WEEK: 9 DEVELOPMENTS OF NEW SEEDS

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:

1. Identify condition necessary for the germination of seed.

2. Highlight three importance of dispersal of fruits and seeds.
3. Outline the agents and mode of dispersal of fruits and seeds.
4. Describe the development of a zygote in flowering plants.
5. Define fertilisation in plant.

PLANT FERTILISATION: Is the union of male and female gametes (reproductive

cell) to produce a zygote. Fertilisation in plants occurs after pollination and
germination/is the process of fusion of the female gamete, the ovum or egg and
the male gamete produced in the pollen tube by pollen grain.

PROCESS OF FERTILISATION IN PLANTS;Is the joining of male and female gametes

resulting in a zygote. The most generalized form of this process requires four
steps: pollination, germination, penetration of the ovule, and fertilisation. After
fertilisation, the zygote divides to form an embryo.

Fertilisation in flowering plants happens through a process called POLLINATION.

Fertilization occurs when one of the sperm cells fuses with the egg inside of an
ovule develops into a seed. Each seed contains a tiny, undeveloped plant called
EMBRYO.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS (FERTILIZATION)The female organ of angiosperms is
the pistil, located in the middle of the flower. As in gymnosperms, the male
gametophyte is the pollen grain. In order for fertilization to occur in most
flowering plants, insects or other animals must transport the pollen to the pistil.

FERTILISATION OF A FLOWER; when ripe pollen from an anther of the same kind
of flower catches on the stigma, each pollen grain sends out a tiny threadlike
tube. The tube grows down through style and pierces one the ovules in the ovary.
This process is called FERTILISATION. After being fertilised, the ovary starts to
swell and develop into the fruit. Double fertilisation is the process in angiosperms
(flowering plants) in which two sperm from each pollen tube fertilise two cells in a
female gametophyte (sometimes called an embryo sac) that is inside an ovule.
TYPE OF FERTILIZATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Fertilization in plants happens very similarly to fertilization in humans. it occurs
with haploid gametes(sex cells such as sperm and egg in humans)meet to form a
diploid zygote (an embryo in humans).In plants there is pollen rather than sperm.

PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOTE IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Pollination is the first step in the process of sexual reproduction in flowering
plants. It is followed by fertilization and development of the zygote. These steps
change the flower into a fruit enclosing the seeds.
 The pollen grain and the ovule are the main sex cells, involved in the formation
of zygote in flowering plants. The zygote is formed through the following
processes:
(i)After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs a sugary liquid on the stigma, swells
and germinates.
(ii)The outer coat of the pollen grain, the exine, splits. The pollen tube grows out
and down inside the style.
(iii)At the initial stage, the pollen grain has only one nucleus. Later this nucleus
divides into two-a larger tube nucleus and a smaller generative nucleus.
(iv)The generative nucleus divides into two male nuclei. The male nucleus is the
male gamete.
(V)The pollen tube grows into the ovule through the micropyle, and the end of
the pollen tube bursts. The male nuclei are released inside the embryo sac.
(vI)One male nucleus fuses with the ovum to form a zygote. This zygote develops
into the embryo. This is the first fertilisation.
(vii)The second male nucleus fuses with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid
cell that produces the endosperm. This is referred to as the second fertilisation
which takes place in plants.
The zygote divides by mitosis to form many cells which differentiate and become
organised into an embryo.
As the embryo develops, the nucleus degenerates. The endosperm may be used
up by the embryo or may persist.
The ovule now develops into a seed. Its inner and outer and inner integuments
develop into the outer and inner seed coats respectively.
The ovary undergoes changes after fertilisation and becomes the fruit while the
ovary wall develops into the fruit walI.
FRUITS

A fruit is the structure formed from the ovary, usually after the ovules have been
fertilized; in other words, it is a structure that develops from the fertilised ovary
of a flower.

STRUCTURE OF A FRUIT

A fruit consists of the following parts:

(i) a fruit wall or pericarp

(ii) seed(s) inside the fruit

(iii) remains of the style or scar showing where the style was attached

(iv) the fruit stalk or scar showing where the fruit was attached to the plant
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS

Fruits are classified in the following ways:

(a) True and false fruits

(b) Simple, aggregate and composite fruits

(c) Fleshy and dry fruits

(d) Dehiscent and indehiscent fruits

TRUE AND FALSE FRUITS

True fruit: a fruit that develops only from a fertilised ovary e.g. mango, orange.

