfilment would cause inconvenience or expenses on the supplier’s part to the extent
that it would be substantially out of proportion to the distributor’s interest for the
supplier to fulfil the obligation to supply.
F. Reasonable Order
In accordance with Article 1:302 PECL reasonableness depends upon the nature and
purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and the usages and practices of
the trade or profession involved. Special market conditions can justify orders exceeding
the distributor’s normal requests (e. g. a larger order for national team football shirts
before the World Cup Finals). An order will be unreasonable if it goes beyond the limits
of what would be a normal exercise of such a right by a careful and diligent distributor.
This occurs, for instance, when the distributor places extra orders at the very last
minute, although the distributor had foreseen (or could have foreseen) long before its
actual order the forthcoming need for a much larger amount of products and the
distributor knew (or should have known) of the limited supply capacity of its supplier.
More generally, the distributor should place the order a reasonable time before the
distributor foresees a forthcoming extra need.
266
This rule is a default rule; the parties are free to agree otherwise.
H. Remedies
The obligation to supply is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore,
in the case of non-performance the distributor may, in principle, resort to any of the
Notes
1. Obligation to supply
According to GREEK law the supplier has an obligation to provide the distributor the
goods to be distributed (Georgakopoulos (1999) 435). Moreover, according to SPANISH
legal authors, the supplier must supply the products in any situation (Fernandez (1999)
354; Sanchez Calero (2000) 177). This also seems to be the case under FRENCH law
with respect to bilateral exclusive distribution contract, contrat de concession (Dutilleul
& Delebecque, no. 942).
Under DUTCH law, authors agree that where the supplier has economic power the
supplier is not allowed to refuse to supply the goods or services to the distributor
(Barendrecht & Van Peursem, 63 et. seq., Geel, 108; Van de Paverd, 21-22)
Under GERMAN law pursuant to the doctrine of good faith (§ 242 BGB) the BGH
held that the supplier may not refuse the distributor’s orders arbitrarily (BGH, BB 1958,
541; OLG Bremen, BB 1966, 756; Küstner/Thume, no. 1289; Martinek/Semler, § 14
no. 15). Moreover, if the parties agree that the distributor must purchase a minimum
quantity of goods and if they agree upon a competition ban, the supplier must supply
(BGH, BB 1972, 193; Küstner/Thume, no. 1290; Martinek/Semler, § 14 no. 15).
However, under ITALIAN law there is no general obligation on the side of the supplier
to fulfil the orders of the distributor Pardolesi (1979) 257. Whether there is such an
obligation depends upon the contractual agreement concluded by the parties. And,
cases in which parties define rigidly the obligation to supply at the moment of the
conclusion of the contract, i. e. the supplier will be bound to supply a specific amount
of goods at specific intervals of time, are rare Delli Priscoli, 797, Boero, 308, Cagnasso,
37, Pardolesi, 230. Nonetheless, a refusal to supply by the supplier would certainly be
evaluated with regard to the general principle of good faith in performance of the
contract (art. 1375 cc).
Under AUSTRIAN, ENGLISH and FINNISH law in the absence of special legislation
the obligation to supply is not defined.
267
The obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires the supplier to provide the distributor with
information concerning:
(a) the characteristics of the products,
(b) the prices and terms for the sale of the products,
(c) any recommended prices and terms for the resale of the products,
(d) any relevant communication between the supplier and customers,
(e) any advertising campaigns relevant to the operation of the business.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article states what information the supplier must make available to the distributor
during the contract. It follows from Article 1:203 that the parties must supply each
other with the information which they have at their disposal and which their counter-
part needs for the proper performance of their obligations under the contract. The
present provision further specifies certain types of information which are included in
the supplier’s obligation to inform.
The supplier has to provide some basic information that enables the distributor to distri-
bute the products effectively. The information concerns the characteristics of the products,
the prices and terms for the sale of the products and any recommended prices and terms for
the resale of the products. In addition, the supplier must inform the distributor about
relevant communication with customers and advertising campaigns that it has started.
The aim of this provision is to ensure that the distributor obtains information which is
relevant in order to promote the sales of the products efficiently (e. g. knowing their
characteristics and thus being in a position to inform its customers thereof) and com-
petitively (e. g. knowing the recommended prices that other distributors may charge). It
is also in the interest of the supplier to inform the distributor about general quality
requirements for the distribution of the products it supplies, or about new advertising
campaigns. The obligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the supplier, since it
only has to communicate information which is available to him and in so far as this is
needed by the distributor.
Such further information is required because of the high degree of collaboration be-
tween the parties in exclusive distribution, selective distribution and exclusive purchase
contracts. Moreover, distribution contracts including any exclusivity are rather similar
to franchise contracts. Therefore, they should be treated in a similar way, in order to
avoid attempts at opportunistic classification by the parties.
268
C. Relation to PECL
This Article is a specification of Article 1:203 on Information. The present Article

spells out more explicitly which information is required from the supplier. Comparable
obligations to provide information are included in Chapter 2 (Commercial Agency)
and Chapter 3 (Franchise).
The supplier must actively provide the distributor with the information which it pos-
sesses and which the distributor needs to achieve the objectives of the contract. ‘In-
formation’ includes ‘documentation’ relating to the products (brochures, leaflets, et
cetera) or to advertising campaigns. This obligation continues throughout the whole
contractual relationship. It also implies that the supplier has to promptly update the
distributor as soon as new relevant information (e. g. concerning modifications and
improvements to the products offered and sold) becomes available. Depending on the
circumstances, the obligation to inform includes information of specific types. This
Article mentions, in a non-exhaustive list, information regarding:
(a) The Characteristics of the Products
In principle, a supplier has to inform the distributor about the products and their use.
This enables the distributor to pass such information on to its customers, and to take the
general quality requirements et cetera into account. The provision of this product
information may include the supply of documentation, guidelines, management and
operation manuals and recipes.
(b) The Prices and Terms for the Sale of the Products
A supplier must communicate its prices to the distributor. Prices referred to in the
present Paragraph are those relating to the contract between the distributor and the
supplier.
The supplier must also inform the distributor about the supplier’s terms for the sale of
goods and services, including e. g. guarantees, conditions of delivery, et cetera.
(c) Any Recommended Prices and Terms for the Resale of the Products
A supplier must communicate any recommended prices and terms to the distributor.
These prices relate to the contract between the distributor and the final customers. This
information is relevant because the distributor is then aware of what others may charge,
and, depending on this, it will decide its own price policy in order to be competitive in
the market.
269
The supplier must also inform the distributor about any recommendation as to the terms
for the resale of the products; e. g. regarding after-sales services, limitation clauses, credit
et cetera.
(d) Any Relevant Communication between the Supplier and Customers
The supplier must inform the distributor about any wishes, preferences or complaints by
the customers. More in general, it must provide any noteworthy information concerning
the customers in the territory or within the specific group exclusively allotted to the
distributor which the supplier possesses.
(e) Any Advertising Campaigns Relevant to the Operation of the Business
The supplier must inform the distributor of any advertising campaigns, so that the
distributor is able to participate in them and to benefit therefrom. Compliance of this
obligation may require the supply of the relevant documentation together with samples
of the promotional material.
E. No Formalities
There is no formal requirement for the way in which this obligation must be performed.
Nevertheless, in practice such information will normally be given in writing. It may be
problematic for the supplier to prove that it properly supplied the distributor with all
the required information, when such information is presented otherwise than in a
written document.
F. Competition Law
The obligation to inform under Paragraph (1) (c) only applies to recommended prices
which do not amount to price maintenance clauses that are invalid according to
competition law.
As an independant merchant, the distributor is free to set the prices charged for the
products. However, practice demonstrates the recurrent use of resale price maintenance
clauses. These are clauses whereby the distributor of a product undertakes vis--vis the
supplier to maintain a certain price level when distributing the products. In its group
exemption concerning vertical restrictions (Regulation 2790/99), the EU Commission
has taken a relatively lenient approach concerning maximum vertical price restrictions.
Maximum prices and recommended prices that do not amount to a fixed or minimum
resale price as a result of pressure or incentives created by any of the parties are now
exempted. In contrast, other forms of resale price maintenance, e. g. minimum resale
prices and minimum margins, are still a serious infringement that could lead to inva-
lidity and to the imposition of fines. If the agreement does not fall under Article 81 (1)
(e. g. because it is not capable of affecting trade between Member States), the resale
270
price maintenance clause will be legal under EU law, but will still have to be reviewed
under the applicable national law.
H. Remedies
in the case of non-performance the distributor may, in principle, resort to any of the
Notes
1. Information during the Performance
None of the legal systems contain an explicit statutory rule similar to the present
Article.
However, under FINNISH, GERMAN, ITALIAN, PORTUGUESE law a similar obliga-
tion follows from a general duty of good faith or loyalty (GERMANY: § 242 BGB
(Küstner/Thume, nos. 1300, 1302, Martinek/Semler, § 14 no. 63, 64; ITALY: arts. 1175
cc and 1375 cc, Cass. 24-3-1999, n. 2788. Moreover, under GERMAN and PORTU-
GUESE law the rules concerning commercial agency are applied by way of analogy.
(GERMANY: Küstner/Thume, no. 1300; Martinek/Semler, § 14 nos. 63, 64; PORTU-
GAL: art. 13 a DL 178/86 on Agency).
In the NETHERLANDS as well as in SPAIN legal authors agree upon a supplier’s
obligation to provide the distributor with information concerning the products to be
distributed (Barendrecht & Van Peursem, 92) (Calvo (1997) 1351). In SPAIN this is said
to follow from the characteristics of the distribution contract as a confidential and
reciprocally loyal relationship. In addition, this is said to be justified in view of the
dependent situation of the distributor towards the supplier, which posseses the essential
information regarding the marketed product. (See also art. 17.1 of the Model distribu-
tion contract Guardiola Sacarrera (1998) 140).
Under GREEK case law it has been established that in the case of exclusive distribution
the supplier must provide all the information and expertise needed for the distributor
to trade his merchandise effectively and to conduct his business (see Efeteio Athinon
9658/1995, DEE 2/1996 at 154).
Under FRENCH law, in the case of a contrat de concession an obligation to provide
information with respect to advertising campaigns follows from the obligation to assist
the distributor (Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 942; Ferrier, no. 495 et seq.). Under
FRENCH law it has been debated extensively whether the supplier may set a fixed
price. The prevailing opinion seems to be that the supplier cannot impose a price upon
the distributor, but it can only recommend such a price. (Dutilleul & Delebecque,
no. 943, Cass. com. 22 juillet 1986 D. 1988 D. 1995 som. 85).
271
(1) The supplier must warn the distributor within a reasonable time when the supplier foresees
or ought to foresee that the supplier’s supply capacity will be significantly less than the
distributor had reason to expect.
(2) In exclusive purchasing contracts, parties may not derogate from this provision to the
detriment of the distributor.
Comments
A. General Idea
The supplier has to warn his distributor of foreseeable and major decreases in its supply
capacity within a reasonable period when the supplier forsees it or should have foreseen
it. In the case of an exclusive purchase agreement, the rule is mandatory (Paragraph 2).
This Article protects the interests of the distributor. The distributor may have become
dependant on the product output of a supplier. This especially occurs when the latter
offers a ‘unique’ product (e. g. a patented innovation) or when the product constitutes a
necessary component from the assortment of the distributor. The availability of specific
models (e. g. brand new ones) and delivery times are elements which are capable of
affecting seriously the (inter-brand) competitiveness of the distributor.
The present provision requires real collaboration between the parties. The supplier that
is aware of a significant decrease in its supply capacity, must warn the distributor. On
the basis of the supplier’s warning, the distributor will be able to avoid damage and
liability (e. g. in relation to those orders which the distributor has already accepted from
customers).
This obligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the supplier. First, the supplier is
only required to warn the distributor in the case of a major change in relation to what
the distributor had reason to expect. Secondly, the distributor is neither entitled to
know the reasons for the decrease nor is the distributor entitled to a warning in relation
to a supply capacity it had no reason to expect. Finally, from Article 1:203 (Informa-
tion) it follows that the obligation only arises in the case of actual knowledge. Hence,
the supplier is not under an obligation to actively investigate in this respect.
Only in the case of exclusive purchase agreements is this rule mandatory. In those
agreements, the distributor is left with no alternative but to order those products from
the supplier. The distributor depends entirely upon the supply capacity of the supplier
(e. g. the supplier’s products are the only or main products which the distributor deals
272
with). Therefore, an important decrease in the supplier’s supply capacity would have
very serious consequences.
C. Relation to PECL
This obligation is a specific instance of the more general obligation to co-operate

between the parties, spelled out in Article 1:202 on Collaboration. The reasonableness
requirement refers to the concept which the PECL define in Article 1:302. According to
Article 1:303 PECL, the supplier’s warning becomes effective when it reaches the
distributor. Similar obligations to warn are included in Articles 2:309 (Commercial
Agency) and 3:206 (Franchising).
D. Reasonable Time
The supplier must warn the distributor concerning the forthcoming decrease in supply
capacity within a reasonable time. When assessing what is reasonable, the nature and
the trade or profession involved must be taken into account. (See further Article 1:302
PECL). In principle, the supplier must issue the warning as soon as the supplier is aware
of the alarming fact. Moreover, the supplier must leave the distributor a certain amount
of time to prepare a reaction and to adapt to the customers’ demand. The supplier’s
warning allows the distributor to avoid the acceptance of orders that the distributor will
probably not be able to fulfil.
E. Significant Decrease
The supplier is under an obligation to warn the distributor only when the supplier
foresees that its supply capacity will be significantly lower. No obligation arises in the
case of a merely temporary or minor obstacle to supplying. The present obligation
applies both when the decrease of the supply capacity is the result of factors within
the supplier’s control and where the decrease is the consequence of market conditions
or other external factors (e. g. a shortage of raw materials or industrial action).
F. Expectations of the Distributor
What amounts to the capacity which the distributor had reason to expect depends on
the circumstances of the particular case. In the absence of other more decisive factors,
the average supplies over the previous years may serve as a yardstick.
273
In exclusive purchasing contracts, this is a mandatory rule; the parties may not derogate
from this obligation. In exclusive and selective distribution agreements, this rule is a
default rule; the parties are free to agree otherwise.
H. Remedies
The obligation to warn of decreased supply capacity is an obligation in the sense of

Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the distributor may, in
Notes
1. In General
This rule is based on art. 4 (2) b of the Directive on commercial agency. None of the
European legal systems have explicitly regulated this issue with respect to distribution
contracts.
According to SPANISH authors such an obligation may follow from the character of
the distribution contract, which is a contract that is characterized by confidentiality
and reciprocal loyalty (Calvo (1997) 1351). In addition, in the SPANISH Model dis-
tribution contract a similar stipulation is included in art. 17 (2) of the contract
(Guardiola Sacarrera (1998) 140)
Under ITALIAN law a similar obligation can only stem from general principles of good
faith (1375 cc) and fair dealing (1175 cc). With respect to the other legal systems no
information was provided.
The supplier must provide the distributor, at a reasonable price, with all the advertising materials
the supplier has which are needed for the proper distribution and promotion of the products.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article requires the supplier to provide the distributor with advertising materials.
The supplier has to supply only the materials it has at its disposal and which the
distributor requests. However, the distributor is only entitled to ask for advertising
materials which are necessary for the proper distribution and promotion of the products.
274
Providing the distributor with the advertising materials which the supplier possesses will
usually be in the interest of both parties. On the one hand, this will contribute to a
uniform image of the supplier’s products in the eyes of the public and to a more effective
campaign. On the other hand, the distributor will be identified in the eyes of the
customers as a dealer in certain (branded) products. However, there may be cases in
which the supplier prefers to refrain from supplying advertising materials to certain
distributors. This Article aims at preventing any discriminatory behaviour, granting
distributors equal treatment.
This provision clearly promotes the interests of the distributor. The distributor is free to
choose whether or not to join a promotional campaign launched by the supplier.
However, this Article is not too burdensome for the supplier. The supplier is not
required to start a promotional campaign merely to please the distributor. In addition,
the supplier is not required to search for advertising materials which the supplier no
longer possesses, e. g. linked to old promotional campaigns. Moreover, the Article only
refers to what is needed in order to promote the sales of the products.
C. Relation to PECL
This Article may be regarded as a specification of the obligation to co-operate encluded

in Chapter 1 (Article 1:202). The concept of reasonableness in this Article refers to
Article 1:302 PECL.
D. Advertising Materials
Advertising materials are additional and accessory materials related to the distribution
activity, e. g. fittings for the distributor’s premises such as posters, chairs, sunshades,
signs and special offers.
E. Reasonable Price
The distributor that decides to participate in a campaign must have access to the
advertising materials at a reasonable price. To asses what is reasonable, the nature and
the trade or profession involved must be taken into account. (See further Article 1:302
PECL). It would, for instance, be unreasonable to charge the distributor a price which is
completely out of proportion to the cost borne by the supplier for the advertising
campaign. The same holds true for a price which is far higher than what other dis-
tributors have paid or the price in previous similar campaigns.
275
G. Remedies
The obligation to supply advertising materials is an obligation in the sense of Article

8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the distributor may, in principle,
Notes
1. Advertising Materials
Under FINNISH law and GERMAN law there is such an obligation. In FINLAND it
follows from the general duty to cooperate. In GERMANY it follows from good faith
(§ 242 BGB) and from the analogous application of § 86a HGB to distribution con-
tracts (Genzow, no. 84; Küstner/Thume, no. 1307). According to FRENCH authors such
an obligation follows from the supplier’s obligation to assist the distributor (Dutilleul &
Delebecque, no. 942).
Under ITALIAN law, there is no explicit obligation on the side of the supplier.
However, from the general principle of good faith in performance of the contract (art.
1375 cc) and fair dealing (art. 1175 cc) such an obligation may be inferred. With
respect to the other legal systems, no information was provided.
The supplier must make reasonable efforts not to damage the reputation of the products.
Comments
A. General Idea
The supplier is under an obligation not to damage the good reputation of the products
which it supplies. This means that the supplier must avoid behaviour which may cause
such a damage. In certain cases, it must also take the necessary precautions to prevent
such damage.
276
The positive image of the products in the minds of the final customers is one of the
elements inducing distributors to promote the sales of such products. This provision
requires the supplier not to harm the good reputation that attracted the distributor.
Upholding the good reputation of the products should normally be in the interest of
both parties. Taking necessary precautions in this respect may be costly.
However, as said, the provisions in this Chapter only apply to exclusive distribution,
selective distribution and exclusive purchase agreements. In an exclusive purchasing
agreement, the distributor agrees only to buy from one supplier. As a result, the dis-
tributor is effectively dependant on the good reputation of the products, somewhat
similar to a franchisee. As regards exclusive distribution and selective distribution
contracts, the rationale is that the exclusive or selective distributor expects to be in
a privileged position with respect to the commercialisation of the products. From this,
certain specific default obligations on the part of the supplier will arise. Furthermore,
distribution contracts including exclusivities mainly relate to branded products. It is
essential for their reputation not to harm the image of the brand.
Article refers to Article 1:302 PECL. Chapter 3 on Franchising contains a similar rule
(Article 3:207).
To assess what is reasonable, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances
of the case and the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved should be
taken into account. (See further Article 1:302 PECL).
E. Liability of the Supplier
The supplier is only liable for a loss of reputation caused by its acts or omissions; e. g. by
the supply of poor-quality products. This means that the supplier is not liable in the case
of a breakdown of a brand which is exclusively the result of external factors such as the
extraordinary success of a competing good or service.
277
G. Remedies
The supplier’s obligation to make reasonable efforts not to seriously damage the repu-
tation of the products is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in
the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort to any of the
Notes
1. Reputation of the Products
No European legal system contains a specific rule as the present Article.
According to ITALIAN law, in the case of supply contracts (somministrazione) when
the supplied party (somministrato) undertakes, in exchange for exclusivity, to promote
the sales of the products supplied (Article 1568 para. 2 cc), the supplier must supply
products of an adequate quality so as to completely satisfy the clientele obtained by the
supplied party. It is disputed whether such an obligation can be inferred from the
decision of the Cass. Sez. II civ. 22-2-1999, n. 1469 as to concessione di vendita, see the
note by C. Maria, Gius. Civ., 2000, fasc. 6 (giugno), pt. 1, 1813-1815 and see also note
by R. Christian, Resp. Civ. e Prev. 2000, fasc. 2, 363-371). In SPANISH literature it has
been defended that such an obligation could be inferred from the general rule of art. 57
C.Com which states that the distributor has to act with the diligence of an organized
businessman (Memento Lefebvre 2001-2002, 486). Also under GREEK law such an
obligation has been accepted.
Section 3:
Obligations of the Distributor
In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, in so far as it is practicable, the distributor must
make reasonable efforts to promote the sales of the products.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article requires the distributor to enhance the sales of the contract products. The
distributor is under an obligation to make reasonable efforts to promote, develop and
extend their market.
The obligation is restricted to cases of exclusive and selective distribution contracts.
Both parties have an interest in achieving the highest possible sales volume. The more
the distributor sells, the more profit it makes and the more the supplier profits as well.
This provision adds that promoting sales is not only a right of the distributor but also an
obligation. In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, suppliers take the risk of
‘betting everything on one single card’. The exclusive and selective distributors are the
channels available for suppliers in order to reach the final market. Suppliers agree to
refrain from selling to other distributors (in the same area or within the same group of
customers) or to unauthorised distributors, respectively.
However, this obligation is not too burdensome for distributors. First, it only requires
the distributor to take reasonable steps. Second, this applies only insofar as practicable.
Thirdly, this obligation is in principle restricted to cases of exclusive and selective
distribution agreements. By means of a selective distribution system, the distributor
makes higher profits than it would have attained otherwise. Exclusive distribution offers
the distributor a monopoly position which is, in some aspects, similar to that of the
producer. In both cases, distributors are paid back by a certain degree of protection from
intra-brand competition.
279
C. Relation to PECL
The PECL do not provide any specific obligation of this kind. However, the concept of
reasonableness in this Article refers to Article 1:302 PECL.
D. Reasonable Efforts in so far as Practicable
This provision does not impose an obligation of result. The distributor is only under an
obligation to make reasonable efforts to resell the supplier’s products. In assessing what
is reasonable, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and
the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved should be taken into
account. (See further Article1:302 PECL).
The distributor must enhance the sales of the products as long as this is not excessive for
the distributor, taking into account the distributor’s actual resources.
F. Remedies
The obligation to distribute is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. There-
fore, in the case of non-performance the aggrieved party may, in principle, resort to any
Notes
1. Obligation to Promote the Sales of the Products
Although there are no specific statutory provisions under the legal systems in this
respect, according to the legal authors and case law of GERMANY, THE NETHER-
LANDS and SPAIN, there is a similar obligation for the supplier. However, in those
countries the supplier’s obligation to promote the sales of the goods or services is not
restricted to exclusive and selective distribution contracts. (GERMANY: Küstner/
Thume, no. 1314; Martinek/Semler, § 14 no. 13; NETHERLANDS: Barendrecht & Van
Peursem, 113 ff, Van de Paverd, 21 ff.; SPAIN: Calvo Caravaca (1997) 1345; De la Cuesta
(2001) 365).
280
In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the obligation to inform (Article 1:203) requires
the distributor in particular to provide the supplier with information concerning:
(a) any claims brought or threatened by third parties in relation to the supplier’s intellectual
property rights,
(b) any infringements by third parties of the supplier’s intellectual property rights.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article indicates what specific information the exclusive or selective distributor is
required to provide to the supplier during the contract. Whenever the distributor is
aware of any infringement of or (possible) challenge to the supplier’s intellectual prop-
erty rights (IPR), it has to inform the supplier.
This obligation only applies to exclusive and selective distribution contracts.
The supplier has a clear interest in being informed of any threat or any infringement of
its intellectual property rights. Often the distributor is in a position to provide the
supplier with such information. This obligation is not too burdensome for distributors.
First, from Article 1:203 it follows that the distributor only has to provide the informa-
tion that the distributor possesses. Secondly, exclusive and selective distribution agree-
ments often include the licensing by the supplier of intellectual property rights to the
distributor. Therefore, it will be also in the interest of the distributor to inform the
supplier of any IPR infringement.
In principle, the present obligation only applies in cases of exclusive and selective
distribution contracts. The rationale is that if a supplier agrees not to sell to distributors
other than the exclusive or authorised ones that is because of the supplier’s trust in
them. It may therefore be expected from a loyal distributor that it should provide the
supplier with information which the distributor has that may prevent or limit any harm
to the supplier (e. g. information concerning an infringement of any IPR rights).
The information required from the distributor is the same type of information required
from a franchisee. Since there are similarities between these contracts, it is important to
deal with them in a similar way in order to avoid problems of classification.
281
C. Relation to PECL
This Article is a specification of Article 1:203 on Information. The present Article

spells out some more specific information which is required.
A comparable obligation to provide information concerning these issues is Article 3:302

of these Principles.
Exclusive and selective distributors must provide information they possess. This obliga-
tion lasts throughout the whole contractual relationship. The Article specifically men-
tions, in a non-exhaustive list, information regarding:
(a) claims brought or threatened by third parties in relation to

the supplier’s intellectual property rights
This information relates to claims and threats regarding trademarks, trade names or
symbols, or other industrial property rights).
(b) Infringements by Third parties of the Supplier’s Intellectual Property Rights
Exclusive and selective distributors should inform their suppliers if they are aware that
third parties do not respect and infringe the supplier’s intellectual property rights.
E. No Formalities
There is no formal requirement for the way in which this obligation must be performed,
e. g. in writing.
G. Remedies
in the case of non-performance the supplier may, in principle, resort to any of the
282
Notes
1. Obligation to Provide Information during Performance
Under none of the legal systems there seems to be a specific obligation of this type.
However, under DUTCH law such an obligation has been defended by authors
(Barendrecht & Van Peursem, no. 114).
In SPANISH literature it has been argued that a distribution contract include specific
obligations which can be derived from the reciprocal obligations of loyalty, good faith
and the protection of the parties’ interests. (Dominguez Garcıá (1997) 1354 ff), which
includes inter alia the obligation for the distributor to inform the supplier periodically
concerning the market situation, the perspectives of development, the state and prog-
nosis on future sales, and the requirements of the clients in order to allow the supplier
to adapt the quantity and quality of the products to the demands of the clientele. See
also art. 10 (1) of the model distribution contract proposed by Guardiola Sacarrera
(1998) 147.
In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must warn the supplier within a
reasonable time when the distributor foresees or ought to foresee that the distributor’s require-
ment will be significantly less than the supplier had reason to expect.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article requires the distributor to warn the supplier whenever it foresees a major
decrease in its orders in comparison to what the supplier could reasonably expect. The
distributor must notify the supplier within a reasonable time.
The obligation is restricted to cases of exclusive and selective distribution agreements.
This Article protects the interest of the supplier. On the basis of the distributor’s
warning, the supplier is able to adjust its production, and sometimes even its production
capacity, to the new situation. This is especially important in those cases where the
supplier sells to large distributors such as large retail chains, e. g. a supermarket chain
which has become the only distributor of a leading brand on the national food retail
market.
283
However, this obligation is not unreasonably burdensome for the distributor. First, there
is no obligation to warn in the case of minor changes. Secondly, the supplier is not
entitled to know the reasons why this change occurs. Thirdly, from Article 1:203
(Information) it follows that the obligation only arises in the case of actual knowledge.
Hence, the distributor is not under an obligation to investigate in this respect.
In principle, this provision only applies to exclusive and selective distribution agree-
ments. The reason is that under such agreements the supplier is largely dependent, for
its entire sales, on the distributor’s requirements. If they suddenly do not order any
products, the supplier will encounter serious economic difficulties, since it is not in a
position to bypass its distributors and sell to other distributors (within a certain area or
group of customers) or to unauthorised distributors.
C. Relation to PECL
This obligation may be regarded as a specification of the more general obligation to co-
operate between the parties which is spelled out in Article 1:202 on Collaboration. The
reasonableness requirement refers to the concept which the PECL define in Article
1:302. Similar obligations to warn, for the commercial agent and the franchisee respec-
tively, are provided for in Articles 2:309 and 3:206.
D. Reasonable Time
The distributor has to warn the supplier within a reasonable time. To assess what is
reasonable, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and
the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved must be taken into account
(see further Article 1:302 PECL). In principle, the distributor must issue the warning as
soon as the distributor is aware of the alarming fact. Moreover, the distributor must
leave the supplier a certain amount of time to react and to adapt to the new customer
demand (e. g. by limiting its production).
E. Significantly Less
The distributor must only warn the supplier when it foresees an important decrease in
its orders. No obligation arises in the case of only a minor decrease in orders. This
obligation exists irrespective of whether the distributor requires less products as a con-
sequence of factors within the distributor’s control or whether this is due to market-
related reasons.
284
F. Expectations of the Supplier
What the supplier has reason to expect depends on the circumstances of the case. In
most cases, the average quantities ordered over the previous years will be a proper
starting point for determining the supplier’s reasonable expectations.
H. Remedies
The obligation to warn of a decreased requirement is an obligation in the sense of

Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the supplier may, in
Notes
This rule is similar to the one provided by the Commercial Agency Directive (art. 4
(2)b). None of the European legal systems have also explicitly regulated this issue for
distribution contracts.
In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must follow reasonable instruc-
tions from the supplier which are designed to secure the proper distribution of the products or to
maintain the reputation or the distinctiveness of the products.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article requires the exclusive or selective distributor to follow reasonable instruc-
tions given by the supplier. The distributor must follow only those instructions which
aim to secure the proper distribution of the products or to maintain their good reputa-
tion.
285
This provision strikes a balance between two conflicting interests: (i) the distributor’s
interest in pursuing its own goals by means of an independant commercial policy and
(ii) the supplier’s interest in a professional and uniform presentation and distribution of
its products in the market.
This Article protects the interest of the supplier, in that it grants the supplier the
possibility to instruct its distributors. The maintenance of the good reputation and
distinctiveness of the products may not be attainable unless the distributor follows such
instructions. In the case for exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distribu-
tors are the only channels through which the supplier can reach the final market (unless
the supplier is entitled to undertake direct sales). In the case of selective distribution,
giving instructions to the authorised distributors is not only a right of the supplier but
also an obligation, in view of maintaining the same high quality standards within the
selective distribution system.
However, the present Article also takes into account the distributor’s interest to remain
autonomous. The point here is that the distributor has an interest in the success of its
entire assortment of products. Coordinating its behaviour with the commercial policy of
the supplier necessarily implies restricting its freedom of manoeuvre (e. g. the distributor
abandons the elasticity in the composition of its assortment). Moreover, the present
provision does not require the distributor to follow any instruction by the supplier. The
distributor has to comply only with those instructions that are reasonable and relevant
in relation to the operation of the contract and insofar as they are reasonable. Secondly,
the present obligation does not apply to any distributor, but only to exclusive and
selective distributors, in exchange for their privileged position in the commercialisation
of the contract products.
C. Relation to PECL
This Article may be regarded as a specification of the obligation to co-operate and the
obligation of good faith and fair dealing contained in Articles 1:202 PECL and 1:201
PECL respectively, and of the obligation to collaborate contained in Chapter 1 (Article
1:202).
The reasonableness requirement refers to the concept which the PECL define in Article
1:302.
D. Reasonable Instructions
The distributor is only required to follow instructions which are reasonable. To assess
what is reasonable, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the
case and the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved must be taken into
account (see further Article 1:302 PECL). Elements to be taken into account to ascer-
286
tain whether certain instructions are reasonable include: the interests of the parties, the
nature of the instruction given as well as their purpose. To be reasonable, instructions
should not alter the equilibrium of the contract.
E. To Secure Proper Distribution
The supplier is entitled to instruct distributors with a view to ensuring the proper
distribution of the products. Instructions of this kind for instance relate to the setting
up and maintenance of specific commercial premises, the packaging of the products and
the maintenance of a suitable number of samples of the products for marketing purposes.
F. To Maintain Reputation and Distinctiveness
Especially in the case of the distribution of branded products it is essential that the
reputation and the distinctiveness of the products are maintained. Instructions for that
purpose relate, for instance, to the arrangement of – or adhesion to – advertising
campaigns, the maintenance of certain facilities for the clientele (i. e. assistance services
or advice to the clientele), the presentation and display of the products.
H. Remedies
The obligation to follow instructions is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL.
Therefore, in the case of non-performance the supplier may, in principle, resort to any
Notes
1. In General
None of the legal systems include specific statutory rules in this respect. However,
PORTUGUESE, SPANISH and DUTCH legal authors agree upon a similar obligation
to follow instructions. (SPAIN: Calvo (1997) 1353, Domıńguez Garcıá in Calvo Cara-
vaca/Fernndez de la Gndara, 1353, Fernandez (1999) 353). This obligation is con-
sidered to be one of the distributor’s main obligations according to PORTUGUESE
authors (Pinto Monteiro (2002) 108; Brito (1990) 179). DUTCH writers argue that it
follows from the nature of a distribution contract (Barendrecht & Van Peursem, 93, 114,
116; Geel, 104).
Under GREEK law the distributor must follow any instruction given by the supplier
concerning the goods and the selling method. The closer and more qualified bond
287
there is between the parties, the more obligations follow from such a relationship. For
instance, in an exclusive distribution agreement the distributor must abide by the
instructions of the producer-supplier as to the marketing technique for the merchan-
dise, the service of the products, and the stock of products that he must maintain
(Efeteio Athinon 9658/1995, DEE 2/1996 at 154].
Under FINNISH, GERMAN and ITALIAN law it depends on the circumstances of the
case whether such an obligation can be derived from good faith (GERMANY: § 242
BGB; ITALY: Article 1375 cc). Under AUSTRIAN law the situation seems similar to
FINNISH and GERMAN law. (OGH 2001/12/07 7Ob265/01y 4 Ob 79/95, OGH 1995/
12/05 4Ob79/95).
In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must provide the supplier with
reasonable access to the distributor’s premises to enable the supplier to check that the distri-
butor is complying with the standards agreed upon in the contract and with reasonable in-
structions given.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article requires the distributor to allow the supplier to examine whether the
distributor performs its activity in accordance with the contract and with the instruc-
tions which have been given. The supplier’s access is limited to the distributor’s pre-
mises.
The present obligation supplements the main obligation of an exclusive or selective

distributor, which is simply to make reasonable efforts in order to promote the sales of
the products. Inspection is an important instrument to ascertain whether the distributor
has complied with the standards agreed upon in the contract and whether the distri-
butor has followed the relevant instructions. This is fundamental in the case of selective
distribution systems. In such cases, the distributor’s obligation to provide reasonable
access to the premises indirectly benefits other distributors as well. In fact, the poor
commercialisation of the products may have negative consequences for other distribu-
tors of the same (branded) products.
288
However, the supplier’s right to inspect may be very intrusive from the perspective of
the distributor. For this reason, this obligation in principle is only restricted to exclusive
and selective distribution contracts, since in those contracts the supplier grants distri-
butors a privileged position in the commercialisation of its products. Moreover, the
present obligation is not too burdensome for the distributor. The distributor is only
under an obligation to provide reasonable access to the distributor’s premises. The right
to inspect does not imply a right for the supplier to have access to accounts. There is no
reason that would justify a similar intrusion. Unlike in commercial agency, no commis-
sion is calculated on the basis of the contracts concluded nor are there, like in franchise
agreements, any fees to be paid on the basis of volume.
C. Relation to PECL

and the obligation of good faith and fair dealing contained in Articles 1:202 PECL and
1:201 PECL respectively, and of the obligation to collaborate contained in Chapter 1
(Article 1:202).
The reasonableness requirement refers to the concept which the PECL define in Article
1:302.
D. Reasonable Access
The supplier is entitled to carry out a reasonable inspection. To assess what is reason-
able, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circumstances of the case and the
usages and practices of the trade or profession involved must be taken into account (see
further Article 1:302 PECL). In general, the supplier is permitted to check whether the
standards agreed upon and the instructions have been met. Moreover, the supplier’s
inspection should not obstruct or alter the distributor’s commercial activities.
E. Distributor’s Premises
The supplier’s inspection will mainly consist of periodical visits to the distributor’s
commercial premises, which is the location in which the distributor promotes the sales
to its customers (e. g. quality control). This Article does not entitle the supplier to have
access to the accounts of the distributor; i. e. the supplier is not entitled to request the
distributor to render reports on sales, stock and prospective business, et cetera.
F. Standard Agreed Upon
The standards ‘agreed upon in the contract’ refers to both the obligations agreed upon
in the framework agreement and those agreed upon in the single contrats d’application
concluded on the basis of the framework agreement.
289
H. Remedies
The obligation to allow an inspection is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101

PECL. Therefore, in the case of non-performance the supplier may, in principle, resort
Notes
1. Inspection
Under none of the legal systems is there a statutory rule in this respect. However under
PORTUGUESE law this obligation is recognized unanimously by the authors. (Pinto
Monteiro 2002, 109; Brito 1990, 179; RP 5/07/1999, www.dgsi.pt, JTRP26.).
Under AUSTRIAN law the Commercial Agency Act is applied by way of analogy to
distribution contracts and the distributor must allow an inspection at its premises
(OGH 1999/08/25 3Ob10/98m, OGH 1999/03/30 10Ob61/99i, contractually agreed:
OGH 2000/10/23 8Ob74/00s).
Under GERMAN, ITALIAN law concerning any type of distribution contract such an
obligation may follow from the principle of good faith depending on the circumstances
of the situation (GERMANY: § 242 BGB, Genzow, no. 79; Küstner/Thume, no. 1327;
ITALY: arts. 1375 cc, Galgano, 631). Some SPANISH authors agree upon such a right of
inspection (Domıńguez Garcıá (1997) 1353, De la Cuesta (2001) 366).
In exclusive and selective distribution contracts, the distributor must make reasonable efforts not
to damage the reputation of the products.
Comments
A. General Idea
This Article requires the distributor to avoid any behaviour which could seriously harm
the good reputation of the supplier’s products. This obligation requires the distributor to
take the necessary precautions to avoid such damage.
290
Maintaining the good reputation of the contract products is normally in the interest of
both parties. However, the distributor may lose some interest in dealing with the
contract products, if for instance it favours another product that it distributes as well,
or if it envisages bringing the contractual relationship to an end. The present provision
aims to prevent that the distributor damages their good reputation and obliges him to
take the necessary precautions to avoid such damage.
In principle the present obligation is restricted to cases of exclusive and selective

distribution agreements. First, these types of contracts mainly deal with branded pro-
ducts for which their image is of the essence and this image may be very easily damaged;
e. g. the reputation of the products could be harmed by inadequate packaging, presen-
tation and display of the products by the distributor. Secondly, the idea of commercia-
lising the products via a few refined sales sites is aimed at reinforcing the image of
‘exclusivity’ attached to the products. Thirdly, since the supplier grants the distributor
the privilege of being the only one or one of the few distributors dealing with certain
products, it is fair to expect from the distributor a certain loyal behaviour towards the
supplier and the products it trades.
C. Relation to the PECL and ECC
In assessing what is reasonable, the nature and purposes of the contract, the circum-
stances of the case and the usages and practices of the trade or profession involved must
be taken into account (see further Article 1:302 PECL). For instance, an advertising
campaign promoted by the supplier which stresses the quality of the after-sales service
could be undermined by the fact that the distributors fail to set up the necessary
assistance service.
E. Liability of the Distributor
The distributor is only liable for a loss of reputation caused by the distributor’s acts or
omissions. If the loss of reputation is caused by a third party, or by specific market
conditions, the distributor is not liable. This would simply be part of the ordinary
commercial risk borne by both parties.
291
G. Remedies
The obligation to make reasonable efforts not to seriously damage the reputation of the
products is an obligation in the sense of Article 8:101 PECL. Therefore, in the case of
non-performance the supplier may, in principle, resort to any of the remedies set out in
Chapter 9 PECL.
Notes
1. The Reputation of the Products
Under none of the legal systems there is a specific statutory rule that includes such an
obligation. However, FRENCH and SPANISH legal authors argue that the distributor
must maintain the image of the products (FRANCE: Dutilleul & Delebecque, no. 943;
SPAIN: Dominguez Garcıá (1997), 1353, Memento Lefebvre (2003-2004) 522). In GER-
MAN law it is accepted that the supplier must maintain the good reputation of the
trademark (Genzow, no. 85; Küstner/Thume, no. 1308). This obligation is founded on
good faith (§ 242 BGB). The supplier must take all reasonable measures to ensure and
maintain the highest quality of the traded product (Qualitätssicherungspflicht). How-
ever, the obligation to maintain the good reputation of the trademark is not limited to
exclusive purchasing contracts, but is also applicable to all other types of distribution
contracts.
Annexes
Abbreviations
AA Ars Aequi Juridisch Studentenblad (Zwolle [later Nijmegen],

1. 1951/1952 ff., cited by year and page)
AB Wet algemeene bepalingen. Act of 15 May 1829 on the general provisions
for the legislation of the kingdom (Stb. 28, The Netherlands)
ABGB Allgemeines Brgerliches Gesetzbuch, 1 June 1811 (JGS 946)
(Civil Code, Austria)
AC Law Reports, Appeal Cases (House of Lords) (London, 1.1875/76 ff.; the older
part of the collection up to 1890 cited as Appeal Cases; from 1891 the
abbreviation A.C. is used; cited by year, book, and page)
AcP Archiv fr die civilistische Praxis (Tbingen, 1.1818-50.1867; N.F.
1 = 51.1868-49 = 99.1906; 100.1906-120.1922; N.F. [= 3.F.] 1. = 121.
1923-29. = 149.1944; 30 = 150.1948/49-53 = 173.1973; 174.1974 ff.);
incorporating Archiv fr brgerliches Recht; cited by volume, year and page
affd affirmed
AG Amtsgericht (Local Court, Germany and Austria);
Aktiengesellschaft (joint-stock company, plc)
A-G Advocaat-Generaal (Netherlands); Attorney-General (England);
Avocat-Gnral (Belgium; France)
AGBG Gesetz v. 9.12.1976 zur Regelung des Rechts der Allgemeinen
Gesch ftsbedingungen (Act on General Contract Terms, 9 Dec. 1976;
BGBl. 1976 I S. 3317, Germany) repealed [01.01.2002] by the
Schuldrechtsmodernisierungsgesetz and inserted into the BGB
AID Archeion Idiotiku Dikaiu (Triminiaia nomiki epitheorisis;
Athens 1.1934-17.1954/59; cited by volume, year, and page)
AK Astikos Kodikas (Civil Code, Greece, 23.2.1946 [A. N. 2250/1940; FEK A 91/
1940 S. 597])
AllER All England Law Reports (London, 1.1936 ff.; cited by year, book, and page)
Alm.Del Almindelig Del (general part)
alt. alternative
AmJCompL The American Journal of Comparative Law (Baltimore 1.1952 ff.;
cited by volume, year, and page)
AnDerCiv. Anuario de Derecho Civil (Madrid 1. 1948 ff.;
A.P. Areios Pagos (Greek Supreme Court in Civil Matters)
AP Audiencia Provincial (Court of Appeal, Spain)
App Corte d’Appello (Court of Appeal, Italy)
App.Cas. see AC
AR ArrÞt Royal (Royal decree, Belgium)
ArchN Archeion Nomologicas (Athens 1.1949 ff.; cited by volume, year, and page)
295
Annexes
Arm Armenopoulos miniaia nomiki epitheorisis (Thessalonika 1.1946/47 ff.;

cited by year and page)
Art(s). Article(s)
AT Audiencia Territorial (Court of First Instance, Spain)
Avd Avdeling (Part)
Avv. e proc. Avvocato e procuratore
AWSt-A Reference term used in the publications of the BfAI; see BfAI
B Baron
BB Der Betriebs-Berater (Heidelberg, 1. 1946 ff.;
BCLC Butterworths Company Law Cases (London 1.1983 ff.;
cited by year, book, and page)
BFD Universidade de Coimbra. Boletim da Faculdade de Direito (Coimbra 1.1914/
15-9.1925/26 = no. 1 – 90; 10.1926/28 –; cited by volume, year and page)
BG Bundesgericht (Supreme Court, Switzerland); Bezirksgericht
(Court of Appeal, former GDR; partly also Germany); Bezirksgericht
(Court of First Instance, general jurisdiction, Austria)
BGB Brgerliches Gesetzbuch, 18 Aug. 1896 (RGBl. 195) (Civil Code, Germany)
BGBl. Bundesgesetzblatt (Official Gazette, Germany) 1950; then in parts: BGBl.
part I (1951 ff.) BGBl. part II (1951 ff.) BGBl. part III = Sammlung des
Bundesrechts (Collection of Federal Statutes; Cologne, Bonn 1.1958 ff.);
Official Gazette, Austria 1980-1938; 1945 ff., from 2004 distributed Online
www.ris.bka.gv.at
BGH Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Supreme Court, Germany – before 1990
only for West Germany)
BGHR BGH-Rechtsprechung Zivilsachen (Cologne 1987, CD-ROM;
cited by § und keyword)
BGHZ Amtliche Sammlung der Entscheidungen des Bundesgerichtshofes in
Zivilsachen (decisions of the German Supreme Court in civil matters)
(Cologne, Berlin 1.1951 ff.; cited by volume and page)
BJC Bolet
n de Jurisprudencia Constitucional (Bulletin of the Constitutional
Court, Spain) (Madrid 1.1981 ff.; cited by volume, year, and page)
BOE Bolet
n Oficial del Estado (Official Gazette, Spain) (Madrid 1.1936 ff.;
cited by year, number, and date)
BolMinJus Boletim do Ministrio da Justia (Bulletin of the Ministry of Justice)
(Lisbon 1.1940/41 ff.; cited by volume, year, and page)
BRats-Drucks Bundesratsdrucksachen. Verhandlungen des Bundesrates (Proceedings of
the 2nd Chamber of the German Federal Parliament; Bonn 1949 ff.;
cited by volume, year and, if necessary, by page)
B.R.H. Belgische Rechtspraak in Handelszaken/Jurisprudence commercial de
Belgique (Antwerp, 1968-1982)
BS Belgisch Staatsblad; see Monit. belge
BT-Drucks. Bundestagsdrucksachen. Verhandlungen des Bundestages (Proceedings
of the 1st Chamber of the German Federal Parliament; Bonn 1949 ff.;
cited by volume, year, and if necessary, by page)
296
Abbreviations
Bull.civ. Bulletin des arrÞts de la Cour de Cassation rendus en matire civile

(Bulletin of the decisions of the Court of Cassation in civil matters, France)
(Paris 12.1804/05, 128.1926 ff.; cited by year, book, and number)
Bull.com. Bulletin des arrÞts de la Cour de Cassation rendus en matire commerciale
(see Bull.civ.)
BVerfG Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court, Germany)
BVerfGE Amtliche Sammlung der Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts
(Decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court, Germany) (Tbingen
1952 ff.; cited by volume and page)
BW Burgerlijk Wetboek, 1 Jan. 1992 (Boek 1, 1 Jan. 1970: Stb. 1969, no. 167 in
conjunction with KB, 4 June 1969 Stb. 1969 no. 259) (Boek 2, 26 July 1976:
Stb. 1976 no. 228 in conjunction with KB, 12 June 1976, Stb. 1976 no. 342)
(Boek 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7A, 1 Jan. 1992: Stb.. 1989 no. 61 b in conjunction with
KB 20 Feb. 1990, Stb. 1990 no. 90) (Boek 8, 1 April 1991: Stb. 1991 no. 126)
(Civil Code, Netherlands)
BW (old) Burgerlijk Wetboek, 1 Sep. 1838 (Stb. 1831 nos. 1 and 6 in conjunction with
KB, 10 Apr. 1838, Stb. 1838 no. 12) (Civil Code, The Netherlands)
CA Audiencia Provincial (Spain); Corte d’Appello (Italy); Court of Appeal

(England); Efeteion (Greece); Hof (The Netherlands); Hovr tt (Finland,
Sweden); Inner House (Court of Session, Scotland); Kammergericht (Berlin,
Germany); Oberlandesgericht (Austria, Germany); Rela¼o (Portugal);
Sadem pierwszej instancji (Poland)
Cass. Hof van Cassatie/Cour de Cassation (Belgium); Cour de Cassation (France),
Corte Suprema di Cassazione (Italy, when none other specified: sezione
civile) (Court of Cassation)
Cass.ass.pln. Cour de cassation, Assemble plnire (France)
Cass.ch.mixte Cour de cassation, Chambre mixte (France)
Cass.ch.run. Cour de Cassation, Chambres runies (France)
Cass.civ. Cour de cassation, Chambre civile (France)
Cass.com. Cour de cassation, Chambre commerciale et financire (France)
Cass.req. Cour de cassation, Chambre des requÞtes (abolished) (France)
Cass.sez.lav. Corte di Cassazione, sezione lavoro (Italy)
Cass.sez.un. Corte di Cassazione, sezione unite (Italy)
Cass.soc. Cour de cassation, Chambre sociale (France)
CC Civil Code
Code Civil (France, Luxembourg), 21 Mar. 1804;
Burgerlijk Wetboek/Code Civil (Belgium);
Codice Civile (Italy) (Gaz.Uff., 4 Apr. 1942, no. 79 and 79bis; edizione
straordinaria);
Cdigo Civil (Spain) 24 July 1889 (Gaceta de Madrid no. 206, 25 July 1889);
Cdigo Civil (Portugal) (Decreto-Lei no. 47-344, 25 Nov. 1966)
See also ABGB, AK, BGB, BW, DL, EOA / V S, KC, ObcZ, OZ, Ptk
CCC Contrats, concurrence et consommation (Paris, 1.1991 ff.)
CC Introd.Act Civil Code Introductory Act (Eisagogikos nomos, Greece) (AN 2783/1941
FEK A 29/1941 p. 145); (Einfhrungsgesetz zum Brgerlichen Gesetzbuch,
Germany, see EGBGB)
297
Annexes
Ccom Commercial Code

