Air control

A service to promote the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic. Safety is

principally a matter of preventing collisions with other aircraft, obstructions, and the
ground; assisting aircraft in avoiding hazardous weather; assuring that aircraft do not
operate in airspace where operations are prohibited; and assisting aircraft in distress.
Orderly and expeditious flow assures the efficiency of aircraft operations along the routes
selected by the operator. It is provided through the equitable allocation of system
resources to individual flights.

In the United States, air-traffic control (ATC) is the product of the National Airspace
System (NAS), comprising airspace; air navigation facilities and equipment; airports and
landing areas; aeronautical charts, information, and publications; rules, regulations, and
procedures; technical information; and personnel.

Flight rules
Two principal categories of rules governing air traffic are visual flight rules (VFR) and
instrument flight rules (IFR). Visual flight rules govern the procedures for conducting
flight where the visibility, the ceiling, and the aircraft distance from clouds are equal to
or greater than established minima. Ceiling is the height above the Earth's surface of the
lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomenon that significantly restricts visibility. The
minima for operation under visual flight rules vary by airspace. In controlled airspace, the
ceiling must be at least 1000 ft (305 m) and the visibility must be at least 3 statute miles
(4830 m). The aircraft must remain clear of clouds, at least 500 ft (150 m) below, 1000 ft
(305 m) above, and 2000 ft (610 m) horizontally. Instrument flight rules go into effect
when visibility, distance from clouds, and ceiling conditions are less than the minima
specified for visual flight rules. To operate under these rules, the pilot must pass an
instrument flight examination and have an adequately instrumented aircraft.

Aircraft operating under visual flight rules (VFR aircraft) maintain separation from other
aircraft visually. IFR aircraft in controlled airspace operate in accordance with clearances
and instructions provided by air-traffic controllers for the purpose of maintaining
separation and expediting the flow of traffic. Flight crews operating under instrument
flight rules are responsible for seeing and avoiding other aircraft, but the air-traffic
control clearances they receive provide substantial added assurance of safe separation.
Consequently, flight crews often will operate under instrument flight rules even though
the weather satisfies visual meteorological conditions.

Flight plans
A flight plan is filed with the authority providing air-traffic control services [in the United
States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)] to convey information about the
intended flight of the aircraft. All flight plans contain essentially the same information,
that is, aircraft identification number, make and model, and color; planned true
airspeed and cruising altitude; origin and destination airports; planned departure time
and estimated time en route; planned route of flight, fuel, and number of people on
board; pilot's name and address; navigation equipment on board; and the aircraft's radio
call sign, if different from the aircraft identification number.

Generally, a flight plan is not required for a flight under visual flight rules. However, if a
flight plan is filed and the aircraft is overdue at its destination, search and rescue
procedures will be initiated. Hence the flight plan under visual flight rules provides a
significant safety benefit. An IFR flight plan is required for operation in controlled
airspace when instrument meteorological conditions prevail.

Airspace
The two principal categories of airspace are controlled and uncontrolled airspace. In
controlled airspace some or all aircraft are required to operate in accordance with air-
traffic control clearances in order to assure safety, to meet user needs for air-traffic
control, or to accommodate high volumes of traffic. Air-traffic control services including
air-to-ground communications and navigation aids are provided in controlled airspace.
Uncontrolled airspace simply is airspace that has not been designated as controlled; air-
traffic control services may not be available in such airspace.

Two specific examples of controlled airspace are class A (the positive control area or
PCA) and class B (the terminal control area or TCA). The positive control area is, with a
few exceptions, the airspace within the conterminous 48 states and Alaska extending
from 18,000 to 60,000 ft (5490 to 18,290 m) above mean sea level. Terminal control areas
are centered on primary airports and extend from the surface to specified altitudes. An
air-traffic control clearance and prescribed equipment are required prior to operating
within a terminal control area regardless of weather conditions.

Air-to-ground communications
Two-way air-to-ground voice communications between civil pilots and air-traffic
controllers are conducted in the very high frequency (VHF) band. In addition, certain
radio navigation aids can provide one-way communications from controllers to aircraft.
These channels generally are used to broadcast weather and aeronautical information to
pilots. See alsoRadio spectrum allocations.

Air-to-ground data communications (that is, data link) increasingly are used to transfer
information to and from the cockpit. Many of the communications errors associated with
humans incorrectly reading, speaking, and hearing text are eliminated by communications
protocols that detect errors in data transmissions, by electronically displaying the
information received, and by storing the received information so that it can be reviewed.
Data link also permits large quantities of data to be exchanged between ground-based
and airborne computers. Civil aviation is exploiting three data-link media: some VHF
voice channels, Mode S, and communications satellites.