False fruit: a fruit formed from the ovary and other floral parts e.g. apple, cashew.

SIMPLE, AGGREGATE AND COMPOSITE FRUITS

Simple fruit: a fruit that develops from a flower with a single ovary e.g. tomato,
pawpaw, okra

Aggregate fruit: a fruit that develops from a single flower with many ovaries e.g.
apple, strawberry.

Composite fruit (multiple fruit): a fruit which envelopes from an inflorescence

(many flowers closely arranged together) e.g. pineapple.

FLESHY AND DRY FRUITS

Fleshy fruit: a fruit which has a thick, soft and succulent pericarp (fruit wall),
Examples of fleshy fruits are:

(a) DRUPE: e.g. coconut and palm nut

(b) BERRY: e.g. tomatoes, orange, pepper

(c) POME: e.g. apple, pear

(d) SOROSIS: e.g. pineapple, breadfruit

Dry fruit: a fruit in which the pericarp (fruit wall) is dry, hard or fibrous when the
fruit becomes ripe.

Dehiscent and indehiscent fruits: fruits are dehiscent or indehiscent depending

on whether their pericarps split when ripe or not. Practically all fleshy fruits are
indehiscent, while dry fruits may be dehiscent or indehiscent.

DRY DEHISCENT FRUITS: are fruits which split to release their seeds when ripe.
Examples of dry dehiscent fruits are :

LEGUME: e.g. cowpea, soyabean, crotolaria, pride of barbados.

CAPSULE: e.g. castor oil fruit, okro fruit and cotton.

FOLLICLE: e.g. silk cotton and kola

SCHIZOCARP: e.g. desmodium, cassia

DRY INDEHISCENT FRUIT: a fruit which does not split when mature or ripe.
Examples of dry indehiscent fruits are:

NUT: e.g. cashew nut

CARYOPSIS: e.g. rice, millet, guinea corn.

CYPSELA: e.g. tridax fruit and emilia

ACHENE: e.g. strawberry and sunflower

SAMARA: e.g. combretum, african rose wood.

SEEDS
A seed is a structure in plants that develops from the ovule after fertilization.

STRUCTURE OF A SEED

A seed has the following parts:

(i) Seed coat\testa : for the protection of the inner structures of the seed

(ii) Embryo : the structure that germinates into root and shoot system

(iii) Hilum : point of attachment of seed to seed stalk

(iv) Micropyle: a hole through which air and water enter into the embryo.
Based on the number of cotyledons (seed leaves) which a seed has there are two
categories of seeds and they are:

Monocotyledonous seed: having one seed-leaf e.g. rice, maize, wheat, sorghum.

Dicotyledonous seed: having two seed leaves e.g. beans, mango

GERMINATION OF SEEDS

GERMINATION is the series of changes by which an embryo in a seed grows into a

seedling/as a process which involves in the gradual development of the embryo of
the seed into a seedling or a young plant. As a result of absorption of water by
viable seed leading to swelling and sprouting of radicles.

TYPES OF GERMINATION

There are two types of germination of seed, namely

1.EPIGEAL GERMINATION: This is the type of germination in which the cotyledons

appear above the soil surface, occurs in Dicotyledonous plants e.g. germination of
cowpea, groundnut, mango, melon, cocoa, etc.
2. HYPOGEAL GERMINATION: This the type of germination in the cotyledons
remain under/below the soil surface occurs in Monocotyledonous plants e.g.
germination of maize, guinea corn, oil palm, millet, wheat etc.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION

1. Water: The seed needs water to activate the cell. It is also needed to soften the
testa/seed coat so that the radicle and plumule can come out of the seed with
ease.

2. Air or Oxygen: The seed is a living organ. It needs oxygen to carry out
respiration. During respiration, energy is released and it is used by the seed to
grow.

3. Warmth/Suitable temperature: Some seeds require certain range of

temperature to germinate. This range in temperature is called OPTIMUM
TEMPERATURE. Below or above this temperature, the seed may or will not
germinate and may even die.
4. Enzymes: are organic catalysts which speed up the rate of reaction with the
cells in the seed. It is require in breaking down of food to release energy.