Cdigo comercial (Portugal), 28 June 1888 (Dirio do Governo no. 203,
6 Sep. 1888); Cdigo de comercio (Spain) 22 Aug. 1885 (Gaceta de Madrid
no. 289-328, 16 Oct.-24 Nov. 1885); Code de commerce (France) 1808;
Wetboek van Koophandel/Code de commerce (Belgium, 10 Sep. 1807)
See also HGB
CCP Act 1/2000 on Civil Procedure (Spain), 7 January 2000 (BOE no. 7, 8
January 2000)
CE Consticucin Espaola (Constitution, Spain) 27 Dec. 1987, altered
27 Aug. 1992 (BOE no. 311.1., 29 Dec. 1978)
CE Comunit Europea
CEE Comunit Economica Europea
cf. confer
CFI Court of First Instance, general jurisdiction
See further AG, Apygardu teismai, Apylinkiu teismai, AT, BD, BG,
Civ., Conc., Corr, HC, Helyi birosg, JP, Kerlti birosg, KS, Ktg, LG,
Linnakohus, Maakohus, MPr, OH, Okj, Okz, ØL, OS, PPr, Pr, Pret., Rb,
Sady grodzkie, Sad okregowny, SH, Sh.Ct., TGI, TI, Trib., Trib.com.,
Trib.Corr., Trib.enfants, Varosi birosg, Vred
Ch The Law Reports. Chancery (London 1.1891 ff.;
cited by year, volume and page)
chap. chapter
Cir. Circuit
CISG Vienna UN-Convention on the International Sale of Goods of 11.4.1980
(http:/ /www.uncitral.org /en-index.htm)
Civ. Tribunal de premire instance (Chambre civile, Belgium)
CJ Colectnea de JurisprudÞncia (Coimbra 1. 1976 ff.;
CJ (ST) Colectnea de JurisprudÞncia. Acrd¼os do Supremo Tribunal de Justia
(Coimbra 1.1993 ff.; cited by year, volume, and page)
C.J. Lord Chief Justice (England)
CLC Commercial Law Cases (London, 2002 ff.)
CLJ The Cambridge Law Journal (Cambridge 1.1921/23 ff., parts without
volume numbers; cited, as far as possible, by volume, year, and page)
CLY Current Law Yearbook (London 1.1947 ff.; cited by year and issue)
CMLR Common Market Law Reports (London 1.1963 ff.;
cited by volume, year and page)
Code jud. Code judiciaire (Code of civil procedure, Belgium), 10 Oct. 1967
(Monit. belge, 31 Oct. 1967)
col colona
Coll. Arb. Collegio Arbitrale (Italy)
Col.Leg.Esp. Coleccin Legislativa de Espaa. First series, third part: Jurisprudencia civil
(Madrid 1.1889 ff.; cited by volume, year, book, number and page)
COM Publications of the European Commission (Brussels 1.1968 ff.)
Conc. Conciliatore (Justice of the Peace, Italy)
298
Abbreviations
ConsC Code de la consommation, Loi n8 93-949 du 26 juillet 1993, relative au code

de la consommation (partie Lgislative) (Journal officiel de la Rpublique
Franaise of 27 July 1993, 10538) (Consumer Code, France)
ContrA Contract Act (Finland: Lag om r ttshandlingar p frmgenhetsr ttens
omrde of 13 June 1929 no. 228; Sweden: Lag om avtal och andra
r ttshandlingar p frmgenhetsr ttens omrde [SFS 1915:218])
Contratto e Contratto e Impresa (Padova 1.1985 ff.; cited by year and page)
Impresa
Corr.giur. Corriere giuridico (Milan 1. 1984 ff.; cited by year and page)
Corte Cost. Corte Costituzionale (Constitutional Court, Italy)
Cost. Costituzione of 27 Dec. 1947 (Constitution Italy; Gaz.Uff. no. 298, edizione
straordinaria)
CPC Codice di procedura civile
CPR Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (SI 1998/3132) (England)
C.proc.civ. (Nouveau) Code de Procdure Civile of 1.1.1976 (Code of Civil Procedure,
France) (dcret n8 75-1123, 5.12.1975);
Codice di procedura civile of 21 Apr. 1942 (Code of Civil Procedure, Italy)
(R.D., 28 Oct. 1940, no. 1443 Gaz.Uff. no. 253, 28 Oct. 1940);
Cdigo do Processo Civil of 28.12.1961 (Code of Civil Procedure, Portugal)
(Decreto Lei Nr. 44129)
ctr. contra
CuadCivJur. Cuadernos Civitas de Jurisprudencia Civil (Madrid 1.1983 ff.;
CurrLegProbl. Current Legal Problems (London 1.1948 ff.; cited by volume, year and page)
D. Recueil de jurisprudence Dalloz (Paris; also Recueil gnral des lois et arrÞts
resp. Recueil Sirey; 1801/02 ff.; with different forms and titles: D.A. (Recueil
analytique Dalloz [1941-1944]); D.C. (Recueil critique Dalloz [1941-1944]);
D.H. (Recueil hebdomadaire Dalloz [1924-1940]); D.P. (Recueil priodique et
critique Dalloz [1924-1940]); Recueil Dalloz, Recueil Sirey, combined since
1955; Recueil Dalloz et Recueil Sirey; from 1965: Recueil Dalloz-Sirey;
appearing in sections: D. Chron./Jur. [Chronique/Jurisprudence], D. I.R./
Lgis. [Informations Rapides/Lgislation], D. Somm.Comm. [Sommaires
Comments]; cited by year, book, and page)
D dcret (decree, France)
DAOR Le droit des affaires/Het ondernemingsrecht (Gent 1.2000/01 ff.)
DB Der Betrieb. Wochenschrift fr Betriebswirtschaft, Steuerrecht,
Wirtschaftsrecht, Arbeitsrecht (Dsseldorf, 1.1948 ff.; cited by year and page)
D.C. see D.
DDike Dioikitiki Dike (Athens 1.1989 ff.; cited by year and page)
DEE Dikaio Epicheiriseon kai Etairion (Enterprises and Company Law; 1.1995,
Athens)
DH see D.
Dirio Rep Dirio da Repfflblica. Portugese government gazette (Lisbon 1.1976 ff.;
cited by year and number)
diss. dissertation
DL Decreto legge, decreto ley (Decree-law, Italy, Portugal)
299
Annexes
DLgs Decreto legislativo (Legislative Decree, Italy)

D.P. see D.
D.P.C. see D.
DPR Decreto Presidente della Repubblica (Presidential decree, Italy)
DR Dirio da Repfflblica (Official Gazette, Portugal, Lisbon 1.1976 ff.)
Droit soc Droit social (Paris 1.1938 ff.; cited by year and page)
Dr.prat.com.int. Droit et pratique du commerce international (Paris 1.1975 ff.;
DTI Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)
EC European Community
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
ECE European Code of Ethics adopted by the European Franchise Federation first
in 1972 and amended in 2003
ECHR European Court of Human Rights (Strasbourg)
ECJ European Court of Justice (Luxembourg)
ECLR European Competition Law Review (Oxford 1.1980 ff.;
ecolex Fachzeitschrift fr Wirtschaftsrecht (Vienna 1.1990 ff.;
ECR European Court Reports. Reports of cases before the Court of Justice and the
Court of First Instance (Luxembourg 1.1954 ff.) (until 1989 Reports of cases
before the Court) (cited by volume, year, and page)
ed. edition, editor(s)
EEC European Economic Community
EED Epitheorissis Egatikou Dikaiou (Review of Commercial Law) (Athens
1.1941 ff.; cited by volume, year, and page)
EEN Ephimeris Ellinon Nomikon (Journal of Greek Jurists) (Athens 1.1934 ff.;
Ef Efeteion (Court of Appeals, Greece)
e.g. exempli gratia (for example)
EGBGB Einfhrungsgesetz zum Brgerlichen Gesetzbuche (BGB Introductory Act,
18 Aug. 1896; RGBl. 604;) (Germany)
Eis. Eisagogi (introduction)
EllDik Elliniki Dikeosini (Athens 1. 1960 ff.; cited by volume, year, and page)
EOA see V S
ErmAK Ermineia tou Astikou Kodikos (Commentary to the Greek Civil Code)
ERPL European Review of Private Law (Deventer 1.1994 ff.;
et. al. et alii (and others)
EU European Union
EuZW Europ ische Zeitschrift fr Wirtschaftsrecht (Munich, Frankfurt/Main
1.1990 ff.; cited by year and page)
EvBl Evidenzblatt der Rechtsmittelentscheidungen (Vienna 1.1934 ff.; included in
the JZ [since 1946]; see there; cited by year and page)
EWCA Civ Approved Judgment of the Court of Appeal, Civil Division,
England and Wales
300
Abbreviations
EWHC Approved Judgment of the High Court, England and Wales

EWiR Entscheidungen zum Wirtschaftsrecht (Cologne 1.1985 ff.;
cited by §, number, year, and page)
Exchq Court of the Exchequer
ExchqCh Exchequer Camber
fasc. fascicule
FEK Fyllo Ephimeridas Kyberniseos (Government Gazette, Greece; Athens
1.1833; cited by year, volume, and if necessary, book, and number)
f(f) following page(s)
FFR Fors kringsjuridiska freningens r ttsfallsamling (Stockholm 1939-1984;
FFS Finlands Frfattningssamling (Official Gazette; Finland) (Helsinki 1.1860 ff.;
cited by year, number, and page)
fn. footnote
Foro it. Il Foro italiano: raccolta di giurisprudenza civile, commerciale, penale,
amministrativa (Rome, 1.1876 ff.; cited by year, book, and column)
Foro it.Mass. Massimario del Foro italiano (Rome 1.1930 ff.;
cited by volume, year, number, and column)
Foro pad. Il Foro padano (Milan 1.1946 ff.; cited by year, book, and column)
FP6 Sixth Framework Programme on Research
FS Festschrift
FTLR Financial Times Law Reports (Brentford 1982, 1986-1988)
GazPal La gazette du palais: feuille officielle d’annonces lgales (Paris 1.1886 ff.;
cited by year, book, and page)
GazUff Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana (Official Gazette; Italy)
(Rome 1. 1860 ff.; cited by year, number and page)
GG Grundgesetz (Basic Law, Constitution, Germany)
giur. civ. comm. La Nuova giurisprudenza civile commentata: rivista bimestrale delle nuove
leggi civili commentate, Padova: Cedam, 1.1985 ff.
Giur.cost. Giurisprudenza costituzionale (Milan 1.1956-20.1975; then:
Parte 1 = Corte costituzionale 21.1976 ff.; Parte 2 = Ordinanza di rinivio ed i
ricorsi 21.1976 ff.; Parte 3 = Quaderni della giurisprudenza costituzionale
1. 1964-7.1968; new series 1.1972 ff.)
Giur.it. Giurisprudenza italiana (Torino 14.1862-25.1873; 3rd series 26.1874-32.1880,
4th series 33.1881-43.1891, 5th series 44.1892–64.1912, 110.1958 ff.;
cited by year, part, and if necessary, section and column)
Giur.it.Mass. Massimario della Giurisprudenza italiana (Torino 1.1931 ff.;
cited by year, number and page)
Giur.mer. Giurisprudenza di merito (Milan 1.1969 ff.; cited by year, book and page)
Giur.tosc. Giurisprudenza toscana (Milan et al. 1.1950 ff.; cited by year and page)
Giust.civ. Giustizia civile. Rivista bimestrale di giurisprudenza (Milan 1.1951 ff.;
cited by year, book and page)
Giust.civ.Mass. Massimario annotato della cassazione
Milan: Giuffr, 5.1955(1955/56)-7.1957(1957/58); [8.]1958-[31.]1981;
32.1983-(Giustizia civile)
301
Annexes
GmbH Gesellschaft mit beschr nkter Haftung (private company limited by shares)
HaL Lag om handelsagentur (Sweden)

HD Redogrelser och meddelanden angende hgsta domstolens avgranden
(Collection of Judgments by the Finnish Supreme Court) (Helsinki 1.1926 ff.;
HGB Handelsgesetzbuch (Commercial Code, Germany, 10 May 1897; RGBl. p. 219,
BGBl III 4100-1); Austria (March 1939, RGBL I 1938/1999)
HL House of Lords (United Kingdom)
HL(Ir) See LR
HLR Housing Law Reports (London 1.1967 ff.; cited by year, volume, and page)
HL(Sc) See LR
Hof Gerechtshof (Court of Appeal, The Netherlands)
HovR Hovr tt (Court of Appeal, Finland, Sweden)
HR Hoge Raad (Supreme Court, Netherlands)
HvertrG Handelsvertretergesetz (Austria)
ICC International Chamber of Commerce

ICCLR International Company and Commercial Law Review (London, 1990,
ICLQ International and Comparative Law Quarterly (London, 1952,
ICR Industrial Cases Reports (London 1.1975 ff.; cited by year and page)
i.e. id est (that is to say)
IECL The International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law (Tbingen, New York
1.1970 ff.; cited by volume, chapter and margin number)
Inner House Inner House (Court of Session, Scotland)
IHR Internationales Handelsrecht, Zeitschrift fr das Recht des internationalen
Warenkaufs und -vertriebs (Munich 1999, cited by year and page)
Inf. prev. Informazione e previdenziale. Rivista bimestriale dell’avvocatura dell’Istituto
Nazionale delle Previdenza Sociale (Rome 1.1985 ff; cited by year and page)
IntBusLawyer International Business Lawyer (London 1.1973 ff.; cited by year and page)
IPRE IPR-Entscheidungen 1-3, sterreichische Entscheidungen zum
Internationalen Privatrecht bis 1983, ed. by Schwimann, 1984
I.R. Informations rapides du recueil Dalloz, France; see D.
IRLR Industrial Relations Law Reports (London 1.1972 ff.; cited by year and page)
J. Judge (High Court, UK)

JBl Juristische Bl tter (Vienna 1.1872 ff.; cited by year and page)
JbOstR Jahrbuch fr Ostrecht (Munich 1.1960 ff.; cited by volume, year and page)
JclCiv Collection des Juris-Classeurs. Juris-Classeur Civil. Directeurs partir de
1980 Pierre Catala and Philippe Simler. (Paris 1962 ff.)
JCP Juris-Classeur priodique; see Sem.Jur.
JCP E Semaine Juridique dition entreprise (France); see Sem.Jur.
JCP G Semaine Juridique dition gnrale (France); see Sem.Jur.
JCP N Semaine Juridique ditions nouvelles (France); see Sem.Jur.
JCP Pan. Panorama, Semaine Juridique (France); see Sem.Jur.
302
Abbreviations
JCP Som. Sommaire, Semaine Juridique (France); see Sem.Jur.

JFT Tidskrift utgiven av Juridiska Freningen i Finnland (Helsingfors 1.1936 ff.;
JLMB Revue de jurisprudence de Lige, Mons et Bruxelles (Lige, 94.1987 ff)
JO Journal Officiel de la Rpublique Franaise. Lois et Dcrets. Official gazette of
the French Republic. Acts and Decrees (Paris 1.1869 ff.; cited by date of issue)
JP Juge de Paix (Luxembourg); Juge de Paix (Belgium) (Justice of the Peace)
JR Juristische Rundschau (Berlin 1.1947 ff.; cited by year and page)
Jur. Jurisprudence
Jura Jura. Juristische Ausbildung (Berlin et al 1.1979 ff.; cited by year and page)
JuS Juristische Schulung (Munich, Frankfurt am Main 1.1961 ff.;
JUS Rivista di scienze giuridiche (Milan 1.1940-4.1943; NS 1.1950-20.1969;
JW Juristische Wochenschrift. Organ des Deutschen Anwaltsvereins (Bulletin of
the German Lawyers’ Association) (Leipzig 1.1872-68.1939, 1940 merged
with Deutsches Recht; cited by year and page)
JZ Juristenzeitung (Tbingen 1.1945 ff.; Continuation of the German
Rechtszeitschrift and the South German Juristenzeitung, volume 6.1951 ff.;
KB King’s Bench
KB The Law Reports. King’s Bench Division (London, 1.1875/76 ff:;
KB Koninklijk Besluit (Royal decree, Belgium and The Netherlands)
KC Kodeks cywilny (Civil Code, Poland)
KG Kort Geding (from 1.1981 contained in Rechtspraak van de Week; see
RvdW)
KG Kammergericht (Berlin, Court of Appeal, Germany)
KommL. Lag om Kommissions (Swedish Act)
KPolDik Kodikas Politikis Dikonomias (Code of Civil Procedure, Greece) (Royal
Decree 657/1971 FEK 219/1 Jan. 1971 p. 75)
KritE Kritiki Epitheorisi (Athens 1.1994, cited by year and page)
Ktg Kantongerecht (Local Court, The Netherlands)
La Ley Revista jur

dica espaola de doctrina, jurisprudencia y bibliograf
a (Madrid
1.1980 ff.; cited by year, book and page)
Lavoro 80 Lavoro 80 – Rivista di diritto del lavoro pubblico e privato (Milan 1.1981 ff.;
Lav.prev.oggi Lavoro e previdenza oggi (Milan 1.1974 ff.; cited by year and page)
Law Com. Law Commission Report, England and Wales
LC Lord Chancellor (UK)
LCA Ley del Contrato de Agencia (Spain)
LD Law Decree (Greece)
Legal Studies Legal Studies. The Journal of the Society of Public Teachers of Law
(London 1.1947 ff.; cited by volume, year and page)
303
Annexes
LG Landgericht (Germany); Landesgericht (Court of First Instance, general

jurisdiction, also Court of Appeal for Local Courts, Austria)
LGDJ Librairie Gnrale de Droit et de Jurisprudence; French publishing company
Lit. litera
L.J. Lord Justice (Court of Appeal judge, UK)
Lloyd’s List Law Lloyd’s List Law Reports (London 1.1919-32.1950;
Rep cited by volume, year and page)
Lloyd’s Rep Lloyd’s Law Reports (London 1.1968 ff.; cited by volume, year and page)
loc. cit. loco citato (the place already cited)
LQR The Law Quaterly Review (London 1.1885 ff.;
LR Law Reports. Publications of the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting
(1865-1875 [the year of foundation of the High Court] in 11 series [here cited
with the A & E, Ch.App., the C.P., the Eq., the Ex., the H.L., H.L. (Ir), H.L.
(Sc)., P.C. and the Q.B.]; usually L.R. is put at the head of citations of
decisions of the series up to 1875.1875 the 11 series were reduced to 6
[App.Cas., Ch.D., Q.B.D., C.P.D., Ex.D., P.D.]. Since 1881 the Law Reports
are published in 4 series [App.Cas., Ch.D., Q.B.D., P.D.]. Since 1890 cited in
a different way: the volume does not appear any more, but the year, put at the
head within brackets; in case the reporting took more than one volume, the
volume appears behind the year)
Ltd Limited
MDR Monatsschrift fr Deutsches Recht: Zeitschrift fr die Zivilrechts-Praxis

(Cologne, Hamburg 1.1947 ff.; cited by year and page)
MJ Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law (Antwerp, Baden-
Baden 1.1994; cited by volume, year and page)
MLR The Modern Law Review (London 1.1937/38 ff.; cited by year and page)
Monit belge Moniteur belge des arrÞts des secrtaires gnraux: journal officiel (Official
gazette; Belgium) (Brussels 1.1831 ff.; cited by date)
MPr Monomeles Protodikio (One-member First Instance Court, Greece)
MR Master of the Rolls (Member and President of the Court of Appeal, UK)
MvA Memorie van Antwoord. Parlementaire Geschiedenis (The Netherlands)
MvT, Parl. Memorie van Toelichting. Parlementaire Geschiedenis (The Netherlands)
Gesch.
n. number (in Italian decisions and statutes)

NBW see BW
ND Neon Dikaion (New Law, Greece)
NdsRpflege Nieders chsische Rechtspflege (Celle 1.1947 ff.; cited by year and page)
NedJur (kort) See NedJur (supplementary collection of judgments that have not entered
into effect; cited by year and number)
NedTIR Nederlands Tijdschrift voor International Recht (Leiden 1.1953/54 with
various titles; Nederlands International Law Review 22.1975 ff.;
NFT Nordisk forsikringstidsskrift (Danish ed.); Nordisk frs kringstidskrift
(Swedish ed.) (Copenhagen 1.1921 ff.; cited by year and page)
304
Abbreviations
NGCC Nuova Giurisprudenza Civile Commentata (Padova 1.1984 ff.;

NILR Netherlands International Law Review; see NedTIR
NJ Nederlandse Jurisprudentie (Zwolle 1913 ff.; until 1935 cited by year and
page, then by year, number and page)
NJA Nytt Juidiskt Arkiv (Stockholm 1.1874 ff.; as of 1876 separation into two
divisions: division 1: R ttsfall frn hgsta domstolen, until 1 Oct. 1983 called
Tidskrift fr lagstiftning; cited by year, number and page; division 2: Tidskrift
fr lagstiftning, cited by year, division and page)
NJB Nederlands Juristenblad (Zwolle 1.1926 ff.; 1936-1943; same contents as
Weekblad van het recht; cited by year and page)
NJW Neue Juristische Wochenschrift (Munich et al. 1.1947 ff.; previously: JW;
NJW-RR NJW-Rechtsprechungsreport (Munich 1.1986 ff.; cited by year and page)
NoB Nomiko Bima; miniaion nomikon periodikon (Law Tribune; Athens
1.1953 ff.; cited by volume, year and page)
no(s). number(s); margin number(s)
Notiziario giur. Notiziario giuridico. Diritto del lavoro, diritto civile e commerciale, diritto
lav. amministrativo e costituzionale, diritto communitario (Torino 1.1970 ff.,
Nov.Dig.it. Nuovissimo Digesto italiano (Torino 1957 ff.)
NRt see Rt
NTBR Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Burgerlijk Recht (Deventer 1.1984 ff.;
obs. observations
JZ sterreichische Juristenzeitung (Vienna 1.1946 ff.; cited by year and page)
RZ sterreichische Richterzeitung (Vienna 1.1908-3.1909, 7.1914-12.1919,
19.1926-31.1938, 32.1954 ff.; cited by year and page)
OGH Oberster Gerichtshof (Supreme Court, Austria)
OH Outer House (Court of Session, Scotland)
OJ Official Journal of the European Communities (Brussels 1.1958 ff.; from
11.1968 ff.: issue C [Communication]: Information and Notice: Issue L
[Lgislation]: Legislation; cited by issue, number, date and page)
OLG Oberlandesgericht (Court of Appeal; Austria, Germany, Greece)
OLGR OLG-Report. Zivilrechtsprechung der Oberlandesgerichte (Decisions of the
Court of Appeal in civil matters, Cologne 1.1997 ff.; cited by year and page)
OLGZ Entscheidungen der Oberlandesgerichte in Zivilsachen einschließlich der
freiwilligen Gerichtsbarkeit (Decisions of the Court of Appeal in Civil
Matters including Jurisdiction over Non-contentious Matters) (Munich,
Berlin 1.1965 ff.; cited by year and page)
op. cit. opere citato (work already cited)
P President (official name, United Kingdom)

para(s) paragraph(s)
Parl. St. Kamer Parlamentaire Stukken Kamer (Publications of the committee of the chamber
of the belgian parliament, Brussels)
305
Annexes
Pas belge Pasicrisie belge (Recueil gnral de la jurisprudence des cours et tribunaux de
Belgique. I = ArrÞts de la Cour de Cassation 3rd Series 1865-1924;
112.1925 ff.; II = ArrÞts de la Cour d’Appel 3rd Series 1865-1924; 112.1925 ff.;
III = Jugements des tribunaux 3rd Series 1865-1924; 112.1925 ff.;
IV = Jurisprudence trangre 3rd Series 1893-1924; 112.1925 ff.;
V = Revue de droit belge 3rd Series 1893 ff.; cited by year, book and page)
Pasin belge Pasinomie belge ou Collection complte des lois, dcrets, arrÞts et
rglements gnraux qui peuvent Þtre invoqus en Belgique (Brussels
PC Privy Council (United Kingdom)
PECL Principles of European Contract Law.. Prepared by the Commission on
European Contract Law. Parts I and II. Edited by Ole Lando and Hugh Beale
(The Hague 2000); Part III. Edited by Ole Lando, Eric Clive, Andr Prm
and Reinhard Zimmermann (The Hague 2003)
plc public limited company
Poder Judicial Conseijo General del Poder Judicial (Madrid 1.1981 ff.;
p(p). page(s)
PPr Polymeles Protodikio (Multi-member First Instance Court, Greece)
Pr Protodikio (First Instance Court, Greece)
pr. principium
Pret. Pretura (Local Court, Italy)
Prg De Praktijgids. Tijdschrift gewijd aan de rechtspraktijk en aan de
jurisprudentie van de kantongerechten (Arnhem 1.1980 ff.;
Prop Proposition (Official proposal for a statute, Sweden)
QB (ComCt) Queen`s Bench Division, Commercial Court

QB The Law Reports. Queen’s Bench Division (London 1.1890 ff.;
cited by year, book, and page, additional LR cited: London 1865-1875)
QBD Queen’s Bench Division (London 1875/76-1890;
cited by year, book and page); see LR
QC Queen’s Council
R. Regina or Rex
R. Rglement (order, France)
RabelsZ Zeitschrift fr ausl ndisches und internationales Privatrecht (Berlin,
Tbingen, 1.1927 ff.; from vol. 26.1961: Rabels Zeitschrift fr ausl ndisches
und internationales Privatrecht; cited by volume, year and page)
RaDC Rassegna di diritto civile (Naples 1.1980 ff.; cited by year and page)
RAJ Repertorio Aranzadi de Jurisprudencia (Pamplona 1.1930/31, 2.1934 ff.;
RAJ (TSJ y AP) Repertorio Aranzadi de Jurisprudencia. Sentencias de Tribunales Superiores
de Justicia y Audiencias Provinciales y otros Tribunales (Pamplona 1.1996 ff.;
Rass.Avv.Stato La Rassegna mensile dell’ Avvocatura dello Stato (Rome 1.1948 ff.;
306
Abbreviations
Rass.dir.civ. Rassegna di diritto civile (Naples 1.1980 ff.; cited by year and page)
Rb Arrondissementsrechtbank (District Court, Court of First Instance, general
jurisdiction, The Netherlands), Rechtbank van eerste anleg (Court of First
Instance, Belgium)
RCJB Revue critique de jurisprudence belge (1.1947 ff.; cited by year and page)
RCR Relazione della Commissione Reale al progetto del libro ›obbligazioni e
contratti‹ (see Pandolfelli et al., Codice civile, in the table of literature cited
in an abbreviated form)
RD Regio Decreto (Royal decree, Italy)
RdW sterreichisches Recht der Wirtschaft (Vienna 1.1983 ff.;
Reg. Regulation
recht Recht, Zeitschrift fr juristische Ausbildung (Berne 1.1983 ff.;
ref. reference
RpDrCiv Rpertoire de droit civil (Paris 1.1951-5.1955; 2nd ed. 1.1970 ff.; see details in
the table of literature)
Rep.Foro it. Repertorio del Foro italiano (legislazione, bibliografia, giurisprudenza; Rome
1.1878 ff.; previously: Repertorio generale annuale di giurisprudenza,
bibliografia e legislazione; cited by volume, year and column)
Rep.gen. Repertorio generale della Giurisprudenza italiana (Torino 1.1890 ff.;
previously: Repertorio generale annuale della Giurisprudenza italiana;
cited by year, and column and number)
Rep.Giur.it. Repertorio generale della giurisprudenza italiana (Torino 1.1848 ff.;
cited by year, key word and number)
resp. Respectively
Resp.Civ. e Prev. Responsabilit Civile e Previdenza (Milan 1.1930 ff.; cited by year and page)
Rev.crit.dr.int.pr. Revue critique de droit international priv (Paris, 1905,
Rev.crit.jur.belge Revue critique de jurisprudence belge (Brussels 1.1947 ff.;
Rev.crit.lgis. et Revue critique de lgislation et de jurisprudence (Paris 1.1851 ff.;
juris. cited by year and page)
Rev.dr.int.dr.- Revue de droit international et de droit compar (Brussels 1.1924 ff.;
comp. 1940-48 not published; cited by volume, year and page)
Rev.dr.uniforme Revue de droit uniforme. Uniform Law Review (Rome 1.1973 ff.;
cited by year, part and page)
Rev.trim.dr.civ. Revue trimestrielle de droit civil (Paris 1.1902-38.1939,
39/40.1940/41-78.1979 = tome 39-77, 79.1980 ff.; until 1977 by volume,
then by year and page)
Rev.trim.dr.com Revue trimestrielle de droit commercial (Paris 1.1948 ff.)
RG Reichsgericht (Supreme Court of the German Reich, Germany)
RG Relazione del Guardasigilli al progetto ministeriale delle obbligazioni
(see Pandolfelli et al., Codice civile, in the table of literature cited in an
abbreviated form)
RGD Revista general de derecho (Valencia 1.1945 ff.)
307
Annexes
RGDC Revue gnrale de droit civil/Tijdschrift voor Belgisch Burgerlijk Recht

