Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2010

Vol.9, No.
4, 2010
ISSN 1648-3898
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2010
Editorial Board ISSN 1648–3898
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp Estonian Chemistry Teachers Association, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Jānis Gedrovics Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim
Tank, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Dr. Raffaele Pisano European Society for the History of Science, Italy
Dr. Pavol Prokop Institute of Zoology, Bratislava, Slovakia
Dr. Miia Rannikmäe Tartu University, Estonia
Dr. Alona Rauckienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Dr. Kurt Riquarts Kiel University, Germany
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Dumlupinar University, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania, emphasizes theoretical, ex-
perimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academic
journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions re-
ceived are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The
decision of the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into
on reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
Published since 2002
The journal is published four times per year in March, June, September and December.
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The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index
(http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/bei.htm), Copernicus Index (http://journals.indexcopernicus.com), The Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php), EBSCO: Academic Search
Premier (http://search.ebscohost.com), Social Scisearch (Thomson Reuters)
260 (http://science.thomsonreuters.com/index.html) and Journal Citation Reports / Social Sciences Edition
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ISSN 1648–3898 Contents
Contents
Editorial

NEW PERSPECTIVES IN EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Walter Leal Filho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Articles
CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATION

FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
IN THE CURRICULA OF UNIVERSITIES IN LATVIA
Maris Klavins, Madara Pelnena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
TEACHING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL:

CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE NEEDS
Walter Leal Filho. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
IDEOLOGY, EPISTEMOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY:

BARRIERS AND DRIVERS TO EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABILITY
IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
Michael Littledyke, Evangelos Manolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
EDUCATIONAL ADVANCES AND TRENDS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

A RESEARCH PROJECT ON EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION
María Novo, María-Ángeles Murga-Menoyo & María-José Bautista-Cerro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

CURRENT FAD OR RENEWED COMMITMENT TO ACTION?
Paul Pace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
GREEN MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND SMALL BUSINESS IN BRAZIL:

IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING AND EDUCATION
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Davi Fouad Soubihia, Charbel Jose Chiappetta Jabbour, Walter Leal Filho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