Radio navigation aids

Radio navigation aids are used to determine the plan position of the aircraft (that is, the
position in the horizontal plane) in coordinates referenced either to the navigation aid or
to the Earth (that is, latitude and longitude). For most operations, the aircraft vertical
position is determined by sensing atmospheric pressure on board and converting this
pressure to altitude, based on a standard model of the atmosphere. For the landing phase
of flight, precision landing aids provide horizontal and vertical position referenced to the
runway. See also Altimeter.

VOR is a principal system used for determining plan position, with approximately 1000
ground stations nationwide. The system provides the magnetic azimuth from the VOR
station to the receiving aircraft accurate to ±1°. Position determinations can be obtained
from the intersection of radials from VORs with overlapping coverage volumes. With the
addition of distance-measuring equipment at a VOR station, it is possible to obtain a
position determination from a single station. See also Distance-measuring
equipment; Rho-theta system; VOR (VHF omnidirectional range).

Nondirectional radio beacon is an older technology, with few installations remaining. The
system radiates a continuous signal from which direction-finding receivers can determine
the azimuth to the ground station. See also Direction-finding equipment.

Loran C is a pulsed system, with chains of ground stations each consisting of one master
station and at least two secondary stations organized to transmit their signals
in synchronism. Loran C coverage in the United States includes the conterminous 48
states and southern Alaska. See also Loran.

In order to conduct approaches and landings in low-visibility conditions, it is necessary

that an electronic glideslope (or glidepath) be provided as a reference for controlling the
descent of the aircraft. In addition, a stable guidance signal is required to align the
aircraft with the runway centerline. The instrument landing system (ILS) has been the
standard means for providing precision landing guidance to the runway, and is installed
on approximately 1000 runways in the United States. The localizer antenna transmits the
lateral (left and right) guidance signal over a 20° sector, 10° on both sides of the
extended runway centerline. The glideslope antenna transmits the elevation guidance
signal over a 1.4° sector, 0.7° on both sides of the glidepath, which is normally 3.0°
above the horizontal. See also Instrument landing system (ILS).

A new standard system for providing precision approach guidance, the microwave landing
system (MLS) has been designed to eliminate limitations of the instrument landing
system. It utilizes scanning-beam technology to provide proportional landing guidance
over 80° in azimuth (40° on both sides of the extended runway centerline) and 15° in
elevation. The system can provide three-dimensional landing guidance within the scanned
volume, thereby permitting curved approaches and approaches at higher glideslope
angles than those available from the instrument landing system. See also Microwave
landing system (MLS).

The constellation of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites provides a highly accurate
worldwide position determination and time transfer capability. In the horizontal plane,
the position determined by a GPS receiver is within 330 ft (100 m) of the true receiver
position at least 95% of the time. The vertical position is accurate to within 459 ft (140
m) on the same 95% probability basis. In addition, the receiver provides Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) with an accuracy of 310 ns (95% probability). Coordinated Universal
Time is an internationally accepted time standard that never differs from Greenwich
Mean Time by more than 1 s. The principal advantages of GPS are its accuracy and
worldwide coverage. See alsoAir navigation; Electronic navigation systems; Satellite
navigation systems.

Surveillance systems
Air-traffic controllers use radar to monitor the positions of aircraft and to monitor areas
of heavy precipitation. The radar information is used to develop clearances and
instructions for separating aircraft operating under instrument flight rules, and to provide
traffic advisories to IFR aircraft and to VFR aircraft receiving the traffic advisory service.
Traffic advisories provide the ranges, bearings, and altitudes of aircraft in the pilot's
immediate vicinity. The pilot is responsible for visually acquiring and avoiding any traffic
that may be a collision threat. Two principal types of radar are used in civil air-traffic
control: secondary, or beacon, radar and primary radar. See also Radar.

Secondary radar is an interrogate-respond system. The rotating directional antenna of the

ground station transmits a pulse pair to the transponder in the aircraft. The pulse spacing
encodes one of two messages, “transmit your altitude” (the Mode C interrogation) or
“transmit your identity” (the Mode A interrogation). The aircraft transponder transmits
an encoded pressure-altitude reply in response to the first interrogation and a four-digit
identity code, assigned by air-traffic control and entered into the transponder by the
pilot, in response to the second.

