THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

HIGHER TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT OF

TEACHER TRAINING FUNDAMENTAL
COLLEGE SCIENCES

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION AND

WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Presented to the Higher Technical Teacher Training College (H.T.T.T.C.) Bambili of The
University of Bamenda in Partial Fulfilments of the Requirements for the award of the
Higher Technical School Teacher Graduate Diploma (DIPET I) in Mathematics, Science and
Technology

By

WAINDIM DORIS MAIH (Registration Number: UBa18T0222)

And
TENENG DAISY MBU (Registration Number: UBa18T0219)

Supervisor

NFORNA EDWIN AKONGNWI (PhD)

June 2021
 TITLE PAGE

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION AND

WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Author:

WAINDIM DORIS MAIH and TENENG DAISY MBU

JUNE 2021

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Higher
Technical Teacher School Graduate Diploma (DIPET I) in Mathematics, Science and
Technology

Department of Fundamental Sciences

The University of Bamenda

i
 CERTIFICATION
We hereby certify that this research work entitled “Solid waste characterization and waste
management strategies” has been carried out by WAINDIM DORIS MAIH and TENENG
DAISY MBU with registration number UBa18T0222 and UBA18T0219 in the Department of
Fundamental Sciences and of the Option Mathematics, Science and technology of the Higher
Technical Teacher Training college (H.T.T.T.C.) Bambili, University of Bamenda.

Supervisor
Dr NFORNA EDWIN AKONGNWI

Signature ……………………………

Date ……………………….

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Dr MBOM Divine

Date…………………………….

Signature ……………………………

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 ATTESTATION
We hereby declare that we are the sole authors of this project. We authorize the Higher
Technical Teacher Training College (H.T.T.T.C) Bambili to lend this project to other institutions
or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.

We understand the nature of plagiarism, and we are aware of the University’s policy on this. We
certify that this dissertation reports original work by us during our University project.

Signature ……………………………….. Date……………………………………

iii
 DEDICATION
We dedicate this dissertation to the

WAINDIM and The TENENG families

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I wish to express my gratitude tremendously to the vice chancellor of the University
of Bamenda Prof. NKUO Theresa AKENJI. The Director of H.T.T.T.C BAMBILI Prof. YONG
NKWAIN Joseph and the deputy director Prof. TSI Evaristus ANGWAFOR for their immense
administrative supports.

We want to equally acknowledge the entire staff of the H.T.T.T.C Bamenda and most especially
our supervisor Dr NFORNA EDWIN for the time and energy he invested for the realization of
this dissertation.

We cannot end without thanking the ALMIGHTY GOD for guiding us throughout this research
work.

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ABSTRACT
Generally, cities in the developing world face challenges in solid waste management and the
situation in Bamenda, Cameroon is no different. The city has an urbanization rate of 52% and it
is estimated that its population will reach 636,145 inhabitants by 2025. Proper planning of waste
management from generation to disposal will therefore ease waste management in the future.
Accordingly, this research seeks to assess the type and quantity of waste generated in the
Bamenda city; To assess the waste management strategies in Bamenda and To investigate the
problems related to waste management in Bamenda. In carrying out the study interviews,
questionnaires and participant observation were used as the methods to collect data. The data
was analyzed using the Microsoft excel. The results reveal that, urbanization, rising income,
increasing commercialization and household size leads to an increase in the generation of
Household solid waste. Being a fast growing town managing solid waste in Bamenda has
become a big challenge for municipal authorities in Bamenda. The Bamenda City Council and
central state authority need to commit more resources for the keeping of Bamenda clean and
green and bring in community participation.

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 RESUME
En général, les villes du monde en développement sont confrontées à des défis en matière de
gestion des déchets solides et la situation à Bamenda, au Cameroun, n'est pas différente. La ville
a un taux d'urbanisation de 52% et on estime que sa population atteindra 636,145 habitants d'ici
2025. Une bonne planification de la gestion des déchets de la génération à l'élimination facilitera
donc la gestion des déchets à l'avenir. En conséquence, cette recherche vise à examiner Pour
évaluer le type et la quantité de déchets générés dans la ville de Bamenda ; Évaluer les stratégies
de gestion des déchets à Bamenda et étudier les problèmes liés à la gestion des déchets à
Bamenda. Lors de la réalisation des entretiens de l'étude, des questionnaires et l'observation des
participants ont été utilisés comme méthodes de collecte de données. Les données ont été
analysées à l'aide de Microsoft Excel. Les résultats révèlent que l'urbanisation, l'augmentation
des revenus, l'augmentation de la commercialisation et la taille des ménages entraînent une
augmentation de la production de déchets solides ménagers. Être une ville à croissance rapide
qui gère les déchets solides à Bamenda est devenu un gros casse-tête pour les autorités
municipales de Bamenda. Le conseil municipal de Bamenda et l'autorité centrale de l'État
doivent engager davantage de ressources pour maintenir Bamenda propre et verte et faire
participer la communauté.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE....................................................................................................................................i

CERTIFICATION...........................................................................................................................ii

ATTESTATION.............................................................................................................................iii

DEDICATION................................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................v

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................vi

RESUME.......................................................................................................................................vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................viii

LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................xii

LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................................xiv

CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION..........................................................................1

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.....................................................................................1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.....................................................................................3

1.3 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY..................................................................................4

1.3.1 The specific objectives will include the following..........................................................4

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS....................................................................................................4

1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY..............................................................................5

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY....................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................6

2.1 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS...........................................................................................6

2.1.1 Sustainable.......................................................................................................................6

2.1.2 Solid waste......................................................................................................................6

2.1.4 Leachate...........................................................................................................................6

viii
 2.1.5 Solid Waste Management (SWM)..................................................................................7

2.1.6 Land filling......................................................................................................................7

2.1.7 Incineration......................................................................................................................8

2.1.8 Types of Solid waste.......................................................................................................8

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF WASTE MANAGEMENT..................................................................9

2.3 EFFECTIVE PARTNERSHIP FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT.......................................10

2.4 THE HEALTH CHALLENGES OF POOR WASTE MANAGEMENT...........................11

2.5 THE MANAGEMENT OF GLOBAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE..............................12

2.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE AFRICAN

EXAMPLE.................................................................................................................................14

2.7 WASTE MANAGEMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT.................................................15

2.7.1 Complaints about Noise and odour from Landfills.......................................................15

2.7.2 Effects of Waste Management on Plants.......................................................................16

2.7.3 Effects of Waste Management on Animals...................................................................16

2.8 URBAN SYSTEM THEORIES AND WASTE MANAGEMENT....................................17

2.9 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK....................................................................................18

2.10 STRUCTURE OF WASTE MANAGEMENT IN CAMEROON....................................19

2.10.1 Institutional Framework for Waste Management- Cameroon.....................................20

2.11 WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY........................................................................23

I.2.1 Reduce............................................................................................................................23

I.2.2 Reuse..............................................................................................................................23

1.2.3 Recycle..........................................................................................................................24

1.2.4 Energy Recovery...........................................................................................................24

1.2.5 Disposal.........................................................................................................................24

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS................................................................25

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 3.1 STUDY DESIGN.................................................................................................................25

3.1.2 Geo-Historical Background: Location and Biophysical Characteristics of Bamenda. .26

3.1.3. The Bamenda City........................................................................................................27

3.2 DATA COLLECTION........................................................................................................28

3.2.1 Interviews......................................................................................................................29

3.2.2 Questionnaire administration........................................................................................29

3.2.3 Direct observation.........................................................................................................31

3.2.4 Secondary data..............................................................................................................31

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS...............................................32

4.1 TYPES AND QUANTITY OF HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE GENERATED IN

BAMENDA...............................................................................................................................32

4.1.1 Type of Municipal Solid Waste generated in Bamenda................................................32

4.2 WASTE GENERATION IN RELATION TO INCOME AND HOUSEHOLD SIZE.......36

4.2.1 The Correlation between Income and Waste Generation..............................................36

4.2.2 The Correlation between Household Size and Waste Generation................................37

4.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN BAMENDA.................................................38

4.3.1 Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Waste In Bamenda...................................38

4.3.2 Hysacam Work Schedule..............................................................................................40

4.3.3 Street Cleaning..............................................................................................................42

4.3.4 Market Cleaning............................................................................................................42

4.4.5 Sweeping of Green Belt................................................................................................42

4.3.6 Transportation of Waste................................................................................................43

4.3.7 Disposal.........................................................................................................................43

4.4 PROBLEMS AND COMMUNITY PERCEPTION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT IN BAMENDA............................................................................................44

4.4.2 Perception on Health.....................................................................................................45

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 4.4.3 Perception about the environment.................................................................................45

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................46

5.1 CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................46

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................46

REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................48

APPENDIX....................................................................................................................................50

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Municipal solid waste treatment in various countries.................................................14
Fig 1.2 Waste management hierarchy...........................................................................................23
Figure 3.1: Map of Cameroon showing the Study Area................................................................26
Figure 3.2: Map of Bamenda.........................................................................................................28
Fig 4.1: estimated amount of waste generated/day in Bamenda...................................................34
Fig 4.2: Total Distribution of Yearly Collected Waste in Bamenda Municipality (2016-2020)...35
Figure 4.1 Unsustainable Waste Management Practices in Bamenda...........................................39
Figure 4.7 shows from left to right a compactor truck and a Dustin carrier operated by
HYSACAM in Bamenda...............................................................................................................40
Figure 4.9 Disposal Process by HYSACAM.................................................................................44
Figure 4.2 Picture showing the practice of open dump site, situated at new road side beside the
cattle market in Mendakwe............................................................................................................44

