Handout for the Course Logic and Critical Thinking (LoCT 1011).

Chapter Three
Logic and Language
3.1. What is Philosophy of Language?
Philosophy of Language is the reasoned inquiry into the origins of language, nature of meaning, the
usage and cognition of language, and the relationship between language and reality. It poses questions
like "What is meaning?", "How does language refer to the real world?", "Is language learned or is it
innate?", "How does the meaning of a sentence emerge out of its parts? Translation and interpretation
present other problems to philosophers of language. The resulting view is called Semantic Holism, a type
of Holism which holds that meaning is not something that is associated with a single word or sentence,
but can only be attributed to a whole language (if at all).
3.2. Some Philosophical Approaches to the Nature of Meaning
There are two essentially different types of linguistic meaning: conceptual meaning (which refers to the
definitions of words themselves, and the features of those definitions, which can be treated using semantic
feature analysis) and associative meaning (which refers to the individual mental understandings of the
speaker, and which may be connotative, collocative, social, affective, reflected or thematic).
There are several approaches to the philosophical nature of meaning. Among others, the following are the
major ones:
1) Idea theories: these theories claim that meanings are purely mental contents provoked by signs.
This approach is mainly associated with the British Empiricist traditions of John Locke, George
Berkeley and David Hume, though some contemporary theorists have renewed it under the guise
of semantic internalism.
2) Truth-conditional theories: these theories hold meaning to be the conditions under which an
expression may be true or false. This tradition goes back to Gottlob Frege, although there has also
been much modern work in this area.
3) Use theories: these theories understand meaning to involve or be related to speech acts and
particular utterances, not the expressions themselves. This approach was pioneered by Ludwig
Wittgenstein and his Communitarian view of language.
4) Reference theories (or semantic externalism): these theories view meaning to be equivalent to
those things in the world that are actually connected to signs. Tyler Burge and Saul Kripke are the
best known proponents of this approach.
5) Verificationist theories: these theories associate the meaning of a sentence with its method of
verification or falsification. This Verificationist approach was adopted by the Logical Positivists
of the early 20th century.
6) Pragmatist theories: these theories maintain that the meaning or understanding of a sentence is
determined by the consequences of its application?
3.3. Logic and Meaning
3.3.1. The Functions of Language
Ordinary language, as most of us are at least vaguely aware, serves various functions in our day-to-day
lives. The twentieth-century philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein thought the number of these functions to
be virtually unlimited. Thus, among other things, language is used to:
Ask questions Tell jokes
Tell stories Flirt with someone
Tell lies Give directions

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Guess at answers Sing songs

Form hypotheses Issue commands
Launch verbal assaults Greet someone and so on.
For our purpose (the study of logic), two linguistic functions are particularly important: (1) to convey
information and (2) to express or evoke feelings. Consider, for example, the following Statements:
Examples:
“Death penalty, which is legal in thirty-six states, has been carried out most often in Georgia; however,
since 1977 Texas holds the record for the greatest number of executions.”
“Death penalty is a cruel and inhuman form of punishment in which hapless prisoners are dragged from
their cells and summarily slaughtered only to satiate the bloodlust of a vengeful public.”
The statement in Example 1 is intended primarily to convey information while the statement in Example
2 is intended, at least in part, to express or evoke feelings. Terminology that conveys information is said
to have cognitive meaning, and terminology that expresses or evokes feelings is said to have emotive
meaning. Thus, in Example 1 the words ‘‘legal,’’ ‘‘thirty-six,’’ ‘‘most often,’’ ‘‘Georgia,’’ ‘‘record,’’
etc. have primarily a cognitive meaning, while in Example 2 the words ‘‘cruel,’’ ‘‘inhuman,’’ ‘‘hapless,’’
‘‘dragged,’’ ‘‘slaughtered,’’ ‘‘bloodlust,’’ and ‘‘vengeful’’ have a strong emotive meaning. Of course,
these latter words have cognitive meaning as well. ‘‘Cruel’’ means tending to hurt others, ‘‘inhuman’’
means inappropriate for humans, ‘‘hapless’’ means unfortunate, and so on.
Emotive Terminologies in Arguments
In arguments, emotive terminology accomplishes basically the same function as emotive terminology in
statements. It allows the arguer to make value claims about the subject matter of the argument without
providing evidence, and it gives the argument a kind of steamroller quality by which it tends to crush
potential counter arguments before the reader or listener has a chance to think of them.
Example:
Now that we know that the rocks on the moon are similar to those in our backyard and that tadpoles can
exist in a weightless environment, and now that we have put the rest of the world in order, can we
concentrate on the problems here at home? Like what makes people hungry and why is unemployment so
elusive?
We might rephrase the argument in emotively neutral language, making the implicit suggestions and
value claims explicit, as follows:
P-1: The space program has been confined to work on ordinary rocks and tadpoles.
P-2: Ordinary rocks and tadpoles are less important than domestic hunger and unemployment.
P-3: Our international efforts have restored order to every nation on earth but our own.
P-4: These efforts have been directed to problems that are less important than our own domestic
problems.
C: Therefore, our government should redirect funds that have been spent on these projects to solving our
own domestic problems.