(1.1987 ff.)
RGZ Amtliche Sammlung der Entscheidungen des Reichsgerichtes in Zivilsachen
(Decisions of the German Reichsgericht in civil matters) (Berlin 1.1872-
172.1945; cited by volume and page)
RH R ttsfall frn Hovr tterna (Decisions of the Swedish Court of Appeal,
changing places of publication, usually Stockholm, 1.1980 ff.;
RIS-Justiz Austrian internetpublication of OGH-decisions, www.ris.bka.gv.at /jus /;
decisions are cited by date, number of legal subject and keyword
Riv.crit.dir.priv. Rivista critica del diritto privato (Bologna 1.1989 ff.; cited by year and page)
Riv.Dir.Civ. Rivista di Diritto Civile (Padova 1.1955 ff.; cited by year, book and page)
Riv.Dir.Com. Rivista del Diritto Commerciale e del Diritto generale delle obbligazioni
(Milan 1.1903 ff.; cited by year, book and page)
Riv.dir.eur. Rivista di diritto europeo (Rome 1.1961 ff.; cited by year and page)
Riv.giur.lav. Rivista giuridica del lavoro e della previdenza sociale (Rome 1.1954 ff.; part 1:
Dottrina; part 2: Giurisprudenza; part 3: Previdenza; part 4: Diritto penale del
lavoro; cited by year, book and page)
RIW Recht der Internationalen Wirtschaft (Heidelberg 1954-1957 and 1975 ff.;
from 1958 to 1974 Außenwirtschaftdienst des Betriebsberaters [AWD];
RJDA Revue de jurisprudence du droit des affaires (Paris 1.1991 ff.;
RLJ Revista de Legisla¼o e JurisprudÞncia (Coimbra 1.1868/69 ff.;
RM-Themis Rechtsgeleerd magazijn Themis. Tijdschrift voor publiek- en privaatrecht.
(Zwolle 1.1939 ff.; cited by year and page)
ROA Revista da Ordem dos Advogados (Lisbon 1941 ff.)
RP RP 189/1998 rd – Regeringens proposition till Riksdagen med frslag till
lagstiftning om borgen och tredjemanspant (Finland)
RTD civ Revue trimestrielle de droit civil (Paris, 1.1902 ff.)
RTD com Revue trimestrielle de droit commercial (Paris, 1.1948 ff.)
Rv Wetboek van Burgerlijke Rechtsvordering (Code of Civil Procedure,
The Netherlands) (Stb. 1828 no. 14)
RvdW Rechtspraak van de Week (Zwolle 1.1939 ff.; cited by year and number)
RW Rechtskundig Weekblad (Antwerp 1.1931/32 ff.; cited by year and page)
S. Sirey: see D.
Sadem pierwszej Court of Appeal, Poland
instancji
Sad Najwyzszy Supreme Court, Poland
Sad okregowy Circuit Court (Court of First Instance), Poland
Sady grodzkie Court of First Instance, Poland
SAP Sentencia de la Audiencia Provincial (Decision of a Court of Appeal, Spain)
SC Session Cases. New Series.. Cases decided in the Court of Session, and also in
the Court of Justiciary (J.C.) and the House of Lords (H.L.); Edinburgh
308
Abbreviations
ScanStudL Scandinavian Studies in Law (Stockholm 1.1957 ff.,

sch. schedule(s)
Scientia jur
dica Scientia jur
dica. Revista de direito comparado portuguÞs e brasileiro
(Braga 1.1951/52 ff.; cited by volume, year and page)
Scot CS Approved judgment of the Court of Session. Scotland
sec., secs. section, sections
SEK Reference of the Commission General Secretary’s Office and of the Council
of the European Union
SemJur La Semaine Juridique
Edition Entreprise. Cahiers de Droit de l’entreprise (Paris 1.1966 ff.;
cited by year, part and number),
Edition Gnrale. (also Juris Classeur Priodique; Paris 1.1927 ff.;
cited by year, part and number),
Edition Nouvelles, Panorama, Sommaire, also quoted as JCP
sent. sentence(s)
Sez. giur. Sezione giurisdizionale
SFS Svensk frfattningssamling (Official gazette, Sweden) (Stockholm 1.1825 ff.;
SGECC Study Group on an European Civil Code
S.I. Statutory Instrument
SLT (Rep) The Scots Law Times (News and Reports, the latter with separate pagination)
(Edinburgh 1.1893/94 ff.; Sheriff Court Reports 1.1922 ff.,
SOU Statens offentliga utredningar (Government gazette, Sweden) (Stockholm
1.1939 ff.; cited by year, number, title and page)
s(s). et sequentia
Stb Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Official Gazette;
The Netherlands) (Zwolle 1.1813 ff.; cited by year and page)
STJ Supremo Tribunal da Justia (Supreme Court, Portugal)
STS Sentencia del Tribunal Supremo (decision of the Supreme Court, Portugal,
Spain)
subs. Subsections
Suppl. Supplement
Suppl.ord. Supplemento ordinario (Part of the government gazette, Italy)
SvJT Svensk Juristtidning (Stockholm 1.1916 ff.; cited by year and page)
SZ Entscheidungen des sterreichischen Obersten Gerichtshofs in Zivilsachen
(Vienna 1.1919-20.1938; 21.1946 ff.; with changing titles; until vol. 34.1961:
Entscheidungen des sterreichischen obersten Gerichtshofs in Zivil- und
Justizverwaltungssachen; cited by volume, number, and page)
tab. tabulae
TBBR Tijdschrift voor Belgisch Burgerlijk Recht; see R.G.D.C.
TC Tribunal Constitucional (Constitutional Court; Spain)
Temi Il Temi. Rivista di giurisprudenza Italiana (Parma, Milan et al. NS 1 =
Temi nap. Il Temi napoletana (Milan 1.1958 ff.; cited by year and page)
309
Annexes
Temi rom. Temi romana (Milan 1.1929-5.1933; [n.F.] 1.1952-40.1991;

TGI Tribunal de grande instance (Court of First Instance, France)
Themis Hebdomacliaia dikastike ephemeris ekdiclomene en Athenais (Athens
1.1890/91 (1930)-65.1954/55; cited by volume, year and page)
TI Tribunal d’instance (Court of first instance, France)
TLR Annual Digest of the Times Law Reports (London 1.1884 ff.;
TPR Tijdschrift voor Privaatrecht (Gent 1.1964 ff.; cited by year and page)
Trb Tractatenblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Official Gazette
recording treaties in force in the Netherlands) (s’Gravenhage 1.1951 ff.;
Treaty of Rome Treaty establishing the European Community, 25 March 1957
Trib. Tribunale (Court of First Instance, general jurisdiction; Court of Appeal in
small claims matters; Italy); Tribunal de premire instance (Court of First
Instance; Belgium, France); Tribunal d’arrondissement (Court of First
Instance, general jurisdiction, Luxembourg)
Trib.com. Tribunal de Commerce (Commercial Court; Belgium and France)
TS Tribunal Supremo (if not specified: senate for civil matters) (Supreme Court,
Spain)
TSJ Tribunal Superior de Justicia (Supreme Court of the autonomous regions,
Spain)
UKHL Approved judgment of the House of Lords (United Kingdom)

UNCITRAL United Nations Commission for International Trade Law
UnfContTA Unfair Contract Terms Act (France: Law no. 95-96 of 1. Feb. 1995 Art. 1
consolidated in ConsC Art. 132-1; United Kingdom: Unfair Contract Terms
Act 1977)
UnifLRev Uniform Law Review = Revue de droit uniforme; see Rev.dr.uniforme
v. versus
V8 Verbo
V-C Vice-Chancellor (UK)
vol volume
WBl Wirtschaftsrechtliche Bl tter (Vienna, 1.1987 ff.; cited by year and page)
WL West Law
WLR The Weekly Law Reports (containing decisions in the House of Lords, the
Privy Council, the Supreme Court of Judicature, Assize Courts; London
1.1953 ff.; cited by year, book and page)
WM Wertpapier-Mitteilungen: Zeitschrift fr Wirtschafts- und Bankrecht
(Frankfurt/Main et al. 1.1947 ff.; cited by year and page)
WPNR Weekblad voor privaatrecht, notariaat en registratie (’s-Gravenhage
1.1870 ff.; cited by year, number and page)
WR The Weekly Reporter (London 1.1852/53 (1853)-54.1905/06 (1906))
310
Abbreviations
ZEuP Zeitschrift fr Europ isches Privatrecht (Munich 1.1993 ff.;

ZfRV Zeitschrift fr Rechtsvergleichung (Vienna 1.1960 ff.; cited by year and page)
ZHR Zeitschrift fr das gesamte Handels- und Wirtschaftsrecht (Heidelberg
1.1858-110.1944, 111.1948 under different titles: until vol. 60: Zeitschrift fr
das gesamte Handelsrecht, until volume 124 (1962): Zeitschrift fr das
gesamte Handels- und Wirtschaftsrecht; cited by volume, year, and page)
ZIP Zeitschrift fr Wirtschaftsrecht und Insolvenzpraxis (previously
Insolvenzrecht; Cologne 1.1980 ff.; cited by year and page)
ZVglRWiss Zeitschrift fr vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft (Heidelberg 1.1878 ff.;
Table of European Legislation
EC-Treaty
81(1) Art. 2: 101, Com., F (p. 159); Art. 3: 101,
Com., B (p. 212), G (p. 210); Art. 4: 202,
Com., F (p. 270)
81(3) Art. 3: 101, Com., G (p. 153); Art. 4: 101,
Notes, 3 (p. 262); Art. 4: 101, Com., O (p. 262)
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

30 (Article II31 of the Constitution) Art. 1: 101, Com., G (p. 99)
EC-Regulation No 4087/88 of 30 November 1988 on the application of Article 85 (3) of the Treaty to
categories of franchise agreements
Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
1 III B Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
3 a, b Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 213), 4 (p. 213)
EC-Regulation No 2790/1999 of 22 December 1999 on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty to
categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices
Art. 3: 101, Com., G (p. 153)
1 Art. 3: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 227)
1(a) Art. 1: 101, Com., H (p. 99)
1(f) Art. 3: 202, Com., D (p. 226)
2(1) Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97)
5(a) Art. 1: 301, Com., D (p. 119)
EC-Regulation No 1400/2002 of 31 July 2002 on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty to
categories of vertical agreements and concerted practices in the motor vehicle sector
Art. 4: 101, Com., O (p. 262)
Council Directive 86/653/ EEC of 18 December 1986 on the coordination of the laws of the Member
States relating to selfemployed commercial agents
Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
1 (2) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160)
3 (1) (b) Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112)
3 (1) (c) Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
3 (2) (a) Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 160), 2 (p. 163)
3 (2) (b) Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168)
4 (2) (a), (b) Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112); Art. 2: 307,
Notes, 1 (p. 192); Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197);
Art. 3: 206, Notes, 1 (p. 242); Art. 4: 203,
312
Table of European Legislation
Notes (p. 274); Art. 4: 303, Notes (p. 274)

4 (3) Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194)
5 Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112); Art. 2: 308,
Notes, 3 (p. 194)
6 (2) Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
7 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 181)
8 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
9 Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
10 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 181), 3; Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185)
11 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
11 (3) Art. 2: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 187)
13 (1) Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
13 (2) Art. 1: 402, Notes, 2 (p. 155)
14 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
15 (1) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
15 (2) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
15 (3) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
15 (4) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 3 (p. 129)
16 Art. 1: 304, Notes (p. 138)
17 (2) (a), (b), (c) Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144), 2 (p. 145), 5 (p. 144)
17 (3) Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144), 2 (p. 145), 3 (p. 144)
18 (a), (b) Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
20 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
20 (2) Art. 1: 402, Notes, 2 (p. 155)
Guidelines on Vertical Restraints (2000 /C 291/01)

no. 2 Art. 1: 101, Com., H (p. 99)
nos. 1217 Art. 2: 101, Com., F (p. 159)
no. 24 Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97)
no. 32, 42, 43, 199 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 5 (p. 213)
313
Table of National Legislation and Soft Law
Austria
Handelsvertretergesetz 1993 (HvertrG)

Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
§ 1(1) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 201,
Notes, 1 (p. 163)
§ 1 (2) Art. 2: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
§4 Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
§5 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165); Art. 2: 203,
Notes, 2 (p. 168)
§6 (1) 1 Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
§6 (2) Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
§6 (3) Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194), 2 (p. 194)
§8 (2) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
§9 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 181); Art. 2: 304,
Notes (p. 185);
§ 9 (3) Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
§ 11 (1) Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
§ 11 (2) Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
§ 19 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 153)
§ 20 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
§ 21 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
§ 21 (2) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
§ 21 (3) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 3 (p. 129)
§ 22 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
§ 24 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
§ 27 (2) Art. 2: 308, Notes, 3 (p. 194)
Belgium
Wet van 13 april 1995 betreffende Handelsagentuurovereenkomsten, B. S. 2 juni 1995/

Loi du 13 avril 1995 rlative au contrat d’agence commerciale (M. B. 2 juin 1995),
Wet 27 juli 1961 betreffende de eenzijdige beindiging van de voor onbepaalde tijd verleende
concessies van alleenverkoop, B. S., 5 oktober 1961, zoals gewijzigd door
Wet 13 april 1971, B. S. 21 april 1971
Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
1 Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 201,
Notes, 2 (p. 163)
4 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
314
5 Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)

6 Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
6 sub 1 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
6 sub 2 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168)
8 Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194)
8 sub 1, 2 Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
12 Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
17 Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
18 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129), Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
18 § 1 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 3 (p. 129)
18 § 3 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
Loi du 27 juillet 1961 relative la rsiliation unilatrale des concessions de vente exclusive
dure indtermine (M. B., 29 dc. 1961; Alleenverkoopwet)
Art. 1: 101, Notes, 4 (p. 100)
1 § 1 sub 3 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
1 §2 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
2 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 4 (p. 129); Art. 1:303, Notes, 1 (p. 134);
Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
England
Regulations 1998 (S. I. 1998 No. 2868)

Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
Reg. 2 Art. 2: 306 (p. 189)
Reg. 2 (1) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160)
Reg. 2 (2) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 4 (p. 160)
Reg. 3 (2) a Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 160)
Reg. 3 (2) b Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168)
Reg. 3 (2) c Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
Reg. 4 (2) a Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
Reg. 4 (3) Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194)
Reg. 5 Art. 2: 308, Notes, 3 (p. 194)
Reg. 7 (3) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
Reg. 8 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
Reg. 10 (2), (3) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 181); Art. 2: 304,
and (4) Notes (p. 185);
Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
Reg. 13 Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
Reg. 14 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Reg. 15 (2) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
Reg. 17 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Reg. 17 (2) Art. 1: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 144)
315
Annexes
Finland
Act on Commercial Agents and Salesmen of 1 January 1976

Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
2 Art. 2: 101, Notes, 3 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160)
3 Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
5 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163), 2 (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165);
Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168)
8 Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194); Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
10 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
11 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
11.2 Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
13 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
13.2 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
14 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 181)
14.1 Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
14.2 Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
15 Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
23 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 2 (p. 129)
25 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
28 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Contracts Act
36 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 3 (p. 129); Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 304,
Notes, 2 (p. 138);
Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Act on Contracts for the Sale of Goods

25 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
39 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
France
Civil Code
1184 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
Commercial Code
L 1341 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100); Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160);
Art. 2: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
L 1344 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
L 1345 Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
L 1346 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
L 1347 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
L 1348 Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
316
L 1349 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 181); Art. 2: 304,
Notes (p. 185)
L 13411 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 2 (p. 129),
3 (p. 129); Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
L 13412 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 144)
L 13417 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
L 330 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 4 (p. 100)
L 3303 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 2 (p. 219),
3 (p. 220), 4 (p. 218)
L 4426 I 4 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
L 4426 I 5 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 4 (p. 129)
Dcret n 581345 du 23 dcembre 1958

1 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168)
31 Art. 2: 308, Notes, 3 (p. 194)
Dcret n 91337 du 4 avril 1991

Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 2; (p. 218)
Germany
BGB
§ 121 Art. 2: 308, Notes, 2 (p. 194)
§ 242 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 306,
Notes (p. 150); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218); Art. 4: 201, Notes (p. 267);
Art. 4: 202, Notes (p. 271); Art. 4: 204, Notes (p. 276); Art. 4: 304,
Notes (p. 287); Art. 4: 305, Notes (p. 290); Art. 4: 306, Notes (p. 292)
§§ 249254 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
§ 259 I Art. 2: 204, Notes (p. 171)
§§ 273, 274 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 153)
§ 305 Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
§ 307 III Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
§ 315 III (2) Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
§ 665 Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
§ 666 Art. 2: 204, Notes (p. 171)
HGB
§ 84 I (1) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160)
§ 84 I (2) Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
§ 85 Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
§ 86 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 253)
§ 86 I Art. 1: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 115), 2 (p. 115); Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163),
2 (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
§ 86 II Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168); Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
§ 86 a Art. 1: 204, Notes, 2 (p. 115); Art. 4: 204, Notes (p. 276)
317
Annexes
§ 86 a II Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194); Art. 3: 205,
Notes, 1 (p. 239)
§ 86 a III Art. 2: 308, Notes, 3 (p. 194)
§ 87a I, III Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 181)
§ 87 I (2), § 87 II (2), Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
§ 87 III (2)
§ 87 a III (2) Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
§ 87 a IV Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
§ 87a V Art. 2: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 187)
§ 87 b I Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
§ 87 c I (1) Art. 2: 204, Notes (p. 171); Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
§ 87 I, II Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
§ 87 III Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
§ 89 I Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
§ 89 b Art. 1: 305, Notes, 3 (p. 144)
§ 89 b I no. 1, 2, 3 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
§ 89 II Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129); Art. 1: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138)
§ 90 Art. 1: 204, Notes, 2 (p. 115)
§§ 84-92 C Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
§ 369 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 153)
The Ethikkodex of the German Franchise Association

number 3.2 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
number 3.3 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 4 (p. 218)
number 10, Art. 2.2 Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213); Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
Greece
Civil Code
140 et seq. Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
147 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
178179 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105)
197198 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 3 (p. 218)
281 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
288 Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
298 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
299 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
574618 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
648680 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
713729 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
722 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 306, Notes (p. 150)
723 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
741748 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
806809 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
822833 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
318
Act 146/1914 on unfair competition

17 Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
18 Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
Law on Commercial Agency 219/1991

1 para 2 Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160)
4 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163), 2 (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165);
Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168);
Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192); Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194)
5 Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
6 (1) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176), 2 (p. 176)
6 para 2 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
6 para 3 Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
7 paragraphs 44a7 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
8 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 2 (p. 129), 3 (p. 129)
8 para. 2 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
9 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Presidential Decree 219/1991

Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
Italy
Civil Code (Codice Civile)

1175 Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112); Art. 4: 202,
Notes (p. 271); Art. 4: 203, Notes (p. 274); Art. 4: 204, Notes (p. 276);
Art. 4: 302, Notes (p. 283); Art. 4: 305, Notes (p. 290)
1375 Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112); Art. 4: 201,
Notes (p. 267); Art. 4: 202, Notes (p. 271); Art. 4: 203, Notes (p. 274);
Art. 4: 204, Notes (p. 276); Art. 4: 302, Notes (p. 283); Art. 4: 305,
Notes (p. 290)
1379 Art. 4: 304, Notes (p. 287)
1453 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1455 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1458 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1559 et seq. Art. 1: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 100)
1564 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1568 para. 2 Art. 4: 205, Notes (p. 278)
1742-1753 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
1746 Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
1748 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176), 2; Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181); Art. 2: 303,
Notes, 1 (p. 183); Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
1748 (6) Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187), 2 (p. 187)
1749 (1) Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192); Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194), 3 (p. 194)
319
Annexes
1750 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120), Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 3 (p. 129)
1750 III Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
1751 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
1752 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
2119 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
L 129/2004, Norme per la disciplina dell’affiliazione commerciale

1 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 213), 2 (p. 213), 3 (p. 213)
3 (1) Art. 3: 101, Notes, 6 (p. 213)
4 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 2 (p. 219), 4 (p. 218)
6 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
The Netherlands
Civil Code (BW)

2:307 Art. 2: 307, Notes, 2 (p. 192)
3:44 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
3:290 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 153)
6:48 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105)
6:52 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 153)
6:74 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
6:162 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
6:2036:211 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
6:228 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
6:230 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
6:248 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
6:265 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
7:339 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
7:343 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176)
7:401 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163); Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168)
7:402 (1) Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
7:403 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168); Art. 2: 204, Notes (p. 171)
7:426 (2) Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
7:428 -7:445 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
7:428 (1) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 201,
Notes, 2 (p. 163)
7:428 (3) Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
7:431 (3) Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
7:432 (2) Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
7:433 Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
7:434 Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 185)
7:436 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
7:437 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 2 (p. 129),
3 (p. 129)
320
7:438 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)

7:439 (1) Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
7:440 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
7:441 (1) Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
7:442 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
7:445(1) Art. 2: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 183); Art. 2: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 187); Art. 2: 308,
Notes, 3 (p. 194)
Poland
Civil Code
354 (2) Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
758 (1) Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
760 (1) Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192); Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194)
761 Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
761 (1) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
Portugal
Civil Code (Cdigo Civil)

227 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 3 (p. 218)
253 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
282 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
334 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
754 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 153)
1051 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)
Decreto Lei no. 178/86

Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
1 (2) Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155); Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160)
7 Art. 2: 204, Notes (p. 171)
7 a. Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
13 b Art. 2: 308, Notes, 2 (p. 194)
15 Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
16/3 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
17 Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
Notes (p. 185)
19 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
26 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)
27/2 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
28 (1) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129), 3 (p. 129)
30 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
321
Annexes
33 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)

34 Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Spain
Civil Code
4 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1101 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1124 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
1261 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
1265 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
1300 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
1303 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218)
1449 Art. 3: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 249)
1555, para 1 Art. 3;301, Notes, 2 (p. 249)
Ley del Contrato de Agencia (LCA)

Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
1 Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160)
6 Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163), 2 (p. 163)
9 (1) Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
9 (2) Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
9 (2) sub b Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168), 2 (p. 169), 4 (p. 168)
9 (2) sub e Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171)
10 (1) Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
10 (3) Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194), 2 (p. 194)
11 Art. 2: 306, Notes (p. 189)
12 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
13 Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 181)
13 (2) Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
Notes (p. 185)
17 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187)
22 Art. 1: 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
24 (1) Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
24 (2) Art. 1: 301, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
25 (2) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
25 (3) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 3 (p. 129)
26 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
28 (1), (2) Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
322
Ley de Ordenacin del Comercio Minorista (Statute on Retail Trade)

57 Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109); Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163); Art. 4: 205,
Notes (p. 277)
62 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
62 para1 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 4 (p. 213)
62 para 3 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 4 (p. 218)
Real Decreto 2485/1998 of 13 November 1998

Art. 3: 102, Notes, 2 (p. 218)
4 Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
Spanish Model distribution contract

10 (1) Art. 4: 302, Notes (p. 283)
17 (2) Art. 4: 203, Notes (p. 274)
Sweden
HaL
Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 100)
§1 Art. 2: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 160), 3 (p. 160), 4 (p. 160)
§ 5(1) Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109), Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
§ 5 (2) Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168)
§ 5 (2) a. Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Notes (p. 165)
§ 7(1) Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109), Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
§ 9 (1) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
§ 11 (1) Art. 2: 304, Notes (p. 187)
§ 11 (2) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 181)
§ 12 Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 187), 2 (p. 153)
§ 15 Art. 1: 401, Notes (p. 129)
§ 24 (2) Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129), 2 (p. 129)
§ 25 (2) Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138), 3 (p. 138)
§ 28 (1) Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
§ 34 (1) Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
KommL
§7 Art. 1: 204, Notes (p. 115)
§ 51 (2) Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120), Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134), Art. 1: 304,
Notes, 1 (p. 138)
§ 19 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138)
323
Annexes
Soft Law
Unidroit Model Disclosure Law

2 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 4 (p. 213)
3 et seq. Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218), 4 (p. 218)
4 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 4 (p. 218)
6 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 2 (p. 218)
ICC Model Contract on Franchising

1 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 3 (p. 213), 4 (p. 213)
3 (1) Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 224)
3 (3) Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
9 Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227)
10.1 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253)
10.7 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 253), 3 (p. 253)
10.11 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 3 (p. 253)
10.13 Art. 3: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256)
11 Art. 3: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239)
15 Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
15.5 Art. 3: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 231)
15.6 Art. 3: 207, Notes, 1 (p. 245)
15.7 Art. 3: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239); Art. 3: 207, Notes, 1 (p. 245); Art. 3: 207,
Notes, 1 (p. 245)
16.1 Art. 3: 207, Notes, 1 (p. 245)
18.1 Art. 3: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 235)
20 Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
21 Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
ECE
Notes, 1 (p. 231); Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
2.2 Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213); Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
2.3 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253), 3 (p. 253); Art. 3: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256);
Art. 3: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 256)
NFV Model Franchise Agreement

4 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253)
10 Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253)
20(1) Art. 3: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256)
324
Table of Cases
ECJ
Case 161/84 Pronuptia de Paris GmbH v Art. 3: 101, Com., G (p. 153); Art. 3: 101,
Pronuptia de Paris Imgard Schillgalis, [1986] Notes, 1 (p. 213), 2 (p. 213)
ECR 353
Case C-215/97 B. Bellone v. Yokohama SpA Introduction, V (p. 93) Art. 1: 402,
[1998] ECR I-2191 Notes, 2 (p. 155)
Case C-301/90 Ingmar GB Ltd v. Eaton Leo- Introduction V (p. 93)
nard Technologies Inc [2000] ECR I-9305
Case C-456/98 Centrosteel SrL v. Adipol Introduction, V (p. 93) Art. 1: 402,
GmbH [2000] ECR I-6007 Notes, 2 (p. 155)
Case C-485/01 Francesca Caprini v. Conser- Introduction, V (p. 93) Art. 1: 402,
vatore Camera di Commercio, Industria, Ar- Notes, 2 (p. 138)
tigianato e Agricoltura (CCIAA) [2003] ECR
I-23716
Case C-3/04 Poseidon Chartering BV v. Mar- Introduction, V (p. 93)
ianne Zeeschip VOF and Albert Mooij and
Sjoerdtje Sijswerda and Gerrit Schram, Opi-
nion delivered 20-4-2005
Austria
OGH 5 May 1987, 4 Ob321/87 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)