IN NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
261
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New Perspectives in Education for Sustainable Development
Dear Readers!
Education for sustainable development is one of the most important tools in raising awareness about
environmental issues within a sustainable development context, i.e. a context in which environmental
matters are taken into consideration along with economic, social, political and ethical issues.
With the decision to run the UN Decade on Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014),
the United Nations acknowledges the usefulness of and the need for identifying suitable initiatives,
approaches and methods, via which knowledge on sustainable development may be fostered, bearing
in mind its inherent complexity.
But even though much has been said and written about education for sustainable development,
there are still many problems associated with its execution. For example, there is a need to identify and
document the wide range of projects and initiatives taking place today, and which exemplify the types
of works that can be done, in a concrete manner. A second problem is in relation to the fact that even
though much is happening, few of the current works are properly disseminated. Moreover, even though
the integration of matters related to sustainable development at university level is a highly desirable
goal, there are barriers preventing this from taking place, which need due consideration.
This special issue tries to achieve two things. Firstly, it is an attempt to address the need for the
documentation of works and experiences on education for sustainable development. Secondly, it tries
to promote some of the good works taking place on the ground, by disseminating research happening
in different countries.
The first paper, written by Maris Klavins and Madara Pelnena, from the University of Latvia, Latvia,
identifies general trends in implementation of education for sustainable development into higher edu-
cation in Latvia. The article explores to what extent and by means of which approach higher education
institutions in Latvia have been attempting to incorporate sustainability in the curricula. The study results
show that higher education institutions are at the first stage of transforming their curricula towards
education for sustainable development, and the efforts to incorporate the issues of sustainability into
the curricula can rather be characterised as education about sustainable development.
The second paper, written by Davi Foud Soubihia and Charbel Jose Chiappetta Jabbour from Uni-
versity of Sao Paulo Business School, in Sao Paulo, Brazil and myself, paper presents the results of a study
on the analysis of training needs regarding environmental (green) management and climate change
topics in micro and small enterprises (MSEs) in Brazil and its implications on education for sustainable
development. It reports on an e-mail survey of Brazilian small enterprises, whose results indicate that
they are indeed interested in environmental management and climate change topics in an education
for sustainable development context. The study indicates that proposals for courses on environmental
management and climate change should follow a systemic perspective and take sustainable develop-
ment into account.
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Paper three, written by María Novo, M. Ángeles Murga-Menoyo and M. José Bautista-Cerro from
the National University of Distance Education in Spain, presents a research in the field of educational
innovation, with the aim of incorporating in its learning model the methodological procedures resulting
from recent developments in information technology. The teaching innovation projects presented in this
work have been designed for students of Environmental Education and Sustainable Development as part
of their Environmental Sciences and Education Courses, who were used to test the learning potential
of two teaching methodologies, namely the Cmap Tools editor for the construction of concept maps,
and online collaborative learning groups, intended to promote team work and encourage participation,
dialogue and divergent thought.
Paper four, written by Michael Littledyke from the University of New England in Australia and
Evangelos Manolas from the Democritus University of Thrace, Greece, focuses on how approaches to
science education can contribute to or inhibit education for sustainable development, according to
what degree it informs understanding of sustainability issues, how it may support values and beliefs
underpinning sustainability and how priorities in constructing curricula can influence pedagogy. The
paper offers examples of approaches to science education that may support education for sustainable
development, are discussed with implications for appropriate pedagogy to support it.
Paper five is an example of scholarly research, in which I describe the evolution of the concept of
sustainable development and process behind the it’s establishment at university level, including an
analysis of the problems related to it and their roots. The paper also states what universities need to do
in order to claim excellence in the field of sustainable development, listing a set of criteria that need to
be fulfilled in order to achieve this goal.
Finally, paper six, written by Paul Pace, from the University of Malta, comparatively highlights the
main characteristics of environmental education and some of its variants. The paper also critically analy-
ses major international events addressing the need to implement environmental education and their
impact on the educational community. These two reviews will act as a backdrop to a critical analysis of
why the resources invested in environmental education have not provided the turnout expected. The
paper concludes by making several reflections and concrete proposals about making the UN Decade of
Education for Sustainable Development a worthwhile experience, especially at the grassroots level.
All in all, these papers attest the need of a systematic approach towards education for sustainable
development and at the same time exemplify how useful and applicable research can be. I hope read-
ers will find this special issue not only interesting to their day-to-day work, but also useful in their own
attempts to put the principles of education for development in practice.
Walter Leal Filho

Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany,
Guest Editor of JBSE
263
Concepts and
approaches for
the implementation
of education
for sustainable
development in
the curricula of
universities IN Latvia
Abstract. This article identifies general Maris Klavins,

trends in implementation of education Madara Pelnena
for sustainable development into higher
education in Latvia. The purpose of this
study is to explore to what extent and
by means of which approach the higher Introduction
education institutions in Latvia have been
Several decades have passed since “sustainable development”
attempting to incorporate sustainability in
was defined for international purposes. During this period, many
the curricula. The questioning on 8 higher
agreements have been concluded and many global meetings and
education institutions was conducted and
discussions on sustainable development and its implementation in
the current initiatives of practices were as- practice have been organised. Today sustainability has become at
sessed. The study results show that higher least a formal requirement for most of the development planning
education institutions are at the first stage documents around the world; however, its practical implementa-
of transforming their curricula towards tion is a difficult and complex task, most often because of the
education for sustainable development, need to acquire new knowledge and to transform attitudes and
and the efforts to incorporate the issues of behaviour with regard to sustainability. By providing research,
sustainability into the curricula can rather analysis and conceptual framework for establishing the guidelines
be characterised as education about for education, universities are seen as key stakeholders in achieving
sustainable development. Major emphasis a sustainable future (Cortese, 2003). Just as other social processes,
education follows the prevalent key lines and values of society – its
is put on the links between environmental
culture, political and social attitudes and economic performance
education and education for sustainable
within the community. Latvia is located in the eastern part of Eu-
development.
rope and has been an EU Member State since 2004. In the context
Key words: education for sustainable of its development, Latvia has undergone significant changes over
development, environmental education, recent years – both the largest GDP growth in the year 2006 (12.2
university curricula. %) and the largest drop in 2009 (-18.4%) (Ministry of Finance of the
Republic of Latvia, 2010). Changes in social and economic sectors
have provoked wide discussions about the changes required in the
higher education as well. Latvia has about 2.3 million population,
and there are altogether 57 higher education institutions, running
more than 900 study programmes. The total number of students
per 100,000 inhabitants is one of the highest in the world (Table
Maris Klavins, Madara Pelnena 1) (Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia,
University of Latvia, Latvia 2010), indicating that the sector of higher education is of particu-
lar importance in the case of Latvia. At the same time, one of the
major identifiable problems in the higher education system is the
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sustainable development in the curricula of universities IN Latvia
(P. 264-272)
disproportion of the offered study content with the requirements in society (Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Latvia, 2010).
Table 1. Main indices of higher education for the years 2008-2009 (Ministry of Education and Sci-
ence of the Republic of Latvia, 2010).
Total number of students 112,555
Number of students per 10,000 inhabitants 492