Deficiency of Cognitive Meanings: Vagueness and Ambiguity

Two problems that affect our cognitive use of language are vagueness and ambiguity. A linguistic
expression is said to be vague if there are borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the
expression applies or does not apply. Vague expressions often allow for a continuous range of
interpretations. The meaning is hazy, obscure, and imprecise. For example, words such as ‘‘love,’’
‘‘happiness, “peace,’’ ‘‘excessive,’’ ‘‘fresh,’’ ‘‘rich,’’ ‘‘poor,’’ ‘‘normal,’’ ‘‘conservative,’’ and

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‘‘polluted’’ are vague. We can rarely tell with any precision whether they apply to a given situation or
not. How fresh does something have to be in order to be called fresh?
The other way in which cognitive meanings can be defective is ambiguity. An expression is said to be
ambiguous when it can be interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning in a given
context. For example, words such as ‘‘light,’’ ‘‘proper,’’ ‘‘critical,’’ ‘‘stress,’’ ‘‘mad,’’ ‘‘inflate,’’
‘‘chest,’’ ‘‘bank,’’ ‘‘sound,’’ and ‘‘race’’ can be used ambiguously.
3.3.2. The Intention and Extension of Terms
A term is any word or arrangement of words that may serve as the subject of a statement. Terms consist
of proper names, common names, and descriptive phrases. Here are some examples:
Proper Names Common Names Descriptive Phrases
Abebe Animal First Prime Minister of Ethiopia
South Ethiopia Activity Author of Oromay
The Ethiopian Parliament Person Those who study hard
Words that are not terms include verbs, non-substantive adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
and all non-syntactic arrangements of words. The following words or phrases are not terms; none can
serve as the subject of a statement:
dictatorial above and beyond craves
runs quickly moreover cabbages into again the forest
Words are usually considered to be symbols, and the entities they symbolize are usually called
meanings. Terms, being made up of words, are also symbols, but the meanings they symbolize are of
two kinds: intensional and extensional. The intensional meaning (which is otherwise known as
intension or connotation) consists of the qualities or attributes that the term connotes, and the
extensional meaning (which is otherwise known as extension or denotation) consists of the members of
the class that the term denotes. For example, the intensional meaning of the term ‘‘cat’’ consists of the
attributes of being furry, of having four legs, of moving in a certain way, of emitting certain sounds, and
so on, while the extensional meaning consists of cats themselves- all the cats in the universe.
Conventional connotation of a term includes the attributes that the term commonly calls forth in the
minds of competent speakers of the language. A term has an empty extension when it is said to denote
the empty (or ‘‘null’’) class, the class that has no members.
The distinction between intension and extension may be further illustrated by comparing the way in
which these concepts can be used to give order to random sequences of terms. Terms may be put in the
order of increasing intension, increasing extension, decreasing intension, and decreasing extension.
A series of terms is in the order of increasing intension when each term in the series (except the first)
connotes more attributes than the one preceding it. In other words, each term in the series (except the
first) is more specific than the one preceding it. (A term is specific to the degree that it connotes more
attributes.) The order of decreasing intension is the reverse of that of increasing intension. A series of
terms is in the order of increasing extension when each term in the series (except the first) denotes a class
having more members than the class denoted by the term preceding it. In other words, the class size gets
larger with each successive term. The order of decreasing extension is the reverse of that of increasing
extension.
Examples:
Increasing intension: animal, mammal, feline, tiger
Increasing extension: tiger, feline, mammal, animal
Decreasing intension: tiger, feline, mammal, animal

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Decreasing extension: animal, mammal, feline, tiger

