FORPOL-01232; No of Pages 8

Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Forest Policy and Economics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forpol

The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence
for policy-agenda setting in Indonesia☆
Meti Ekayani a,⁎, Dodik Ridho Nurrochmat b, Dudung Darusman b
a
Department of Resource and Environmental Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
b
Laboratory of Forest Policy, Department of Forest Management, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Forest fire is one of the most important issues discussed in international and national news media, because of its
Received 6 March 2014 significant human and environmental impacts; these fires generate social, economic, and ecological problems
Received in revised form 5 September 2014 that spread across national borders. Mediating these problems requires effective and applicable policy, formulat-
Accepted 2 January 2015
ed from a sound base of evidence. Thus, the quality of information is of primary importance in formulating appro-
Available online xxxx
priate forest fire combating policy. While the media is obligated to provide credible information, it often does so
Keywords:
without scientific expertise. This study indicates that most interviewed stakeholders believe that scientists can
Forest fire deliver reliable information in policy agenda-setting, and therefore, the voices of scientists in the media have
Indonesia the potential to influence policy agenda-setting through their role as “issue advocates”. This study, however, con-
Knowledge utilization firms that the news media does not recognize the knowledge of scientists as the most reliable reference in forest
Media discourse fire discourse. The weak “knowledge utilization” of news' substance is reflected in the minimal coverage of
Scientists' role scientists in media discourses. This study examines the presentation of scientists in forest fire media discourse
and stakeholders' perceptions of this presentation, in order to analyze the role of scientists in forest fire media
discourse and its potential to influence and set policy agendas in Indonesia.
© 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction To address the problems of forest fire, effective and applicable poli-
cies are needed. Good policy requires a sound evidence base. “Vaguely
Forest fire is a global concern. With 300–400 million hectares of formulated goals cannot be realized for lack of information. The quality
forests and other lands annually affected by fires (Goldammer, 2010), of information is, thus, an important aspect for recognizing the possible
consequences of environmental degradation from forest fires, such as impact of forestry programs” (Krott, 2005, p. 28), including problems
erosion, loss of nutrients, disturbance of vegetation, smoke and haze, concerning forest fires. Soroka et al. (2013, p. 204) hold that, “mass
threaten human wellbeing across geopolitical boundaries. Southeast media can, and often do, play a critical role in policymaking.” The
Asia, and particularly Indonesia, is a global region with very large and media usually matters in the early stages of the policy process by
frequent cases of forest fire (Narendran, 2001). Chokkalingam and contributing to agenda setting, but also may play role throughout the
Suyanto (2004) report that due to frequent cases of forest fire, policy process, “which is then adopted and dealt with by politicians,
Indonesia is a major source of the annual haze blanketing Southeast policymakers, and other actors.” (Soroka et al., 2013, p. 204). Sadath
Asia and greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global warming. and Krott (2013) hold that different political actors discuss forest issues
They report that in the 1997/1998 El Nino event, Indonesian wetland in the media, with different influences on forest policies.
fires accounted for 60% of the regional haze and emitted 0.81–2.57 Gt As with the arguments of Krott (2005) on the importance of infor-
of carbon, making Indonesia one of the largest air polluters in the mation quality, reliable information on forest fire in the news media
world at the time. Syaufina (2008) shows that forest fire in 1997/1998 must be utilized for further policy-making processes that seek to man-
burned approximately 10 million ha of Indonesian forest and caused age and combat fires effectively. Coronel (2003, p. 3) argues that “…
10 billion USD of damage to the country. The negative impacts of those in many new and restored democracies, the media has contributed to
forest fires are not only of local concern but are also of concern across public education and enlightenment…”, which appoints the importance
towns, across provinces, and across national borders (Goldammer, of the quality of the substance of news. In this context, a scientist can be-
2010). come an actor in the discursive arena of the media and play an impor-
tant role in policy process as an “issue advocate” (Dunn, 2000; Pielke,
☆ This article belongs to the Special Issue: Analytical approach.
2007), assuming that the presentation of scientists in media discourse
⁎ Coresponding author. can improve the reliability of media information. The complexity of
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M. Ekayani). the relationship between experts and policymakers may be elucidated