OGH 21 October 1987, 1 Ob641/87 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
OGH 19 January 1989, 7 Ob695/88 Notes, Art. 1: 201; Art. 3: 102,
Notes, 1 (p. 218)
OGH 10 April 1991, 9 ObA8, 9/91 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
OGH 26 April 1994, 4 Ob 535/94 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 3 (p. 213),
4 (p. 214), 5 (p. 213)
OGH 5 December 1995, 4Ob79/95 Art. 4: 304, Notes (p. 287)
OGH 17 December 1997, 9 Ob2065/96h Art. 1: 305, Notes, 3 (p. 144)
OGH 24 November 1998, 1 Ob251/98p Art. 1: 30, Notes, 3 (p. 144)
OGH 30 March 1999, 10 Ob61/99i Art. 1: 305, Notes, 3 (p. 144); Art. 4: 305,
Notes (p. 290)
OGH 25 August 1999, 3 Ob10/98m Art. 4: 305, Notes (p. 290)
OGH 16 November 1999, 10 Ob247/99t Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
OGH 15 December 1999, 6 Ob247/99p Art. 1: 305, Notes, 3 (p. 144)
OGH 25 May 2000, 8Ob295/99m Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
325
Annexes
OGH 23 October 2000, 8Ob74/00s Art. 1: 305, Notes, 3 (p. 144); Art. 4: 305,
Notes (p. 290)
OGH 12 July 2001, 7Ob265/01y 4 Ob 79/95 Art. 4: 304, Notes (p. 287)
England
ANC v. Clark Golding, The Times 31 May Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105) Art. 3: 102,
2000, CA Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Att.-Gen. v. Guardian Newspapers (No. 2) Art. 1: 204, Notes, 3 (p. 115)
[1990] 1 AC 109, 285,
House of Lords
Boyle v. Prontaprint, unreported, 26 February Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102,
2000, CA Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v. Kawasaki Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
Kisen Kaisha Ltd [1962] 2 QB 26, CA
Keates v. Cadogan (1851) 10 CB 591 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102,
Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Seager v. Copydex Ltd. [1967] 1 WLR 923, CA Art. 1: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 115)
Secretary of State for Employment v. ASLEF Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109)
(No. 2) [1972] 2 QB 455, CA
The Moorcock (1889) 14 PD 64, Court of Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109)
Appeal
Universal Cargo Carriers Corp. v. Citati [1957] Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
2 QB 401
Williams v. Natural Life Health Foods [1998] Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102,
2 All ER 577 Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Finland
KKO 1982 II 1 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129); Art. 1: 303,

Notes, 1 (p. 134)
KKO 1987 42 Art. 1: 101, Notes, 5 (p. 101)
KKO 1993 130 Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 1: 202,
Notes (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112);
Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
KKO 1996 27 (Art. 1: 201, Notes) (p. 105)
326
Table of Cases
France
Cour de Cassation com., 22 July 1986 D. 1988 Art. 4: 202, Notes (p. 271)
D. 1995 som. 85
Com., 24.05.1994, Cont. Conc. Consomm. Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227)
1994, n8 191
Germany
BGH, BB 1958, 541 Art. 4: 102, Notes (p. 262)

BGH, BB 1959, 7 Art. 1: 306, Notes, 3 (p. 150)
OLG Bremen, BB 1966, 756 Art. 4: 102, Notes (p. 262)
BGH, BB 1969, 1196 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 169), 3 (p. 169),
4 (p. 168)
BGH, BB 1970, 1458 Art. 1: 306, Notes (p. 150)
BGH, BB 1970, 1460 Art. 1: 306, Notes (p. 150)
BGH, NJW 1971, 30 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
Oberlandesgericht Kln, BB 1971, 543 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 169), 3 (p. 169),
4 (p. 168)
BGH, BB 1972, 193 Art. 4: 102, Notes (p. 262)
BGH, Der Betrieb 1972, 525 Art. 2: 307, Notes, 2 (p. 192)
BGH, NJW 1983, 1789 Art. 1: 306, Notes, 3 (p. 150)
OLG Zweibrcken, BB 1983, 1301 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
OLG Mnchen, BB 1988, 865 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218); Art. 3: 102,
Notes, 2 (p. 218)
BGH, Wertpapiermitteilungen 1993, 1466 Art. 1: 306, Notes, 3 (p. 150)
OLG Mnchen, NJW 1994, 667 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218); Art. 3: 102,
Notes, 2 (p. 218)
OLG Mnchen, BB 2001, 1759 Art. 3: 102, Notes, 2 (p. 218)
BGH, BGHZ 49, 44 Art. 2: 307, Notes, 2 (p. 192)
Greece
CA of Athens 1107719/91 Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 306,

Notes (p. 150)
CA of Piraeus 1251/1991 Epitheorisi Empori- Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 306,
kou Dikaiou 1991, 625 Notes (p. 150)
CA of Patras 150/2000 Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Art. 1: 201, Notes (p. 105); Art. 3: 102,
Etairion 8-9/2000 Notes, 3 (p. 218)
CA of Thessaloniki 1043/1998 Dikaio Epixei- Art. 3: 201; Notes, 1 (p. 224); Art. 3: 202,
riseon kai Etairion 1998, 491 Notes, 2 (p. 227)
First Instance Court of Athens 1007/1993, Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 306,
Epitheorisi Emporikou Dikaiou 1995, 226 Notes (p. 150)
327
Annexes
First Instance Court of Athens 305/1997 Epi- Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
theorisi Emporikou Dikaiou 1998, 531
First Instance Court of Athens 23373/1998 Art. 3: 201; Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227)
Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 1999, 864
First Instance Court of Athens 1733/2000 Art. 3: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239); Art. 3: 304,
Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 7/2000, 746 Notes, 2 (p. 256)
Italy
Cass 20 April 1994 no. 3775, Gius., civ., 1994, Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109)
I, 2159
Cass. 19 August 1996 no. 7644, Danno e resp., Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168)
1997, 256
Cass. 5 November 1997 no. 10852, Rep. Foro. Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
It., 1997, voce Agenzia, n. 25
Cass. 15 November 1997 no. 11376, Rep. Foro Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
It., 1997, voce Agenzia, n. 24
Cass. 14 January 1999 no. 368, Rep. Foro It., Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
1999, voce Agenzia, n. 8
Cass. 1 February 1999 no. 845, Rep. Foro It., Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
Cass. 8 February 1999 no. 1078, Contratti, Art. 1: 202, Notes (p. 109)
1999, 1019
Cass. Sez. II civ. 22 February 1999 no. 1469 Art. 4: 205, Notes (p. 278)
Cass. 24 March 1999 no. 2788 Art. 1: 203, Notes (p. 112); Art. 4: 202,
Notes (p. 271)
Cass. 20 April 1999 no. 3898 Rep. Foro It., Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
Cass. sez. lav. 2 May 2000 no. 5467, Disc. Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
comm., 2000, 1078
Trib. Milano, 30 April 1982, Soc. Standa c. Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 224)
Soc. Arcobaleno Market, Foro it., 1982, I,
2042
Pretore di Roma, 11 June 1984, Sangemini Art. 1: 306, Notes 1, (p. 150)
s. p. a. e Soc. Acqua minerale Ferrarelle c.
Schweppes Int. Ltd. e Soc. Acqua minerale
S. Benedetto, Foro it., 1984, I, 2909
Pretore di Milano, 21 July 1992, Grimaldi Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
s. p. a. c. Magatelli ed Effeci s. a. s. Contratti
1993
Tribunale di Milano, 23 November 1994, A. B. Art. 3: 303, Notes, 3 (p. 253)
Sportsman Club s. r. l. c. Vico s. r. l., in Giur.
it., 1996, I, 2, 382
Lodo Arbitrale, Torino 11 July 1995, Societ X Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231); Art. 3: 205,
c. Societ Y Notes, 1 (p. 239)
328
Table of Cases
The Netherlands
HR 15 November 1957, NJ 1958, 67 (Baris/ Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)

Riezenkamp)
HR 2 December 1960, NJ 1962, 21 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 4 (p. 168)
HR 21 June 1991, NJ 1991, 742
HR 10 August 1994, NJ 1994, 688
HR 23 December 1994, NJ 1995, 263 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129)
HR 21 April 1995, NJ 1995, 437 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129)
HR 25 January 2002, NJ 2003, 31 (Paalman/ Art. 3: 102, Notes, 3 (p. 218); Art. 3: 202,
Lampenier) Notes, 2 (p. 227); Art. 3: 101,
Notes, 1 (p. 213), 2 (p. 213), 3 (p. 213),
4 (p. 213); Art. 3: 102, Notes, 2 (p. 218)
Hof ‘s-Hertogenbosch 23 May 1989, IER 1989, Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 224)
93-94 (Mc Donald’s/
Mc Mussel)
Rb. Amsterdam 27 March 1962, NJ 1962, 443 Art. 2: 203, Notes, 4 (p. 168)
Pres. Rb. Arnhem 29 April 1988, BIE 1989, Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 224)
157-159 (Quick-sportschoenen)
Portugal
Supreme Court decision of 4 May 1993, (1993 Art. 1: 305, Notes 4, (p. 146)
II) Colectnea de JurisprudÞncia 78
Supreme Court decision of 22 November Art. 1: 305, Notes 4, (p. 146)
1995, (1995 III) Colectnea de JurisprudÞncia
115
STJ 4 May 1993, BMJ 427, 1993, 530 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
STJ 22 November 1995, BMJ 451, 1995, 454 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
STJ 5 June 1997, BMJ 468, 1997, 434 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
STJ 23 January 1997 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
STJ 14 April 1999, Agravo n/176/99 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 3 (p. 213);
Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
Spain
STS 11 February 1984 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129)

STS 15 May 1985, Aranz. 1985/2393 Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 224)
STS 22 March 1988, RJ 1988\2224 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
STS 27 September 1996 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213), 4 (p. 213)
STS 3 December 1992 Art. 1: 32, Notes, 4 (p. 138)
STS 24 February 1993, RJ 1298 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129)
STS 23 July 1993 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129)
329
Annexes
STS 25 January 1996, RJ 319 Art. 1: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 129)

STS 4 March 1997 Art. 3: 101, Notes, 4 (p. 214); Art. 3: 304,
Notes, 1 (p. 256)
STS 8 November 1995, RJ 8637 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
AP Orense of 7-01-1999 (AC 1999/79) Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
STS 17 May 1999, RJ 1999\4046 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
STS 20 January 2000, RJ 112 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
STS 14 May 2001, RJ 6207 Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 176)
STS 16 November 2000, RJ 2000\9339 Art. 4: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
SAP Len 21 November 1996, AC 2169 Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 138)
Sweden
SOU 1986:17, 72 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)

SOU 1986:17, 213 Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)
330
Table of PECL
Art. 1: 201 Art. 1: 202, Com., G (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Com., C (p. 111), G (p. 111); Art. 1: 204,
Com., C (p. 114); Art. 1: 301, Com., C (p. 118); Art. 2: 201, Com., C (p. 162);
Art. 2: 202, Com., C (p. 164); Art. 2: 203, Com., C (p. 167); Art. 2: 204,
Art. 4: 305, Com., C (p. 289)
Art. 1: 202 Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107), C (p. 108); Art. 1: 203, Com., D (p. 111); Art. 1: 204,
Com., C (p. 250); Art. 4: 304, Com., C (p. 286); Art. 4: 305, Com., C (p. 289)
Art. 1: 302 Art. 1: 201, Com., D (p. 104); Art. 1: 302, Com., F (p. 125); Art. 1: 305,
Com., G (p. 143); Art. 1: 306, Com., C (p. 149); Art. 2: 201, Com., C (p. 162);
Art. 2: 202, Com., D (p. 165); Art. 2: 301, Com., G (p. 175); Art. 2: 302,
Com., C (p. 179); Art. 2: 302, Com., C (p. 179); Art. 2: 303, Com., C (p. 182),
D (p. 183); Art. 2: 306, Com., C (p. 188); Art. 2: 308, Com., C (p. 194); Art. 2:
309, Com., C (p. 196), E (p. 196); Art. 3: 201, Com., C (p. 223), F (p. 223); Art. 3:
203, Com., C (p. 230), E (p. 230); Art. 3: 204, Com., C (p. 233), E (p. 234),
G (p. 234); Art. 3: 206, Com., C (p. 241), F (p. 241); Art. 3: 207, Com., C (p. 244);
Art. 3: 301, Com., E (p. 248); Art. 3: 303, Com., C (p. 252); Art. 3: 304,
Com., E (p. 256); Art. 4: 201, Com., C (p. 266), F (p. 266); Art. 4: 203,
Com., C (p. 286); Art. 4: 305, Com., C (p. 289); Art. 4: 306, Com., C (p. 291)
Art. 1: 303 Art. 1: 301, Com., E (p. 119); Art. 1: 302, Com., D (p. 125); Art. 1: 402,
Com., F (p. 155); Art. 2: 309, Com., C (p. 196); Art. 3: 206, Com., C (p. 241);
Art. 4: 203, Com., C (p. 273)
Art. 1: 303 (2) Art. 1: 302, Com., D (p. 125)
Art. 1: 303 (e) Art. 1: 301, Com., E (p. 119); Art. 2: 302, Com., C (p. 179)
Art. 2: 201 Art. 2: 302, Com., C (p. 179)
Art. 2: 203 Art. 2: 301, Com., C (p. 174)
Art. 2: 204 Art. 2: 301, Com., C (p. 174)
Art. 2: 205 Art. 2: 301, Com., C (p. 174)
Art. 2: 211 Art. 4: 101, Com., N (p. 262)
Art. 2: 302 Art. 1: 204, Com., C (p. 114), I
Art. 2: 307 Art. 3: 205, Com., C (p. 236)
Art. 3: 102 (2) Art. 1: 201, Com., E (p. 104)
Art. 3: 102 (3) Art. 1: 201, Com., E (p. 104)
331
Annexes
Art. 3: 201 Art. 3: 304, Com., C (p. 255); Art. 4: 203, Com., D (p. 273)
Art. 3: 206 Art. 2: 202, Com., F (p. 165)
Art. 4: 103 Art. 1: 201, Com., C (p. 104), G (p. 105)
Art. 4: 105 Art. 1: 201, Com., C (p. 104), G (p. 105)
Art. 4: 106 Art. 1: 201, Com., G (p. 105); Art. 3: 102, Com., F (p. 218)
Art. 4: 107 Art. 1: 201, Com., G (p. 105)
Art. 4: 119 Art. 1: 201, Com., G (p. 105)
Art. 4: 202 Art. 3: 205, Com., C (p. 236)
Art. 6: 109 Art. 1: 101, Com., C (p. 98), Art. 1: 302, Com., C (p. 124)
Art. 6: 104 Art. 1: 101, Com., C (p. 98); Art. 2: 301, Com., G (p. 175); Art. 2: 306,
Com., C (p. 188)
Art. 6: 105 Art. 1: 101, Com., C (p. 98); Art. 3: 301, Com., A (p. 247), C (p. 248)
Art. 6: 109 Art. 1: 306, Com., C (p. 149)
Art. 6: 111 Art. 1: 101, Com., C (p. 98); Art. 1: 202 Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 301,
Com., B (p. 117)
Art. 7: 102 Art. 2: 304, Com., C (p. 184)
Art. 8: 101 Art. 1: 202, Com., H (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Com., H (p. 112), Art. 1: 204,
Com., I (p. 115), Art. 1: 303, Com., D (p. 132); Art. 1: 305, Com., K (p. 144);
Art. 1: 306, Com., G (p. 150); Art. 1: 402, Com., G (p. 155); Art. 2: 201,
Com., H (p. 163); Art. 2: 202, Com., F (p. 165); Art. 2: 203, Com., G (p. 168);
Art. 2: 204, Com., F (p. 171); Art. 2: 304, Com., E (p. 185); Art. 2: 305,
Com., F (p. 187), Art. 2: 307, Com., F (p. 191); Art. 2: 308, Com., E (p. 194);
Art. 2: 309, Com., E (p. 196); Art. 3: 201, Com., H (p. 224); Art. 3: 202,
Com., I (p. 227); Art. 3: 203, Com., H (p. 231); Art. 3: 204, Com., J (p. 235);
Art. 3: 205, Com., G (p. 239); Art. 3: 206, Com., K (p. 242); Art. 3: 302,
Com., E (p. 251); Art. 3: 303, Com., H (p. 253); Art. 3: 304, Com., G (p. 256);
Art. 4: 201, Com., H (p. 268); Art. 4: 202, Com., F (p. 271); Art. 4: 203,
Com., H (p. 274); Art. 4: 204, Com., G (p. 276); Art. 4: 205, Com., G (p. 278);
Art. 4: 301, Com., G (p. 280); Art. 4: 302, Com., G (p. 283); Art. 4: 303,
Com., H (p. 285); Art. 4: 304, Com., H (p. 287); Art. 4: 305, Com., I (p. 290);
Art. 4: 306, Com., G (p. 292);
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338
Index
Advertisement contracts Introd. II (p. 91); Commission statement Art. 2: 310,

Art. 1: 101, Com., E (p. 98) Notes, 1 (p. 199)
Agent, commercial See Commercial agent Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201,
Agent, independent Introd. II (p. 91) Notes, 2 (p. 163)
Assistance, obligation to provide Continued performance Art. 1: 301,
Art. 3: 203, Com., A (p. 166) et seq.; Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Art. 3: 303, Com., A (p. 251) et seq. Decreased volume of contracts, warning
Advice Art. 3: 203, Com., B (p. 230); of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
Art. 3: 203, Com., D (p. 230) Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Costs Art. 3: 203, Com., F (p. 231) Notes, 1 (p. 208)
Initial Art. 3: 203, Com., A (p. 166) Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Further Art. 3: 203, Com., E (p. 230) Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Guidance Art. 3: 203, Com., B (p. 230); Notes, 2 (p. 100)
Art. 3: 203, Com., D (p. 230) Distribution contracts Art. 1: 203,
Ongoing Art. 3: 203, Com., A (p. 166) Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 4: 101,
Training courses Art. 3: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 262)
Com., B (p. 230); Art. 3: 203, Distribution contracts, application of
Com., D (p. 230) commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101,
Austria Notes, 6 (p. 100); Art. 1: 304,
Amount of indemnity, calculation Notes, 3 (p. 138); Art. 1: 305,
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Art. 2: Notes, 4 (p. 146); Art. 4: 305,
312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Notes, 1 (p. 290)
Books, extracts from principal’s Art. 2: Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
310, Notes, 2 (p. 200) Notes, 1 (p. 155)
Books, reasonable access to Ending for important and urgent
principal’s Art. 2: 311, Notes, 1 (p. 202) reasons Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
Business method, obligation to operate in Entitlement to commission, agent’s
accordance with franchisor’s Art. 3: Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
303, Notes, 1 (p. 253) Notes, 2 (p. 181)
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, Extinction of entitlement to
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301, agent’s commission Art. 2: 305,
Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 187) et seq.
Notes, 3 (p. 138) Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 2 (p. 160) Notes, 2 (p. 129)
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, Franchise contracts Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 3 (p. 177); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 4 (p. 100); Art. 1: 201,
Notes, 3 (p. 181) Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 1: 203,
Commission, moment of payment Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 304,
of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185) Notes, 3 (p. 138); Art. 3: 101,
Notes, 2 (p. 213) et seq.
339
Annexes
Franchise contracts, application of Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to

commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101, negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
Notes, 4 (p. 100); Art. 1: 305, Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
Notes, 4 (p. 146) to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Good faith Art. 1: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Remuneration, agent’s Art. 2: 306,
Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Indemnity, maximum amount of Art. 2: Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
312, Notes, 2 (p. 207) Notes, 4 (p. 214)
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
Notes, 1 (p. 144) materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
Information on acceptance, rejection and Notes, 1 (p. 150)
non-performance Art. 2: 308, Right of retention Art. 1: 401,
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Notes, 1 (p. 153)
Information period Art. 2: 308, Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
Notes, 2 (p. 194) Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Information to be provided by commercial Service contracts, applicability of
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168); commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101,
Inspection of distributor’s premises Art. 4: Supply, supplier’s obligation to Art. 4:
305, Notes, 1 (p. 290) 201, Notes, 1 (p. 267)
Instructions, distributor’s obligation to
follow Art. 4: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 287) Bargaining power Introd. V (p. 93)
Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s Belgium
obligation to grant a right to use Accounting books, access to
Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213) franchisee’s Art. 3: 304,
Long-term contracts Art. 1: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 256)
Notes, 3 (p. 138) Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245)
Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302, Amount of indemnity, calculation
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302, of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Art. 2:
Notes, 4 (p. 129) 312, Notes, 3 (p. 207)
Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101, Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to
Notes, 5 (p. 214) provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
Notice period, non-observance of et seq.; Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245)
Art. 1: 305, Notes, 6 (p. 147) Business method, obligation to operate in
Obligation to inform Art. 1: 203, accordance with franchisor’s
Notes, 1 (p. 112) Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253)
Obligation to keep accounts, Calculation of damages Art. 1: 303,
agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171) Notes, 2 (p. 135)
Periodical payments Art. 3: 301, Commercial agency Art. 1: 101,
Pre-contractual information, obligation to Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 1: 301,
give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 304,
Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq. Notes, 3 (p. 138); Art. 1: 304,
Prevailing right to Notes, 4 (p. 140)
commission Commercial agent Art. 2: 101,
340
Index
Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201, Information to be provided by commercial

Notes, 2 (p. 163) agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168);
Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 204, Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
Notes, 1 (p. 115) Inspection of franchisee’s premises
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, Art. 3: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256)
Notes, 3 (p. 120) Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s
Contract law, general Art. 1: 101, obligation to grant a right to use
Del credere clause Art. 2: 313, Instructions, agent’s obligation to
Notes, 1 (p. 208) et seq. follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Directive on Self-employed Commercial Instructions, franchisee’s obligation to
Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101, follow Art. 3: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 253)
Notes, 2 (p. 100) Know-how Art. 3: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 227)
Distribution contracts Art. 1: 101, Market conditions, obligation to inform
Notes, 1 (p. 100); Art. 1: 101, about Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168)
Notes, 5 (p. 101); Art. 1: 302, Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 144); Art. 4: 101, Network, costs of Art. 3: 207,
Notes, 1 (p. 262) et seq. Notes, 3 (p. 246)
Document, signed written Art. 1: 402, Non-performance, termination for Art. 1:
Notes, 1 (p. 155) 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138)
Exclusive distribution Art. 4: 101, Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1:
Notes, 3 (p. 262) 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 305,
Exclusive purchasing agreements Art. 4: Notes, 6 (p. 147)
101, Notes, 3 (p. 262) Notice period, reasonable Art. 1: 302,
Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Notes, 3 (p. 129)
Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302, Periodical payments Art. 3: 301,
Notes, 2 (p. 129) Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Franchise contracts Art. 1: 101, Pre-contractual information, obligation
Notes, 7 (p. 101); Art. 3: 101, to give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
Franchise contracts, application of Prevailing right to commission Art. 2: 303,
commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
Notes, 4 (p. 100) Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Notes, 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 306,
Notes, 1 (p. 218) Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Notes, 1 (p. 144); Art. 1: 305, Selective distribution Art. 4: 101,
Notes, 3 (p. 144) Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Inform, franchisee’s obligation to Art. 3: Service contracts, applicability of
301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101,
non-performance Art. 2: 308, Solvency, client’s Art. 2: 203,
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Notes, 4 (p. 168)
341
Annexes
Supply, franchisor’s obligation to Accounts, principal’s obligation to

guarantee Art. 3: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 235) maintain proper Art. 2: 311,
Termination of contract Art. 1: 304, Com., A (p. 200) et seq.
Notes, 4 (p. 140) Character, relational Introd. VI (p. 95)
Unilateral ending of contracts Art. 1: 302, Competition law Introd. IV (p. 92)
Notes, 3 (p. 129) Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 101,
Benefit, ‘net’ Art. 1: 303, Com., E (p. 133) Com., B (p. 97); Art. 1: 204,
Block exemptions Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 1: Com., A (p. 113) et seq.
301, Com., D (p. 119); Art. 3: 101, Co-operation Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97);
Com., G (p. 153) Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 202,
Business, multinational Introd. III (p. 92) Com., C (p. 108); Art. 1: 202,
Business, small Introd. III (p. 92) Com., D (p. 108); Art. 1: 202,
Business concept Art. 1: 204, Com., E (p. 108)
Com., A (p. 113) Decreased volume of contracts,
Business method Art. 1: 202, warning of Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 101, Art. 2: 309, Com., A (p. 195) et seq.
Com., A (p. 210) et seq.; Art. 3: 101, Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Com., F (p. 212); Art. 3: 201, Com., A (p. 207) et seq.
Com., B (p. 222); Art. 3: 202, Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Com., G (p. 227); Art. 3: 207, Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Com., B (p. 244); Art. 3: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 203,
Com., B (p. 248); Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 112)
Com., A (p. 251) et seq. Economic function Introd. II (p. 91), VI
Business package Art. 3: 303, (p. 95); Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97)
Com., A (p. 251) Ending Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97)
Business person, independent Art. 1: 101, Entitlement to commission after
Com., A (p. 97); Art. 1: 101, contract Art. 2: 302, Com.,
Com., E (p. 98); Art. 1: 101, A (p. 178) et seq.
Com., F (p. 99) Entitlement to commission during
Legal persons Art. 1: 101, Com., F (p. 99) contract Art. 2: 301, Com., A (p. 173) et
Natural persons Art. 1: 101, seq.
Com., F (p. 99) Expectations, agent’s Art. 2: 309,
Com., F (p. 196)
Citizen Introd. III (p. 92) Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Com., E (p. 142); Art. 2: 312,
European Union Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 203) et seq.
Com., G (p. 99) Information during performance Art. 1:
Coase theorem Introd. II (p. 91) 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 1: 203,
Commercial agency Introd. I (p. 91), III Com., A (p. 111); Art. 2: 203,
(p. 92), V (p. 93); Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 166) et seq.; Art. 2: 307,
Com., I (p. 99); Art. 2: 101, Com., A (p. 190) et seq.
Com., A (p. 157) et seq. Instructions Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
Acceptance, information on Art. 1: 202, Art. 2: 202, Com., A (p. 164) et seq.
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 2: 308, Non-performance Art. 1: 202,
Com., A (p. 193) Com., F (p. 108); Art. 1: 304,
Com., A (p. 136) et seq.; Art. 2: 308,
Com., A (p. 193)
342
Index
Obligation to inform, After contract Art. 1: 305,