Higher education institutions: 57
State higher education institutions 19
Private higher education institutions 13
Colleges founded by the State 17
Colleges founded by private persons 18
To ensure that the further development of higher education sector also proceeds in line with the prin-
ciples of sustainability, additional research is needed for assessing whether and how the universities are making
their curricula “greener” for the purpose of providing sustainability knowledge and skills to their students.
There are many ways in which universities can be involved in sustainable development and take
the responsibility for leading society towards a sustainable future. According to Stephens et al. (2008),
universities should model sustainable practices for society (practical approaches can vary from work-
ing with tangible environmental impacts to simple functioning in an environmentally friendly way – by
“greening” the campus, improving waste management, introducing innovations for saving energy and
resources, developing an environmental management system etc.). Higher education institutions can
conduct real-world problem-based research and teach students the skills of integration, synthesis, and
system-thinking to cope with the complex problems of sustainability. Also, universities as transdiscipli-
nary agents promote and enhance engagement between individuals and institutions.
The Talloires Declaration defines a sustainable university as an institution:
1. engaged in education, research, policy-making and exchange of information on population
and the environment as well as in development toward a sustainable future;
2. establishing programmes to produce expertise in environmental management, sustainable
economic development, population and related fields in order to ensure that all university
graduates are environmentally literate and responsible citizens;
3. setting an example of environmental responsibility by establishing the programmes of re-
source conservation, recycling and waste reduction at universities (Association of University
Leaders for a Sustainable Future, 1990).
The initiatives mentioned above fall within the framework of education for sustainable develop-
ment (ESD) – “a vision of education that seeks to empower people to assume responsibility for creating
a sustainable future” (UNESCO, 2006). Universities can implement (Sterling, 2004; Orr, 1992; Vare and
Scott, 2007) ESD at different levels, which can be figuratively depicted in the range from light green to
dark green. At the first phase (also named as “education about sustainability”), the issues concerning
sustainability are included in one or more study courses, but are not integrated in curricula; accordingly,
education system largely remains unchanged. The next level represents a transitional phase – the issues
of sustainability are included in curricula, but the campus management and the learning process mainly
have not been based on the principles of sustainability. In the process of understanding the sustainable
development, the environment and life experience serve as learning instruments; therefore, universi-
ties have to create curricula by means of which theoretical knowledge is reinforced through practice.
The third level is a full transition to education based on sustainability principles. Vare and Scott (2007)
call this ESD form “learning as sustainable development”, which means that “sustainable development
doesn’t just depend on learning; it is inherently a learning process”, learning throughout our lives results
in evidence that SD is happening (Scott and Gough, 2003).
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Like elsewhere in the world, the ESD in Latvia is rooted in nature and environmental studies. Environ-
mental education in the modern sense began in the 1990s, and at this early stage various environmental
non-governmental organisations were among the most active players in shaping public environmental
awareness. In formal education, including higher education, the issues of environmental protection and
sustainability came into view somewhat later, mainly in the sector of natural sciences. In recent years,
Latvia has actively participated in various international ESD activities, also in the implementation of
the UN Decade for Education for Sustainable Development. The political will to implement education
for sustainable development and environmental education has been clearly stated. For example, Sec-
tion 42, Chapter VIII “Environmental science, environmental education and education for sustainable
development” of the Environmental Protection Law of the Republic of Latvia (adopted by the Saeima
on 2 November 2006) stipulates:
1. In obligatory teaching content of the discipline or study course, in accordance with specificity
of the syllabus, concordance and succession on different educational levels, issues on the
environment and sustainable development are included.
2. In mandatory part of all study programmes of universities and colleges, environmental
protection study course is included.
3. Lectures on sustainable development are included in pedagogical study programmes in all
universities and colleges.
The Ministry of Education and Science takes the institutional responsibility for the implementation of
ESD and environmental education. The Ministry of Environment and the Latvian Council of Environmental
Science and Education – an advisory body coordinating the efforts in research and education – also are
important actors in the field. At the same time, the national education policy-making bodies have not
drafted any general strategy or guidelines for the implementation and/or monitoring of sustainability
in higher education. Therefore, universities have considerable autonomy in the field, while still facing
the challenges of implementing sustainability-related content throughout curricula.
Studies in social sciences dominate (51% of the total number), followed by humanities and teacher
training. At the same time, it is evident that environmental education and education for sustainable
development do not have an adequate status in the study content in Latvia, for only 2% of the total
number of students have an opportunity to attend study programmes on environmental education or
sustainable development (Centre of Higher Education Quality Evaluation, 2010). This means that the
majority of students can acquire the knowledge and skills pertaining to sustainability only if the uni-
versity decides to offer a special sustainability study course among the regular discipline-specific study
courses or to change the whole curricula and/or campus in conformity with the principles of sustainable
development. The Latvian higher education institutions have not developed the practice of preparing
sustainability reports; consequently, there are no data on the transition to sustainability among universi-
ties and on their main concepts of and approaches to the implementation of ESD in the curricula.
This study examines the general trends in the transformation of higher education institutions in
Latvia toward sustainability and assesses the current initiatives of practices.
Methodology of Research
Study Design
The study is designed of two parts and the first part includes a questioning of higher education
institutions in Latvia, to identify the place of ESD in the study curricula and inquire about the content of
topics taught. The second part provides a detailed analysis (a case study) of the approach elaborated at
the University of Latvia for the implementation of the ESD concept in the study programmes not only
at the level of one faculty but also in the whole university.
Questioning and Data Sampling
The questioning was designed on the basis of the Sustainability Assessment Questionnaire devel-
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oped by the Association of University Leaders for Sustainable Future (2001) and applied according to the
purpose and design of the study (questionnaire consisted of 19 quantitative and qualitative questioning
items, mostly pertaining to the curriculum). The data were gathered in November and December 2009.
Eight different types of higher education institutions in respect to their form of ownership (state-owned
or private) and geographic locations (national, regional) with the largest number of students in each of
these categories were selected for sampling (see Table 2). Questionnaires were distributed to the facul-
ties or departments of the sampled universities, and they were completed by the personnel responsible
for the curriculum development and practical implementation.
Table 2. Information on the higher education institutions in Latvia.
Riga International School