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
1389-9341/© 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
2 M. Ekayani et al. / Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

under instrumental and legitimating functions, in order to provide reli- therefore, their influencing role to set policy agenda could be predicted
able answers to problems (Weingart, 1999). (Ekayani, 2011).
“An acknowledgement of the systematic nature of differences in per-
ception and communication can introduce a much needed reflexivity 2.2. Media and policy making
into the closely coupled communication between science, politics, and
the media” (Weingart et al., 2000, p. 280). Referring to Kleinschmit Media is one of the most important sources of information
et al. (2009) and Grundmann (2009), the international and national (Kleinschmit and Krott, 2008) and plays important roles in directing
media spheres are important factors in policy agenda-setting. They the opinions of society as well as influencing policy processes
also argue that when certain issues are framed, information is brokered (Palmer, 2004). Referring to Soroka et al. (2013, p. 204) “… media
and then, in this way expertise is communicated affecting the policy can draw and sustain public attention to particular issues. They can
agenda. This study, thus, examines four questions related to the role of change the discourse around a policy debate by framing or defining
scientists in forest fire discourse of international and international an issue using dialogue or rhetoric to persuade or dissuade the public”.
media, and its potential influence to the policy process in Indonesia. Rivers et al. (2003) argue that the role of media in driving public opinion
The first question focuses on the evaluation of the presentation of scien- is strongly determined by the perspectives of media related to the indi-
tists as “speaking actors” on forest fire media discourse in international vidual behaviors, aspirations, expectations, and fears of people. Sadath
and national news media. The second question elicits the perception et al. (2013b) assume that the media reflects public opinion and there-
of stakeholders about the important actors, which influence policy fore could play an important role in presenting the general perception
agenda-setting on forest fire in Indonesia. The third question examines of certain issues. “The public discourse on critical events in environmen-
the conformity of problem definition on forest fire (i.e. causes and solu- tal and forest issues that is supported by the media has a chance to in-
tions) based on media discourses and the views of stakeholders. The fluence policy decisions” (Sadath and Krott, 2013, p. 2) as well as to
fourth and final question evaluates the potential influence of scientists set policy agenda (Kleinschmit, 2012; Wibowo and Giessen, 2012).
as “issue advocates” to set the forest fire policy agenda, by taking into According to Soroka et al. (2013), media plays a critical role in
consideration the presentation of scientists in media discourse and policymaking, particularly in the early stages of the policy process.
stakeholder's perception. They can help to set an agenda, which is considered and then adopted
by policymakers. Furthermore, Soroka et al. (2013) also argue that
although media usually is often most influential at the beginning of
2. Theoretical framework policy process, through policy agenda-setting, in some situations
media can also exert influence throughout the policy-making process.
2.1. Framing and policy agenda-setting “Indeed, mass media are in the unique position of having a regular,
marked impact on policy, but from outside the formal political sphere,
“Framing” refers to the selection of certain aspects of a perceived often without even being recognized as a policy player” (Soroka et al.,
reality that, in turn, makes these aspects more salient in a communica- 2013, p. 204).
tion text, in order to present a particular problem definition, causal
interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation 2.3. The role of scientists in policy process
for the item described (Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000). McCombs
et al. (1997) argue that framing is regarded as an extension of agenda- Science plays an important role in defining the problems on the
setting, and it naturally has an impact in audience interpretation of political agenda and scientists take part in setting the policy agenda,
news. As with Feindt and Kleinschmit (2011), Sadath et al. (2013b particularly if other actors, such as the media, are interested in their pro-
p. 2) argue that “medialisation models suggest that political actors im- nouncements (Weingart, 1999). Increasing the role of scientists in
plant their agenda in frames in a condensed manner to reach specific media discourse may serve to improve the reliability of information in
effects in a given audience”. policymaking, as it can draw attention to scientific issues within the
While an agenda is a “list of things to be discussed at a meeting” policy process. Media can also aid their cause by highlighting their
(Manser, 1995, p. 8), a setting is the “place in which something is role in policymaking and helping to convey scientific-based information
fixed” (Manser, 1995, p. 377). Thus, the agenda-setting process is an to policymakers (Coronel, 2003; Soroka et al., 2013). “With the backing
ongoing competition among proponents of an issue to gain the atten- of consensual science, the political discourse brought about a specific
tion of the media, the public, and policymakers (Dearing and Rogers, problem frame that transformed the scientific hypothesis into a political
1996). McCombs and Shaw (1972) define agenda-setting as the crea- problem that called for urgent action.” (Weingart et al., 2000, p. 274).
tion of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the media. Many policymakers emphasize that the quality of policy is greatly
They describe the powerful influence of media that reflects the ability determined by the reliability of information and thus, they call for
to tell audiences which issues are important. more science-based information within the policy process (Steel et al.,
Furthermore, McCombs and Shaw (1972) argue that the two most 2004). Although the reliability of information in policy making is an in-
important elements of agenda-setting are awareness and information. dubitable need, not all scholars believe in the important role of scientists
To investigate the agenda-setting function of the mass media, they in policy process. Many scholars argue that increased presentation of
attempted to assess the relationship between what people in a certain scientists in policy processes can improve the quality of complex policy
community said about the important issues and the actual content of decisions. These critics disagree with the assumption that scientists can
the media messages. They conclude that the media exerted a significant facilitate policymaking by providing objective scientific information to
influence on what people considered to be major issues. policymakers (Mazur, 1981). Further, other views argued that scientists
According to Severin and Tankard (1992), agenda-setting is one of are just one source of information and increasing involvement of scien-
the ways in which the mass media can influence public opinion. Usually, tists will not necessarily lead to better policy (Steel et al., 2004).
different media outlets have different agenda-setting functions and Scientists could influence policy process, if they communicate with
therefore, analysis of agenda-setting is appropriate to understand the the public because politics is a communication activity among people
pervasive role of different media outlets. They also argue that the (Roelofs in Nimmo, 2004). One of the natural obligations of the media
news media, by choosing what to report as news, can determine is to educate people by providing comprehensive information (Kobre
which issues the public will think and talk about. Referring to this in Rivers et al., 2003). To improve the comprehensiveness and credibil-
agenda-setting theory, if people or speaking actors are exposed to the ity of information, “scientists” need to share their voices in the media.
same media, they will place importance on the same issues and However, not all scientists are interested in shaping policy processes.

Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
 M. Ekayani et al. / Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

Some have interest in scientific advocacy and become involved in reducing the scope of choices based on his or her preferences and
decision-making, while others are more reluctant to engage directly in values. This position is often best achieved through a collection of ex-
policy process (Steel et al., 2004). “… [I]t is now commonly accepted perts working together with a range of views, experiences, and knowl-
that different functions of scientific expertise can be distinguished” edge. When a scientist disseminates his or her ideas or science-based
(Weingart, 1999, p. 155; Pielke, 2007). According to Pielke (2007) the information concerning certain issues through public presentation or
scientists, who have no interest in decision making process and simply articles in the news media, he or she becomes an “issue advocate”. As
share some fundamental information are labeled “pure scientists”. an issue advocate, he or she can take part on advocacy for one position
Pielke also argues that the role of scientists in policy process is not to in a controversy and tries to convince policymakers to make a particular
decide between different policy possibilities, but to determine what decision (Pielke, 2007; Weingart, 1999).
the policy possibilities are. Referring to Pielke (2007), there are several
ways for scientists to deliver science-based information into policy pro-
3. Methods
cesses. When a scientist acts as a resource for decision making, standing
ready to answer factual questions that the decision maker thinks are
The methods of this study are structured into five parts: the study
relevant, he or she is a “science arbiter”. As with Grundmann (1999),
framework, selecting media, content analysis, stakeholders' interviews,
Weingart (1999, p. 156) argues that although his or her advice may be
and comparative analysis.
diluted, the advantage of a “science arbiter” is that his or her recommen-
dations “get translated more directly into political decisions”.
Pielke (2007) argues that a scientist is considered an “honest broker 3.1. The study framework
of policy alternative”, when he or she provides basic information on dif-
ferent policy choices, makes an effort to expand (or at least to clarify) This study has been conducted through the following framework
the scope of choices, and lets the policymakers face the challenge of (Fig. 1).

Problem
definition on
forest fire

Framing:
causes &
Media discourse Stakeholders’ interview
solutions

Content analysis Comparison Stakeholders’ perception

Intl. media National media International National Province

International Kompas Regional assoc. of Ministry of Forest services

Herald Tribune Republika states Forestry Conservation
Times Magazine Intl. research org. University Environment
Regional research NGOs Development
organization Forest company Forestry education
Bilateral research
organization Forest business

Speaking actors Influencing actors in policy making

Types of scientist:
Pure scientist
Scientists Issue advocate
Non scientists Science arbiter
Honest broker for policy alternatives

Role of
“Knowledge utilization” scientists in
in policy agenda-setting policy agenda
setting

Fig. 1. The study framework.

Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
4 M. Ekayani et al. / Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