5. Energy/Food: There must be food within the seed from which it feeds. In
dicotyledonous seed, the food is stored in the cotyledons/seed leaves while in a
monocotyledonous seed, the food or energy source is stored in the endosperm.

6.Viable Seeds: For a seed to germinate, it must be viable or alive. Damaged

seeds by insects, birds or man cannot germinate hence such seeds are not viable.

DISPERSAL OF SEEDS AND FRUITS

DISPERSAL is the transfer of a seed or fruit from the parent plant to other places
where the seed may germinate.

IMPORTANCE OF DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

i. It results in colonization of new areas with new plants.

ii.It helps to prevent overcrowding of plants.

iii.It prevents diseases from spreading among plant species.

iv. It prevents undesirable competition for space, light, water and nutrients.

AGENTS OF DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

These are means by which seeds and fruits are moved from the parent plant to

other locations they are wind, animals, water, man and explosive mechanism.

WIND: Certain seeds have peculiar features which make them easily spread by
wind such as: being light in weight, having wings, floss, parachute-like tuft or
pappus e.g. grass, tridax, silk cottton, combretum.

ANIMALS: fruits and seeds which are dispersed by animals have some features
such as: being edible, having hook to attach to the bodies of animals, having sticky
juice etc.
WATER: special features of fruits and seeds that are dispersed by water include:
being light and can float on water, having water proof epicarp, having air space to
ensure floating on water for a long time.

MAN: fruits and seeds that are dispersed by man are the edible kind which the
remains can be dumped anywhere to germinate and seeds and fruits of
commercial value that are purposefully planted.

A dry, dehiscent, fruits. Such fruits and seeds have features for this mechanism
such as presence of lines of dehiscence (lines of weakness) and the easy build up
of pressure and tension within which easily bursts open at the slightest external
force.
EXPLOSIVE MECHANISM: Few plants and all leguminous weeds are dispersed by
explosive mechanism. E.g. talinum triangulare(Water leaf), centrosema
pubescens(centro), pueraria phaseloids( kudzu or puero), calopogonium
mucunoides (calopo), mucuna(), etc.
WEEK 10: REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:

1. Identify different types of courtship behaviours

2. Highlight different examples of animals that exhibit these -courtship
behaviours.
3. Outline different types of pollination in plant.
4. Describe pollination in plant.
5.Explain the meaning of reproductive behaviours.

Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce offspring, i e new

individuals of their type. This is an important feature of all living organisms. It is
the only way in which each kind of organism can continue to live on forever
although the individuals must eventually die.
Reproductive behaviours occur in animals which produce their offspring through
external or internal fertilization. In these animals, copulation between male and
female is to ensure that sperm cells reach their target egg cells ruling out wastage
of male and female gametes.
Most vertebrates evolve secondary sexual characteristics and other
communication behaviour patterns to ensure that the sexes have mutual sexual
attraction which will lead to copulation.

COURTSHIP BEHAVIOUR IN ANIMALS

Courtship behaviour consists of Instinctive behaviour in response to certain
external stimuli in animals. It is a pattern of behaviour that precedes
mating/copulation and reproduction in animals.
Types of courtship behaviour in animals
1.Pairing
2.Display
3.Territoriality
4.Seasonal migration

Pairing: This involves two animals (a pair),male and female of the same species
which separate themselves from others in a group to form a mating pair. This
pairing may be very brief just for mating, or last for a lifetime. Examples of
animals that exhibit pairing include winged termites, fish, toad and human.

Display: This is an elaborate process involving attractive exhibitions between male

and female of the same species.
Types of display;
(a) Dancing e.g. human beings
(b) Croacking e.g. toad
(c) Singing e.g. birds
(d) Nest-making e.g. birds
(e) Production of odour by female e.g. dogs.
The following animals exhibit display as a courtship behaviour- Agama lizard,
domestic fowl, peacocks, human beings.

Territoriality: This is a form of behaviour in which a member of a species marks

out a fixed area and defends it against intruders of the same species. In most
cases, the males establish territories prior to mating. They may mark out their
areas by scent markers such as urine or by patrolling the boundaries of the
territory. Intruding males are chased or scared away. Females however are
allowed to enter into the territory.
Territorial behaviour ensures that breeding pairs or groups obtain adequate food
and space. Male fishes, reptiles like Agama lizard, birds and mammals are highly
territorial.
Seasonal migration: This is the movement of animals from one place to another.
This eventually ends in their returning to the original place. Examples of animals
which exhibit seasonal migration include; mudfish, cattle egret and desert locust
 POLLINATION IN PLANTS
Pollination: is defined as the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anthers of
one flower to the mature stigma of the same flower or another flower of the
same plant or closely related species.