contractual Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97) Com., J (p. 143); Art. 2: 302,
Obligation to inform, Com., A (p. 178) et seq.
mandatory Art. 1: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 112) Agent’s right to Art. 2: 301,
Obligation to inform, pre- Com., I (p. 176)
contractual Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97); Amount Art. 2: 301, Com., G (p. 175);
Art. 1: 201, Com., A (p. 103) et seq. Art. 2: 306, Com., D (p. 189); Art. 2:
Principal Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 203, 310, Com., B (p. 198)
Com., A (p. 111); Art. 2: 307, Calculation Art. 2: 310, Com., B (p. 198)
Com., A (p. 190) et seq. Commission due Introd. III (p. 92); Art. 2:
Rejection, information on Art. 1: 202, 301, Com., C (p. 174)
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 2: 308, During contract Art. 2: 301,
Com., A (p. 193) Com., A (p. 173) et seq.
Repurchase of stock, spare parts and Efforts, result of agent’s Art. 2: 301,
materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306, Com., D (p. 174); Art. 2: 302,
Com., A (p. 148) et seq. Com., E (p. 179)
Services Art. 2: 101, Com., E (p. 159) Extinction Art. 2: 305, Com.,
Termination of contract Art. 1: 101, A (p. 186) et seq.
Com., B (p. 97); Art. 1: 304, Extracts from principal’s
Notes, 4 (p. 140) books Art. 2: 310, Com., A (p. 198) et
Commercial agent Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: seq.
203, Com., A (p. 111) Non-performance of contract with
Accounts, obligation to customer Art. 2: 305, Com., D (p. 187)
maintain proper Art. 2: 204, Obligation to pay, principal’s Art. 2: 301,
Com., A (p. 170) et seq. Com., A (p. 173) et seq.
Expectations, reasonable Art. 2: 309, Payment, minimum standard of Art. 2:
Com., F (p. 196) 304, Com., A (p. 184)
Independence Art. 2: 202, Performance of contract with
Com., A (p. 164) customer Art. 2: 301, Com., F (p. 175);
Information during performance Art. 2: Art. 2: 302, Com., F (p. 180)
203, Com., A (p. 166) et seq. Periodical payments Art. 2: 304,
Instructions given by principal, obligation to Com., A (p. 184)
comply with Art. 2: 202, Prevailing entitlement Art. 2: 303,
Com., A (p. 164) et seq. Com., A (p. 182) et seq.
Legal entity Art. 2: 101, Com., D (p. 158) Recovery Art. 2: 305, Com., A (p. 186);
Natural person Art. 2: 101, Art. 2: 305, Com., C (p. 186)
Com., D (p. 158) Remedies Art. 2: 301, Com., I (p. 176);
Negotiate and conclude contracts, Art. 2: 302, Com., J (p. 181); Art. 2: 303,
obligation to Art. 2: 201, Com., F (p. 183); Art. 2: 304,
Com., A (p. 161) et seq. Com., E (p. 185); Art. 2: 305,
Reasonableness of instructions Art. 2: Com., F (p. 187); Art. 2: 306,
202, Com., D (p. 165) Com., F (p. 189)
Commercial contracts Introd. V (p. 93) Remuneration Art. 2: 306,
Commission Art. 2: 301, Com., A (p. 173) Com., A (p. 188) et seq.
et seq. Shared Art. 2: 303, Com., A (p. 182) et
seq.; Art. 2: 303, Com., D (p. 183)
343
Annexes
Statement Art. 2: 310, Com., Ending Introd. I (p. 91); Introd. VI (p. 95)
A (p. 198) et seq. Essence of Art. 1: 304, Com., A (p. 136)
Commission agent Art. 2: 101, Insurance Introd. III (p. 92)
Com., D (p. 158) Joint-venture Introd. III (p. 92); Art. 1:
Commodity markets Art. 1: 304, 101, Com., G (p. 99)
Com., A (p. 136) Labour Art. 1: 101, Com., F (p. 99);
Compensation Art. 1: 401, Com., A (p. 152) Art. 1: 101, Com., G (p. 99)
Monetary Art. 1: 302, Com., J (p. 128) Licensing Art. 1: 101, Com., G (p. 99);
Competition law Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 2: Art. 3: 101, Com., D (p. 211)
101, Com., F (p. 159); Art. 3: 101, Medical treatment Introd. III (p. 92)
Com., G (p. 153) Parties Introd. III (p. 92)
Distribution Art. 4: 101, Com., O (p. 262) Parties, multinational Introd. III (p. 92)
Partial invalidity, doctrine of Introd. Rental contracts of houses Art. 1: 101,
IV (p. 92) Com., G (p. 99)
Unclean hands Introd. IV (p. 92) Sales Introd. III (p. 92); Art. 1: 202,
Confidentiality Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107); Art. 3: 205, Com.,
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 1: 204, D (e) (p. 238)
Com., A (p. 113) et seq.; Art. 1: 302, Contract law Introd. III (p. 92)
Com., J (p. 128); Art. 1: 303, Co-operation Introd. I (p. 91) Art. 1: 202,
Com., D (p. 132) Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 202,
Contractual Art. 1: 204, Com., C (p. 114); Com., G (p. 109); Art. 1: 202,
Art. 1: 204, Com., F (p. 115) Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 301,
Financial data Art. 1: 204, Com., B (p. 117); Art. 1: 302,
Com., A (p. 113) Com., J (p. 128); Art. 1: 303,
Information already public Art. 1: 204, Com., D (p. 132); Art. 2: 201,
Com., G (p. 115) Com., C (p. 162); Art. 2: 204,
Information, confidential Art. 1: 204, Com., C (p. 171)
Com., E (p. 114) Acceptance, information on Art. 1: 202,
Know-how Art. 1: 204, Com., A (p. 113) Com., F (p. 108); Art. 2: 308,
Market research Art. 1: 204, Com., A (p. 193)
Com., E (p. 114) Active Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107);
Non-performance Art. 1: 204, Art. 1: 202, Com., C (p. 108); Art. 1: 202,
Com., I (p. 115) Com., D (p. 108)
Post-contractual Art. 1: 204, Advertising campaigns Art. 3: 207,
Com., F (p. 115) Com., A (p. 243); Art. 3: 207,
Remedies Art. 1: 204, Com., I (p. 115) Com., E (p. 244)
Consumer Introd. III (p. 92); Introd. Advertising materials Art. 1: 202,
VII (p. 96) Com., F (p. 108); Art. 4: 204,
Guarantees Introd. VII (p. 96) Com., A (p. 275) et seq.
Contracts Assistance Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107);
Advertisement Introd. II (p. 91); Art. 1: Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108)
101, Com., E (p. 98) Business method Art. 1: 202,
Binding force Art. 1: 301, Com., B (p. 117) Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 303,
Commercial Introd. V (p. 93) Com., A (p. 251) et seq.
Construction Introd. III (p. 92) Confidentiality Art. 1: 202,
Definite period Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 202,
Com., A (p. 117) et seq.
344
Index
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 1: 204, Non-performance Art. 1: 202,

Com., A (p. 113) et seq. Com., F (p. 108); Art. 1: 202,
Decreased requirement, warning of Art. 4: Com., H (p. 109); Art. 2: 308,
303, Com., C (p. 284) Com., A (p. 193)
Decreased supply capacity, warning Policy considerations Art. 1: 202,
of Art. 1: 202, Com., Com., B (p. 107)
F (p. 108); Art. 3: Products, reputation of Art. 1: 202,
206, Com., A (p. 240) et seq.; Art. 4: 203, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 4: 205,
Com., A (p. 273) et seq. Com., A (p. 277) et seq.; Art. 4: 306,
Decreased volume of contracts, Com., A (p. 290) et seq.
warning of Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Rejection, information on Art. 1: 202,
Art. 2: 309, Com., C (p. 196) Com., F (p. 108); Art. 2: 308,
Information Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107); Com., A (p. 193)
Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 1: 203, Remedies Art. 1: 202, Com., H (p. 109)
Com., D (p. 111); Art. 2: 308, Supervision Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107)
Com., C (p. 194) Supply Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
Information during performance Art. 1: Art. 3: 204, Com., A (p. 232) et seq.
202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 2: 203, Customer Art. 2: 101, Com., E (p. 159);
Com., A (p. 166) et seq.; Art. 2: 307, Art. 2: 301, Com., E (p. 175)
Com., A (p. 190) et seq.; Art. 3: 205, Details Art. 1: 204, Com., E (p. 114)
Com., A (p. 236) et seq.; Art. 3: 302, Documentation Art. 2: 204,
Com., A (p. 250) et seq.; Art. 4: 202, Com., A (p. 170)
Com., A (p. 269) et seq.; Art. 4: 302, Non-performance of
Com., A (p. 281) et seq. contract with Art. 2: 305,
Inspection Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Com., D (p. 187)
Art. 3: 304, Com., A (p. 254) et seq.;
Art. 4: 305, Com., A (p. 288) et seq. Damages Art. 1: 303, Com., G (p. 134);
Instructions Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 401, Com., A (p. 152)
Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 2: 202, Calculation Art. 1: 303, Com., E (p. 133);
Com., A (p. 164) et seq.; Art. 4: 304, Art. 1: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 135)
Com., A (p. 286) et seq. Concrete Art. 1: 303, Com., F (p. 133)
Intellectual property rights Art. 1: 202, Expectation interest Art. 1: 302,
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 201, Com., B (p. 123); Art. 1: 303,
Com., A (p. 222) et seq. Com., A (p. 131) et seq.; Art. 1: 303,
Intensity Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107) Com., E (p. 133); Art. 1: 305,
Know-how Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Com., A (p. 141); Art. 1: 305,
Art. 3: 202, Com., A (p. 226) et seq. Com., H (p. 143)
Loyal Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107); Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Art. 1: 202, Com., C (p. 108); Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 141) et seq.
Com., D (p. 108) Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1:
Mutual Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 302, 303, Com., A (p. 131) et seq.
Com., A (p. 123) Premature ending of contract Art. 1: 305,
Network, reputation of Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 141)
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 207, Daughter company Introd. II (p. 91); Art. 3:
Com., A (p. 243) et seq. 101, Com., A (p. 210)
Non-discrimination Art. 1: 202, Decreased supply capacity,
Com., E (p. 108) warning of Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
345
Annexes
Art. 3: 206, Com., A (p. 240) et seq.; Decreased supply capacity,

Art. 4: 203, Com., A (p. 273) et seq. warning of Art. 4: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 274)
Decrease, significant Art. 4: 203, Decreased volume of contracts,
Com., E (p. 274) warning of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
Default rules Introd. V (p. 93) Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Definite period, contract concluded Notes, 1 (p. 208)
for Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 117) et seq. Efforts to negotiate,
Change of circumstances Art. 1: 301, reasonable Art. 2: 201,
Com., B (p. 117) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 163) et seq.
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, Extracts from principal’s books Art. 2:
Com., A (p. 117) et seq.; Art. 1: 301, 310, Notes, 2 (p. 200)
Com., F (p. 119) Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Right to end Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Com., G (p. 120); Art. 1: 301, Indemnity, maximum amount of Art. 2:
Com., H (p. 120) 312, Notes, 2 (p. 207)
Non-performance Art. 1: 301, Inform, principal’s obligation to Art. 2:
Com., I (p. 120) 308, Notes, 1 (p. 194); Art. 2: 308,
Non-renewal Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 117) Notes, 3 (p. 194)
et seq.; Art. 1: 301, Com., E (p. 119) Information during performance Art. 1:
Remedies Art. 1: 301, Com., I (p. 120) 203, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 2: 203,
Renewal, notice of Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 168); Art. 2: 307,
Com., E (p. 119) Notes, 1 (p. 192)
Unilateral ending Art. 1: 301, Instructions Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Com., D (p. 119); Art. 1: 301, Remuneration Art. 2: 306,
Com., H (p. 120) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Del credere clause Art. 2: 313, Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
Com., A (p. 207) et seq. materials Art. 1: 306, Notes, 1 (p. 150)
Commission, del credere Art. 2: 313, Unilateral ending of contract Art. 1: 302,
Com., A (p. 207) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 129) et seq.
Liability, agent’s Art. 2: 308, Distribution contracts Introd. I (p. 91)
Com., B (p. 193); Art. 2: 313, Introd. III (p. 92); Introd. V (p. 93); Introd.
Com., A (p. 207) VI (p. 95); Art. 1: 101, Com., I (p. 99);
Directive on Self-employed Commercial Art. 3: 101, Com., A (p. 210); Art. 4: 101,
Agents Introd. III (p. 92); Introd. Com., A (p. 258) et seq.
IV (p. 92); Accounts, access to Art. 4: 305,
Commercial agency Art. 2: 101, Com., B (p. 288)
Notes, 1 (p. 160) et seq. Advertising campaign Art. 4: 202,
Commission, agent’s Art. 2: 301, Com., D (e) (p. 270); Art. 4: 306,
Notes, 1 (p. 176) et seq.; Art. 2: 302, Com., D (p. 291)
Notes, 1 (p. 181) et seq.; Art. 2: 304, Advertising materials Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 1 (p. 185); Art. 2: 305, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 4: 204,
Notes, 1 (p. 187) et seq. Com., A (p. 275) et seq.
Commission statement Art. 2: 310, Competition law Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 4:
Notes, 1 (p. 199) 101, Com., O (p. 262); Art. 4: 202,
Damages Art. 1: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 144) Com., E (p. 271)
Decreased requirement, Contrat d’application See Subsequent
warning of Art. 4: 303 Notes (p. 285) contract
346
Index
Contrat cadre See Framework agreement Expectations, distributor’s Art. 4: 203,

Co-operation Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97); Com., F (p. 274)
Art. 1: 202, Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 202, Expectations, supplier’s Art. 4: 303,
Com., C (p. 108); Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 285)
Com., D (p. 108); Art. 1: 202, Framework agreement Art. 4: 101,
Com., E (p. 108); Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 258); Art. 4: 101,
Com., F (p. 259) Com., I (p. 260); Art. 4: 201,
Confidentiality Art. 1: 101, Com., D (p. 266); Art. 4: 305,
Com., B (p. 97); Art. 1: 204, Com., F (p. 289)
Com., A (p. 113) et seq. Goods Art. 4: 101, Com., D (p. 259)
Decreased requirement, warning of Indemnity for goodwill Introd. III (p. 92);
Art. 4: 303, Com., A (p. 283) et seq. Art. 1: 305, Com., E (p. 142)
Decreased supply capacity, warning Information to be provided Art. 4: 202,
of Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Com., D (p. 270)
Art. 4: 203, Com., A (p. 273) et seq. Information during performance
De facto distribution contract Art. 4: 101, Art. 1: 203, Com., A (p. 111) et seq.;
Com., N (p. 262) Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 4: 202,
De facto exclusivity Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 269) et seq.; Art. 4: 302,
Com., L (p. 261); Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 281) et seq.
Com., N (p. 262) Inspections Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
Distributor Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 203, Art. 4: 305, Com., A (p. 288) et seq.
Com., A (p. 111); Art. 4: 101, Instructions Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
Com., A (p. 258) et seq.; Art. 4: 301, Art. 4: 304, Com., A (p. 286) et seq.
Com., A (p. 279) et seq. Intellectual property rights Art. 4: 302,
Documentation relating to Com., B (p. 282); Art. 4: 302, Com.,
products Art. 4: 202, Com., D (p. 270) D (b) (p. 282)
Economic function Introd. II (p. 91); Know-how Art. 1: 204, Com., D (p. 114)
Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97) Liability Art. 4: 205, Com., E (p. 277)
Ending Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97) Mixed contracts Art. 4: 101,
Exclusive distribution Introd. VI (p. 95); Com., M (p. 262)
Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 258) et seq.; Non-performance,
Art. 4: 101, Com., J (p. 261); Art. 4: 205, termination for Art. 1: 304, Com.,
Com., B (p. 277); Art. 4: 301, A (p. 136) et seq.; Art. 4: 201,
Com., A (p. 279) et seq.; Art. 4: 302, Com., D (p. 266)
Com., A (p. 281); Art. 4: 303, Obligation to inform,
Com., A (p. 283); Art. 4: 304, contractual Art. 1: 101,
Com., A (p. 286); Art. 4: 305, Com., B (p. 97)
Com., A (p. 288); Art. 4: 306, Obligation to inform, pre-
Com., A (p. 290) contractual Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97);
Exclusive purchasing contracts Introd. Art. 1: 201, Com., A (p. 103) et seq.
VI (p. 95); Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 258) Obligation to inform, supplier’s Art. 4:
et seq.; Art. 4: 101, Com., L (p. 261); 202, Com., A (p. 269) et seq.
Art. 4: 203, Com., A (p. 273) et seq.; Obligation to promote Art. 4: 301,
Art. 4: 205, Com., B (p. 277) Com., A (p. 279) et seq.
Exclusivity Art. 4: 101, Com., Premises, access to
A (p. 258) et seq. distributor’s Art. 4: 305,
347
Annexes
Products Art. 4: 101, Com., D (p. 259); Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to

Art. 4: 202, Com., D (a) (p. 270) provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
Repurchase of stock, spare parts and Calculation of damages Art. 1: 303,
materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306, Notes, 2 (p. 135)
Com., A (p. 148) et seq. Commercial agency Art. 1: 101,
Reputation of products Art. 1: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301,
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 4: 205, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Com., A (p. 277) et seq.; Art. 4: 304, Commercial agent Art. 2: 101,
Com., F (p. 287); Art. 4: 306, Com., Notes, 2 (p. 160)
A (p. 290) et seq. Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301,
Selective distribution Introd. VI (p. 95); Notes, 3 (p. 177); Art. 2: 302,
Art. 4: 101, Com., K (p. 261); Art. 4: Commission, moment of
205, Com., B (p. 277); Art. 4: 301, payment of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185)
Com., A (p. 279) et seq.; Art. 4: 302, Commission statement Art. 2: 310,
Com., A (p. 281); Art. 4: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 199)
Com., A (p. 283); Art. 4: 304, Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 204,
Com., A (p. 286); Art. 4: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 115)
Com., A (p. 288); Art. 4: 306, Continued performance Art. 1: 301,
Com., A (p. 290) Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Services Art. 4: 101, Com., Contracts for purchase for resale Art. 1:
D (p. 259) et seq. 101, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Subsequent contract Art. 4: 101, Damages, compensation for Art. 1: 305,
Com., I (p. 260); Art. 4: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 144)
Com., F (p. 289) Decreased volume of contracts, warning
Supplier Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 203, of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
Com., A (p. 111); Art. 4: 101, Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Com., A (p. 258) et seq.; Art. 4: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 208)
Com., A (p. 266) et seq. Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Supply, obligation to Art. 4: 201, Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Com., A (p. 266) et seq. Notes, 2 (p. 100)
Supply orders Art. 4: 201, Disclosure Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
Com., F (p. 267) Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Termination Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97) Distribution contracts Art. 1: 101,
Distribution franchising Art. 3: 101, Notes, 7 (p. 101); Art. 4: 101,
Com., E (p. 212) Notes, 2 (p. 262)
Document, signed written Art. 1: 402, Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
Com., A (p. 154) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 155)
Contract terms Art. 1: 402, Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Com., E (p. 155) 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Evidence Art. 1: 402, Com., A (p. 154) Notes, 2 (p. 181)
Dutch law See Netherlands, The Extinction of entitlement to agent’s
commission Art. 2: 305,
Employee Art. 1: 101, Com., F (p. 99); Notes, 1 (p. 187)
Art. 2: 101, Com., D (p. 158) Extracts from principal’s books
England Art. 2: 310, Notes, 2 (p. 200)
Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245) Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 249)
348
Index
Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302, Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation

Franchise contracts Art. 1: 101, Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
Notes, 2 (p. 213) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Indemnity, maximum amount of Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
Notes, 1 (p. 144); Art. 1: 305, materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
Notes, 5 (p. 147) Notes, 1 (p. 150)
Information already public Art. 1: 204, Right of retention Art. 1: 401,
Notes, 2 (p. 115) Notes, 1 (p. 153)
Information on acceptance, rejection and Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 249)
non-performance Art. 2: 308, Service contracts, applicability of
Notes, 1 (p. 194) commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101,
Information to be provided by commercial Notes, 3 (p. 160)
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168); Supply, supplier’s obligation to Art. 4:
Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192) 201, Notes, 1 (p. 267)
Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s Unilateral ending of contract for definite
obligation to grant a period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)
right to use Art. 3: 201, Entrance fee Art. 1: 201, Com., B (p. 103)
Notes, 1 (p. 213) European, Community law
Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302, Introd. III (p. 92); Introd. IV (p. 92)
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302, European, Competition law
Notes, 4 (p. 129) Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 1: 301,
Misrepresentation Art. 1: 201, Com., D (p. 119); Art. 3: 101,
Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 3: 102, Com., A (p. 210) et seq.; Art. 3: 101,
Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101, Com., O (p. 262)
Notes, 5 (p. 214); Art. 3: 207, European Principles of Sales Law
Notes, 1 (p. 245) Introd. VII (p. 96)
Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202, European Principles on Securities in
Notes, 1 (p. 109) Moveables Art. 1: 401, Com., D (p. 153)
Obligation to inform, franchisor’s Art. 3: European Principles of Unjustified
205, Notes, 1 (p. 239) Enrichment Law Art. 1: 305,
Periodical payments Art. 3: 301, Com., G (p. 143); Art. 2: 305,
Notes, 2 (p. 249) Com., C (p. 186)
Possessory lien Art. 1: 401, European Union, Constitution of
Notes, 1 (p. 153) the Art. 1: 101, Com., G (p. 99)
Pre-contractual information, obligation to Exclusive distribution Introd. VI (p. 95);
give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 258) et seq.; Art. 4:
Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) 101, Com., J (p. 261); Art. 4: 205,
Prevailing right to commission Art. 2: Com., B (p. 277); Art. 4: 301,
303, Notes, 1 (p. 183) Com., A (p. 279) et seq.; Art. 4: 302,
Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to Com., A (p. 281); Art. 4: 303,
negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163) Com., A (p. 283); Art. 4: 304,
Com., A (p. 286); Art. 4: 305,
349
Annexes
Com., A (p. 288); Art. 4: 306, Del credere commission Art. 2: 313,
Com., A (p. 290) Notes, 5 (p. 209)
Exclusive purchasing contracts Introd. Directive on Self-employed Commercial
VI (p. 95); Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 258) et Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
seq.; Art. 4: 101, Com., L (p. 261); Art. 4: Notes, 2 (p. 100)
203, Com., A (p. 273) et seq.; Art. 4: 205, Distribution contracts Art. 1: 101,
Com., B (p. 277) Notes, 7 (p. 101); Art. 1: 201,
Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 1: 203,
Fiduciary relationship Art. 1: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 4: 101,
Com., D (p. 108) Notes, 2 (p. 262)
Finland Distribution contracts, application of
Access to principal’s books, commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101,
reasonable Art. 2: 311, Notes, 1 (p. 202) Notes, 6 (p. 100); Art. 1: 201,
Advertising materials, supplier’s obligation Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 1: 203,
to provide with Art. 4: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 305,
Notes, 1 (p. 276) Notes, 4 (p. 146)
Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231) Notes, 1 (p. 155)
Business method, obligation to operate in Ending for important and urgent
accordance with franchisor’s Art. 3: reasons Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
303, Notes, 1 (p. 253) Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Calculation of damages Art. 1: 303, 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Notes, 2 (p. 135) Notes, 2 (p. 181)
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, Extinction of entitlement to agent’s
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 201, commission Art. 2: 305,
Notes, 3 (p. 138) Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) et seq.
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 2 (p. 160) Notes, 2 (p. 129)
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, Franchise contracts Art. 1: 203,
Notes, 3 (p. 181) Franchise contracts, application of
Commission, moment of payment commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101,
Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201, Notes, 4 (p. 146); Art. 3: 102,
Notes, 2 (p. 163) Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Contract law, general Art. 1: 101, Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
Notes, 7 (p. 101) Art. 1: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 3: 102,
Co-operate, duty to Art. 3: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 218); Art. 3: 203,
Notes, 1 (p. 231); Art. 4: 204, Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Notes, 1 (p. 276) Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Decreased volume of contracts, warning Information on acceptance, rejection and
of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197) non-performance Art. 2: 308,
Del credere clause Art. 2: 313, Notes, 1 (p. 194)
350
Index
Information during performance, Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,

supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: 202, Notes, 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 306,
Notes, 1 (p. 271) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Information to be provided by commercial Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168) materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
Inspection of franchisee’s premises Art. 3: Notes, 1 (p. 150)
304, Notes, 1 (p. 256) Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
Instructions, distributor’s obligation to Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) et
follow Art. 4: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 287) seq.
Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s Service contracts, applicability of
obligation to grant a right to use Art. 3: commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101,
201, Notes, 1 (p. 213) Notes, 3 (p. 160)
Know-how, franchisor’s obligation Solvency, client’s Art. 2: 203,
to grant Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227) Notes, 4 (p. 168)
Loyalty, doctrine of Art. 1: 202, Supply, supplier’s obligation to
Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Art. 4: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 267)
Notes, 1 (p. 112) Termination of contract Art. 1: 304,
Market conditions, obligation to inform Notes, 4 (p. 140)
about Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168) Unilateral ending of contracts Art. 1: 301,
Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 4 (p. 129) France
Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 207, Accounting books, access to
Notes, 1 (p. 245) franchisee’s Art. 3: 304,
Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1: Notes, 2 (p. 256)
303, Notes, 1 (p. 134) Advertising materials, supplier’s obligation
Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202, to provide with Art. 4: 204,
Notes, 1 (p. 109) Notes, 1 (p. 276)
Obligation to inform Art. 1: 203, Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to
Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 2: 204, provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231);
Notes, 1 (p. 239) Business method, obligation to operate in
Obligation to keep accounts, accordance with franchisor’s Art. 3:
agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171) 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253)
Periodical payments Art. 3: 301, Commercial agency Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 1 (p. 249) et seq. Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301,
Pre-contractual information, obligation to Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 304,
give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Notes, 4 (p. 140)
Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) Commercial agent Art. 2: 101,
Prevailing right to commission Art. 2: Notes, 2 (p. 160)
303, Notes, 1 (p. 183) Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301,
Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to Notes, 3 (p. 177); Art. 2: 302,
negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163) Notes, 3 (p. 181)
Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation Commission, moment of payment
to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165) of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185)
Reasonable notice period Art. 1: 302, Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201,
Notes, 3 (p. 129) Notes, 2 (p. 163)
351
Annexes
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, Inspection of franchisee’s premises Art. 3:

Notes, 3 (p. 120) 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256)
Damages, compensation for Art. 1: 305, Instructions, franchisee’s obligation to
Notes, 2 (p. 144) follow Art. 3: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 253)
Decreased volume of contracts, warning Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s
of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197) obligation to grant a right to use Art. 3:
Del credere clause Art. 2: 313, 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213) et seq.
Notes, 1 (p. 208) Know-how, franchisor’s obligation to
Directive on Self-employed Commercial grant Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227)
Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101, Loi Doubin Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 201,
Distribution contracts Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 218)
Notes, 2 (p. 262) et seq. Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302,
Document, signed written Art. 1: 402, Notes, 4 (p. 129)
Notes, 1 (p. 155) Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2: Notes, 5 (p. 214); Art. 3: 207,
301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 245); Art. 3: 303,
Notes, 2 (p. 181) Notes, 3 (p. 253)
Exclusive distribution Art. 4: 101, Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1:
Notes, 3 (p. 262) 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
Exclusive purchasing agreements Art. 4: Obligation to inform, pre-
101, Notes, 3 (p. 262) contractual Art. 1: 101, Notes, 5 (p. 101)
Extinction of entitlement to agent’s Obligation to inform, franchisor’s
commission Art. 2: 305, Art. 3: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239)
Notes, 1 (p. 187) Periodical payments Art. 3: 301,
Extracts from principal’s books Art. 2: Notes, 1 (p. 249)
310, Notes, 2 (p. 200) Pre-contractual information, obligation to
Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 105);
Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302, Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 3: 102,
Notes, 2 (p. 129) Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq.
Franchise Art. 1: 402, Notes, 2 (p. 155); Prevailing right to commission
Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 213) et seq. Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106) Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
Notes, 5 (p. 147) Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
Inform, franchisee’s obligation to Art. 3: to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Reasonable notice period Art. 1: 302,
non-performance Art. 2: 308, Remuneration, agent’s Art. 2: 306,
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Information during performance, supplier’s Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
obligation to Art. 4: 202, Notes, 4 (p. 214)
Notes, 1 (p. 271) Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
Information to be provided by commercial materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168); Notes, 1 (p. 150)
Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
352
Index
Reputation of products Art. 4: 306, Business package Art. 3: 101,