3.2. Selecting media statements made by each speaker in the article. According to Holsti
(1969) and Diekmann (1998), categories must reflect the investigator's
This study evaluates forest fire discourses in international and research question, and they should be precise and unique, mutually
national news media, since the perceptions of actors at different politi- exclusive so as not to overlap another, independent, and derived from
cal levels in media “can have an influence on political decision-making, a single classification principle.
either by affecting the policy agenda or by providing a platform for Referring to Dunn (2000) and Pielke (2007), who argue for the im-
deliberation” (Kleinschmit, 2012; Sadath et al., 2013b, p. 1). Although, portance of “knowledge utilization” in policy making, one powerful
according to Kleinschmit and Krott (2008), the media is highly recog- aim of this study is to investigate the contribution of scientists within
nized as a driving force of globalization, there is a lack of common ground forest fire discourses. Therefore, the “speakers” in this study are catego-
for the definition of international media (Sadath et al., 2013a,b). This rized into two main groups: “scientists” and “non-scientists”. Following
study, however, follows Reese's definition: international media are the framing theories of Semetko and Valkenburg (2000) and Sadath
those outlets that search for sources of news and address readerships et al. (2013b), this study discusses two important issues of forest fire
beyond national boundaries (Reese, 2010). This study assesses interna- that deals with two framing approaches: first, “diagnostic frame” to
tional media discourse because forest fires typically generate trans- evaluate causal interpretation of forest fire between human and nature
national impacts. Two international news media outlets were selected factors, and second, “prognostic frame” to compare solutions of forest
for analysis. They are the International Herald Tribune and Time magazine. fire's problem between economy and environment.
These sources were selected because of their wide distribution and pub-
lication of general news (see also Park, 2009).
Two national (Indonesian) news media, Kompas and Republika were 3.4. Stakeholder interviews
selected for analysis because they have nation-wide readership, report
general news, and serve as important references for the public and Following Kirk and Mai (1997), Weingart et al, (2000), Sadath
policymakers. Nuryadi (2003) reports that Kompas is one of the most (2012), and Sadath and Krott (2013), this study uses key person inter-
balanced, accurate, clear and objective sources for national media, views to provide a deeper analysis when comparing media and stake-
referring specifically to environmental news coverage. Republika is holders' perception, through an investigation of arguments as well as
also an important Indonesian periodical, aimed at a Muslim readership, identifying exceptions to the general conclusion in conditional cases
with the goal to publish a variety of public information at national level (of forest fire issues). Interviewers used closed-questions and semi-
(Subiakto, 2000). “Since the majority of Indonesian people are Muslim, structured interviews to measure perception, awareness, or cognitive
Republika has become an important reference for the public and level of respondents towards causes of forest fire and efforts to reduce
policymakers” (Ekayani, 2011, p. 53). forest fire. A number of key persons representing organizations at the
international, national and provincial levels were interviewed.
In total, forty key persons were selected using “snowball sampling”.
3.3. Content analysis and category system This method depends on gathering additional interview partners
through the recommendations of interviewees (Bryman, 2001). Four
As with van Dijk (1985, 1989, 1991), Krippendorff (2004) defines persons from selected international organizations were interviewed,
content analysis as a research technique to explain the valid inferences representing the regional association of states (the secretariat of the
from texts to their contexts. Referring to this definition, Ekayani (2011) Association of South-East Asian Nations — ASEAN secretariat), an inter-
used this method to systematically identify the properties of textual in- national research organization (Center for International Forestry
formation. Following these scholars, in this study all articles and state- Research — CIFOR), a regional research organization (South East-Asian
ments related to forest fire within a ten-year time series of selected Regional Center for Tropical Biology — SEAMEO Biotrop), and a bilateral
media, are evaluated for their formal characteristics through a quantita- research organization (the Indonesian chapter of ASEAN-Korea Cooper-
tive–qualitative content analysis using a category system (Table 1). ation Project — AKECOP Indonesia). Understanding the views of ASEAN
Content analysis, requires a category system that is formulated as the official state association of the Southeast Asian countries towards
based upon questions and relevant theories in order to answer the re- various aspects of forest fire policy is of primary importance because
search questions and to provide data corresponding to the selected arti- most fires cause transcend national borders, particularly within neigh-
cles and statements. The first part of categories describes the formal boring ASEAN countries. Since this study focuses on the role of scientists
information of each article, and the second part deals with related infor- in forest fire policy making, the interviewed stakeholders were selected
mation to answer the research questions, which are analyzed from from international, regional, and bilateral research organizations related
to forestry. In addition to regional and bilateral research organizations,
Table 1 an international forest research organization is interviewed because
Category system. forest fire is of global interest, particularly in references to international
Source: adapted from Ekayani (2011), Park (2009), Sadath et al. (2013b), and Semetko
research and concern about climate change.
and Valkenburg (2000).
Twelve key persons from national organizations were interviewed,
Unit of Category Sub-category representing six institutions under the Ministry of Forestry (MoFor), in-
analysis
cluding the Directorate General (DG) of Planology, DG of Forest Protec-
Articles Formal Coder; article number; case number; newspaper tion and Nature Conservation, DG of Forestry Business, DG of Forest
information source; date; and author Rehabilitation and Social Forestry, the Forestry Research and Develop-
Statements Speakers Scientists: forest science; non forest science
Non-scientists: politicians; administrations; media;
ment Agency (FORDA), and Center for Forestry Information; two scien-
NGOs; organizations; enterprises; others tists from Bogor Agricultural University (IPB); a national NGO activist
Causes of Accidental causes; inadvertent causes; mechanical from the Lembaga Alam Tropika Indonesia (LATIN); and three persons
problem causes; intentional causes; others from forest companies. In addition to the international and national
Solutions Economic instruments; informational instruments;
stakeholders, 24 key persons related to forest fire policy making,
of problem procedural instruments; planning instruments;
regulative instruments; praxis; others consisting of various institutions, which are responsible for forestry ser-
Frames Diagnostic frame: causal interpretation of forest vices, nature conservation, environmental management, development
fire between human and nature factors. planning, forestry education, and forest business in seven provinces of
Prognostic frame: solutions of forest fire's problem Riau, East Kalimantan, West Java, North Sulawesi, Bali, Bangka Belitung,
between economy and environment.
and D.I. Yogyakarta were also interviewed. Those provinces were

Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
 M. Ekayani et al. / Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

Table 2 80% 75.00%

The presentation of scientists in forest fire media discourses. 70% 66.67%

Speaking actors International media National media 60% 54.17%

50% 46.00%
N % N %
40% 33.00%
Scientists 42 11.67 36 2.49
30% 25.00%
a. Forest science 4 1.11 20 1.38
b. Non forest science 24 6.67 15 1.04 20%
c. Not Recognizable 14 3.89 1 0.07 10%
Non Scientists 318 88.33 1,411 97.51 0%
a. Politician 9 2.50 17 1.17 International National Province
b. Administration 77 21.39 527 36.42 Stakeholders
c. Media 81 22.50 446 30.82
d. NGO 4 1.11 70 4.84 Media discourse influences to policy agenda-setting
e. Organization 46 12.78 67 4.63 Media discourse less influences to policy agenda-setting
f. Enterprises 4 1.11 40 2.76
g. Others 97 26.94 244 16.86 Source: primary data, n=40 respondents
Total 360 100.00 1,447 100.00

Fig. 2. The influence of media discourse in policy agenda-setting according to stakeholders'

perception.
selected to represent geographical coverage of the western, middle, and
eastern parts of Indonesia.
Interviewers asked closed questions and semi structured interviews 4.1. Presentation of scientists in media discourse
to identify influential actors for setting the policy agenda on forest fire,
i.e. scientists or non-scientists (politicians, administrations, media, Within the articles surveyed, the presentation of scientists in media
NGOs, organizations, enterprises, and others), and to define problem discourse is very low. Table 2 indicates that scientists contribute only
of forest fire, i.e. causes (accidental, intentional, inadvertent, or mechan- 11.67% in forest fire discourse in international media and 2.49% in the
ical) and solutions (praxis, regulative, planning, economical, procedural, national media. Thus, scientists play a minor role in forest fire media
and informational instruments) of forest fires. discourse.

3.5. Comparative analysis

4.2. Actors and forest fire policy agenda-setting

Comparative analysis between the presentation of scientists in forest

Many actors influence the forest fire policy agenda. Table 3 indicates
fire media discourse and perception of stakeholders towards the impor-
that scientists are perceived as the most influential actors in delivering
tance of scientists to influence forest fire agenda setting defines the role
information to international stakeholders. Scientists are also the second
of scientists as “issue advocates” (Pielke, 2007), in influencing forest fire
most important source of reliable information for helping to set the pol-
policy. This study uses “comparative analysis” to determine the relation
icy agenda for forest fire, according to stakeholder perception at the na-
between presentation of scientists in forest fire media discourse and
tional and province levels (Table 3).
stakeholder's perception, since the comparison is a universal method
Stakeholders believe that “administration” and “scientist” are the
in the social sciences. Hartmann (1995) states that there are some key
two most important actors for influencing the policy process. Besides
terms in a comparative approach that need to be considered as a focus
both actors, media is also considered as an important actor recognized
of analysis, e.g. making contradictory and multiple cases. In this study,
within policy processes, particularly in policy agenda-setting. All other
contradictory situations can be found in the results of international
stakeholders perceive that media discourses are having influence on
and national news media discourses, as well as news and stakeholder's
policy agenda-setting, except stakeholders in international organiza-
perception. By choosing multiple locations (different provinces) for key
tions. More than 66% of national stakeholders and 54% of stakeholders
person interviews on forest fire issues, this study provides a wider geo-
at the province level believe in the importance of media discourse in
graphical representation of stakeholder perceptions.
influencing policy processes, particularly policy agenda-setting (Fig. 2).