University of Daugavpils
Business Administration
Administration “Turība”
BA School of Business
Vidzeme University of
Telecommunications
School of Business
University of Latvia
Latvia University of
of Economics and
Applied Sciences
Transport and
and Finance
Agriculture
Institute
Higher education institutions
Type of governance:
State x X x x x x
Private x x
University type x X x
Non-university type x x x x x x
Education level:
College x x x x x
Bachelor x X x x x x x x
Master x X x x x x x x
Doctoral x X x x
Education sector: (Questionnaires per higher education institutions)
Social sciences 2 1 2 1
Education 2 2
Engineering 1 3
Agriculture 3
Natural sciences 3
Businesses 1 1
Information Technology 2 1
Humanities 1
Arts 1
Communication Science 1
A total of 27 questionnaires were received, including information about various science sec-
tors and education levels. As the aim of the questioning was to identify general trends in higher
education, a comparative analysis of each individual respondent institution was not performed. The
results of the questioning were used in order to determine sustainability in higher education, and
they include correlating statements about different aspects in government, location or scientific
sector.
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Case Study of the Implementation of the Concept of ESD in the Faculty of Geography
and Earth Sciences of the University of Latvia
The case study on the implementation of the ESD concept in Latvian universities has been carried
out in the Faculty of Geography and Earth Sciences of the University of Latvia. This faculty is responsible
for education in geography, geology and environmental science, and its total number of students ranges
from 650 to 800 (students in the environmental science study programme – 200 to 300). This faculty has
the leading role in the advancement of environmental science and education for sustainable development
in Latvia. The Department of Environmental Science and the Centre of Education for Sustainable Develop-
ment are responsible for education about sustainable development. Recently, an initiative has been taken
to prepare a study course on the environment and SD and recommend it for all faculties of the University
of Latvia as well as for other higher education institutions in Latvia.
Results of Research
Questioning
In the first part of the questioning, respondent institutions had to provide their general view on
the importance of sustainability ideas in their faculty/department. The questioning results show that
the issues of sustainable development are recognised by higher education institutions as being of high
importance – 60% marked off the importance of sustainability as “a great deal” and 37% – as “quite a bit”.
Noteworthy, nearly 84% of the questioned institutions pointed out that the importance of sustainability
in their structure will increase in the future. The extent to which sustainability has been integrated into the
education policy documents is much lower – only about 30% of universities have any references/links to
sustainable development in their administration, planning or mission documents.
Higher education institutions were asked to elaborate on how they are implementing the content
of sustainable development in their study programmes. The questioning indicated five main approaches
(Figure 1):
Diagram A: a study course on the issues of environmental protection (N=18);
Diagram B: a regular discipline-specific study course, which includes the issues of sustain-
able development (N=14);
Diagram C: a study course about sustainable development (N=9);
Diagram D: a regular discipline-specific programme, which includes the issues of sustainable
development (N=2);
Diagram E: the environmental science programme (N=1).
Figure 1: Approaches to introducing sustainability-related content within curricula (identified