Primary radar operates by transmitting high-power, radio-frequency pulses from a

rotating directional antenna. The energy is reflected from any aircraft in the directional
beam and received by the antenna. The aircraft is displayed at the azimuth corresponding
to the pointing direction of the antenna and the range corresponding to the round-trip
time between pulse transmission and receipt of the reflected signal. Primary radar has
the advantage that aircraft without air-traffic control transponders can be detected, and
energy reflected from heavy precipitation indicates to the controller areas of potentially
hazardous weather. However, extraneous returns (clutter) from surrounding buildings and
terrain can reduce the effectiveness of primary radar in detecting aircraft. At most air-
traffic control radar sites, the secondary radar antenna is mounted on the primary radar
antenna, and they are turned by a common drive system.

The secondary radar system has been improved through the addition of Mode S, which
employs more sophisticated signaling formats than Modes A and C. Each aircraft
transponder is permanently assigned a unique address and interrogations therefore can be
addressed to individual aircraft.

In the oceanic environment, the ground-based surveillance systems described above

obviously cannot be used. Oceanic operations are now based on rigid procedures and
high-frequency (HF) communications that sometimes are unreliable. With the advent of
commercially available mobile satellite communication systems, the development of a
technique called automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) has been undertaken to provide
real-time position information from aircraft over the ocean. In the operation of this
system, the position of the aircraft, as determined from on-board navigation sensors, is
communicated to air-traffic control facilities when requested by satellite relay. This
position information can be displayed to controllers as though it had been determined by
a radar system.

Automation
The principal elements of the controller's workstation are the plan view display, a track
ball or mouse, the data-entry keyboard, printed flight strips showing the flight plans of
aircraft for which the controller is responsible, and interfaces with communications
facilities linking the controller with aircraft and with other controllers and facilities. The
plan view display shows two principal types of data, map data and radar data. Map data
include the locations of airports and their runways, navigation aids, airways, obstructions,
and the geographical limits of the facility's airspace. Radar data comprise the positions of
aircraft, including their altitudes, ground speeds, and radio call signs, as well as areas of
precipitation. The data-entry keyboard allows the controller to modify data stored in the
automation system, including flight plans. Extensive automation (computer) equipment is
used in maintaining the flight-plan databases and processing radar data. A number of
automation aids have been developed to assist controllers in separating aircraft as well as
in sequencing and metering aircraft into and out of busy terminal areas.

Flight management computer systems are installed in aircraft for the purpose of guiding
the aircraft along its planned route of flight while minimizing operating costs by
selecting optimum speeds and altitudes. Extensive databases are stored in the flight
management computer system (FMCS), including the current flight plan, wind velocities
and air temperatures along the planned route of flight, and the positions and operating
frequencies of the radionavigation aids to be used. Interfaces with the FMCS for air-to-
ground data communications permit changes to be made to the databases in flight and
allow information to be extracted, such as automatic dependent surveillance position
reports and estimated times of arrival at specific points along the planned route of
flight. See also Aircraft instrumentation.

Airborne collision avoidance systems are installed in aircraft to provide ground-

independent protection from midair collisions, as a backup to the conventional air-traffic
control system. Within the United States, the system is known as the Traffic Alert and
Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). The TCAS equipment in the aircraft interrogates the
secondary surveillance radar transponders in proximate aircraft and processes the replies
to determine if any aircraft is on a collision course. Traffic advisories are displayed to the
pilot to portray the range, bearing, and relative altitude of any aircraft that penetrates a
protection volume around the TCAS-equipped aircraft. A resolution advisory will be
displayed to tell the pilot how to maneuver to avoid a collision, if necessary.

Airways and procedures

Two fixed-route systems have been established for air navigation. From 1200 ft (360 m)
above the surface up to but not including 18,000 ft (5490 m) above mean sea level, there
are designated airways based on VORs and nondirectional beacons. The most prevalent
are the so-called victor (V) airways defined by VORs. Jet (J) routes are defined from
18,000 to 45,000 ft (5490 to 13,710 m) above mean sea level, based solely on VORs.

There are three principal categories of procedures: departure procedures for leaving
terminal areas, arrival procedures for entering terminal areas, and en route procedures.
Departure procedures prescribe the process for route clearance delivery to an aircraft,
for providing takeoff runway and taxi instructions, and for defining or placing limitations
on the climb-out route of the aircraft. Generally, pilots of IFR aircraft call the clearance
delivery controller for their route clearance prior to taxiing. The route in the clearance
may differ from the filed route because of system restrictions such as excess traffic,
facility outages, and weather.