LIST OF TABLES

xii
Table 2.1: Showing diseases linked with waste.............................................................................12
Table 2.2: Percentage of population living in urban areas – with projections for 2015................13
Table 2.3: Activities of Ministerial Departments related to Waste Management-Cameroon.......21
Table 2.4 Different stages of waste management hierarchy..........................................................24
Table 3.1: interviews with main stakeholders and their positions and interview dates.................29
Table 3.3: Quater Sampling Intervals showing the number of Questionnaires distributed and
those returned.................................................................................................................................30
Table 4.1 Composition of Household Waste in Bamenda.............................................................32
Table 4.2: Amount of Waste Collected from 2016 to 2020 in tons by HYSACAM in Bamenda
Source: HYSACAM Bamenda......................................................................................................35
Table 4.3 Correlation between Income and Daily Amount of Waste in Bamenda.......................36
Table 4.4: Correlation between Household Size and Daily Production of Waste in Bamenda.....37
Table 4.5 Number of vehicles in Circulation by HYSACAM Bamenda......................................40
Table 4.7: Most Preferred Disposal Methods by the Population of Bamenda..............................41
Table 4.8: Sustainable Waste Management Methods used by Respondents in Bamenda.............42
Table 4.9: Average Monthly Data 2020: Daily Collection of 82.69 Tons/Day............................43

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
SD sustainable development
UNDP United Nations Development Program

xiii
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
SWM Solid Waste Management
OECD Organization for Economic Corporation and Development
NGO Non-governmental Organization
MSWM Municipal Solid Waste Management
MINEPRD Ministry of the Economy, Planning and Regional Development
MINTAD Ministry of Territorial Administration and Decentralization
MINUDH Ministry of Urban Development and Housing
HYSACA Hygiene et Salubrite du Cameroun
M
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
MDG Millennium Development Goals
PPP Public - Private Partnership
GHG greenhouse gases
CIEH Chartered Institute of Environmental Health
CBO Community Based Organization
ICMWM Inter Ministerial Commission for Municipal Waste Management
CVL Cameroon Volcanic Line

xiv
 CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Rapid urban development facing developing countries including Cameroon has come with
serious environmental challenges concerning solid waste management. Solid waste arising from
domestic, social and industrial activities is increasing in quantity and variety as a result of
growing population, rising standards of living in most African countries and the development of
technology (Dickerson, 1999). Solid waste management (SWM) is a common term that
encompasses a wide variety of activities and practices that describes unwanted residues of any
given culture.

Human activities generate waste which can be harmful to the environment, animals, plants and
the ecosystem. However, only a careful management can limit the damage done to the
environment and conserve scarce resources (Powell, 2001). SWM is an important facet of
sustainable development for any country and global initiatives support the prioritizing of SWM.
Global effort to maintain the quality of the earth’s environment is linked to sustainable
development and is now propounded by governments as well as international organizations. For
instance, a clean environment and effective waste management systems was one of the UN
Millennium Development Goals MDGs. This recommendation, (unlike in Agenda 21) MDGs
indirectly advocates sustainable Solid waste management (SWM) within the framework of the
‘seventh goal’ which addresses environmental sustainability. The aim is to foster the integration
of the principles of sustainable development (SD) into each country’s development policies and
programs (UNDP, 2007).

The fundamental environmental issue in industrial and developing countries throughout the
world over waste is the identification and management of waste streams (Twardowska, 2004).
As urbanization continues to take place, the management of solid waste becomes a major
challenge posing major public health and environmental problems for many countries. As a
result, development must be sustainable, in the sense of reducing the ecological footprint while

1
simultaneously improving the quality of life – for ours and future generations – within the
capacity limits of the globe (Lundström, 2007).

The characteristics and quantity of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSW) arising from
domestic, commercial, and industrial activities is not only the result of growing population,
rising standards of living and technological development, but also due to the abundance and type
of the natural resources from the country or community (Dongqing et. al, 2010). The approach
for SWM also varies and should be compatible with the nature of a given society. For instance,
many studies on MSW management structures and systems in developing countries have
revealed that the quantity of waste and composition vary according to the characteristics of the
area and the management must be adapted to limitations common to such environment. These
limitations are attributed to immaturity in terms of expertise in developing appropriate models
and effective legal framework for the MSW management. As a result, the citizens and the
community depend on the municipal authorities for solid waste collection and disposal (Puentes,
2004).
Consequently, looking at the problems and challenges that have plagued municipal authorities in
carrying out their duties is pertinent because it will help to design possible solutions. Such a
prospect will facilitate the task of the municipal authorities by guiding their decision making
process, practice and help encourage research on sustainable ways to address this growing
problem.
According to Pearce, (1994) developing countries face several major problems as a result of
solid waste management and has been classifiesd thus:

- Health hazards from uncollected waste

-Health hazards from collected but poorly disposed of waste

- Economic burden of waste disposal on towns and cities.

According to Flintoff, (1984), the total population of developing countries accounts for more
than 70 % of the world's population. Waste management in these countries is of grave concern
from two points of view: Firstly, the process of urbanization and population concentration that is
inextricably linked to waste management issues is progressing at a pace that is much faster than
was ever experienced by today's industrialized countries. The issue of waste management in

2
developing countries, therefore, has emerged as a critical and impending disaster. Secondly,
these countries often have difficulty in streamlining the institutional systems, administrative
bodies, management capabilities and human resources that are needed to take the lead in solving
solid waste problems. It is thus difficult for them to respond effectively to the emerging
challenges of solid waste management.

In Cameroon, like other African countries, waste management is poorly practiced. The study of
Manga et al, (2007) indicated that solid waste management services are rudimentary. The
practice is primarily concerned with the collection and dumping of waste without proper
management methods. This form of management is due to factors such as inadequate financial
resources, low levels of law enforcement as well as poor governance and lack of human
resource. Moreover, current regulations do not adequately address waste handling or disposal.
Inefficient implementation of waste management policies and documentation is affected by a
duplication of functions and responsibilities between several governmental agencies and the
local councils (Manga et al, 2007). Furthermore, the infancy of literature on local cases makes it
inadequate for the proper functioning of waste management.

Waste management in Bamenda is inefficient in hazard minimization because sustained efforts

have not been developed in the domain of waste education, collection, transportation, treatment
and final disposal. The sustainable management of solid waste systems is necessary in order to
minimize environmental and public health risks worldwide (Manga et al., 2007). The balance
between the specific components of this system in delivering sustainable waste management are
already well understood and established in most developed countries, unlike in developing
countries like Cameroon. Waste management could be efficient through the involvement of all
stakeholders

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Public planning in the area of solid waste management is an extremely complex subject
especially when dealing with planning collection routes, siting processing facilities, as well as
choosing locations for landfills. Such challenges and the impact of waste disposal on the
environment have led to the search for sustainable solutions in waste management in both
developed and developing countries. The disposal and burning of domestic waste can cause
profound strain on the environment, contamination of ground water resources, organic and

3
inorganic pollution of nearby surface water and carbon dioxide released from landfills as the
main disposal site.

Waste management is an exercise that has moved from manual to scientific operations. Such
include when planning collection routes, siting processing facilities. As many waste managers
will attest, planning routes for garbage, yard-waste and recycling collection is complex and
includes many factors such as planning collection routes, including the number of stops, fuel
efficiency of the collection vehicles.

To this effect, efforts have been made to enhance solid waste management from urban
agglomerations like HYSACAM in Bamenda, yet many problems persist and this is the focus of
this study. Such problems include the measure of collection/week, the distance and zonal
mapping of the collection routes as well as inappropriate dump site. Thus local councils need to
develop effective and sustainable system and implement sound practices and policies for
sustainable waste management.

1.3 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this study is to assess the practices, strategies, problems and prospects of
municipal solid waste management in Bamenda city.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives will include the following

1. To assess the type and quantity of waste generated in the Bamenda municipality (Waste
Characterization).

2. To assess the solid waste management strategies in Bamenda.

3. To investigate problems faced with solid waste management in Bamenda

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In other to achieve the research objectives, the following research questions were raised:

 What type and quantity of municipal solid waste is produced in the Bamenda
municipality?
 How is municipal solid waste managed in Bamenda?

4
  What are the problems faced by the stake holders involved in waste management?

1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The justification for this study stems from the fact that solid waste management globally is
shifting from manual to more scientific and technologically advanced methods and models. The
practice and problems of solid waste management in Bamenda at least from the stand point of
this study suggest that there can be better options to manage waste in the city if effective
attention, research and community participation is undertaking. The study therefore will help the
municipality of Bamenda develop better management models which will go a long way to
improve the hygiene and hence livelihood of the inhabitants.

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The study is organized in five chapters and each chapter deals with a specific theme of the study.
This work begins with Chapter one which is General introduction of the study and focuses on the
background of the study, statement of the problem and research questions as well the
significance of the study. Chapter two examines the literature review and theoretical framework.
Chapter three examines the research methodology and Chapter four is the presentation and
analysis of data otherwise described as discussion of the subject matter of the study. Lastly,
summary findings, conclusion and recommendation of the study will be presented in chapter
five.

5
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

2.1.1 Sustainable

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

2.1.2 Solid waste

The term solid waste may be used to refer to municipal waste and falls under seven categories:
residential (household or domestic waste), commercial, institutional, street sweeping,
construction and demolition, sanitation and industrial wastes. Likewise, municipal solid waste
refers to solid wastes from houses, streets and public places, shops, offices, and hospitals, which
are very often the responsibility of municipal or other governmental authorities.

2.1.3 Waste emission

At present waste continues to be disposed of on the land, in intermediate zone of the ground, air
and water. Environmentalists and waste management practitioners coincide that disposal of
waste still poses a major environmental problem.

2.1.4 Leachate

Waste can also affect water and soil through the slow escape of Leachate from waste disposal
sites, heaps of garbage, and inadequate waste collection systems. Leachate is known to be
contaminated water that percolates through waste. Bilitewski et al. (1997) define leachate as “all
contaminated water that has been in contact with waste”. Porteous (2000) further notes that
leachate properties differ depending on the type of waste, the physical condition where it is
generated, weather conditions, and the chemical processes occurring in disposal sites or landfills.

6
2.1.5 Solid Waste Management (SWM)
The World Bank (2011) definition of Solid Waste management means “to collect, treat and
dispose of solid wastes generated by all urban population groups in an environmentally and
socially satisfactory manner using the most economical means available”. In his paper, Schubler
(1996) separates the definition of Solid waste management into two. Solid waste is defined to
include “refuse from households, non-hazardous solid waste from industrial, commercial and
institutional establishments (including hospitals), market waste, yard waste and street sweeping”
and the management of the waste is a cyclical process which includes “setting objectives,
establishing long-term plans, programming, budgeting, implementation, operation and
maintenance, monitoring and evaluation, cost control, revision of objectives and plans”.