by higher education institutions).
When asked about the criteria by which the universities choose the themes of sustainable develop-
ment for their curricula, the most frequent answers were that SD themes are related to the scientific field of
regular discipline-specific programmes (25%) and are regionally urgent (16%). Higher education institutions
cited the interests of academic staff (12%) as the third most common criterion for selecting the content
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of SD. In spite of various scientific sectors represented in the sample of higher education institutions, the
environmental issues are dominant in the content of study courses about sustainable development (65%).
The economic and social dimensions of sustainability in curricula are represented in approximately equal
proportions – 38% and 34% respectively. This tendency is closely related to the previous observation that
the most common approach to the ESD implementation in the majority of institutions is a study course
about environmental protection.
The findings highlight that the essential condition of the implementation of ESD – the interdiscipli-
nary and holistic approach – is rarely applied in the teaching and learning of sustainability. Only 5 % of the
respondent higher education institutions are actually carrying out this principle. 43% of higher education
institutions were unable to assess to what extent the issues of SD are integrated into the traditional study
programme disciplines (mathematics, art, language etc.). The manner how institutions implement sustain-
ability into their curricula is characterised by the lack of methods, which develop the critical and system
thinking, participatory decision-making or value-based learning. Lecture is still the main performance of
ESD (80%) for the majority of higher education institutions in Latvia, though there are also seminars and
discussions taking place in social sciences (60%) and laboratory works – in natural sciences (40%).
In the conclusion of the questionnaire, higher education institutions were asked to assess their op-
portunities/resources for introducing and implementing ESD in their faculty/department by marking off
a score from 1 to 5 (where 1 is the lowest and 5 the highest rating) for a number of elements related to the
study process. Figure 2 represents an average rating with regard to the resources for the implementation
of ESD given by higher education institutions.
Figure 2: An average rating with regard to the resources for the implementation of education for
sustainable development (provided by higher education institutions).
Universities indicate the students’ involvement or desire to study sustainable development as the
major potential for the implementation of ESD. Furthermore, universities conclude that their academic
staff members are/would be interested in teaching sustainable development, and higher education in-
stitutions give a relatively high score for the knowledge and skills of their academicians in this field. The
lowest rated categories are the availability of funding and the opportunities to incorporate the issues of
sustainable development throughout the curricula. Such a result is largely due to the situation that the
programmes are already loaded or require a significant reorientation and that funding is not provided or
is not generally available for this type of complementation of the study content.
Case Study of the Faculty of Geography and Earth Science
The analysis of the situation and development at the Faculty of Geography and Earth sciences
(University of Latvia) represents a possible approach to the reorganisation of the study content towards
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the implementation of the ESD concept. The total number of students at this faculty ranges from 600 to
800, and ~ 1/3 of them study environmental science as a study topic at B.Sc., M.Sc. and PhD levels. In the
environmental science study programme, a strong emphasis is put on the sustainable development study
courses. The studies are organised in such a way as to make sure that the basic approaches of education for
sustainable development are delivered for all students of the faculty. The study programme staff is largely
responsible for the progress of ESD in this Faculty, and the recently established Education for Sustainable
Development Centre offers the basic study courses on environmental issues and sustainability aspects for
other study programmes at the faculty level.
Recently an initiative has been taken to promote the inclusion of study topics on the environmental
issues and sustainable development in the study programmes of the University of Latvia, first of all in
those of social sciences. The elaboration of the study content has been started by carrying out an exten-
sive questioning, covering approximately one third of all students in social science study programmes.
The aim of the questioning was to identify the topicality of the issues and the interest of students in the
environmental and sustainable development problems and their readiness to study these topics. Further-
more, a research project has been carried out, involving not only academics from Latvian universities but
also from Sweden, Norway and Finland. The results of this study were published in a book Environmental
Education at Universities. The opinions of students, university professors and representatives of the min-
istries of education of the Baltic Sea region countries clearly favoured the inclusion of the major aspects
of ESD and content elements in the study courses on the environment and sustainable development, at
the same time stressing the need to advance not only study content but also teaching and study tools,
supporting student initiatives, the use of multimedia study materials, e-learning tools. As a result of these
efforts, a syllabus for a study course “Environment and sustainable development” has been drawn up and
a multi-authored textbook as well as a teachers’ support package, e-learning materials and multimedia
materials supporting the study process have been developed. The approbation of these study materials
that is already taking place demonstrates their usefulness and appropriateness for social, humanitarian
and natural science students.
Discussion
The overall evaluation of the results shows that higher education in Latvia has a strong tendency to
develop ESD through the environmental science. ESD is currently being promoted and implemented in
the curriculum of higher education institutions almost exclusively through the environmental science. This
approach is also supported by the responsible institutions, and it has been included in the legislation. On
the one hand, the dominance of environmental sciences has been appreciated – it is an interdisciplinary
science and, therefore, may serve as a good platform for the development of ESD compared with other
scientific disciplines, where the issues of sustainability have been dealt with more narrowly or within a
specific vision. Since an active, ongoing implementation of ESD has already been taking place in the field
of environmental sciences, figuratively speaking, this sector can be compared to an “open door” through