The order of increasing intension is usually the same as that of decreasing extension. Conversely, the
order of decreasing intension is usually the same as that of increasing extension.
3.4. Logic and Definition
3.4.1. The Meaning of Definition
Definition is a group of words that assigns a meaning to some word or group of words. Every definition
consists of two parts: the definiendum and the definiens. The definiendum is the word or group of words
that is supposed to be defined, and the definiens is the word or group of words that does the defining. For
example, in the definition ‘‘‘Tiger’ means a large, striped, ferocious feline indigenous to the jungles of
India and Asia,’’ the word ‘‘tiger’’ is the definiendum, and everything after the word ‘‘means’’ is the
definiens. The definiens is not itself the meaning of the definiendum; rather, it is the group of words that
symbolizes (or that is supposed to symbolize) the same meaning as the definiendum. Because we
presumably know in advance what the definiens symbolizes, we are led, via the definition, to understand
what the definiendum symbolizes. It is in this way that the definition ‘‘assigns’’ a meaning to its
definiendum.
3.5.2. Types and Purposes of Definitions
Based on the functions that they actually serve, definitions can be classified into five: stipulative, lexical,
précising, theoretical, and persuasive definitions.
1. Stipulative Definition
A stipulative definition assigns a meaning to a word for the first time. This may involve either coining a
new word or giving a new meaning to an old word. The purpose of a stipulative definition is usually to
replace a more complex expression with a simpler one.
The need for a stipulative definition is often occasioned by some new phenomenon or development. For
example, the attempt, which has made a few years ago at a certain zoo to crossbreed tigers and lions, has
been succeeded because of the genetic similarity of the two species- that offspring were produced from a
male tiger and a female lion and from a male lion and a female tiger. When the offspring were born, it
became appropriate to give them names. Of course, the names ‘‘offspring of male tiger and female lion’’
and ‘‘offspring of male lion and female tiger’’ could have been used, but these names were hardly
convenient. Instead, the names ‘‘tigon’’ and ‘‘liger’’ were selected.
Another use for stipulative definitions is to set up secret codes. For example, during World War II,
‘‘Tora, Tora, Tora’’ was the code name Admiral Yamamoto transmitted to the war office in Tokyo
signaling that the Japanese fleet had not been spotted in the hours preceding the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
More recently, ‘‘Operation Desert Storm’’ was the code name given to the military invasion of Iraq. Law
enforcement organizations have adopted similar code names for sting operations against organized crime.
There can be no such thing as a ‘‘true’’ or ‘‘false’’ stipulative definition.
2. Lexical Definitions
This definition is used to report the meaning that a word already has in a language. Dictionary definitions
are all instances of lexical definitions. Thus, in contrast with a stipulative definition, a lexical definition
may be true or false depending on whether it does or does not report the way a word is actually used.
Because words are frequently used in more than one way, lexical definitions have the further purpose of
eliminating the ambiguity that would otherwise arise if one of these meanings were to be confused with
another. An expression is ambiguous when it can be interpreted as having two or more clearly distinct
meanings in a given context. For example, if a woman is described as ‘‘nice,’’ any number of things
could be intended. She could be fastidious, refined, modest, pleasant, attractive, or even lewd.

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3. Précising Definitions
The purpose of a précising definition is to reduce the vagueness of a word. An expression is vague if there
are borderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the word applies or does not apply. Words such as
‘‘fresh,’’ ‘‘rich,’’ and ‘‘poor’’ are vague. Once the vagueness of such words is reduced by a précising
definition, one can reach a decision as to the applicability of the word to a specific situation. For
example, if legislation were ever introduced to give direct financial assistance to the poor, a précising
definition would have to be supplied specifying exactly who is poor and who is not. The definition
‘‘‘Poor’ means having an annual income of less than $4,000 and a net worth of less than $20,000’’ is an
example of a précising definition.
4. Theoretical Definitions
A theoretical definition assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that gives a certain
characterization to the entities that the term denotes. Such a definition provides a way of viewing or
conceiving these entities that suggests deductive consequences, further investigation (experimental or
otherwise), and whatever else would be entailed by the acceptance of a theory governing these entities.
The definition of the term ‘‘heat’’ found in texts dealing with the kinetic theory of heat provides a good
example: ‘‘‘heat’ means the energy associated with the random motion of the molecules of a substance.’’
This definition does more than merely assign a meaning to a word; it provides a way of conceiving the
physical phenomenon that is heat. Like stipulative definitions, theoretical definitions are neither true nor
false
5. Persuasive Definitions
The purpose of a persuasive definition is to engender a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward what is
denoted by the definiendum. This purpose is accomplished by assigning an emotionally charged or value-
laden meaning to a word while making it appears that the word really has (or ought to have) that meaning
in the language in which it is used. Thus, persuasive definitions amount to a certain synthesis of
stipulative, lexical, and, possibly, theoretical definitions backed by the rhetorical motive to engender a
certain attitude. As a result of this synthesis, a persuasive definition masquerades as an honest assignment
of meaning to a term while condemning or blessing with approval the subject matter of the definiendum. .
The primary objective of persuasive definition is influencing the attitudes of the reader/listener which
might be used with considerable effectiveness in political speeches and editorial columns. Persuasive
definitions may, like lexical definitions, be evaluated as either true or false
Examples:
“Abortion’’ means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings. ‘‘Abortion’’ means
a safe and established surgical procedure whereby a woman is relieved of an unwanted
burden.
Taxation’’ means the procedure by means of which our commonwealth is preserved and
sustained.
‘‘Taxation’’ means the procedure used by bureaucrats to rip off the people who elected
them.
3.5. Techniques of Definition
3.5.1. The Extensional (Denotative) Definitional Techniques
An extensional definition is one that assigns a meaning to a term by indicating the members of the class
that the definiendum denotes. There are at least three ways of indicating the members of a class: pointing
to them (demonstrative or ostensive definitions), naming them individually (enumerative definitions), and
naming them in groups (definitions by subclass).