Notes, 1 (p. 292) Com., A (p. 210); Art. 3: 303,
Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129) Com., A (p. 251)
Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Commercial results of
Selective distribution Art. 4: 101, network Art. 3: 205,
Notes, 3 (p. 262) Com., D (b) (p. 238)
Service contracts, applicability of Competition law Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 3:
commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101, 101, Com., G (p. 153)
Notes, 3 (p. 160) Co-operation Art. 1: 202,
Supply, supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 202,
201, Notes, 1 (p. 267) Com., C (p. 108); Art. 1: 202,
Termination of contract Art. 1: 304, Com., D (p. 108); Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 4 (p. 140) Com., E (p. 108)
Unilateral ending of contracts Art. 1: 301, Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302, Com., B (p. 97); Art. 1: 204,
Notes, 3 (p. 129) Com., A (p. 113) et seq.
Franchise Introd. I (p. 91); Introd. III (p. 92); Decreased supply capacity, warning
Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 101, of Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3:
Com., I (p. 99); Art. 3: 101, 206, Com., A (p. 240) et seq.
Com., A (p. 210) et seq. De facto exclusivity Art. 3: 204,
Accounting books, access to Com., H (p. 235)
franchisee’s Art. 3: 304, Designated suppliers Art. 3: 204,
Com., A (p. 254) et seq. Com., D (p. 234) et seq.
Advertising campaigns Art. 3: 205, Distribution Art. 3: 101, Com., E (p. 212)
Com., D (g) (p. 238); Art. 3: 207, Economic function Introd. II (p. 91);
Com., A (p. 243); Art. 3: 207, Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97)
Com., E (p. 244) et seq. Ending Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97)
Assistance Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Expectations, franchisee’s Art. 3: 203,
Art. 3: 101, Com., A (p. 210) et seq.; Com., B (p. 230); Art. 3: 206,
Art. 3: 102, Com., D (e) (p. 218); Art. 3: Com., H (p. 242)
203, Com., A (p. 166) et seq.; Art. 3: 205, Exclusive purchasing obligation Art. 3:
Com., A (p. 236); Art. 3: 303, 204, Com., A (p. 232)
Com., A (p. 251) et seq. Fees Art. 3: 301, Com., A (p. 247) et seq.
Business concept Art. 3: 207, Good reputation of the network, franchisor’s
Com., B (p. 244) obligation to maintain the
Business method Art. 1: 202, Introd. III (p. 92)
Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 101, Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Com., A (p. 210) et seq.; Art. 3: 101, Com., E (p. 142)
Com., F (p. 212); Art. 3: 201, Industrial Art. 3: 101, Com., E (p. 212)
Com., B (p. 222); Art. 3: 202, Information during performance
Com., G (p. 227); Art. 3: 207, Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 202,
Com., B (p. 244); Art. 3: 301, Com., G (p. 227); Art. 3: 205,
Com., B (p. 248); Art. 3: 303, Com., A (p. 236) et seq.; Art. 3: 302,
Com., A (p. 251) et seq.; Art. 3: 304, Com., A (p. 250) et seq.
Com., A (p. 254) Inspection Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108);
Art. 3: 304, Com., A (p. 254) et seq.
353
Annexes
Instructions, franchisee’s obligation to Pre-contractual information Art. 3: 102,

follow Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Com., A (p. 215) et seq.
Art. 3: 303, Com., A (p. 251) et seq. Premises, access to
Intellectual property rights Introd. franchisee’s Art. 3: 304,
VI (p. 95); Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Com., A (p. 254) et seq.
Art. 3: 101, Com., A (p. 210); Art. 3: 101, Products, characteristics of Art. 3: 205,
Com., E (p. 212); Art. 3: 102, Com., D (c) (p. 238)
Com., B (p. 216); Art. 3: 102, Recruitment costs Art. 3: 301,
Com., D (b) (p. 218); Art. 3: 201, Com., A (p. 247)
Com., A (p. 222) et seq.; Art. 3: 207, Remuneration Art. 3: 102,
Com., A (p. 243); Art. 3: 303, Com., D (g) (p. 218)
Com., A (p. 251) et seq. Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
Know-how Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
Art. 1: 204, Com., D (p. 114); Art. 3: 101, Com., A (p. 148) et seq.
Com., A (p. 210); Art. 3: 102, Royalties Art. 3: 301, Com.,
Com., B (p. 216); Art. 3: 102, A (p. 247) et seq.
Com., D (c) (p. 218); Art. 3: 202, Sales contract Art. 3: 205,
Com., A (p. 226) et seq.; Art. 3: 303, Com., D (e) (p. 238)
Com., A (p. 251) et seq. Service Art. 3: 101, Com., E (p. 212)
Liability in damages Art. 3: 102, Supply, obligation to guarantee
Com., A (p. 215) Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: 204,
Market conditions Art. 3: 205, Com., A (p. 232) et seq.
Com., D (a) (p. 238) Termination Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97)
Mixed contracts Art. 3: 101, Franchisee Introd. V (p. 93)
Com., D (p. 211) Expectations Art. 3: 203,
Network Art. 3: 101, Com., A (p. 210); Com., B (p. 230); Art. 3: 206,
Art. 3: 101, Com., F (p. 212); Art. 3: 102, Com., H (p. 242)
Com., D (a) (p. 218); Art. 3: 102, Independence Art. 3: 101,
Com., D (f) (p. 218); Art. 3: 207, Com., A (p. 210); Art. 3: 303,
Com., A (p. 243) et seq.; Art. 3: 303, Com., B (p. 252); Art. 3: 304,
Com., B (p. 252); Art. 3: 303, Com., B (p. 255)
Com., F (p. 253); Art. 3: 304, Information during performance, obligation
Com., B (p. 255) to give Art. 3: 302, Com., A (p. 250) et
Non-performance, termination for Art. 1: seq.
304, Com., A (p. 136) et seq. Franchisor Introd. V (p. 93)
Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 101, Assistance, obligation to
Com., B (p. 97) provide Art. 3: 203,
Obligation to inform, contractual Art. 1: Com., A (p. 166) et seq.
101, Com., B (p. 97) Information during performance, obligation
Obligation to inform, pre-contractual to give Art. 3: 205, Com.,
Art. 1: 101, Com., B (p. 97); Art. 1: 201, A (p. 236) et seq.
Com., A (p. 103) et seq.; Art. 1: 201, Initial training Art. 3: 301,
Com., E (p. 104) Com., A (p. 247)
Payment, initial Art. 3: 301, Intellectual property rights, obligation to
Com., A (p. 247) grant a right to use Art. 3: 201,
Payments, periodical Art. 3: 301, Com., A (p. 222) et seq.
354
Index
Know-how, obligation to Decreased volume of contracts, warning

grant Art. 3: 202, Com., of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
A (p. 226) et seq. Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Remuneration Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 208) et seq.
Com., A (p. 210) Del credere commission Art. 2: 313,
Freedom of contract Art. 4: 101, Notes, 5 (p. 209)
Com., B (p. 259); Art. 4: 201, Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Com., B (p. 266) Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 2 (p. 100)
Germany Distribution contracts Art. 1: 203,
Access to principal’s books, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 204,
reasonable Art. 2: 311, Notes, 1 (p. 202) Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 4: 101,
Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245) Notes, 2 (p. 262) et seq.
Advertising materials, supplier’s obligation Distribution contracts, application of
to provide with Art. 4: 204, commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101,
Amount of indemnity, calculation Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 302,
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Art. 2: Notes, 1 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302,
312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 304,
Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to Notes, 3 (p. 138); Art. 1: 305,
provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231) Notes, 4 (p. 146); Art. 1: 402,
Business method, obligation to operate in Notes, 1 (p. 155); Art. 4: 202,
accordance with franchisor’s Notes, 1 (p. 271); Art. 4: 204,
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
Notes, 1 (p. 115) et seq.; Art. 1: 304, Ending for important and
Notes, 3 (p. 138) urgent reasons Art. 1: 304, Notes,
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, 3 (p. 138) et seq.
Notes, 2 (p. 160) Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Notes, 3 (p. 181) Exclusive distribution Art. 4: 101,
Commission, moment of payment Notes, 3 (p. 262)
of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185) Exclusive purchasing agreements
Commission statement Art. 2: 310, Art. 4: 101, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Notes, 1 (p. 199) Extinction of entitlement to agent’s
Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201, commission Art. 2: 305,
Notes, 2 (p. 163) Notes, 1 (p. 187) et seq.
Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 204, Extracts from principal’s books Art. 2:
Notes, 1 (p. 115) 310, Notes, 2 (p. 200)
Confidentiality, post-contractual Art. 1: Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 249)
204, Notes, 2 (p. 115) Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302,
Co-operate, duty to Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
Notes, 2 (p. 227); Art. 3: 203, Franchise contracts Art. 1: 203,
355
Annexes
Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 3: 101, Instructions, distributor’s obligation to

Notes, 2 (p. 213) et seq. follow Art. 4: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 287)
Franchise contracts, application of Instructions, franchisee’s obligation to
commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101, follow Art. 3: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 253)
Notes, 4 (p. 100); Art. 1: 302, Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s
Notes, 1 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302, obligation to grant a
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 304, right to use Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
Notes, 3 (p. 138); Art. 1: 305, Know-how, franchisor’s obligation to
Notes, 4 (p. 146); Art. 1: 402, grant Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227)
Notes, 1 (p. 155); Art. 3: 203, Market conditions, obligation to inform
Notes, 1 (p. 231); Art. 3: 205, about Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168)
Notes, 2 (p. 253) Notes, 4 (p. 129)
Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Art. 1: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Notes, 5 (p. 214); Art. 3: 207,
Notes, 2 (p. 115); Art. 3: 102, Notice period, non-observance of
Notes, 1 (p. 231); Art. 3: 207, Non-performance, termination for
Notes, 1 (p. 271); Art. 4: 204, Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 1 (p. 287); Art. 4: 305, Obligation to inform Art. 1: 203,
Notes, 1 (p. 292) Notes, 1 (p. 239)
Indemnity, maximum amount of Art. 2: Obligation to inform, franchisor’s
312, Notes, 2 (p. 207) Art. 3: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239)
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, Obligation to keep accounts,
Notes, 1 (p. 144) agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171)
Information already public Art. 1: 204, Obligation to promote sales of contract
Notes, 2 (p. 115) products Art. 4: 301, Com.,
Information during performance, supplier’s A (p. 279) et seq.
obligation to Art. 4: 202, Periodical payments Art. 3: 301,
Notes, 1 (p. 271) Notes, 2 (p. 249)
Information on acceptance, rejection and Pre-contractual information, obligation
non-performance Art. 2: 308, to give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq.
Information period Art. 2: 308, Prevailing right to commission
Information to be provided by Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to
commercial agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
1 (p. 168) et seq.; Art. 2: 307, Notes, Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
1 (p. 192) et seq. to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Inspection of distributor’s Remuneration Art. 2: 306,
premises Art. 4: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 290) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Inspection of franchisee’s Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
premises Art. 3: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256) Notes, 4 (p. 214)
356
Index
Repurchase of stock, spare parts and Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301,
materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306, Notes, 3 (p. 177)
Notes, 1 (p. 150) Commission, moment of payment
Reputation of products Art. 4: 306, of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185)
Notes, 1 (p. 292) Commission statement Art. 2: 310,
Right of retention Art. 1: 401, Notes, 1 (p. 199)
Notes, 1 (p. 153) Community Art. 1: 101, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129) Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201,
Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 249) Notes, 2 (p. 163)
Selective distribution Art. 4: 101, Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 204,
Notes, 3 (p. 262) Notes, 1 (p. 115)
Service contracts, applicability of Continued performance Art. 1: 301,
Notes, 3 (p. 160) Contract law, general Art. 1: 101,
Solvency, client’s Art. 2: 203, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Notes, 4 (p. 168) Co-operate, duty to Art. 3: 202,
Supply, supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: Notes, 2 (p. 227)
201, Notes, 1 (p. 267) Decreased volume of contracts, warning
Unilateral ending of contract for definite of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120) Deposit contracts Art. 1: 101,
Good faith and fair dealing Art. 1: 203, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Com., C (p. 111), G (p. 112), Art. 1: 204, Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Com., C (p. 114); Art. 2: 201, Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Com., C (p. 162); Art. 2: 204, Notes, 2 (p. 100)
Com., C (p. 171); Art. 2: 307, Distribution contracts Art. 4: 101,
Com., C (p. 190); Art. 2: 308, Notes, 2 (p. 262) et seq.
Com., C (p. 194); Art. 2: 309, Distribution contracts, application of
Com., C (p. 196); Art. 3: 205, commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 301,
Com., C (p. 236); Art. 3: 206, Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302,
Com., C (p. 286) Notes, 4 (p. 146)
Goodwill See Indemnity for goodwill Distribution, simple Art. 4: 101,
Greece Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Accounting books, access to Distribution with added legal rights Art. 4:
franchisee’s Art. 3: 304, 101, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Notes, 2 (p. 256) Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to Notes, 1 (p. 155)
provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231) Employment contracts Art. 1: 101,
Calculation of damages Art. 1: 303, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Notes, 2 (p. 135) Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Notes, 2 (p. 160)
357
Annexes
Extinction of entitlement to agent’s Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202,

commission Art. 2: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 109)
Notes, 1 (p. 187) Obligation to inform, franchisor’s Art. 3:
Extracts from principal’s books Art. 2: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239)
310, Notes, 2 (p. 200) Obligation to keep accounts,
Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171)
Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302, Partnership Art. 1: 101, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Franchise contracts Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Notes, 7 (p. 101); Art. 1: 204, Pre-contractual information, obligation to
Notes, 1 (p. 115) give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 105);
Franchise contracts, application of Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq.
commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 305, Pre-contractual liability, general Art. 1:
Notes, 4 (p. 146) 201, Notes, 2 (p. 105)
Good faith Art. 1: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 109); Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to
Art. 1: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 115) negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
Information on acceptance, rejection and Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
non-performance Art. 2: 308, Notes, 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 306,
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Information during performance, Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: 202, materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
Notes, 1 (p. 271) Notes, 1 (p. 150)
Information to be provided by commercial Reputation of products Art. 4: 205,
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168); Notes, 1 (p. 278)
Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192) Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
Instructions, distributor’s obligation to Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
follow Art. 4: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 287) Selective distribution Art. 4: 101,
Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s Notes, 3 (p. 262)
obligation to grant a right to use Art. 3: Service contracts, applicability of
201, Notes, 1 (p. 213) commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101,
Know-how, franchisor’s obligation to Notes, 3 (p. 160)
grant Art. 3: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 227) Supply, supplier’s obligation to Art. 4:
Lease contracts Art. 1: 101, 201, Notes, 1 (p. 267)
Notes, 7 (p. 101) Unilateral ending of contract for definite
Loan contracts Art. 1: 101, period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120)
Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Mandate Art. 1: 101, Notes, 7 (p. 101) Horizontal agreements Introd. I (p. 91)
Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302, Introd. IV (p. 92)
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 4 (p. 129) Indefinite period, contract concluded
Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 207, for Art. 1: 302, Com., A (p. 123) et seq.
Notes, 1 (p. 245) Agreed longer periods Art. 1: 302,
Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1: Com., I (p. 128)
303, Notes, 1 (p. 134) Complementary damages Art. 1: 302,
Com., F (b) (p. 125)
358
Index
Due notice Art. 1: 302, Com., A (p. 123); Post-contractual non-competition,

Art. 1: 302, Com., D (p. 125) et seq. compensation for Art. 1: 305,
Minimum period of notice Art. 1: 302, Com., I (p. 143)
Com., A (p. 123); Art. 1: 302, Previously acquired customers Art. 2: 312,
Com., H (p. 127) Com., D (p. 204)
Notice, reasonable period of Art. 1: 302, Reasonableness Art. 1: 305,
Com., B (p. 123); Art. 1: 302, Com., A (p. 141); Art. 1: 305,
Com., F (p. 125); Art. 1: 302, Com., G (p. 143)
Com., F (c) (p. 125); Art. 1: 302, Industrial franchising Art. 3: 101,
Com., G (p. 127); Art. 1: 303, Com., E (p. 212)
Com., A (p. 131) Information Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108)
Presumption of reasonableness Art. 1: 302, Complete Art. 1: 201, Com., E (p. 104)
Com., G (p. 127) Correct Art. 1: 201, Com., E (p. 104)
Remedy Art. 1: 302, Com., J (p. 128) Transparent Art. 1: 201, Com., E (p. 104)
Specific performance Art. 1: 302, Information during performance Art. 1:
Com., A (p. 123); Art. 1: 302, 203, Com., A (p. 111); Art. 1: 203,
Com., C (p. 124); Art. 1: 302, Com., G (p. 112)
Com., J (p. 128) Actual knowledge Art. 1: 203,
Unilateral ending Art. 1: 302, Com., B (p. 111); Art. 1: 203,
Com., A (p. 123); Art. 1: 302, Com., D (p. 111)
Com., F (b) (p. 125) Commercial agent Art. 2: 203, Com
Usages Art. 1: 302, Com., F (c) (p. 125) A (p. 166) et seq.
Indemnity Art. 1: 401, Com., A (p. 152) Distributor Art. 4: 302, Com.,
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, A (p. 281) et seq.
Com., A (p. 141) et seq. Due time Art. 1: 203, Com., E (p. 112)
Accumulation with agent’s entitlement to Duty to investigate Art. 1: 203,
commission Art. 2: 302, Com., B (p. 111); Art. 1: 203,
Com., H (p. 180) Com., D (p. 111)
Amount of Art. 2: 312, Com., Franchisee Art. 1: 203, Com., A (p. 111);
A (p. 203) et seq. Art. 3: 302, Com., A (p. 250) et seq.
Commission after contract, entitlement Franchisor Art. 1: 203, Com., A (p. 111);
to Art. 1: 305, Com., J (p. 143) Art. 3.205, Com., A (p. 236) et seq.
Damages Art. 2: 312, Com., I (p. 205) Form requirement Art. 1: 203,
Directive on Self-employed Commercial Com., F (p. 112)
Agents Art. 1: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 144) Good faith Art. 1: 203, Com., C (p. 111),
Goodwill, generated Art. 1: 305, G (p. 111), G (p. 111), G (p. 111),
Com., D (p. 142); Art. 1: 305, G (p. 111)
Com., F (p. 142) Information to be provided Art. 2.203,
Goodwill, transfer of Art. 1: 305, Com., D (p. 167); Art. 2: 307,
Com., A (p. 141); Art. 1: 305, Com., D (p. 191); Art. 4: 302,
Com., D (p. 142) Com., D (p. 282)
Irregular ending Art. 1: 305, Non-performance Art. 1: 203,
Com., H (p. 143) Com., H (p. 112)
Maximum amount of Art. 2: 312, Principal Art. 2: 307, Com.,
Com., H (p. 204) A (p. 190) et seq.
Migration rate Art. 2: 312, Remedies Art. 1: 203, Com., H (p. 112);
Com., F (p. 204) Art. 2: 307, Com., F (p. 191)
359
Annexes
Supplier Art. 4: 202, Com., Intermediary, self-employed Art. 2: 101,

A (p. 269) et seq. Com., B (p. 161); Art. 2: 101,
Information, pre-contractual Introd. Com., D (p. 158)
VI (p. 95); Art. 1: 201, Com., A (p. 103); Internet Introd. II (p. 91)
Art. 1: 204, Com., C (p. 114) Intuitus personae Art. 1: 302,
Adequate information Art. 1: 201, Com., J (p. 128); Art. 1: 303,
Com., E (p. 104) Com., D (p. 132)
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, Investments Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 201,
Com., B (p. 97); Art. 1: 201, Com., B (p. 103); Art. 1: 302,
Com., A (p. 103) et seq. Com., B (p. 123); Art. 1: 302,
Disclosure rule Art. 3: 102, Com., F (b) (p. 125); Art. 1: 304,
Com., B (p. 216) Com., A (p. 136); Art. 2: 101,
Franchising Art. 3: 102, Com., A (p. 215) Com., B (p. 161); Art. 3: 102,
et seq. Com., B (p. 216); Art. 3: 301,
Mandatory character Art. 1: 201, Com., B (p. 248)
Com., F (p. 105) Italy
Policy considerations Art. 1: 201, Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245)
Com., B (p. 103); Art. 1: 201, Advertising materials, supplier’s obligation
Com., C (p. 104) to provide with Art. 4: 204,
Reasonable time, within a Art. 1: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 276)
Com., A (p. 103); Art. 1: 201, Amount of indemnity, calculation
Com., D (p. 104) of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205);
Remedies for non-compliance Art. 1: 201, Art. 2: 312, Notes, 3 (p. 207)
Com., A (p. 103); Art. 1: 201, Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to
Com., G (p. 105) provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
Instructions, franchisee’s obligation to Calculation of damages Art. 1: 303,
follow Art. 3: 303, Com., A (p. 251) et Notes, 2 (p. 135)
seq. Commercial agency Art. 1: 101,
Instructions given by principal, obligation to Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301,
comply with Art. 2: 202, Com., A (p. 164) Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 304,
et seq. Notes, 3 (p. 138)
Independence Art. 2: 202, Commercial agent Art. 2: 101,
Com., A (p. 164) Notes, 2 (p. 160)
Reasonableness Art. 2: 202, Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301,
Com., D (p. 165) Notes, 3 (p. 177); Art. 2: 302,
Remedies Art. 2: 202, Com., F (p. 165) Notes, 3 (p. 181)
Intellectual property rights Introd. Commission, moment of payment
VI (p. 95); Art. 1: 201, Com., E (p. 104) et of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185)
seq.; Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Art. 3: Commission statement Art. 2: 310,
101, Com., A (p. 210); Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 199)
Com., E (p. 212); Art. 3: 102, Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201,
Com., B (p. 216); Art. 3: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
Com., A (p. 222) et seq.; Art. 3: 207, Continued performance Art. 1: 301,
Com., A (p. 243) et seq.; Art. 3: 303, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Com., A (p. 251) et seq.; Art. 4: 302, Co-operate, duty to Art. 3: 203,
Com., B (p. 282); Art. 4: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 231)
Com., D (b) (p. 282)
360
Index
Decreased supply capacity, warning Notes, 1 (p. 287); Art. 4: 305,

of Art. 4: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 274) Notes, 1 (p. 290)
Decreased volume of contracts, warning Indemnity, maximum amount of Art. 2:
of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197) 312, Notes, 2 (p. 207)
Directive on Self-employed Commercial Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 144); Art. 1: 305,
Notes, 2 (p. 100) Notes, 5 (p. 147)
Distribution contracts Art. 1: 101, Information on acceptance, rejection and
Notes, 7 (p. 101); Art. 1: 203, non-performance Art. 2: 308,
Notes, 5 (p. 147); Art. 4: 101, Information during performance, supplier’s
Notes, 2 (p. 262) obligation to Art. 4: 202,
Distribution contracts, application of Notes, 1 (p. 271)
commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 305, Information period Art. 2: 308,
Notes, 4 (p. 146) Notes, 2 (p. 194)
Distribution contracts, types of Art. 4: Information to be provided by commercial
101, Notes, 3 (p. 262) agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168);
Document, signed written Art. 1: 402, Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
Notes, 1 (p. 155) Inspection of distributor’s premises Art. 4:
Ending for important and urgent 305, Notes, 1 (p. 290)
reasons Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138) Inspection of franchisee’s premises Art. 3:
Entitlement to commission, agent’s 304, Notes, 1 (p. 256)
Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302, Instructions, distributor’s obligation to
Extinction of entitlement to agent’s Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s
commission Art. 2: 305, obligation to grant a right to use Art. 3:
Notes, 1 (p. 187) et seq. 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213)
Extracts from principal’s books Art. 2: Know-how Art. 3: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 227)
310, Notes, 2 (p. 200) Market conditions, obligation to inform
Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) about Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168)
Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302, Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302,
Franchise contracts Art. 1: 101, Notes, 4 (p. 129)
Notes, 1 (p. 100); Art. 1: 101, Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Notes, 2 (p. 155); Art. 3: 101, Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1:
Notes, 1 (p. 213) et seq. 305, Notes, 6 (p. 147
Good faith Art. 1: 101, Notes, 7 (p. 101); Notice of non-renewal Art. 1: 301,
Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 203, Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 1 (p. 276); Art. 4: 304, Obligation to keep accounts,
agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171)
361
Annexes
Periodical payments Art. 3: 301, Secret Art. 3: 202, Com., D (p. 226)
Notes, 1 (p. 249) Substantial Art. 3: 202, Com., D (p. 226)
Pre-contractual information, obligation
to give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 105); Labour contracts Art. 1: 101,
Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 3: 102, Com., F (p. 99); Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq. Com., G (p. 99)
Prevailing right to commission Legal certainty Introd. III (p. 92); Art. 1:
Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183) et seq. 301, Com., B (p. 117); Art. 1: 302,
Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to Com., B (p. 123); Art. 1: 304,
negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163) Com., A (p. 136); Art. 2: 312,
Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation Com., B (p. 203); Art. 4: 201,
to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165) Com., B (p. 266)
Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101, Legal persons Art. 1: 101, Com., F (p. 99)
Notes, 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 306, Liability in damages
Notes, 1 (p. 189) Franchising Art. 3: 102, Com., A (p. 215)
Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101, Licensing contracts Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 4 (p. 214) Com., G (p. 99)
Repurchase of stock, spare parts and Long-term commercial contracts Introd.
materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306, I (p. 91) Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 1: 101,
Notes, 1 (p. 150) Com., C (p. 98); Art. 1: 101,
Reputation of products Art. 4: 205, Com., G (p. 99); Art. 1: 304,
Notes, 1 (p. 278) Com., A (p. 136)
Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129) Applicability of Principles of European
Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Law Art. 1: 101, Com., G (p. 99)
Service contracts, applicability of Change of circumstances Art. 1: 101,
commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101, Com., C (p. 98)
Notes, 3 (p. 160) Co-operation Art. 1: 202,
Supply, supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: Com., A (p. 107); Art. 1: 202,
201, Notes, 1 (p. 267) Com., C (p. 108)
Supply contracts Art. 4: 205, Ending of Introd. V (p. 93)
Notes, 1 (p. 278) Joint-venture contracts Art. 1: 101,
Unilateral ending of contract for definite Com., G (p. 99)
period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120) Know-how Art. 1: 204, Com., D (p. 114)
Labour contracts Art. 1: 101,
Joint-venture contracts Introd. III (p. 92); Com., G (p. 99)
Art. 1: 101, Com., G (p. 99) Licensing contracts Art. 1: 101,
Com., G (p. 99)
Know-how Art. 1: 202, Com., F (p. 108); Non-performance, termination for Art. 1:
Art. 1: 204, Com., A (p. 113); Art. 1: 204, 304, Com., A (p. 136)
Com., D (p. 114); Art. 3: 101, Price, determination of Art. 1: 101,
Com., A (p. 210); Art. 3: 102, Com., C (p. 98)
Com., B (p. 216); Art. 3: 202, Price, unilateral determination of Art. 1:
Com., A (p. 226) et seq.; Art. 3: 205, 101, Com., C (p. 98)
Com., A (p. 236); Art. 3: 207, Rental contracts of houses Art. 1: 101,
Com., A (p. 243) et seq.; Art. 3: 303, Com., G (p. 99)
Identified Art. 3: 202, Com., D (p. 226)
362
Index
Mandatory rules Introd. V (p. 93); Introd. Commission, moment of payment