En route procedures deal principally with reporting aircraft flight progress to air-traffic
control (position reporting) when the aircraft is outside radar coverage or is operating in
holding patterns.

Arrival procedures prescribe the process for making the transition from the en route
structure to the terminal area, for approaching the landing runway, and for executing a
missed approach when a landing cannot be accomplished. An instrument approach
procedure is a series of predetermined maneuvers by reference to flight instruments for
the orderly transfer of an aircraft from an initial approach fix to a landing or to a point
from which a landing can be made visually. Several procedures, using different navigation
and approach aids, may be established for an airport.

Facilities
Air-traffic control facilities include flight service stations, air-route traffic control centers
(ARTCCs), and terminal facilities. Flight service stations provide preflight briefings for
pilots, accept flight plans, broadcast aviation weather information, assist lost aircraft and
aircraft in distress, and monitor the operation of radio navigation aids. Air-route traffic
control centers monitor all IFR aircraft not under the control of military or terminal
facilities. They assure separation of IFR aircraft by issuing clearances and instructions as
necessary and issuing traffic advisories, provide weather advisories, accept amendments
to flight plans from flight crews, and assist aircraft in distress. Flight plans submitted to
flight service stations usually are transmitted to the parent air-route traffic control
center, where they are processed and the route clearance is generated.

At terminal facilities, the ground controller position is responsible for all ground traffic
not on active runways. The local controller has jurisdiction over the active runways and
the airspace close to the airport. Controllers generally visually acquire and track aircraft
and direct their movements by using radio or, when an aircraft has no operating radio,
signal lights. In some locations, however, radar indicator equipment is installed in the
tower to electronically display traffic that is being tracked by the local air-traffic control
radar. See also Air transportation.
Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/air-traffic-control#ixzz166yP54fz

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who

direct aircraft on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC systems
worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow
of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots when able. [1] In some
countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United States), or be
run entirely by the military (as in Brazil).

Preventing collisions is referred to as separation, which is a term used to prevent aircraft

from coming too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal separation
minima; many aircraft now have collision avoidance systems installed to act as a backup
to ATC observation and instructions. In addition to its primary function, the ATC can
provide additional services such as providing information to pilots, weather and
navigation information and NOTAMs (NOtices To AirMen).

In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the majority of airspace, and its
services are available to all users (private, military, and commercial). When controllers
are responsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is called "controlled
airspace" in contrast to "uncontrolled airspace" where aircraft may fly without the use of
the air traffic control system. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace,
ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to follow, or merely flight
information (in some countries known as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the
airspace. In all cases, however, the pilot in command has final responsibility for the
safety of the flight, and may deviate from ATC instructions in an emergency.

Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/air-traffic-control#ixzz166yhnzNb

A control tower, or more specifically an air traffic control tower, is the name of the
airport building from which the air traffic control unit controls the movement of aircraft
on and around the airport. Control towers may also refer to the operations center to
control the traffic for other forms of transportation such as rail transport (see illustration
below),sea port or moveable bridges. Most of the world's airports are non-
towered or mandatory frequency — only a minority of airports have enough traffic to
justify a control tower, though some airports may open temporary tower units during
special events like an airshow.

Permanent control tower structures generally rise high above other buildings at an airport
to give air traffic controllers a view of aircraft moving on the ground and in the air around
the airport, though temporary tower units may operate from trailers or even portable
radios outside.

Medium-traffic airports may have only one controller staffing the control tower, and may
not keep the tower open 24 hours per day. Busier airports usually have space for several
controllers and other support staff, and operate 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.

Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/control-tower#ixzz166zoY5Hd

Full control tower structures usually have windows that circle the entire top floor, giving
all round vision. The windows are usually tilted outwards at 15 degrees, because
otherwise the controllers would see the reflection of their equipment. The ceiling may
also be painted black.[1]

Control towers typically contain the following:

 radios for communication with aircraft, linked to controllers' headsets or to

microphones and speakers;
 a telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines and public telephone lines
via quick-dial systems to controllers' headsets, allowing them to talk to other
controllers and outside parties;
 a strip board allowing Flight Progress Strips to be used (however in some towers
these have been replaced by a computerised system);
 a light gun for communication with aircraft via aviation light signals in the event of
a radio failure;
 wind and pressure gauges.
 Cab glass may be impact resistant laminated, or the typical insulated annealed
glass. Testing includes the determination of acceptable tolerances regarding
double imaging.

Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/control-tower#ixzz16705SFAF