which the ESD practices could be most easily and successfully developed; so, in our opinion, this tradition
should be carried on. On the other hand, it is very important to continue the work on promoting ESD in
other disciplines as well, and to complement the ESD practices and content with a vision of sustainability
taken from these sciences. Otherwise, there is a great risk that just this limited conception of sustainable
development will become widespread across the universities. The results of the questioning of higher
education institutions already suggest that the environmental dimension of sustainable development is
most frequently represented in the curricula compared with economic issues or social dimensions.
A slight majority of the respondents estimate the issues of SD as meaningful and relevant to their
institution, and this positive and responsive attitude is of great importance for a successful promotion of
ESD. However, comparing the data regarding the practical implementation of ESD, a conclusion can be
made that the most higher education institutions would carry out this implementation just in a formal and
shallow manner. The dominant approaches are adding new study courses about environmental protec-
tion and/or SD to the curricula or are modifying the regular discipline-specific courses by including the
content of SD issues. This practice suggests that frequently the issues of SD are embraced into curricula as
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education about sustainable development. If a curriculum is the sum of all formal and informal teaching
and learning experiences provided by a higher education institution, then ESD cannot just be added to the
curriculum as a new subject. Only three higher education institutions were a step ahead in the transition
phase, as they have modified their regular discipline-specific programmes by including the issues of SD
or have been carrying out the environmental science programme.
As mentioned before, the environmental dimension is particularly accented in the content of study
courses. This observation is in conformity with the research about the Atlantic Canadian higher education
institutions – “the focus and/or understanding of sustainability education appears to be various manifesta-
tions of environmental science; environmental science and management courses dominate the listing of
courses on offer” (Beringer et al., 2008). Perhaps the emphasis on environmental dimension can be explained
by the fact that institutions have previously been familiar with environmental and conservation issues
and that these issues have been more understandable to the local community in Latvia. In the rest of the
world, the concept of ESD has developed from nature studies and environmental education (Blewitti and
Cullingford, 2004); therefore, the narrow vision of sustainability through environmental issues in the higher
education institutions of Latvia can be compared with the “environmental education” phase of ESD.
The results of the study also show that a key obstacle to a further successful presentation of SD
could be the lack of a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. SD is complicated because of the tight con-
nections between social, economic, ecological and cultural aspects; therefore, the holistic approach is of
high importance. ESD is about learning how to build and understand the relationships and interactions
between complex systems of SD, and creation of such an awareness is much more needed than just another
study course on environmental protection. Sustainability is a holistic concept within which the process
of learning is as important as what is being learnt – the content. The questioning showed that only 5% of
the respondents carry out this principle, whereas 43% of higher education institutions were even unable
to assess to what extent the issues of SD have been integrated into the traditional disciplines of study
programmes (mathematics, art, language etc.). Higher education institutions can be described as having
poorly developed and applied pedagogical approaches in sustainability studies – in the majority of cases,
teaching about sustainability is put into effect trough lectures as subject-based learning. According to
Anderberg et al. (2009), the holistic conceptions of SD tend to broaden teaching and learning approach,
and this statement supports a conclusion that the conceptions of SD practised on a large scale all over
the higher education institutions in Latvia are those of the limited understanding.
The findings in several categories of the questioning demonstrate that academic staff has a lead-
ing role in many aspects of the ESD implementation. In many cases, the extent and approach of the ESD
implementation in university tightly depends on the will and interests of academicians. Data about the
recourses/opportunities for promoting ESD in higher education suggest that there are still many barriers;
consequently, we must search for obstacles that hinder the implementation of ESD and for the best solutions
for its successful entry into curricula. The participation of responsible institutions in the implementation of
ESD is formal, particularly in the dissemination of good practice, communication and information exchange
between higher education institutions. Responsible institutions should put more efforts on discussions
with higher education institutions, clarifying such issues as how to motivate universities to reorient their
programmes, what would be the desirable “help” from the institutions in charge of developing the aca-
demic sustainability plans, and what would be the potential course and degree options on sustainability
at higher education institutions.
Conclusion
Higher education institutions in Latvia are at the first stage of “greening” their curricula, and the efforts
to incorporate the issues of SD into curricula can be characterised more as education about sustainable
development. Since the environmental dimension is particularly accented and there is a noticeable lack
of holistic and interdisciplinary approaches, the limited conception of SD is widespread among the higher
education institutions. The possible agents of changes promoting sustainability in university structures
are the academicians. Therefore, the activities focusing on the academic staff training and involvement in
sustainable development ideas should be developed. Future studies should explore what is the academic
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understanding of sustainable development and how this perception affects the teaching and learning
about SD.
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Received 03 September 2010; accepted 02 November 2010
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Faculty of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Latvia, Raina
blvd. 19, Riga, LV-1586 Latvia.
Website: http://www.lu.lv/eng/
Madara Pelnena PhD student at the Faculty of Geography and Earth Sciences, University
of Latvia, Alberta Street 10, Riga, LV-1050 Latvia.
Website: http://www.lu.lv/eng/
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Teaching Sustainable
Development at
University Level:
current trends and
future needs
Abstract. Sustainable development is a