4. Results
4.3. Causes and solutions of forest fire in media discourse and stakeholder's
This section explains three important results of the study: first, the perception
presentation of scientists in media discourse; second, the perception
of stakeholders towards influencing actors in forest fire policy agenda Table 4 indicates that, according to international media discourse,
setting; and third, the description of the problem definition of forest forest fires are mostly caused “accidentally”. The national media dis-
fire according to media discourse and stakeholders' perceptions. course, however, indicates that “intentional” is primarily important in
initiating forest fire. The similar result is due to the perception of stake-
holders that argues for the very important role of “intentional causes” in
Table 3 forest fire.
The most influencing actors delivering information to the policy agenda-setting according “Praxis” is the most suggested instrument for overcoming the prob-
to stakeholders' perceptions.
lems of forest fire. Other potential instruments include “regulative”,
Levels of
importance's actors
Stakeholder's perception “economical”, “informational”, and “planning”, according to the results
International National Province
of both media discourse and stakeholder's perception (Table 5).
Very important Scientist Administration Administration

Important Administration Scientist Scientist

5. Discussions
Moderately important Media Media Media

Note: “Very important” refers to the highest preferences of the speakers; “important”
This section discusses two important research results. The first part
refers to the second preferences, and moderately important for the third preferences of this section addresses the conformity of information between forest
(primary data, N = 40 respondents). The focus of analysis is highlighted. fire media discourse and stakeholder's perception. The second part of

Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
6 M. Ekayani et al. / Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 4 and Valkenburg (2000) about causal interpretation, this study indicates
The causes of problems in forest fire media discourse and stakeholder's perception. a high compatibility of the substance of information in the national
Level of Media Stakeholders media discourse on forest fire and the perception of stakeholders relat-
importance International National International National Province
Very
ed to forest fire agenda-setting. A high compatibility of media substance
Accidental Intentional Intentional Intentional Intentional
important and stakeholder's perception reflects the reliability of information that,
Important Inadvertent Inadvertent Inadvertent Inadvertent Accidental according to Soroka et al. (2013), can help set a policy agenda. There-
Moderately
Intentional Accidental Mechanical Accidental Inadvertent fore, it can be supposed that policymakers will consider the information
important
delivered by national media rather than texts of international media,
Note: “Very important” refers to the most frequent statements on causes of problem;
“important” for the second preference for the causes of problem and “moderately impor-
when they set policy concerning the “causes” of fire.
tant” for the third preference, by excluding the unidentified and other causes. The focus In addition to the causal interpretation, another issue evaluated in
of analysis is highlighted. this study is the “solutions” for forest fire problems. Both media and
stakeholders emphasize “praxis” as the most important solution. How-
ever, media discourse and stakeholders choose different instruments to
this chapter discusses the role of scientists in forest fire media discourse manage fires. Stakeholders emphasize that the most effective solution
and policy processes. to prevent and combat forest fires is through the application of “zero
burning” in land clearing activities. Furthermore, the active involvement
of community in forest management is also considered by most stake-
5.1. Conformity of information between forest fire media discourse and
holders as an effective solution to prevent and overcome the problem of
stakeholder's perception
repeated forest fires in Indonesia. However, news media usually points
to direct efforts to address forest fires, such as extinguishing fires with
The conformity of information between forest fire media discourse
water shooters or spraying water using airplanes as the most frequent so-
and stakeholder's perception is evaluated within a diagnostic frame.
lutions, for instance, as stated by national media outlet Kompas (Ekayani,
According to Sadath et al. (2013b), this can be analyzed through the
2011, p. 109) and international media outlet IHT (Ekayani, 2011, p. 86).
causal interpretation of forest fire. In this study, the causes of forest
fire are defined as human or natural factors. The content analysis
“… we must conduct early prevention of fire cases and we have used
shows that the international media discourse argues that “accidental”
a fleet to extinguish the fire…”
such as the El-Niño phenomenon, long session drought, fire regimes,
[(Kompas, November 28, 1994)]
coal, and lightning, are the most frequent causes for forest fires. Different
from international media which appointed “accidental” as the main
causes of forest fire, the Indonesian media and stakeholders report that
“… the Indonesian government … had deployed 8,437 fire fighters
forest fires were mostly caused by “intentional” activities, mainly due to
throughout the country. They are joined by more than 1,000
burning practices for land clearing activities, for instance setting fires for
Malaysian fire fighters, who were sent to Sumatera, the centre of forest
preparing gardens, plantations and shifting cultivation, or slash and burn
fires. Indonesian officials had also announced that Japan had offered to
agriculture. Forest tenure conflicts (Nurrochmat et al., 2014; Sahide and
contribute 300 high-powered water shooters to help extinguish the
Giessen, 2015) could become also the underlying causes of forest fire.
fires and that France had offered to send advisers”.
As with Sadath et al. (2013b), the second analysis about the solu-
[(IHT September 26, 1997)]
tions of forest fire's problem is discussed using a prognostic frame. The
results of content analysis indicate that the perspectives of media and
Evaluating the conformity of causes and solution is important be-
stakeholders differ in their view of problem solutions. Although media
cause “media can establish the nature, sources, and consequences of
and stakeholders point to “praxis” as the most important solution in ad-
policy issues in ways that fundamentally change not just the attention
dressing forest fire, they emphasize different matters. Referring to the
paid to those issues, but the different types of policy solutions sought”
arguments of van Dijk (1985, 1989, 1991) about the connection be-
(Soroka et al., 2013, p. 204). Thus, assuming that the voices of
tween text, cognition, and context in discourse analysis, this study elab-
interviewed stakeholders reflect the interest of policymakers, then the
orates the potential influence of texts of forest fire media discourse in
different perspective of media discourse and stakeholders towards
policy process by conforming the substance of those texts with the per-
both causes and instruments of solution for forest fire leads to the
ception of stakeholders related to forest fire policy agenda-setting.
poor utilization of the information of the media texts in policy process.
Table 6 shows the evaluation of the conformity of media discourse
and stakeholder's perception towards causes and solutions of forest fire.
5.2. The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and policy process
Table 6 indicates that the causal interpretation of forest fire between
international and national media discourses is not aligned. As was
Evaluating asymmetrical information between media discourse and
discussed, the international media argues that forest fires are mostly
stakeholder's perception on forest fire is needed to measure the poten-
“accidental”, while Indonesian media sources point to “intentional”
tial influence of media in policy process, since media can play important
causes as being primarily responsible for fire. As with the national
role in the setting of forest fire policy agenda (Sadath and Krott, 2013;
media, all stakeholders perceived that forest fire is generally caused by
Kleinschmit, 2012; Soroka et al., 2013; Weingart et al., 2000). The role
“intentional” factors. Thus, following the framing theory of Semetko
of media in influencing forest fire policy agenda-setting depends on
the similarities of the content of media discourse and perception of
Table 5 stakeholders. van Dijk (1989) argues for the connectivity between
The instruments of solution in forest fire media discourse and stakeholders' perception.
text, cognition, and context. This study, therefore, examines the reliabil-
Level of Media Stakeholders
importance
ity of information in media by evaluating the conformity of texts in
International National International National Province
Very media discourse and context of issues according to the cognition of
Praxis Praxis Praxis Praxis Praxis
important stakeholders, through stakeholder's interviews (Table 7).
Important Economical Regulative Regulative Regulative Regulative The infrequent participation of scientists within news media dis-
Moderately
important
Regulative Informational Planning Informational Informational course on forest fire is attributable to the fact that news media is usually
Note: “Very important” refers to the highest preferences on the instruments of solution;
concerned more with the speed in reporting an issue rather than the
“important” for the second preference and “moderately important” for the third preference. depth of the analysis of an issue. This low representation of scientists
The focus of analysis is highlighted. may be explained with the work of Rivers et al. (2003), who found

Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001
 M. Ekayani et al. / Forest Policy and Economics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

Table 6 dialogues, conferences, meetings, and public hearings (Dunn, 2000).

