Flight Mechanics

 A few more points about aerodynamics

• Control surface
roll

δ a Aileron deflection

δ e Elevator deflection

yaw
rudder δ r Rudder deflection

pitch
• The sign convention
Rotate against axis
+ δe trailing-edge down cause nose-down aircraft pitch moment

+ δa left-side trailing-edge down right wing down aircraft roll moment

+ δr trailing-edge left nose left yaw moment

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

Stability derivatives
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛼𝛼 , 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛽𝛽 , and 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝛽𝛽
What are the difference?
Primary control derivatives (control power)
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 , 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 , 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎 and 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝛿𝛿𝑟𝑟
ℎ

1
𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎 = 𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

Effect of wing incidental angle

𝛼𝛼𝑤𝑤 = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑖𝑖𝑤𝑤

Effect of the horizontal tail

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

 Aft Tail Contribution of the Pitch Moment

• Note:
 Horizontal tail (with no elevator deflection) is usually symmetric CL0 = 0
t

 So CLt = CLα α t
t Angle of incidence
iw
 Angle of incidence
x̂ Mounting of tail
 Effect of downwash
caused by wing tip vortices impinging on tail
change angle of attach for tail V
introduce downwash angle as ε
ε V'
∂ε
ε= ε 0 + αw Linear change with α
∂α
Downwash at zero angle of attack, steady term

2CLw
Some times approximated as: ε=
π ARw
Wing’s aspect ratio

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

Downwash effect

𝜕𝜕𝜀𝜀
𝜀𝜀 = 𝜀𝜀0 + 𝛼𝛼
𝜕𝜕𝛼𝛼
Angle of attack experienced by
the horizontal tail

𝛼𝛼ℎ = 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑖𝑖ℎ + 𝜏𝜏𝑒𝑒 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 − 𝜀𝜀

Total lift acting on a/c: wing/fuselage and horizontal tail

𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝐿𝐿ℎ cos𝜀𝜀 ≅ 𝐿𝐿𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝐿𝐿ℎ

𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝑞𝑞𝑆𝑆
� = 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑞𝑞� 𝑆𝑆 + 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑞𝑞�ℎ 𝑆𝑆ℎ

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

 Example 2.1
• The wing-fuselage pitching moment characteristics of a high-wing, single-engine, general aviation
airplane follow, along with pertinent geometric data: Cmcg = −0.05 − 0.0035α
wf
where α is the fuselage reference line angle of attack in degrees and wf means wing-fueslage

• The data we know:

S w = 178 ft 2 xcg / c = 0.1 bw = 35.9 ft ARw = 7.3 cw = 5.0 ft

C Lα = 0.07 / deg iw = 2.00 C Lα =0 = 0.26 lt = 14.75 ft η = 1

wf

AR t = 4.85 C Lα = 0.073/ deg

t

• Estimate the horizontal tail area and tail incidence angle, it , so that the complete airplane has the
following pitching moment characteristicsC m= 0.15 − 0.025α, whereα is in degree and wft is the
wing-fuselage-horizontal tail contribution. wft
cg

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida

 Flight Mechanics

 Example 2.1
• Solution:

The contribution of the horizontal tail to C m0 and C mα can be calculated by subtracting the wing-fuselage
From the wing-fuselage-horizontal tail contribution, respectively:
C m=
0
C m0 − C m0= 0.15 − (−0.05)
= 0.20
t wft wf

C mα =C mα − C mα =−0.025 − (−0.0035) =−0.0215 / deg

t wft wf

The horizontal tail area is found by determining the horizontal tail volume ratio required to satisfy the
Required static stability that needs to be created by the tail.
Cm Cm
dε
Cm −VHη CLα (1 −
= ) VH =
− αt
=
− αt
0.453
=
dα dε 2CLα
η CLα t (1 −
αt t
) η C (1 − w
)
dα Lα t
π ARw
lt St VH Sc
VH = =St = 27.3 ft 2
Sc lt

So we get area of the tail St

? 2C L0 2 ⋅ 0.26
Cm0 VHη CLα (iw + ε 0 − it )
= =ε0 = = 0.0226=rad 1.30
t
0
t
π ARw π (7.3)
it = −2.7

Dynamics and Control Laboratory, University of Central Florida