Squires (2005) further explain that the objective of solid waste management is basically
the use of resources efficiently in the process of waste materials. According to Baud et al, there
are a range of actors in urban solid waste management and they can be clustered into four groups
which are the public sector (national authorities, local authorities and local public departments)
constituting a central set of players; the private sector (large and small registered enterprises
carrying out collection, transport, disposal and recycling); the small-scale, non-recognized
private sector (waste pickers, itinerant buyers, traders in waste materials and non-registered
small-scale enterprises); local community and its representatives (NGOs and CBOs) .

2.1.6 Land filling

According to Narayana, (2009) Land filling is the deposition of waste either in a specific land
area with the goal of preventing such waste from impacting negatively on the environment. The
landfill directive has its roots in the hierarchical prioritization of waste management options
giving maximum preference to prevention of waste, with reuse, recycling, recovery options
following and land filling having least priority.

According to Bogner et al, (2007) despite being widely considered as the least desirable option,
the most prevalent approach to the disposal of waste globally has been the utilization of landfills.
Sanitary landfills are designed according to specifications which help to ensure minimal impact
of disposed waste on the environment.

7
2.1.7 Incineration
Thus, energy could be gained from incineration of waste or landfill gas combustion, which may
be used to generate electric power (from steam under high thermal conditions) or produce heat
for buildings through boilers (Williams, 2005). In the reduction of solid waste volume by 70 to
80% lies also a main advantage of this method of waste disposal, as this minimizes the quantity
of waste that is eventually sent to the land fill.

2.1.8 Types of Solid waste

Usually, solid wastes are one of three types namely: municipal wastes, industrial wastes and
hazardous wastes (Asnani, 2006).

 Municipal waste

The definitions of terms and the classifications used to describe the components of solid wastes
vary greatly in practice as well as in the literature. The definitions presented above are intended
to serve as guide for municipal solid wastes (Colas, 2000).

 Industrial wastes

Industrial wastes are waste arising from industrial activities. They include rubbish (associated
with the support personnel), process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, special
wastes and hazardous wastes. (Colas, 2000).

 Hazardous wastes

Hazardous waste are classified as wastes that pose a substantial danger, either immediately or
over a period of time, to human, plant or animal life. A waste is classified hazardous based on
the fact that it exhibits any of the following characteristics: ignitability, corrosively, reactivity
(Asnani, 2006).

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Gbekor (2003) refers to waste management as involving “the collection, transport, treatment and
disposal of waste including after care of disposal sites”. Similarly, Gilpin (1996) has defined
waste management as “purposeful, systematic control of the generation, storage, collection,
transportation, separation, processing, recycling, recovery and disposal of solid waste in a
sanitary, aesthetically acceptable and economical manner”. To Schubeller et al. (1996),

8
municipal solid waste management is “the collection, transfer, treatment, recycling, resource
recovery and disposal of solid waste in urban areas”.

From these suppositions, it can be deduced that waste management is the practice of protecting
the environment from the polluting effects of waste materials as a measure to protect public
health and the natural environment. Thus, the priority of a waste management system is the
provision of a cleaning service which helps to maintain the health and safety of citizens and their
environment (Cooper, 1999).

Waste management, therefore, involves a wide range of stakeholders who perform various
functions to help maintain a clean, safe and pleasant physical environment in human settlements
in order to protect the health and well-being of the population and the environment. Effective
waste management is, however, a growing challenge to all municipal governments, especially in
developing countries.

2.3 EFFECTIVE PARTNERSHIP FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

Obiri-Opareh (2003) defines partnership as “enduring, mutually beneficial relationships between
two or more actors based on written or verbal agreement and having a concrete, physical
manifestation. The author further notes that the core objectives of partnerships in basic urban
settings is to deliver services in a more effective and efficient way. In the case of waste
management for example, these can be garbage bins, transfer stations, disposal sites and
collection vehicles).

From an institutional point of view, the OECD (1990) defines partnerships as “systems of
formalized co-operation, grounded in legally binding arrangements or informal understanding,
co-operative working relationships, mutually and adopted plans among a number of institutions.
They involve agreements on policy and programme objective and sharing of responsibility,
resources, risks and benefits over a specified period of time: Effective development requires
sustainable partnerships at different levels of government, the private sector, donor groups and
the civil society.

Public - Private Partnership (PPP) can be defined as a partnership in which government and
private companies assume co-responsibility and co-ownership for the delivery of city services
(Ahmed and Ali, 2004). For example, the partnership between the Cameroon Government and

9
HYSACAM whose nature and structure can be linked to the legal framework reached at the Rio
de Janeiro and the Kyoto agreements from 1992. The partnership was reached in 2007 with
HYSACAM to improve on the collection of garbage in Cameroonian towns. HYSACAM is an
off-shot of a multi-national waste management company in France called VEOLIA PROPRIETE
Sa.

HYSACAM is expected to conform to international standards as prescribed by the Kyoto

agreement. The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol was to contain emissions of the main
anthropogenic (human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying
national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions. The treaty
is a follow up to the main principles of the original 1992 UN Framework Convention. The Kyoto
Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (Gupta et al., 2007). The Protocol establishes a structure of
rolling emission reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for
negotiations to establish emission reduction commitments for a second commitment period.

2.4 THE HEALTH CHALLENGES OF POOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

Regarding our study, Bamenda maintains one method of disposal and that is land filling which
comes with its own problems and challenges as noted above. Once waste is landfilled, complex
and variable chemical and biological degradation commences in the presence of moisture and
naturally occurring micro-organisms. Five stages have been recognized in this degradation
process which are; designated ‘initial adjustment’, ‘transition’, ‘acid formation’, ‘methane
fermentation’ and ‘final maturation’ (Environmental Protection Agency (US), 1995). Landfill
produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and Methane gas (CH4), and also carbon monoxide (CO) but it is
mostly related to burning of waste (Westlake, 1995).

Leachate management is also a major concern. The volume of leachate directly correlates with
the precipitation rate and Bamenda has a significant precipitation rates in the country. Municipal
solid waste (MSW) leachate contains a wide variety of hazardous, toxic or carcinogenic chemical
contaminants (EEA 2000). Table 2.1 shows potential effects of poorly managed waste systems
on humans. It shows a variety of diseases and their causes.

10
 Table 2.1: Showing diseases linked with waste (Source: Mount Mary Hospital, 2004)

Disease Parasite Disease Vector Breeding Ground

Malaria Plasmodium vivax Mosquitoes from disposal Standing water, ponds,
Salmonella sites untreated landfills and
typhoid open dumping
Cholera Vibrio cholera Mosquitoes from waste Standing water, ponds,
disposal sites untreated landfills and
open dumping
Typhoid Salmonella Infection of humans by Water borne pathogens
typhoid fleas and contaminated food
Pneumonia Mycoplasma Inhalation of contaminated Polluted air
pneumonia air
Bronchitis Mycoplasma Inhalation of contaminated Polluted air
pneumonia air
Paratyphoil Salmonela Sucking blood from human Open dumps, standing
d paratyphoid and infected merogoite waters and open ponds

2.5 THE MANAGEMENT OF GLOBAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

The challenges of waste generation and disposal can be traced to the development of human
congregations as communities. The accumulation of waste was a consequence of the way of life
due to littering of food and other solid wastes. This has been linked to the breeding of rats and
the outbreak of plagues and epidemic which killed many Europeans in the 14th century
(Tchobanoglous et al. 1977).

Increasing population, urbanization and industrialization in the different regions of the world
have contributed to a major increase of industrial and municipal waste. Urbanization induces a
consumer based society characterized by increase in concentration of people and
industrial/commercial development. This implies an accumulation of waste which needs to be
properly disposed of and managed safely.

Solid waste management is one of the main responsibilities of both urban and rural communities
and the fundamental objective of solid waste management programmes is to minimize the
pollution of the environment as well as utilize the waste as a resource.

Although per capita waste generation rates in developing countries is less than in higher-income
countries, the capacity of the local authorities to manage waste from collection, to recycling or
reuse and disposal, is limited (Barton, et. al., 2007). Targets can be achieved using methods that

11
can be afforded by the community over the long term and with less risk to the persons involved.
An input of universally valid skills or techniques, or a set of similar culture-neutral attitudes
defines management itself, while management of waste requires particular kind of intellectual
insight, which would be expected to yield value-specific solutions to local problems (Kapoor,
2009). A research carried out by Couth, et al (2010) reveals that the average inorganic content
for urban municipal solid waste in Africa is around 56 percent and its degradation is a major
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Rapid population growth overwhelms the capacity of
most municipal authorities to provide the basic services.

Adequate municipal solid waste management is much more than a technological issue; it
involves other issues such as institutional, social, legal, and financial considerations. Also, it
involves coordinating and managing a large workforce and collaborating with many other
stakeholders including the general public (Zurbrugg, 2003). Table 2.2 shows the growth of the
urban population in the world, with projection to 2015, the table shows a steady growth of the
urban population and this trend will continue.

Table 2.2: Percentage of population living in urban areas – with projections for 2015
(Source: Adapted from U.N. 1998)

Region 1950 1975 1995 2015

Africa 14.6 25.2 34.9 46.4

Asia 15.3 22.2 33.0 45.6

Latin America 41.4 61.2 73.4 79.9

Industrial countries 54.9 69.9 74.9 80.0

World 29.7 37.8 45.3 54.4

Low income areas have higher population densities and the lowest level of municipal solid waste
service provision (Louigueur, 2007).Through poor sanitation conditions in low-income
neighborhoods there are health threats to residents including the wider population due to poor
disposal units and management mechanism. According to Vaishali (2009) much of the waste

12
generated worldwide (57-85percent) where primarily disposed in landfills including open and
engineered landfill. The figure below shows waste disposal methods in some countries.