VI (p. 95); Art. 1: 201, Com., A (p. 103) of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185)
Market conditions Art. 1: 201, Commission statement Art. 2: 310,
Com., E (p. 104); Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 199)
Com., D (b) (p. 167); Art. 3: 102, Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201,
Com., D (d) (p. 218); Art. 3: 204, Notes, 2 (p. 163)
Com., G (p. 234); Art. 3: 205, Confidentiality, obligation of Art. 1: 204,
Com., D (a) (p. 238); Art. 4: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 115)
Com., F (p. 267); Art. 4: 203, Continued performance Art. 1: 301,
Com., E (p. 274); Art. 4: 306, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Com., E (p. 291) Contract law, general Art. 1: 101,
Market research Art. 1: 204, Notes, 7 (p. 101)
Com., E (p. 114) Decreased volume of contracts, warning
Marketing Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97); of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
Art. 3: 101, Com., D (p. 211) Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Marketing contracts Introd. II (p. 91); Notes, 1 (p. 208) et seq.
Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97); Art. 1: 101, Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Com., G (p. 99) Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Merchant Introd. V (p. 93); Art. 4: 202, Notes, 2 (p. 100)
Com., F (p. 271) Distribution contracts Art. 1: 101,
Mora creditoris Art. 1: 202, Notes, 7 (p. 101); Art. 1: 203,
Com., A (p. 107) Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 204,
Mother company Introd. II (p. 91) Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 1: 301,
Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 305,
Natural persons Art. 1: 101, Com., F (p. 99) Notes, 5 (p. 147); Art. 4: 101,
Netherlands, The Notes, 2 (p. 262)
Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245) Distribution contracts, application of
Amount of indemnity, calculation commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 301,
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Art. 2: Notes, 3 (p. 120)
312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to Notes, 1 (p. 155)
provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231) Ending for important and urgent
Business method, obligation to operate in reasons Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
accordance with franchisor’s Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Art. 3: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 253) 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Calculation of damages Art. 1: 303, Notes, 2 (p. 181)
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301, Exclusive purchasing agreements Art. 4:
Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 301, 101, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 304, Extinction of entitlement to
Notes, 3 (p. 138) agent’s commission Art. 2: 305,
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 187) et seq.
Notes, 2 (p. 160) Extracts from principal’s books Art. 2:
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, 310, Notes, 2 (p. 200)
Notes, 3 (p. 177) Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 2 (p. 129)
363
Annexes
Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Franchise contracts Art. 1: 101, Notes, 5 (p. 214); Art. 3: 207,
Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 204, Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1:
Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 3: 101, 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134); Art. 1: 305,
Notes, 1 (p. 213) et seq. Notes, 6 (p. 147
Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 1 (p. 218) Obligation to keep accounts,
Indemnity, maximum amount of agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171)
Art. 2: 312, Notes, 2 (p. 207) Obligation to promote sales of contract
Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305, products Art. 4: 301, Com.,
Notes, 1 (p. 144); Art. 1: 305, A (p. 279) et seq.
Information already public Art. 1: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Notes, 2 (p. 115) Pre-contractual information, obligation
Information during performance, to give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
distributors’s obligation to Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq.
provide Art. 4: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 283) Prevailing right to commission Art. 2:
Information during performance, supplier’s 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183) et seq.
obligation to provide Art. 4: 202, Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to
Notes, 1 (p. 271) negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
Information on acceptance, rejection and Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
non-performance Art. 2: 308, to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Reasonable notice period Art. 1: 302,
Information to be provided by commercial Notes, 3 (p. 129)
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168) Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
et seq.; Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192) et Notes, 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 306,
seq. Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Inspection of franchisee’s premises Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Instructions, distributor’s obligation to Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
follow Art. 4: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 287) materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s Notes, 1 (p. 150)
obligation to grant a right to use Art. 3: Right of retention Art. 1: 401,
201, Notes, 1 (p. 213) Notes, 1 (p. 153)
Know-how, franchisor’s obligation to Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
grant Art. 3: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 227) et Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
seq. Selective distribution Art. 4: 101,
Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302, Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302, Service contracts, applicability of
Notes, 3 (p. 160)
364
Index
Solvency, client’s Art. 2: 203, Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201,

Notes, 4 (p. 168) Notes, 2 (p. 163)
Supply, supplier’s obligation to Continued performance Art. 1: 301,
Termination of contract Art. 1: 304, Decreased volume of contracts, warning
Notes, 4 (p. 140) of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197)
Unilateral ending of contracts Art. 1: 301, Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
Notes, 3 (p. 129) Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Non-performance, termination for Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Art. 1: 304, Com., D (p. 138); Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Art. 1: 305, Com., A (p. 141) 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
Intention Art. 1: 304, Com., B (p. 137) Notes, 2 (p. 181)
Non-renewal Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 117) Extinction of entitlement to agent’s
Notice period, non-observance of commission Art. 2: 305,
Art. 1: 303, Com., A (p. 131) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 187)
Cumulation with agent’s entitlement Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302,
to commission Art. 2: 302, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
Com., H (p. 180) Indemnity, maximum amount of Art. 2:
Damages Art. 1: 303, Com., A (p. 131); 312, Notes, 2 (p. 207)
Art. 1: 303, Com., C (p. 132) et seq.; Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Art. 1: 305, Com., H (p. 143) Notes, 1 (p. 144)
Economic efficiency Art. 1: 303, Information on acceptance, rejection and
Com., B (p. 132) non-performance Art. 2: 308,
Notes, 1 (p. 194)
Obligation, pre-contractual Introd. V (p. 93) Information to be provided by commercial
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168);
Payments, periodical Art. 3: 301, Art. 2: 307, Notes, 1 (p. 192)
Com., A (p. 247) Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302,
Payments, undue Art. 2: 305, Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302,
Com., A (p. 186) Notes, 4 (p. 129)
Performance, continued Art. 1: 301, Notice period, non-observance of Art. 1:
Com., A (p. 117) 305, Notes, 6 (p. 147)
Poland Non-performance, termination for Art. 1:
Amount of indemnity, calculation 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138)
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 202, Prevailing right to commission Art. 2:
Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 301, 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183)
Notes, 3 (p. 120) Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Notes, 2 (p. 160) Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Commission statement Art. 2: 310, Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
Notes, 1 (p. 199)
365
Annexes
Unilateral ending of contract for definite Entitlement to commission, agent’s

period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120) Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176)
Portugal Extinction of entitlement to agent’s
Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245) commission Art. 2: 305,
Amount of indemnity, calculation Notes, 1 (p. 187)
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Art. 2: Extracts from principal’s books
312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Art. 2: 310, Notes, 2 (p. 200)
Bonos mores, acts contrary to Art. 1: 201, Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249)
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301, Franchise contracts Art. 3: 101,
Notes, 3 (p. 120) Franchise contracts, application of
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101,
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 301,
Notes, 3 (p. 181) Notes, 2 (p. 213)
Commission, moment of payment Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Commission statement Art. 2: 310, Notes, 4 (p. 146)
Notes, 1 (p. 199) Information on acceptance, rejection and
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, non-performance Art. 2: 308,
Notes, 3 (p. 120) Notes, 1 (p. 194)
Decreased volume of contracts, warning Information during performance,
of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197) et seq. supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: 202,
Notes, 1 (p. 208) et seq. Information period Art. 2: 308,
Del credere commission Art. 2: 313, Notes, 2 (p. 194)
Notes, 5 (p. 209) Inspection of distributor’s premises
Directive on Self-employed Commercial Art. 4: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 290)
Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101, Inspection of franchisee’s premises
Distribution contracts Art. 4: 101, Instructions, distributor’s obligation to
Distribution contracts, application of Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s
commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 101, obligation to grant a right to use
Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 301, Know-how, franchisor’s obligation
Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302, to grant Art. 3: 202,
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 305, Liability, pre-contractual Art. 1: 201,
Notes, 1 (p. 271) Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302,
Document, signed written Art. 1: 402, Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 155) Notes, 4 (p. 129)
366
Index
Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101, Inadequate Introd. VII (p. 96)

Notes, 5 (p. 214); Art. 3: 207, Services Art. 1: 101, Com., H (p. 99);
Notes, 1 (p. 245); Art. 3: 303, Art. 4: 101, Com., D (p. 259)
Notes, 3 (p. 253) Purchase of goods Art. 2: 101,
Non-performance, termination for Com., E (p. 159)
Art. 1: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138) Purchase price lists Art. 1: 204,
Obligation to inform, franchisor’s Com., E (p. 114)
Art. 3: 205, Notes, 1 (p. 239)
Obligation to keep accounts, Recruitment costs Art. 3: 301,
agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171) Com., A (p. 247)
Periodical payments Art. 3: 301, Relationship, external Introd. VII (p. 96)
Notes, 1 (p. 249) Relationship, internal Introd. VII (p. 96)
Pre-contractual information, obligation to Remedies Art. 1: 101, Com., J (p. 100);
give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 2 (p. 105); Art. 1: 201, Com., A (p. 103); Art. 2: 204,
Art. 3: 102, Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq. Com., F (p. 171)
Prevailing right to commission Accounts, principals’s obligation to
Art. 2: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 183) maintain proper Art. 2: 311,
Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation Com., F (p. 202)
to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165) Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101, Com., A (p. 141)
Notes, 1 (p. 189) Com., E (p. 194)
Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101, Remuneration Art. 1: 401, Com., A (p. 152)
Notes, 4 (p. 214) Commercial agent Art. 2: 301,
Right of retention Art. 1: 401, Com., A (p. 173) et seq.
Notes, 1 (p. 153) Commission based Art. 2: 301,
Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129) Com., B (p. 174)
Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
Service contracts, applicability of materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101, Com., A (p. 148) et seq.
Notes, 3 (p. 160) Reasonable price Art. 1: 306,
Unilateral ending of contract for definite Com., D (p. 149)
period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120) Remedies Art. 1: 306, Com., G (p. 150)
Post-contractual non-competition Restraint of trade Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 1:
clauses Art. 1: 302, Com., F (c) (p. 125); 402, Notes, 1 (p. 155)
Art. 1: 305, Com., I (p. 143); Art. 1: 306, Block exemptions Introd. IV (p. 92)
Com., B (p. 148) Right of retention Art. 1: 401 et seq.
Product information Art. 1: 204,
Com., E (p. 114) Sale, contract of Introd. III (p. 92); Art. 1:
Products Art. 1: 101, Com., H (p. 99); 202, Com., A (p. 107); Art. 2: 101,
Art. 2: 307, Com., D (a) (p. 191) Com., E (p. 159); Art. 3: 205,
Dangerous Introd. VII (p. 96) Com., D (e) (p. 238); Art. 4: 201,
Defective Introd. VII (p. 96) Com., C (p. 266)
Distribution contracts Art. 4: 101, Selective distribution Introd. VI (p. 95);
Com., D (p. 259) Art. 4: 101, Com., A (p. 258) et seq.; Art. 4:
Goods Art. 1: 101, Com., H (p. 99); 101, Com., K (p. 261); Art. 4: 205,
Art. 4: 101, Com., D (p. 259) Com., B (p. 277); Art. 4: 301,
367
Annexes
Com., A (p. 279) et seq.; Art. 4: 302, Del credere commission Art. 2: 313,
Com., A (p. 281); Art. 4: 303, Notes, 5 (p. 209)
Com., A (p. 283); Art. 4: 304, Directive on Self-employed Commercial
Com., A (p. 286); Art. 4: 305, Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101,
Com., A (p. 288); Art. 4: 306, Notes, 2 (p. 100)
Com., A (p. 290) Distribution contracts Art. 1: 203,
Service franchising Art. 3: 101, Notes, 1 (p. 112); Art. 1: 204,
Com., E (p. 212) Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 1: 305,
Services Art. 2: 101, Com., E (p. 159) Notes, 5 (p. 147); Art. 4: 101,
Spain Notes, 2 (p. 262) et seq.
Accounting books, access to Distribution contracts, application of
franchisee’s Art. 3: 304, commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 301,
Advertising Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245) Notes, 4 (p. 146)
Amount of indemnity, calculation Document, signed written Art. 1: 402,
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Notes, 1 (p. 155)
Art. 2: 312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2:
Assistance, franchisor’s obligation to 301, Notes, 2 (p. 176); Art. 2: 302,
provide Art. 3: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 231); Notes, 2 (p. 181)
Art. 3: 207, Notes, 2 (p. 245) Exclusive distribution Art. 4: 101,
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 202, Extinction of entitlement to agent’s
Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 204, commission Art. 2: 305,
Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 301, Extracts from principal’s books
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) et seq.
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, Notes, 2 (p. 129)
Notes, 3 (p. 177); Art. 2: 302, Franchise Art. 1: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 115);
Notes, 3 (p. 181) Art. 1: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 115); Art. 1: 402,
of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185) Notes, 1 (p. 213) et seq.
Commission statement Art. 2: 310, Franchise contracts, application of
Conclusion of contracts Art. 2: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Notes, 2 (p. 163) Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
Confidentiality obligation Art. 1: 204, Art. 1: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 204,
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 283)
Notes, 3 (p. 120) Indemnity, maximum amount of
Decreased supply capacity, warning Art. 2: 312, Notes, 2 (p. 207)
of Art. 4: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 274) Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Decreased volume of contracts, warning Notes, 1 (p. 144); Art. 1: 305,
of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197) et seq. Notes, 5 (p. 147)
Del credere clause Art. 2: 313,
368
Index
Information on acceptance, rejection and Periodical payments Art. 3: 301,

non-performance Art. 2: 308, Notes, 1 (p. 249) et seq.
Notes, 1 (p. 194) Pre-contractual information, obligation to
Information during performance, give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 105);
distributors’s obligation to Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106); Art. 3: 102,
provide Art. 4: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 283) Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq.
Information during performance, Prevailing right to
supplier’s obligation to Art. 4: 202, commission Art. 2: 303,
Notes, 1 (p. 271) Notes, 1 (p. 183)
Information period Art. 2: 308, Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to
Notes, 2 (p. 194) negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
Information to be provided by commercial Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 1 (p. 168); to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Art. 2: 307, Notes, 2 (p. 192) Reasonable notice period Art. 1: 302,
Inspection of distributor’s Notes, 3 (p. 129)
premises Art. 4: 305, Notes, 1 (p. 290) Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
Inspection of franchisee’s premises Art. 3: Notes, 4 (p. 160); Art. 2: 306,
304, Notes, 1 (p. 256) Notes, 1 (p. 189)
Instructions, distributor’s obligation to Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
follow Art. 4: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 287) Notes, 4 (p. 214)
Intellectual property rights, franchisor’s Repurchase of stock, spare parts and
obligation to grant a right to materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306,
use Art. 3: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 213) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 150)
Know-how, franchisor’s obligation Reputation of products Art. 4: 205,
to grant Art. 3: 202, Notes, Notes, 1 (p. 278); Art. 4: 306,
1 (p. 227) et seq. Notes, 1 (p. 292)
Market conditions, obligation to inform Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129)
about Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168) Royalties Art. 3: 301,
Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 249) et seq.
Notes, 2 (p. 129); Art. 1: 302, Selective distribution Art. 4: 101,
Notes, 4 (p. 129) Notes, 3 (p. 262)
Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101, Service contracts, applicability of
Notes, 5 (p. 214); Art. 3: 207, commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101,
Notes, 1 (p. 245) Notes, 3 (p. 160)
Non-observance of notice period, Solvency, client’s Art. 2: 203,
entitlement to damages in case of Notes, 4 (p. 168)
Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134) Supply, obligation to Art. 4: 201,
Non-performance, termination for Notes, 1 (p. 267)
Art. 1: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138) Unilateral ending of contracts Art. 1: 301,
Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 120); Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 109) Notes, 3 (p. 129)
Obligation to inform Art. 1: 203, Subsidiary See Daughter company
Notes, 1 (p. 112) Supply, franchisor’s obligation to
Obligation to keep accounts, guarantee Art. 3: 204, Com., A (p. 232)
agent’s Art. 2: 204, Notes, 1 (p. 171) et seq.
Obligation to promote sales of contract pro- De facto exclusivity Art. 3: 204,
ducts Art. 4: 301, Com., A (p. 279) et seq. Com., H (p. 235)
369
Annexes
Designated suppliers Art. 3: 204, Fair dealing Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106)
Com., D (p. 234) et seq. Fixed notice period Art. 1: 302,
Exclusive purchasing obligation Art. 3: Notes, 2 (p. 129)
204, Com., A (p. 232) Franchise Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120);
Sweden Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213) et seq.
Amount of indemnity, calculation Franchise contracts, application of
of Art. 2: 312, Notes, 1 (p. 205); Art. 2: commercial agency rules to Art. 1: 301,
312, Notes, 3 (p. 207) Notes, 3 (p. 120)
Commercial agency Art. 1: 101, Good faith Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106);
Notes, 2 (p. 100); Art. 1: 204, Art. 1: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 109); Art. 1: 204,
Notes, 3 (p. 120); Art. 1: 304, Indemnity, maximum amount of Art. 2:
Notes, 3 (p. 138) 312, Notes, 2 (p. 207)
Commercial agent Art. 2: 101, Indemnity for goodwill Art. 1: 305,
Commission due, agent’s Art. 2: 301, Notes, 5 (p. 147)
Notes, 3 (p. 177); Art. 2: 302, Information to be provided by commercial
Notes, 3 (p. 181) agent Art. 2: 203, Notes, 2 (p. 168);
Commission, moment of payment Art. 2: 307, Notes, 2 (p. 192)
of Art. 2: 304, Notes, 1 (p. 185) Long-term contracts Art. 1: 304,
Confidentiality obligation Art. 1: 204, Notes, 3 (p. 138)
Notes, 1 (p. 115) Market conditions, obligation to inform
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, about Art. 2: 203, Notes, 3 (p. 168)
Notes, 3 (p. 120) Minimum notice period Art. 1: 302,
Decreased volume of contracts, warning Notes, 2 (p. 129)
of Art. 2: 309, Notes, 1 (p. 197) et seq. Network, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Notes, 2 (p. 209) et seq. Notice period, non-observance of
Del credere commission Art. 2: 313, Art. 1: 303, Notes, 1 (p. 134)
Notes, 5 (p. 209) Non-performance, termination for
Directive on Self-employed Commercial Art. 1: 304, Notes, 2 (p. 138)
Agents, transposition of Art. 1: 101, Notice of non-renewal Art. 1: 301,
Notes, 2 (p. 100) Notes, 2 (p. 121)
Distribution contracts Art. 4: 101, Obligation to co-operate Art. 1: 202,
Notes, 2 (p. 262) Notes, 1 (p. 109)
Distribution contracts, application of Periodical payments Art. 3: 301,
Notes, 6 (p. 100); Art. 1: 301, Pre-contractual information, obligation
Notes, 3 (p. 120) to give Art. 1: 201, Notes, 3 (p. 106)
Ending for important and urgent Reasonable efforts of commercial agent to
reasons Art. 1: 304, Notes, 3 (p. 138) negotiate Art. 2: 201, Notes, 1 (p. 163)
Entitlement to commission, agent’s Art. 2: Reasonable instructions, agent’s obligation
301, Notes, 2 (p. 176) to follow Art. 2: 202, Notes, 1 (p. 165)
Extinction of entitlement to agent’s Remuneration by principal Art. 2: 101,
commission Art. 2: 305, Notes, 4 (p. 160)
Notes, 1 (p. 187) et seq. Remuneration, franchisor’s Art. 3: 101,
Fees Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) Notes, 4 (p. 214)
370
Index
Repurchase of stock, spare parts and Minimum period of notice Art. 1: 302,
materials, obligation to Art. 1: 306, Com., A (p. 123); Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 150) Com., H (p. 127)
Right of retention Art. 1: 401, Non-performance Art. 1: 301,
Notes, 1 (p. 153) Com., I (p. 120)
Right to end Art. 1: 302, Notes, 1 (p. 129) Non-renewal Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 117)
Royalties Art. 3: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 249) et seq.; Art. 1: 301, Com., E (p. 119)
Service contracts, applicability of Notice of renewal Art. 1: 301,
commercial agency rules to Art. 2: 101, Com., E (p. 119)
Notes, 3 (p. 160) Presumption of reasonableness Art. 1: 302,
Solvency, client’s Art. 2: 203, Com., G (p. 127)
Notes, 4 (p. 168) Reasonable period of notice Art. 1: 302,
Unilateral ending of contract for definite Com., B (p. 123); Art. 1: 302,
period Art. 1: 301, Notes, 1 (p. 120) Com., F (p. 125); Art. 1: 302,
Com., F (c) (p. 125); Art. 1: 302,
Technology Art. 1: 204, Com., E (p. 114) Com., G (p. 127)
Trust, mutual Art. 1: 302, Com., J (p. 128); Remedies Art. 1: 301, Com., I (p. 120);
Art. 1: 303, Com., D (p. 132) Art. 1: 302, Com., J (p. 128)
Trust law Art. 1: 202, Com., D (p. 108) Right to end Art. 1: 301,
Com., G (p. 120); Art. 1: 301,
Unidroit Introd. V (p. 93) Com., H (p. 120)
Model Franchise Disclosure Law Introd. Specific performance Art. 1: 302,
V (p. 93); Art. 3: 101, Notes, 2 (p. 213); Com., A (p. 123); Art. 1: 302,
Art. 3: 101, Notes, 4 (p. 214); Art. 3: 102, Com., C (p. 124); Art. 1: 302,
Notes, 1 (p. 218) et seq. Com., J (p. 128)
Unilateral ending of contracts Art. 1: 301, Usages Art. 1: 302, Com., F (c) (p. 125)
Com., D (p. 119); Art. 1: 301, Unjustified enrichment Art. 1: 305,
Com., H (p. 120); Art. 1: 302, Com., B (p. 186) et seq.; Art. 2: 305,
Com., A (p. 123); Art. 1: 302, Com., A (p. 186)
Com., F (b) (p. 125); Art. 1: 305,
Com., A (p. 141) Vertical agreements Introd. II (p. 91);
Agreed longer periods Art. 1: 302, Introd. IV (p. 92); Art. 1: 101,
Com., I (p. 128) Com., A (p. 97); Art. 1: 101,
Change of circumstances Art. 1: 301, Com., E (p. 98); Art. 1: 101,
Com., B (p. 117) et seq. Com., G (p. 99); Art. 1: 101,
Complementary damages Art. 1: 302, Com., I (p. 99)
Com., F (b) (p. 125) Business person, independent Art. 1: 101,
Continued performance Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 97); Art. 1: 101,
Com., A (p. 117) et seq.; Art. 1: 301, Com., E (p. 98)
Com., F (p. 119) Confidentiality Art. 1: 204,
Definite period, contract concluded Com., A (p. 113) et seq.
for Art. 1: 301, Com., A (p. 117) et seq. Definition Art. 1: 101, Com., E (p. 98)
Due notice Art. 1: 302, Com., A (p. 123); Economic function Introd. II (p. 91);
Art. 1: 302, Com., D (p. 125) et seq. Art. 1: 101, Com., A (p. 97)
Indefinite period, contract concluded
for Art. 1: 302, Com., A (p. 123) et seq.
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Principles of European Law on

Commercial Agency, Franchise

Commercial Agency, Franchise

with advice from the Advisory Council

The Advisory Council on Commercial Agency, Franchise and Distribution Contracts

The Co-ordinating Group

Further Members of the Study Group’s Advisory Councils

To be cited as: PEL /Hesselink/Rutgers/Bueno Daz/Scotton/Veldmann, CAFDC,

Die Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie;

2006 by Sellier. European Law Publishers, Munich together with

Osnabrck, June 2005 Christian v. Bar

These principles are the result of a truly European project.

Amsterdam, August 2005 Martijn W. Hesselink

Principles of European Law on

Chapter 1: General Provisions

Section 1: Scope of Chapter 1

Section 3: Ending and Termination

Section 4: Other General Provisions

Chapter 2: Commercial Agency

Section 2: Obligations of the Commercial Agent

Section 3: Obligations of the Principal

Section 2: Obligations of the Franchisor

Section 3: Obligations of the Franchisee

Section 2: Obligations of the Supplier

Article 4:204: Advertising Materials 274

Section 3: Obligations of the Distributor

Preface to this volume XIII

Principles of European Law on

III. Relation to General Contract Law (PECL) 92

Chapter 1: General Provisions

Section 1: Scope of Chapter 1

Article 1:101: Scope

Article 1:201: Pre-Contractual Information

F. Character of the Rule 105

Article 1:202: Co-Operation

Article 1:203: Information during Performance

Article 1:204: Confidentiality

D. Protection of Know-how 114

Section 3: Ending and Termination

Article 1:301: Contract for a Definite Period

Article 1:302: Unilateral Ending of a Contract for an Indefinite Period

I. Agreed Longer Periods 128

Article 1:303: Damages for Non-Observance of Notice Period

Article 1:304: Termination for Non-Performance

Article 1:305: Indemnity for Goodwill

Article 1:306: Stock, Spare Parts and Materials

Section 4: Other General Provisions

Article 1:401: Right of Retention

Article 1:402: Signed Written Document

Chapter 2: Commercial Agency

Article 2:101: Scope

G. Character of the Rule 159

Section 2: Obligations of the Commercial Agent

Article 2:201: Negotiate and Conclude Contracts

Article 2:202: Instructions

Article 2:203: Information during Performance

B. Interests at Stake and Policy Considerations 166

Article 2:204: Accounting

Section 3: Obligations of the Principal

Article 2:301: Entitlement to Commission During the Contract