TYPES OF POLLINATION
There are two types of pollination. These are self-pollination and cross pollination.
1.Self -pollination: is the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of the same flower or to that of another flower of the same
plant, e.g. pea, tomato, cotton.
 ADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION
-It is a sure way of ensuring pollination, especially in bisexual flowers.
-It may not waste pollen grains

DISADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION

-The offspring or individuals produced are less adapted to the environment.
-It leads to the production of weak offspring as a result of continuous or repeated
self -pollination.

CONDITIONS OR DEVICES WHICH AID SELF POLLINATION

1.Homogamy: refers to the ripening of the anthers and stigmas of a bisexual
flower at the same time. Under this condition, self-pollination may occur in the
following ways:
- A related species gentle breeze may blow the mature pollen grains which may
be shed on mature stigma that are situated below.
- A visiting insect may transfer the mature pollen grains to the stigma of the same
flower.

2. Cleistogamy: is defined as a condition in which ripe pollen grains are deposited

on the stigma which becomes ripened at the same time. This situation usually
occurs among closed flowers, that is, bisexual flowers which never open at all.

2.Cross -pollination: is the transfer of mature pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of a flowerof another plant of the same or closely related
species. E.g. morning glory, Hibiscus, pride of barbardos. For cross pollination to
occur, to parent plants are involved plants A and B.

ADVANTAGES OF CROSS POLLINATION

-It leads to the production of healthier offspring than self- pollination.
-It also leads to the formation of new varieties with good characteristics.
- It produces viable seeds.

DISADVANTAGES OF CROSS POLLINATION

-It relies on external agents such as wind and insects whose presence at the right
time cannot be guaranteed.
-It may lead to wastage of pollen grains especially pollination by wind.

CONDITIONS OR DEVICES WHICH AID CROSS POLLINATION

1.Dichogamy: refers to the ripening of the anthers and stigmas of a bisexual
flower at different time. Dichogamy occurs in two ways;
(a). Protogyny: refers to the condition in which the stigma of a flower matures
earlier than its own pollen grains or those of other flowers of the same plant so
that it can only receive pollen grains from flowers of other plants.
(a). Protandry: refers to the condition in which the anthers of a flower mature
earlier than the stigmas of that flower or other flowers of the same plant so that
the mature pollen grains are only useful to flowers of other plants which have
mature stigmas to receive them.

2.Unisexuality:is a situation in which some plants bear only male or female

flowers and not both on the same plant, e.g. pawpaw. Such plants are said to be
dioecious plants while on the other hand, in monoecious plant, the male and
female flowers are borne by the same plant, the female flowers are usually
situated higher than the male flowers so that pollen grains may not reach the
stigma of the female flowers. Hence, they will be received only by stigmas of
female flowers of other plants.

3.Self sterility: refers to situation in which some plants make themselves sterile.
The presence of pollen grain on their stigmas is injurious to further development
of the plant. For example, they may wither or die. Examples are found in passion
flowers and tea.

MAJOR AGENTS OF POLLINATION

The two major agents of pollination are wind and insects.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS

-They have large conspicuous petals/sepals
-Flowers are usually brightly coloured
-They possess scent
-Nectar is also present.
-Pollen grains are rough, sticky and relatively few.
-The stigma is flat with sticky surface to enable it receive pollen grains
-Petals are shaped and arranged to enable visiting insects become dusted with
pollen grains.
Examples of insect pollinated flowers include Hibiscus, crotolaria, cowpea,
delonix, pride of Barbados etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS

-They have small inconspicuous petals/sepals
-Flowers are usually dull coloured
-There is absence of scent
-There is absence of Nectar.
-Pollen grains are small, smooth, light and not sticky.
-The stigma is elongated and sticky with large surface area.
-Anthers are attached to the flower in such a way that they readily swing in the air
and release the pollen grains.
Examples of insect pollinated flowers include maize, rice, guinea grass, millet and
wheat.