Figure 2.1: Municipal solid waste treatment in various countries

(Source: Cortinas de Nava, 2001)

2.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:

THE AFRICAN EXAMPLE

A feasibility study on solid waste incineration for the largest cities in Kenya, Malawi and
Zimbabwe (DFID, 1999) reveals that, 75-80% of municipal solid waste was organic. While in
India, 70% was organic (Yedla and Parikh, 2002), and reported values for Dhaka city
(Bangladesh) from domestic properties were between 85% and 95% (JICA, 2005; BCAS, 1998).
Failure to provide a management system could result in greater environmental degradation with
increase health risk to the urban population.

This study examines the scope, nature and form of waste management in Cameroon by focusing
on Bamenda as an emerging city with both municipal and urban properties. Bamenda is an
emerging industrial city experiencing rapid urbanization and population growth, and poorly
organized waste management will create a lot of health and environmental problems.
Poorly disposed waste end up in the rivers, gullies and water ways around the city and the

13
proliferation of waste like plastic for example will lead to flooding in the wet season since such
waste will choke and block passages of the drainage and sewage systems. Increasingly, authors
argue that waste management challenges area positive outcome for environmental consciousness,
(Stoyanov, 2000; Dhir Newlands and Dyer 2003; UNEP 2005; Dhamija, 2006; Nhamo, 2008; El
Haggar, 2010; Robertson, 2012).These groups of authors focused on the environmental and
economic impact of plastic waste (Nhamo, 2008; UNEP, 2005). The environmental impact on
big cities is devastating and for a city like Bamenda it will be very difficult if a comprehensive
plan is not put in place.

2.7 WASTE MANAGEMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The percentage of toxic materials in the MSW has increased in the past decades after synthetic
materials became widely manufactured, consumed, and discarded (Geiser,2002).The toxic
materials, if mingled with other non-hazardous waste in the MSW stream and ended in landfills,
generate the greatest impacts on the environment through the life cycle, compared to all the other
waste management options (Denison, 1996; El-Fadel et al., 1997; Morris, 2005)

2.7.1 Complaints about Noise and odour from Landfills

From the data provided by the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (CIEH, 2003), the
numbers of complaints associated with odour and noise from landfills can be estimated thus:
Odour: estimates of between 4,000 and 10,000 complaints/year in the United Kingdom! Noise:
approximately 300 complaints/year. A total of between 12,000 and 30,000 complaints of odour
are also received annually by local authorities. An accurate total cannot be estimated because of
incomplete reporting to the CIEH, and the unpredictable pattern of complaints (e.g. a single
incident may generate one complaint, or hundreds of complaints). This estimate is therefore of
poor quality. The total number of noise complaints recorded by the CIEH is approximately
400,000/year. This value is of moderate quality. This indicates that landfills account for a
significant proportion of odour complaints, likely to be between 10% and 25% of all odour
complaints received by local authorities. Landfills and other waste management operations are
unlikely to account for a significant proportion of noise complaints.

2.7.2 Effects of Waste Management on Plants

The principal route by which incineration processes could affect flora is via the deposition of
substances emitted to air. Emissions of acid gases or nutrient species to air could have significant
14
impacts on sensitive habitat sites. These issues are managed via the identification of critical load
functions for different habitat types, and assessment of actual deposition of acid gases or nutrient
nitrogen species against these critical loads. Lichens are particularly sensitive to deposition of
sulphur dioxide.

Lisk (1988) cited studies that demonstrated bioaccumulation in plants and accumulation in soils
of metals emitted from incinerators. The review also illustrated that bioaccumulation appears to
be species dependent. A study from Finland (Kukkonen and Raunemaa 1984) suggested that
concentrations of 10 elements (bromine, calcium, chlorine, iron, nickel, lead, silicon, titanium,
vanadium and zinc) in birch leaves demonstrated a strong inverse relationship with distance from
an incinerator. This phenomenon was noted from only a few elements in grass samples from
similar locations. Experiments undertaken with cabbage and barley (Wadge and Hutton 1986),
Lisk also noted that incinerators could contribute to acid rain which could then affect plants.

Mika et al (1985) found no phytotoxic effects around an incinerator ash disposal site adjacent to
a freshwater wetland.

2.7.3 Effects of Waste Management on Animals

The principal route by which incineration processes could affect fauna is via the deposition of
substances emitted to air. The possibility also exists for soil contamination via leaching of
substances from incinerator ash streams.

Reineke and Ash (1984) carried out a study showed that earthworms living within contaminated
soils exhibit a fivefold increase in dioxin levels in tissues compared to the surrounding soils
within 5- days, indicating that bioaccumulation occurs.

Travis and Blaylock (1995) discuss mercury dispersion from all anthropomorphic sources
including MSW incineration, and subsequent bioaccumulation in fish, the paper also indicates
that up to 58% of human mercury uptake is via fish and 31% via vegetation.

2.8 URBAN SYSTEM THEORIES AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Intensive human activities in cities often require imports of resources and transform raw
materials, energy, and water into the built environment, air emissions, and waste. As early as

15
19th century, Marsh looked into the historical degradation of nature along with human
development and asserted that humans had played a destructive role in the nature transformation.
He contended that humans should respect the laws of nature and act as coworkers of the nature,
because man and nature shape each other (Marsh,1864).Wolman’s (1969) analogy of city
activities as a metabolism process represents pioneering research on system-wide impacts on
resource consumption and waste generation in an urban environment (Decker et al., 2000).

Wolman argued that “the metabolic cycle is not completed until the wastes and residues of daily
life have been removed and disposed of with a minimum of nuisance and hazard”. Wolman
further demonstrated the problem in the case of water use in a hypothetical city in the U.S. With
a particular focus on waste materials, Bower (1977) introduced the concept of “residuals” and
the model of residuals-environmental quality management (REQM), and the criteria to evaluate

REQM strategies. Since the first study by Wolman half a century ago, at least 20 comprehensive
studies have been undertaken across the world (Kennedy et al 2010). It is noteworthy that a
majority of the current case studies are located in European or Asian regions. It appears only two
studies were conducted in the U.S.; one by Zucchetto (1975) in Miami, and the other by Ngo and
Pataki (2008) in the Los Angeles County.

Researchers have found that material flow analysis, especially at a refined geographical scale, is
rather constrained by data availability than by methodology (Leigh et al., 2007).Data
requirements are particularly a challenge for urban system analysis also because a uniform unit
of measurement is typically needed. Three common types of measurements have been adopted
by researchers in urban system models: (1) material masses (such as Niza, Rosado, and Ferrão,
2009); (2) energy (such as Odum, 1983); and (3) land area, which is associated with studies of
carrying capacity and ecological footprint. Carrying capacity refers to “the level of population or
development that can be sustained in an area without adversely affecting that area beyond an
acceptable level”(Randolph, 2004). Even if technology innovations may increase the carrying
capacity, researchers represented by Meadows argued that the current pace of population growth,
industrialization, pollution, resource depletion may create the limits of growth on this planet in
an abrupt way (Meadows et al., 1972, 1992). Ecological footprint measures the amount of
biologically productive land area needed to sustain resource consumption and to assimilate
residuals from a person, a region, or an activity, such as manufacturing a computer (Wackernagel

16
and Rees, 1996). Embedded in life-cycle thinking, ecological footprint analysis can be used as an
indicator for self-sufficiency and sustainability in an easily comprehensible way.

Both theoretical and empirical studies on urban systems suggest that urban and environmental
systems are interdependent and thus we must consider environmental processes as drivers of
urban change (Alberti, 1999). Urban systems cannot be sustainable if it requires more resources
than it can produce and generates more waste than it can assimilate.

The integration of urban system models and economic system analysis, although not always
recorded in the same unit of measurement, represents a significant advancement in system
analysis in that previously separated systems are finally considered as one unity. Based on the
regional economic input-output model that was developed by Leontief in 1936 to trace the flows
of goods and services among sectors, Leontief and Ford (1972) extended the economic input
output model that originally developed to examine air pollution problems.

2.9 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

Institutional framework refers to the laws, rules and regulations or the existing structure that
facilitates or prohibits partnerships or collaboration between the state authority and private stake
holders in waste management. According to Schudler (1996) the institutional conditions for
municipal solid waste management include the institutional structures and arrangements as well
as the organizational procedures and the capacity of the institutions. Key components of the
institutional framework include the following:

Distribution of Functions and Responsibilities which includes distribution of functions,

responsibilities and authority between local, regional and central government institutions and
between local governments in metropolitan areas including CBOs and NGOs in the area of
MSWM.

Organizational Structure; The institutions responsible for MSWM, include the coordination
between MSWM and other sectors and/or urban management functions. A well structural
organization for waste management is necessary in Cameroon.

Incentives and Interests

17
Incentives are seen as the principles and motivations underlying partnerships. According to
various scholars, “the general principles upon which incentive systems should be based include
the need to ensure that risks and rewards are commensurably and fairly distributed among the
parties concerned and that they are tailored to specific project objectives” (CII, 1991; Bennett
and Jayes, 1996; Barlow et al., 1997). Clark and Wilson (1961)

Accountability; Yaaba 2012 define accountability as ‘the liability to give an account of what
one has done, or not done, to another who has authority to assess the account and allocate praise
or blame. The concept of accountability is broad and envelopes more terms such as public
exposure, monitoring, control, oversight, punishment and public exposure.

Most of the literatures consulted focused on other aspects of waste management like health
challenges and the general problems faced by most developing countries. However this study
looks critically at the problems faced by all stakeholders in municipal solid waste management in
the city of Bamenda. The study focuses only on household waste management which is very
important as it generates more than 70% of waste in the lime municipality. Most of the
recommendations are tailored for a better access to waste services that suits the community.

2.10 STRUCTURE OF WASTE MANAGEMENT IN CAMEROON

In Cameroon, waste management has developed at a gradual pace over the past decade. Many
ministerial departments have the mandate to implement solid waste management regulations and
the highest body responsible for municipal solid waste management in Cameroon is the Inter
Ministerial Commission for Municipal Waste Management (ICMWM), created under the
direction of Prime Ministerial Decree No. 95/230/PM of31/04/95 . It is charged with formulation
and policy development for appropriate municipal solid waste management strategies. According
to Cameroon Law on Environmental Management No. 96/12 of 5/ 08 1996:

“Waste shall be any residue from the production, processing or utilization process, any
substance or material produced or, more generally, any movable and immovable goods
abandoned or intended to be abandoned” and “Waste management” shall be the collection,
transportation, recycling and elimination of waste, including the monitoring of disposal
sites.”
Bamenda was selected because it is one of the fastest growing cities in the country due to

18
increasing industrialization, commercialization and demography caused by recent migration into
the city. The population growth is about 2.9% per annum and the population will reach 500,000
inhabitants by 2025 (LCC). This population increase as argued above is also due to the fact that
the city is experiencing economic expansion and this attracts people from all over the country.
Hence, the challenges to manage household waste will continue to grow, and for this it is
important to address the problems of solid waste management to ensure that the kind of problems
faced in Douala and Yaoundé in matters of waste management do not occur in Bamenda or
rather can be handled more effectively.