Conformity of media discourse and stakeholder's perception towards causes and solutions The participation of scientists in interactive communications, such as
of forest fire.
media discourse, is important for providing explanations, clarifications,
Evaluation
Media discourse Stakeholder's perception
or inputs to improve forest fire policy making, and so would position
International National International National Province
scientists as “issue advocate[s]” (Pielke, 2007). With this position, they
Causes Accidental Intentional Intentional Intentional Intentional
Conformity are potentially able to influence policy agenda-setting. Therefore,
among media and
stakeholders
Not conform Conform
more active involvement of scientists in forest fire media discourse
Conformity could serve to improve the reliability of information in international
between media Not conform
and stakeholders and national level media outlets.
Solutions Praxis Praxis Praxis Praxis Praxis
Application of Application of Application of Application of Application of
Solution’s
appropriate appropriate socio–economic socio–economic socio–economic
instrument
equipments equipments approaches approaches approaches
6. Concluding remarks
Conformity
among media and Conform Conform
stakeholders This study demonstrates that the presentation of scientists as
Conformity
between media Not conform “speaking actors” on forest fire media discourse in the international and
and stakeholders
national news media is very low. This study also confirms that, according
to stakeholder's perception, “administration” and “scientist” are two most
important actors that can help to set the forest fire policy agenda.
that the news media is due to the contention that the “sensation” of
Further, this study indicates that the international media most often
news is often much more important than the “substance” of news.
refers to “accidental” as the main causes of forest fire. On the other hand,
The infrequent participation of scientists in news media discourse
Indonesian media usually indicates that the most common causes of
may reflect a lack of interest among scientists to become an “issue advo-
forest fire are “intentional”. This has led to biased solutions for forest
cate”, who delivers science-based information into media. When “scien-
fire problems. There is a large amount of asymmetrical information
tists” contribute less to forest fire media discourse, the media does not
concerning forest fire media discourse and stakeholders' perception.
recognize the knowledge of scientists as the most reliable reference in
Although both media and stakeholders point to “praxis” as the most im-
forest fire discourse. Therefore, the “knowledge utilization” (Dunn,
portant solution in addressing forest fires, they emphasize different
2000) in the media discourse on forest fire is very poor. Referring to
matters. Stakeholders emphasize the factors of “community”, while
Dunn's argument, “knowledge utilization” has a specific meaning: utili-
media pays more attention to “equipment” as the most effective solu-
zation of knowledge by decision makers in order to improve the process
tion to prevent and combat forest fires. This study indicates that, overall,
and results of decision-making.
media outlets portray issues around forest fire as a product of human
Scientists influence policy process through different ways. Once
factors, including social-economic conditions. Measuring the asymmetri-
their influence is by giving direct advice to policymakers. These advising
cal information of media and stakeholders is of primary importance be-
roles, according to Pielke (2007), are played by “science arbiters”. In this
cause, according to stakeholders in Indonesia, media plays an important
study, science arbiters are categorized as “administration”, since they
role in influencing the policy process.
work with formal position in certain administrative unit. The argument
The role of scientists in policy agenda-setting can be traced by con-
for very high involvement of science arbiters to set policy agenda is in
sidering the presentation of scientists in media discourse and
line with the perception of the interviewed stakeholders that suggests
stakeholder's perception of scientists within the media. This study sug-
for “administration” as the most influencing actors in policy agenda-
gests that, according to stakeholder's perception, scientists could influ-
setting. Stakeholders in the Ministry of Forestry, for instance, argue
ence policy agenda-setting through their role as “issue advocates”. As an
that the minister is assisted by some scientists, who worked as senior
“issue advocate”, scientists have to communicate their science-based
advisors (“science arbiters”), to help give alternatives in policy making.
information with the public through, for instance, news media. Accord-
In addition to hiring science arbiters in the formal structure, certain
ingly, to strengthen the role of scientist as “issue advocate”, the presen-
government institutions can also ask a temporary (ad hoc) team of
tation of scientists in forest fire media discourse has to be improved.
scientists to formulate or evaluate important policy. Usually, the minis-
try asks a team of scientists coming from different fields of sciences
(“honest broker of policy alternatives”) to conduct a comprehensive Acknowledgments
analysis before decisions are made (Pielke, 2007; Darusman, 2012).
Most interviewed stakeholders suggested that, in addition to writing The first author would express sincere gratitude to Professor Dr. Max
in scientific media, “scientists” should play more important roles in Krott, Director of the Chair of Forest Policy and Nature Conservation,
influencing policy-making process through “policy presentations”. University of Goettingen, Germany and Professor Dr. Daniela Kleinschmit
Policy presentations refer to knowledge communication through at the Department of Forest Products, Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet (SLU),
interactive outlets, including soundbytes of articles in public media, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden for their most valu-
able academic inputs during her PhD study. The first author also grateful-
ly acknowledges the International Tropical Timber Organizations (ITTO)
Table 7 and the Directorate General of Higher Education (DIKTI), Ministry of
Presentation of scientists in media discourse and their potential involvement in policy
National Education of the Republic of Indonesia for the PhD scholarship.
process.
We are also grateful to the Australian Leadership Awards — Fellowships
Perception of
Presentation of stakeholders
Gap between media Action needed to (ALA-F) Programme, especially to Dr. Kate Cregan at Monash University,
discourse and strengthen the role
Types of scientist scientist in media towards scientist's
discourse role in policy
stakeholder's of scientist in policy Australia, for her most valuable inputs and comments to this article.
perception process
process
Pure scientist Not recognizable Low Not applicable Not applicable

Science arbiter Not recognizable Very high Not applicable Not applicable
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Please cite this article as: Ekayani, M., et al., The role of scientists in forest fire media discourse and its potential influence for policy-agenda setting
in Indonesia, Forest Policy and Economics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.01.001