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1. Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definitions

Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definitions are probably the most primitive form of definition. All one need
know to understand such a definition is the meaning of pointing. Such definitions may be either partial or
complete, depending on whether all or only some of the members of the class denoted by the definiendum
are pointed to. Examples: “Chair’’ means this and this and this- as you point to a number of chairs, one
after the other.
“Washington Monument’’ means that- as you point to it.
2. Enumerative Definitions
Enumerative Definitions assign a meaning to a term by naming the members of the class the term denotes.
Like demonstrative definitions, they may also be either partial or complete.
Example:
“Actor’’ means a person such as Abebe Balicha, Samsom Taddesse, or Mahder Assefa.
Complete enumerative definitions are usually more satisfying than partial ones because they identify the
definiendum with greater assurance. However, relatively few classes can be completely enumerated.
3. Definition by Subclass
Definition by Subclass assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses of the class denoted by the term.
Such a definition, too, may be either partial or complete, depending on whether the subclasses named,
when taken together, include all the members of the class or only some of them. See the following
examples, the first is partial, the second is complete:
Definition by Subclass assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses of the class denoted by the term.
Such a definition, too, may be either partial or complete, depending on whether the subclasses named,
when taken together, include all the members of the class or only some of them. See the following
examples, the first is partial, the second is complete:
‘‘Tree’’ means an oak, pine, elm, spruce, maple, and the like.
“Fictional work’’ means a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story.
3.6.2. The Intensional (Connotative) Definitional Techniques
An intensional definition one that assigns a meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or attributes that
the word connotes. There are at least four strategies that may be used to indicate the attributes/qualities
that a word connotes. These strategies result synonymous definitions, etymological definitions,
operational definitions, definitions by genus and difference.
1. Synonymous Definition
Synonymous Definition is one in which the definiens is a single word that connotes the same attributes as
the definiendum- that the definiens is a synonym of the word being defined.
Examples:
“Physician” means doctor.
“Observe “means see.
2. Etymological Definition
Etymological Definition assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the word’s ancestry in both its own
language and other languages. For example, the English word ‘‘license’’ is derived from the Latin verb
licere, which means to be permitted.

3. Operational Definition
Operational Definition assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental procedures that
determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing.

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Examples:
One substance is ‘‘harder than’’ another if and only if one scratches the other when the two are rubbed
together.
A solution is an ‘‘acid’’ if and only if litmus paper turns red when dipped into it.

4. Definition by Genus and Difference

Definition by Genus and Difference assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a genus term and one or
more difference words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the term being defined. ‘‘genus’’
simply means a relatively larger class, and ‘‘species’’ means a relatively smaller subclass of the genus.
The ‘‘specific difference,’’ or ‘‘difference,’’ for short, is the attribute or attributes that distinguish the
various species within a genus.
Examples:
Species Difference Genus
“Ice” means frozen water
“Daughter” means female offspring
“Husband” means married man