Bamenda has the unique opportunity and challenge for the study because of the diversity and
categorization of its waste which include solid, liquid and hazardous health disposable waste.
The first category comes from seasonal variations as well as the points of increasing
commercialization as argued above and which is the focus of this study. Table I.3 shows the
responsibility of key ministerial department on waste management in Cameroon. On the other
hand table I.4 shows the laws and regulations guiding waste management in Cameroon and the
statutory order which gives them the legal jurisdiction or powers of implementation.

2.10.1 Institutional Framework for Waste Management- Cameroon

Table 2.3: Activities of Ministerial Departments related to Waste Management-Cameroon

Source: Manga et al, 2007

Ministry Responsibility in SWM Statutory order

Ministry of Follow-up and implement regulations for Circular letter

territorial organizations and functioning of Councils; Oversees No.0040/LC/MINAT/DCTD
administration and the execution of the budget of the government’ council of 04/04/00, Order No.
decentralization support fund(FEICOM); Restoration of hygiene and 00072/MINAT/MINVILLE of
(MINAT) public sanitation; supervises Urban Councils which 21/05/00, Law No. 714/23 of
are responsible for follow-up and control-industrial 5/12/74, Law no.2004/18 of
waste 22/07/04
management, management of all public spaces and
infrastructure; Sweeping of streets, collection
transportation and treatment of household waste ,

19
Ministry of Mines, Develop strategies for industrial development and Decree No. 99/818/PM of
Industries and the control of Classified and commercial 9/11/99, Order No.
Technological installations for pollution, security, hygiene and 13/MINME/DMG/SL of
Development industrial nuisance; Define norms for industrial 19/04/77,
pollution; List of dangerous, obnoxious and 02/MINMEE/DMG/SDAMI
(MINMITD) polluting facilities in order to inform the public; Of 4/01/9
Develops regulations governing installation and
exploitation of facilities classified as dangerous,
obnoxious and polluting
Ministry of Economy Financial control of organizations benefiting from Constitution Decree No.
and supplementary budgets and autonomous public 2004/320 of 08/12/04
Finance(MINEFI) establishments, i.e. Councils; Responsible for
managing the Finance Law as enacted by
Parliament.

Ministry of Urban Develops and implement Urban restructuring, Order No.

Development and management strategies, sanitation and drainage; 00072/MINAT/MINVILL of
Housing(MINDUH) Defines and enforces norms of hygiene/sanitation, 21/05/00
collection and/or treatment of household waste;
Liaises with international agencies for urban
development

Ministry of Collaborates with other agencies to define Decree No. 2005/0577/PM of

Environment and measures for the rational management of natural 23/02/05 7), Order No.
Nature resources; Effective control of investigation and 006/MINEP of 08/03/05
Protection(MINENP pollution in the field; Specifies the criteria(project
) specific) and supervises environmental impact
assessments

Ministry of Public Creates Hygiene and Sanitation Units in Councils; Order No.
Health(MINPH) Renders technical support to the Hygiene and D67/NS/NN/ST/SG/BMPHP/
Sanitation Units Councils, Proposes norms for NNPA of 11/08/87, Circular
collection, transportation and treatment of letter No.
industrial, domestic waste and emptying of septic D69/N6/DMHK/SHPA of
tanks; Designs and implements public education August 1980
campaigns on hygiene and sanitation.

Table 2.4: Showing Legal Frameworks for Waste Management in Cameroon

Law Points related to waste management Statutory order

Law relating to modalities for the conduct of Environmental Impact Decree No. 2005/0577/PM of
Environmental Assessments(EIA) and categories of operations 23/02/05, Order No.
Management(No.96/1 subject to EIA; Specifies air emission and waste 006/MINEP of 08/03/05
2 of 5/08 1996) water discharge standards; Set conditions for
issuing authorizations for allotment and
management of land for uses, i.e. industrial, urban;
Prescriptions relating to waste elimination by
persons producing or treating waste; Stipulates the
terms of reference for the supervision

20
 of municipal dumps by the competent authorities

National Five year amendable plan; set up environmental

Environmental information system; Preparation of bi-annual
Management Plan reports on the state of the environment in
Cameroon, e.g. identifying problems arising from
urban pollution and devising suitable micro-projects
to mitigate the problems

Law relating to the Stipulates two types of Classified establishments 9/11/99, Order No.
installation of (Class 1 and Class 11).Dump sites are classified as 13/MINMEE/DMG/SL of
Classified Class II establishments for which operations and 19/04/77,
establishment(Law management must followed prescribed guidance. It 02/MINMEE/DMG/SDAMIC
No. 98/15 of 14/07/98) sets out the regulations governing the installation of 04/01/99
and exploitation of facilities classified dangerous,
obnoxious and polluting

National Water Code Provides framework for the exploitation of water Decree No. 2001/165/PM of
(Law No. 98/005/of resources including waste disposal, Specifies 08/05/01
14/04/98) modalities for the protection of surface and
groundwater from pollution (including from dump
sites).

New Urban Strategy, Partnership among the state, local council and
1999 authorities and civil society in urban intervention in
areas such as solid waste management.

2.11 WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

The Waste Management Hierarchy is itself an evolution of the waste management ideology of
the ”3 Rs”; (that is, to reduce, reuse and recycle). The Sustainability Hierarchy, like the Waste
Management Hierarchy, is a statement of ideology (Envirobiz, 2010).

Waste management hierarchy is a widely accepted order of waste management options. The
European Council in its Waste Directive sets the hierarchy of waste management options
as follows: Waste prevention, Recovery and Safe disposal

However, for a long time, the waste management hierarchy was ordered as follows (Kirkpatrick,
1992) reduce, reuse, recycle, recovery and disposal. The hierarchy is intended to encourage
people to re-think not only how their waste is managed and divert away landfill, but also how
they can reduce the amount of waste they produce. Explanation of the five steps of the hierarchy
is exposed in the diagram below.

21
 Fig 1.2 Waste management hierarchy (Source: Pongrácz et al. 2010)

I.2.1 Reduce
As well as looking at reducing the amount of things we buy, particularly goods which are not
constructed or packaged using recyclable material, the reduce step can be applied to the general
“think green” motive such as turning lights and electrical items off when not in use.

I.2.2 Reuse
It can be applied to the composting of certain food waste materials but also things like repairing
damaged furniture or buying second hand goods. Many consider re-use as the second preferred
option after waste minimization.

1.2.3 Recycle
Waste is sorted by the kind of material it is constructed of, then it can either be processed to
produce a higher quality product or “down cycled” to produce a low-value raw material.

1.2.4 Energy Recovery

This is the process of creating energy by incinerating waste material typically using material
which cannot be recycled into a usable product.

1.2.5 Disposal
Any remaining waste which cannot be recycled or used for energy must be disposed of in an
appropriate manner. Both of the hierarchies are correct, and all of these concepts are widely
used.

Table 2.4 Different stages of waste management hierarchy

New hierarchy “Old” hierarchy

22
Waste prevention Waste minimization
Recovery Re-use, Recycling,
Safe disposal
Disposal
Source: Pongrácz et al. 2010

One of these hierarchies is using waste prevention as the most preferable option, and the other
waste minimization (Pongrácz et al. 2010)

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 STUDY DESIGN

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample (Kothari
2004). In order to understand the waste streams, the study area was divided into five zones

23
adapted from HYSACAM’s collection points. Within these zones a purposi and income, which
the questionnaires had to be distributed. This is because the study had to include both rich and
poor neighbourhoods. Then a systematic sampling Technique was used for the distribution of the
questionnaires. These techniques were used and tested in other studies like Waste Management
in Jamaica by Jenifer Post in 2007 and Waste Characterization As an Element Of Household
Waste Management Operations by Mbeng et al 2012. The rationale for the selection of
households was based on the following reasons:

 Household is one of the most important institutions in a society and within which the
societal norms are expressed, reinforced and reflected in large institutions of society.
 Household is a basic unit of society where individuals both cooperate and compete for
resources.

As a result, an understanding of the effects of social factors on service programs can be

examined through households. To analyze these data, Microsoft excel was used. However, in
order to select a statistically significant sample from these communities it was necessary to
identify the study area boundaries. As a result, key quarters in Bamenda town which includes
Ntarinkon, Nkwen, Upstation, Old Town, mile 90, Natmulung, mulang were chosen for this
study.

24
3.1.2 Geo-Historical Background: Location and Biophysical Characteristics of Bamenda

Figure 3.1: Map of Northwest region showing the Study Area

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Northwest_Cameroon_divisions.png

The republic of Cameroon which is found in the Central African Region (2°-13°N and 8°-16°E)
is situated on the extreme north-eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea. This exposes the territory to a
variety of natural hazards, some of which are associated with volcanic activity. Such hazards are
concentrated around the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL), especially around Mt. Cameroon,
Cameroon has a surface area of 469,440km² and population of about 20 million inhabitants
(Eyong and Mbuagbo, 2003; Manga et al, 2007).

The climate of Cameroon results from the combined convergence effects of the tropical oceanic
low-pressure zone and the inter-tropical front within Africa. Two distinct seasons are witnessed
in the country: a long rainy season normally up to 7 month (March-October) and an extremely
short dry season (November-February). The south-westerly monsoon winds are the most
predominant with wind speed reaching 18m/sec (Eyong and Mbuagbo, 2003). The duration of

25
the rainy season and the amount of rainfall decreases from south to the northern part of
Cameroon.

3.1.3. The City of Bamenda

Bamenda is the administrative headquarters of the Northwest Region of Cameroon. It is not only
the largest city in the predominantly English-speaking part of Cameroon but also one with a very
fast urban population growth rate. Bamenda is located 250 km north of the Atlantic Ocean on the
Western Highlands, which constitute part of the northeast-southwest range of volcanic
formations called the Cameroon Dorsal that transverse the country (Figure 3.2). The location is
around latitude 05° 58’N and longitude 10° 08’E, with an altitudinal range between 1230 m and
1470 m. The local relief is made up of hills, plains, plateaux, deep valleys and fault scarps.
One of these fault scarps (200 m high) divides Bamenda City into two parts. Many
streams, all constituting the tributaries of the River Mezam, drain the city. The vegetation is
predominantly grassland and a few trees. This explains why the region is
called ‘Grassfields’ (Figure 3.2). The climate is moderated by altitude and this has given
rise to the Equatorial Cameroonian type characterised by two seasons, wet and dry.

Figure 3.2: Map of Bamenda

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Bamenda.png

26
3.2 DATA COLLECTION
1. Listing material types after the demarcation of various waste streams. It is important to
decide on the list of material types which might be available in various waste streams.

2. Timing for sample collection to get a representative sample or data. Waste disposal
patterns often vary according to the time of day or week. Therefore, based on the
economic viability, the study collected data covering the entire period and chain of
disposal.

3. Communal education was principal in the process for waste sampling. Without
community sensitization waste management cannot be complete or effective. Community
knowledge played an important role in identifying and planning appropriate timings for
data collection for the various waste streams and different types of materials. This was
essential because there must be effective regulations for disposing of certain types of
wastes at certain timings such as residential waste or commercial waste whether in the
morning or during certain days of the week.

3.2.1 Interviews
The consultative interview targeted three main respondents namely; the waste management
company HYSACAM, Delegation of Ministry of Urban Development and the Bamenda City
Council.(see table 3.1 for a list of those interviewed) Interviews were chosen as one of the
methods for gathering data because the information provided by the respondents is a source of
qualitative information to describe the existing solid waste management system as well as assess
the factors that may influence public participation and the overall success of waste management
in Cameroon.

Table 3.1: interviews with main stakeholders and their positions and interview dates
Institutions position of respondent location level
Hygiene et salubrite Bamenda Branch manager, Bamenda Private
du Cameroun (HYSACAM) chief of exploitation
Driver, Head of technical Bamenda Private
division
Delegation of Ministry of Divisional delegate Bamenda Divisional
Urban Development
Bamenda City Council Head of Hygiene and sanitary Bamenda Divisional
department
27
3.2.2 Questionnaire administration
Households were selected by a systematic random technique from Five different residential areas
in Bamenda . Household size (number of people living in the house at the time of the study and
making use of the waste bin) was used in this study as a requirement for determining the
percapita waste generation. Households for the study were selected from two residential areas:
• High income residential areas made up of single detached houses outside the city centre with
gardens;
• Medium income residential areas made up of high rise buildings or multiple occupancy
properties with no gardens and close to shopping centre or the central business district;
A total of 120 questionnaires were distributed but only 100 questionnaires were returned. Some
of the questionnaires were administered directly to assist those surveyed with little or no
education and to build a relationship of trust. The areas covered included Ntarinkon, Nkwen,
Upstation, Old Town, mile 90, Natmulung, Mulang. Questionnaires rely on self-reported data
which assumes that the information provided by the respondent is accurate for their solid waste
practices and concerns. With the aim of increasing the questionnaire’s credibility for the
respondent, the survey was prefaced with an introduction explaining the purpose of the
questionnaire and how the responses would be beneficial to the municipality. While it was easy
to get data on the number of persons per households from questionnaires and interviews in these
areas, it was difficult to get the actual populations.

 Providing daily fluctuations during the week days and Week-ends;

 Educating residents of the impacts of pre-selection and source separation on the baseline
data. The sorting procedure was in line with procedures used in waste characterization
studies by Mbeng et al, 2012.

Table 3.3: Quater Sampling Intervals showing the number of Questionnaires distributed and
those returned.
Quater Number of questionnaires Sample interval
distributed/Number of questionnaires
returned
Nkwen 50/40 Every third house
mile 90 10/10 Every other house
Upstation 10/10 Every other house
Old Town 10/10 Every other house

28
 Ntarinkon 20/15 Every third house
Natmulung 10/5 Every other house
Mulang 10/10 Every other house

3.2.3 Direct observation

According to Yin (2001), observations are a form of evidence that do not depend on verbal
behavior, and the method enables the investigator to directly observe the phenomenon under
study. On their part, Miller and Brewer (2003) categorized observation into ‘unobtrusive
observation’ and ‘participant observation’ based on the degree of participation by the researcher,
and into ‘covert’ and ‘overt’ observations based on the level of awareness subjects have of being
observed.
In carrying out this study, a field trip was conducted with HYSACAM which entailed following
their waste collection trucks from 6 a.m. to 2 p.m. Their activities and working conditions were
observed and notes taken down. This method was useful because it permitted actual and active
participation and made it possible to survey the opportunities and challenges open to the
HYSACAM team and employees in the field. The observation was done during working days in
a week covering HYSACAM trucks as well as timings to follow the patterns to waste disposal in
the different zones. All the areas could not be covered and this was overcome by sampling zonal
lifestyle.

3.2.4 Secondary data

Secondary data was a review of appropriate literature. A wide variety of literature was covered
relating to the key words; waste management, recycling, sustainability, problems and prospects.
A thorough critical review of selected literature was conducted. This study was developed with
the use of information from primary and secondary sources. Many academics suggest starting all
research work with secondary data (Ghauri and Gronhaug 2005).For secondary data a review of
the appropriate literature was carried out, a wide variety of recent literature was used. The
literature related with key words like sustainable solid waste management problems and
prospects.
3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

29
The data collected was analyzed using Microsoft excel. Results were presented using charts,
graphs and tables. The qualitative data from interviews conducted with all other categories of
respondents were analyzed manually by making summaries of the views of the respondents,
supported with data from documentary sources and my own field observations of the waste
situations.

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 TYPES AND QUANTITY OF HOUSEHOLD SOLID WASTE
GENERATED IN BAMENDA

30
4.1.1 Type of Municipal Solid Waste generated in Bamenda

There are different types of waste produced in the Bamenda municipality and are composed of
the following; household waste, industrial wastes, Clinical wastes, Wastes from Construction
sites. Nonetheless, this study is focused principally on household waste as provided in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Composition of Household Waste in Bamenda

Categories Food Garden Plastics Metals Papers Glass Textiles
waste waste
Subcategorie Food fresh and Plastic Cans and Newspaper, Glass Clothes
s remnants, decaying bottles bottle magazines, bottles and
leaves, and caps, office and shoes
vegetatio packaging ferrous papers, jars
n metal and junk mails
and aluminum and
other items envelopes
garden
waste

Table 4.1 shows that the production of solid waste in Bamenda is complex and diverse and the
type of waste generated depends on the location in the city. The table only indicates household
waste because it is the focus of this study. However, since the scope of the study and the
management of solid waste demands identification of the various waste systems or better
categorization, the study further divides the city into five zones of categorization and zonal
location of each waste produced.

1. Zone A: This zone is composed of Up station. The area is spatially populated and generates
principally domestic waste. Also there is increasing urbanization, and location of offices.

2. Zone B: This area is composed of Nkwen which is the largest and most populated area in the
Bamenda city. Historically, the zone has accommodated the increasing urbanization and
population with characteristics of slump housing. The area is densely populated and composed
principally of domestic waste.

31
3. Zone 3: The zone represents the central business District of the Bamenda town and composes
of Old town, Commercial avenue, City chemists, Food market through hospital roundabout to
meta quarters. This area is densely populated and composed principally of domestic waste as
well as waste from manufactured products. Communication and inter personal skills were of
tremendous assistance to enhance collection and facilitate disposal of waste.

4. Zone D: This zone is the Ntamulung, mulang and its vicinity. The major characteristics in the
area are increasing urbanization and population, waste here is composed principally of domestic
waste The major challenge in the collection routes was insecurity issues that hinders effective
and timely collection of waste.

5. Zone E: This zone covers Ntarinkon and mile 90 which and is characterized by increasing
commercialization and urbanization as well as population growth. Waste here is composed
principally of domestic waste. The problems for HYSACAM include time management, fuel
consumption and difficult terrain for collection of waste and security issues.

4.1.2 Quantity of Municipal Solid Waste Generated In Bamenda from 2016 To 2020

The trend in the per capita generation for Bamenda was lower than those of some low income
countries (World Bank, country assessment report, 2000). A Mean was carried out to get the
daily average of waste generated households in Bamenda and figures show that as of the time the
study was carried out average daily waste generation in Bamenda stood at 1.5 kg a day this is a
very significant increase in 14 years. The World Bank report of 2000 which gave low income
countries a per capita generation of waste of 0.68 kg is therefore outdated, because if we take
into account rapid economic growth, changing income levels and life style, adoption of new
technologies and a population boom this figure will be higher. The figure 4.3 shows that 56 % of
the population reported their average waste generation/day between 0-5 kg and 37% putting their
figure between 5-10 kg/ day. This is a significant increase in the per capita generate rate of
Bamenda, falls in line with some studies like Abu-qdais et al. (2007) found it statistically
significant but weak negative relationship between waste generation and household size in Abu
Dhabi (R2 = 0.11) who have based their argument on the observation that household size and
waste generation are strongly linked.

32
 Waste generated per day
7%

37%
56%

0 to 5kg 5 to 10kg 10 to 15kg

Fig 4.1: estimated amount of waste generated/day in Bamenda

As figure 4.4 shows a total of 33,002 tons of wastes was collected in 2016, 30,246 tons in 2017,
26,450.03 tons in 2018, 27,527.92 tons in 2019 and 27883.2 tons by 2020. There was a dip
in the amount of tonnage collected from 2018 and this was due to many factors which prevented
HYSACAM from meeting up with the 100 tons day which as fixed by the legal framework and
contractual terms with the Bamenda city council.