3.6. Criteria for Lexical Definitions

Lexical definitions are what we most frequently encounter and are what most people mean when they
speak of the ‘‘definition’’ of a word. Accordingly, it is appropriate that we have a set of rules that we may
use in constructing our own lexical definitions and in evaluating the lexical definitions of others.
Rule 1: A Lexical Definition Should Conform to the Standards of Proper Grammar.
A definition, like any other form of expression, should be grammatically correct. For examples, the
following definitions are grammatically incorrect:
Vacation is when you don’t have to go to work or school.
Furious means if you’re angry at someone.
Here are the grammatically correct definitions of the above terms:
‘‘Vacation’’ means a period during which activity is suspended from work or school.
“Furious’’ means a condition of being angry.
Rule 2: A Lexical Definition Should Convey the Essential Meaning of the Word Being Defined.
A definition cannot be helpful if it fails to convey the essential meaning of the definiendum. Any
definition that defines the word ‘‘'human’’ as “featherless biped”, for instance, cannot be helpful since it
fails to convey the essential meaning of ‘‘human’’ as the word is used in ordinary English. It says nothing
about the important attributes that distinguish humans from the other animals, namely, the capacity to
reason and to use language on a sophisticated level. Thus, a more adequate definition would be ‘‘‘human’
means the animal that has the capacity to reason and to speak.’’
Rule 3: A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow.
If a definition is too broad, the definiens includes too much; if it is too narrow, the definiens includes too
little. If, for example, ‘‘bird’’ were defined as any warm-blooded animal having wings, the definition
would be too broad because it would include bats, and bats are not birds. If, on the other hand, ‘‘bird’’
were defined as any warm-blooded, feathered animal that can fly, the definition would be too narrow
because it would exclude ostriches, which cannot fly.

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Rule 4: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity.

Sometimes the problem of circularity appears in connection with pairs of definitions. The following pair
is circular:
“Science’’ means the activity engaged in by scientists.
“Scientist’’ means anyone who engages in science.
At other times, a definition may be intrinsically circular. Of the following, the first is a synonymous
definition, the second a definition by genus and difference:
“Quiet’’ means quietude.
“Silence’’ means the state of being silent.
Certain operational definitions also run the risk of circularity:
“Time’’ means whatever is measured by a clock.
Surely a person would have to know what ‘‘time’’ means before he/she could understand the purpose of a
clock.
Rule 5: A Lexical Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative.

Of the following two definitions, the first is affirmative, the second negative:
“Concord’’ means harmony.
“Concord’’ means the absence of discord.

Some words, however, are intrinsically negative. For them, a negative definition is quite appropriate.
Examples:
“Bald’’ means lacking hair.
“Darkness’’ means the absence of light.
Rule 6: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague, or
Ambiguous Language.
A definition is figurative if it involves metaphors or tends to paint a picture instead of exposing the
essential meaning of a term. Example:
“Camel’’ means a ship of the desert.
A definition is obscure if its meaning is hidden as a result of defective or inappropriate language. One
source of obscurity is overly technical language. Compare the following two definitions:
“Bunny’’ means a mammalian of the family Leporidae of the order
Lagomorpha whose young are born furless and blind.
“Bunny’’ means a rabbit.
A definition is vague if it lacks precision or if its meaning is blurred- that is, if there is no way of telling
exactly what class of things the definiens refers to. Example:
“Democracy’’ means a kind of government where the people are in control.
This definition fails to identify the people who are in control, how they exercise their control, and what
they are in control of.
A definition is ambiguous if it lends itself to more than one distinct interpretation. Example:
‘‘Triangle’’ means a figure composed of three straight lines in which all the angles are equal to
180.
Does this mean that each angle separately is equal to 180 or that the angles taken together are equal to
180? Either interpretation is possible given the ambiguous meaning of ‘‘all the angles are equal to 180.’’

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Rule 7: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology.

Affective terminology is any kind of word usage that plays upon the emotions of the reader or listener. It
includes sarcastic and facetious language and any other kind of language that is liable to influence
attitudes. Example:
“Communism’’ means that ‘‘brilliant’’ invention of Karl Marx and other foolish political
visionaries in which the national wealth is supposed to be held in common by the people.
Rule 8: A Lexical Definition Should Indicate the Context to Which the Definiens
Pertains.
This rule applies to any definition in which the context of the definiens is important to the meaning of the
definiendum. Examples:
“Strike’’ means (in baseball) a pitch at which a batter swings and misses.
‘‘Strike’’ means (in bowling) the act of knocking down all the pins with
the first ball of a frame.
‘‘Strike’’ means (in fishing) a pull on a line made by a fish in taking the bait.
It is not always necessary to make explicit reference to the context, but at least the phraseology of the
definiens should indicate the context.

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