Total Distribution of Yearly Collected Waste in

Bamenda
35000
30000
25000
Axis Title

20000
15000 33002 30246 26450.03 27527.92 27883.2
10000
5000
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Waste

Fig 4.2: Total Distribution of Yearly Collected Waste in Bamenda Municipality (2016-2020)
Source: HYSACAM

A further breakdown of the collection data from HYSACAM is displayed on table 4.2 with
monthly collection figures for 42 months for four year in the Bamenda city. The irregularity in
the amount of tones collected per month is due to in part to frequent breakdown of trucks and

33
insufficient amount of trucks present at the time to meet up with the rising waste generation in
the municipality.

Table 4.2: Amount of Waste Collected from 2016 to 2020 in tons by HYSACAM in Bamenda
Source: HYSACAM Bamenda
Year/tons 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Month
January 2932 2166 2430 2150.12 2799.80
February 2725 2123 2346 1670.38 2576.92
March 3179 2676 2318 2237.12 3293.36
April 2686 2575 2086 2353.54 2829.58
May 2959 2600 1988.16 2007.72 2442.2
June 2762 2450 2119.96 2305.28 2443.6
July 3050 2664 2136.04 2401.18 2444.18
August 2475 2599 2252.46 2583.82 3232.5
September 2662 2663 2172.68 2384.34 2632.13
October 2489 2551 2591.52 2548.34 2332.02
November 2759 2611 2205.15 2361.48 3002.98
December 2324 2568 1804.06 2524.74 2442.25

4.2 WASTE GENERATION IN RELATION TO INCOME AND

HOUSEHOLD SIZE

4.2.1 The Correlation between Income and Waste Generation

Fig 4.5 Income Distribution of Respondents who participated in the Survey in Bamenda (CFA
Francs)

According to the income distribution, Majority of the population fall under the mid-level of
100,000-250,000 FRSCFA. 35% of the population reported a monthly income that fall between
100, 000 FRS CFA to 250000 FRS. Less than 28% reported 50, 000 FRS as their monthly
income. 20% of the income fell between 500,00frs to 100,000 FRS, about15% of respondents
fell between the high income bracket of 250,000frs to 500,000frs and about 1% reported income
of over 500,000frs a month.

Pearson correlation was carried out to evaluate the relation between income levels and the
amount of waste generated by each household. The results (as shown in table 4.3) show a

34
significant relationship confirming that, increase income affects life style of households as well
as the consumption habits. In this event they generate more waste than low income inhabitants.
The Pearson coefficient for the relationship between income and the amount of waste generated
is (table 4.3) .367 and it is positive. At .367 the results show a strong relationship between the
monthly income of a family and the amount of waste they generate.

Table 4.3 Correlation between Income and Daily Amount of Waste in Bamenda
income of Estimated amount in
respondents kilograms of waste
per month produced by a household
daily
income of respondents Pearson 1 .367
per month Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 100 100
estimated amount in Pearson .367 1
kilograms of waste Correlation
produced by a household Sig. (2-tailed) .000
daily N 100 100

The findings indicate that income is a welcome development with the tendency to generate more
waste. Income in Bamenda rose by more than 15% since 2005 (Institute National des statistics).
Increase in income leads to more consumption, and in our study from 0.68kg a day of waste
generation in 2000, to the current waste generation rate in Bamenda is at 1.5kg/day which is a
significant increase. It was therefore observed that an increase in income leads to an increase in
the amount of waste generated per day.

4.2.2 The Correlation between Household Size and Waste Generation

The findings indicate that the population of Bamenda will exceed 250,000 by 2020. With an
annual growth rate of 2.9% this will increase the amount and diversity of waste produced daily,
and more resources would be needed to be committed to waste management. A bivariate analysis
conducted on household size and the amount of waste generated (tale 4.4) shows a positive
relationship with (P=.395) thus accepting the view that household size is positively related to the
amount of waste generated/day in a household.

35
 Table 4.4: Correlation between Household Size and Daily Production of Waste in Bamenda
Estimated amount in Number of
kilograms of waste residents in a
produced by a household household
daily
estimated amount in Pearson 1 .367
kilograms of waste Correlation
produced by a household Sig. (2-tailed) .000
daily N 100 100
Number of residents in a Pearson .367 1
household Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 100 100
Few studies in Cameroon have investigated the relationship of waste generation to household
size. According to Abu-qdais, et al (2007) there is a relationship between waste generation and
household size. He argues further that as the number of household occupant’s increases, waste
generation has been found to decrease per person, mainly because of economies of scale in the
consumption of goods and packaging in developing countries.

Nevertheless, he found a statistically significant but weak negative relationship between waste
generation and household size in Abu Dhabi (R2 = 0.11). Adedibu (1988) results from a waste
characterization study in Ilorin, Nigeria, revealed that, the number of people living in a house can
fluctuate from week to week as relatives move in.

According to UNEP (2005) generation rates and composition are unique from country to country
and even between communities within a country, since they are affected by factors such as
degree of industrialization; extent and nature of socio -economic development and the climate.

When the residence increases this is followed by the amount of waste they generate which will
also increase. This argument by UNEP corroborates the position of the studies mentioned above.
The size of households is an important predictor of the amount of waste generated, so also is
household income and consumption habits.

36
4.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN BAMENDA

4.3.1 Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Waste In Bamenda

HYSACAM is a private company and part of the VEOLLA Propriete Sa.a global agglomerate in
waste management. In Cameroon and throughout its waste management structure waste
management contract was awarded to HYSACAM and in recent years a formal contract with the
city council in Bamenda, has been doing so. The company was created in 1969 in Douala and
has services in Douala, Yaoundé, Bafoussam, Kribi, Limbe, Penja/Njombe, Sa’a/Obala, Soa,
Mbalmayo. The number of employees totals about 1500 including the permanent staff.
According to the Bamenda City Council the contract stipulates that HYSACAM is to dispose of
at least 100 tons of waste from the streets of Bamenda per day. In Bamenda the Company has
105 workers including 34 women.

In executing their services their equipment’s include brooms, wheelbarrows, rakes, mobile
dustbins and truck for collection of waste from points at particular routes in the town. Below are
pictures of some waste management Practices in the Bamenda Municipality.
Figure 4.1 shows a series of pictures with blocked drainages filled with poorly discarded waste,
an open dump in a residential area and waste piling up days before collection in Bamenda. The
implications of these practice is the increased presence of mosquitoes and the presence of odour
due to these poorly discarded waste. This shows that the current practices in Bamenda are not
sustainable and require a proper strategy in other to better serve the community in terms of waste
management services.

37
 Figure 4.1 Unsustainable Waste Management Practices in Bamenda
The table 4.5 below gives us the amount of vehicles in circulation and the models used by
HYSACAM in 2021 in Bamenda. There were eight (8) in total because others were on
repair or broken down. The tonnage is also displayed in other to portray the capacity of each
truck. This small amount of vehicles possessed by HYSACAM makes it impossible for them to
fully carry out their mandate and that is why we see waste pile up for days before collection as
the small numbers of trucks have to do more rotations in other to meet up with demand. This in
turn rings wear and tear on the trucks and might lead to frequent breakdowns.

Table 4.5 Number of vehicles in Circulation by HYSACAM Bamenda

Tonnage Number of vehicles
Compactor trucks (10 tons) 10 4
Paris-model trucks 5 2
(maximum 5 tons)
Dustin carrier (2 tons) 2 2

38
 Figure 4.7 shows from left to right a compactor truck and a Dustin carrier operated by
HYSACAM in Bamenda

4.3.2 Hysacam Work Schedule

According to the work plan of HYSACAM, there is a single work shifts that last from 8 am to
6pm. The work day starts at 6 am and only two trucks are allowed to leave the
company headquarters located which is located at new road side beside the cattle market in
Mendakwe. The collection of waste starts from Up station and then proceeds using the door to
door collection method and following the collection route. Added to this casual method there are
fixed collection points, facilitated by 6m3 green plastic and metallic containers where trucks pick
up waste and they are located at specific points in town. The population is expected to drop their
waste in these containers which unfortunately do not carry markers to facilitate the separation of
waste. In the effort to reclassify the collection points we have in this study, grouped them
according to the five zones discussed earlier in the chapter (Zone A, B, C, D, and E).

HYSACAM uses 6m³ metallic containers, 0.770 and 0.360 plastic containers. There are also120
liter plastic containers used for manual cleaning and sweeping enhanced with wheelbarrows.
Previously, 59 waste paper baskets were installed around the city but most of them after being
damaged have not been replaced. Out of the myriad of containers reported in the survey the most
widely used storage method by the household are closed containers with lid. As shown in figure
4.8 the study found out that 52% of the community uses this storage method. The second method
is the use of plastic bags with 34% of the community.

In terms of household waste disposal method widely used table 4.7 shows that the most used
disposal method by the respondents is the garbage truck for paper, plastics, metals and glass and
90% of the community indicated that they use this method. Only 2% of the community whom we
identified as small scale farmers practicing composting and recycling, 23% recycle their yard
39
waste and 17% their food waste. The practice involves using domestic waste such as food for
animal feed and yard waste for manure.

Table 4.7: Most Preferred Disposal Methods by the Population of Bamenda

Food waste Yard trimming Plasti Paper Metal Glass
c
% % % % % %
Burn 10 4 16 1
Bury 3
Dump in yard 1 1 1 1 1 2
Dump in River 2 2 1
Dump on the Road 8 2 2 2 2 2
Garbage truck 53 54 90 81 94 96
Recycle 17 23 2 2
Reuse 15 6
Compost 1 2.0

Regarding education in waste management table 4.7 shows that there is some knowledge about
waste management methods. 25% of the communities recycle their garden waste and 20%
recycle their food item. This attitude indicates a glimpse of hope because such behaviour can
encourage sensitization and benefit future programs on recycling and other waste reduction
strategy. Source separation of waste from the beginning of the chain or life cycle is important
when consideration is given to the quality of the final recycled or composted product.

Table 4.8: Sustainable Waste Management Methods used by Respondents in Bamenda

Food Items Plastics Paper Metals Glass Garden
Waste
% % % % % %
Reuse 18 4 5 1 1 16
Recycle 20 1 2 5 25
Reduce 11 23 17 19 22 10
None above 51 72 76 75 77 49

4.3.3 Street Cleaning

The main streets of the Bamenda metropolitan area are swept daily. Unpaved roads in
neighbourhoods are not part of this sweeping schedule and collection of waste is not organized

40
by any standard calendar. As a result, unpaved roads and areas of challenging terrain are usually
filled with litter. The consequences of such over sight lead to nuisance and odour from
abandoned and rotting waste. Other setbacks include the increasing blockage of water ways in
these areas of the town.

4.3.4 Market Cleaning

Markets in the Bamenda city have the same sweeping schedules and that is the day after
the major market days of Wednesday and Saturday. The cleaning calendar of the streets seems to
have been organized with respect to this pattern of marketing activities

4.4.5 Sweeping of Green Belt

This practice is employed by the Bamenda City Council and increasingly it is being used by
other councils around the country. The practice involves the cleaning of public space and
rehabilitation of its green environment and habitat.

4.3.6 Transportation of Waste

There are collection points operated by HYSACAM in Bamenda. Most of these
fixed locations are served by the Dustin carrier. These fixed collection points are located in areas
where they can be easily accessed by the collection trucks. Due to rapid urbanization and
sprawling these collection points need to be increased in other to accommodate more
neighbourhoods that are not served.

In terms of transportation and the organizational sense of the exercise tables 4.9,
below show the frequency of waste collection by HYSACAM in a month, in 2020. In this
exercise the number of trips made by HYSACAM trucks and the number of trucks in the
operation during each sortie and the weight of the trucks is indicated to facilitate understanding
of the process.

Table 4.9: Average Monthly Data 2020: Daily Collection of 82.69 Tons/Day
Number of trucks in Number of trips App. Weight at dump
operation site (tons)
Compactor trucks 3 99 1026.56
(10 tons)
Paris-model trucks 2 105 564.18
(maximum 5 tons)

41
Dustin carrier (2 tons) 1 145 559.40
Total 6 506 2,150.12

4.3.7 Disposal
Disposal is the end point in the life cycle or chain in solid waste management and usually poses
the main challenge due to its long term effect on the surrounding environment. After collection
the waste in Bamenda is transported to a dump site situated at new road side beside the cattle
market in Mendakwe. It is an open dumpsite and there is no form of recycling practiced except
for organized action by scavengers picking up valuable items. When a section of the dump site is
full it is covered with laterite to allow for the process of natural decomposition. Figure 4.9 shows
the process at the dumpsite in Mendakwe.

Figure 4.9 Disposal Process by HYSACAM

42
 Figure 4.2 Picture showing the practice of open dump site, situated at new road side beside the
cattle market in Mendakwe.

4.4 PROBLEMS AND COMMUNITY PERCEPTION OF MUNICIPAL

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BAMENDA
In the present situation of MSWM in Cameroon and Bamenda in particular, two basic questions
arise:
1. how effective have the present schemes been in meeting the desired Objectives
2. What challenges need to be over combed to transform existing situation into sustainable
ones?
4.4.1 Public Perception on Services Provided By HYSACAM

According to the survey carried out for this study, the population indicated that there were waste
disposal problems in the Bamenda. A greater proportion of population acknowledged that there
is a problem of waste collection and disposal. But their response was diverse when asked why
they thought that there was a waste problem in their community.

4.4.2 Perception on Health

From field data 98% of the population said they were concerned about diseases related to
improper waste manage while only 2% did not respond which shows that majority of the
population know that waste has negative effects on their health if disposed of haphazardly.
Blocked drainage undoubtedly, serves as breeding grounds for mosquitoes,
which contributed to diseases such as malaria. This result is in line with the findings of
Lambi (2001) who noted that in most parts of the Yaoundé, streets are partially or
wholly blocked by solid wastes.

4.4.3 Perception about the environment

The result from field observation in Bamenda shows that, the population prefer to dispose of
their waste like papers and plastic bottles in gutters, such waste may stay within drainage for
very long periods of time. Despite these habits 95% of the population are concerned about litter
on roads and environment which doesn’t play well with the beauty of the town.

43
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION
The research aimed at examining the problems associated with solid waste
management in Bamenda and recommends measures to improve waste management in
the face of increasing urbanization. The study has shown that solid waste management
has become a big problem in Cameroon. Existing MSWM practices is not efficient as the
practice constitutes issues in the environmental protection and sustainable development
debate that is still wanting of deserved attention. Besides, there is also the lack of
required legal framework to enforce existing by-laws on waste disposal, and to check the
poor waste-handling attitude of the population as well as the inability to enforce
standards on land use and shelter development within the city.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
In response to the conclusions presented the following recommendations are provided for
improving the management of household waste for the residents of the study area. The
recommendations are specific to each stakeholder that should be involved in the strategic
planning of the specific interventions. The recommendations are based on the synthesis of
information gathered in the survey findings, in-depth interviews and available literature.

44
The way forward in solid waste management is to introduce a system whereby the chain and life
cycle of waste management can be controlled by technology.

Firstly, the waste collection vehicles can be monitored from a central point during the collection
process. New Landfills should be opened on the three outskirts locations of Bamenda in other to
save the travel time and save cost for the waste management company.

In other to address the problem of terrain there should be an introduction of muscle powered
vehicles in these areas so that waste management services should reach even the most
inaccessible areas in lime especially those in areas with elevated terrain.
An animal feed program which can be derived from food waste should be introduced. In this
regard 52.3% of the community acknowledged that they either grow crops or rear animals. This
means that introducing animal feed program from food waste will be important. According Post
(2007) promoting animal feeding program is a preferred method of managing food waste and
that composting has it disadvantages for the following reasons: a community composting
program should be introduced in which a central location chosen for materials can be processed.
However this particular program requires the availability of the raw materials and a market for
the finished products. Also the community has to also put in place ways to sustainably manage
the program.

Another waste reduction strategy is to encourage recyclable production of goods to allow access
to recyclable products. More eco-friendly articles which will facilitate the reduction of the
amount of waste generated. Because these materials will be easily eliminated from the waste
streams by recycling them each time they are used to produce other goods.

Waste management should equally be mainstreamed through education and public sensitization
systems. Literature has a supportive role for public education in successful solid waste
management programs. In order to raise public awareness and encourage behavioral change and
thereby gain public participation public campaigns should be part of the strategy including
punitive methods for violators of the program. The development of effective public education
campaigns is a step in realizing the cultural transformation that is necessary for solid waste
management reform in Cameroon.

45
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Hu, S.W., Shy, C.M. (2001). Health Effects of Waste Incineration: A Review of Epidemiologic
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Leigh, N. G.; Ai, N., and French, S. (2006). The Role of Product inventory Estimates in Regional
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Lundström. (2007) Sustainable Waste Management: International Perspectives. Proceedings of
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Mangaa E; Tening O and Read D B. (2007) Waste Management in Cameroon: A New Policy
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Pearce D, Turner R. (1994). Economics and Solid Waste Management in the Developing World.
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Pichtel, J. (1988), Waste Management Practices: Municipal, Hazardous, and Industrial, Second
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47
 APPENDIX
UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

Website: www.unibda-edu.cm

Department of FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE

Option: MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

QUESTIONNAIRE

Hello, we are final year students of the University of Bamenda by names Waindim
Doris and Teneng Daisy. We are conducting a survey to examine waste generation,
disposal and the management of solid waste at homes in the city of Bamenda. We
wish to plead with you to help us go through this process with the information you
will provide us with.

I request your sincere response, Thank you for your cooperation.

DEMOGRAFIC DATA
1. Sex: Male………. Female………
2. Educational Level: Primary Secondary Higher Education
3. Age: 18-25 26-40 41and above
4. Number of people present: ……………………………………………………

5. Number of rooms: …………………………………………….

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6. Income/month in FCFA: < 50,000 50,000-100,000 100,000- 250,000
250,000- 500,000 >500,000

SECTION ONE: WASTE GENERATION

7. What type of waste do you frequently produced at home: (a) Food stuff waste
(b) plastic containers (c) plastic papers (D) Others _____
8. What is the estimated volume of food waste produced per day? (a) less than 0-
5kg (b) 5kg-10kg (c) 10-15kg (a) 15-20kg (a) More than 20kg
9. What is the estimated volume of plastic paper (and other types of waste)
produced per day (a) less than 0-5kg (b) 5kg-10kg (c) 10-15kg (a) 15-20kg (a)
More than 20kg
10. Where do easily generate the plastic waste back home? (a) buying items from
the market (b) plastic drinks (c) dairy and canned foods
SECTION TWO: WASTE DISPOSAL
11. Where do you store the household waste before disposal? (a) In the house (b)
inside the courtyard (c) in front of the courtyard (d) others………………………..
12. How do you dispose of the solid waste you produce? (a) Collection bin (b) in
farmland (c) Trash can (d)
others………………………………………………………

13. If you put your waste in a collective bin where do you finally deposit the
waste? (a) Council collects (b) in streams (c) in farmlands (d) community
collectors.

14. How far do you travel to deposit the waste produced? (a) Less 500m (b)
500m-1000m (c) above 1000m
15. Do you pay someone or a group of people to help in the collection and disposal
of your waste? (a) Yes (b) No
If yes how much do you usually pay the person (group, association)
…………………………………………………………………………………….
16. How often do you collect and dispose your waste? (a) once a week (b) 2 to 3
times a week (c) more than 3 times a week
SECTION THREE: WASTE MANAGEMENT
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17. Do you usually do selective sorting when you group your waste? (a) Yes (b)
No
If yes, what are the items you sort? .........................................................................
18. Do you sell the sorted items? (a) Yes (b) No
If No, what do you do with the sorted
item? ...........................................................................................................................
..
19. Who is responsible in managing waste in your municipality? (a) Households
(b) city council (c) HYSACAM
20. Are you satisfied with the quality of waste collection in your neighbourhood?
(a) Yes (b) No
21. What do you think we can do to improve the waste collection system? (a)
Involve households (b) more commitment from the council (c) more government
commitment
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………
22. Do you transform the waste you produce into another useful product(s)?
(a) Yes (b) No

23 If yes, into which product(s)……………………………………..

THANKS FOR CORPERATION

GOD BLESS YOU

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