Walter Leal Filho
matter of great concern to both countries
and individuals alike. Whereas in the
late 1980s sustainable development was
perceived as a matter of concern only
Introduction: Sustainability as a Concept to nations, there has been an increased
awareness about the fact that it permeates
Sustainability as a concept as a way of thinking or as a subject,
all parts of our lives. Some of the trends
has found its way into university programmes. Fifteen years ago,
a pioneering book outlined how sustainable development can be related to the evolution of sustainable
implemented at universities (Leal Filho, MacDermitt and Padgham development can be seen among various
1995). In addition, over ten years ago, in a set of volumes on sus- sectors, also at universities. Due to their
tainability in the context of university education (Leal Filho 1988, relevance, universities are uniquely placed
Leal Filho 1999a, Leal Filho 1996b, Leal Filho 1996c), the author to pass on the messages of sustainable
discussed the fact that, since Rio, a lot has been said, written and
development to a wide audience. Yes, this
published on the broad subject of sustainability at various levels,
from curriculum (Creighton 1996) to planning (Blowers 1993) to potential has not yet been fully realised.
the broad field of policy (e.g. Selman 1996, Baker, Kansis, Rich- This paper describes the evolution of the
ardson and Young 1997, Brown 1997) and local environmental concept of sustainable development and
initiatives (Whittaker 1995, ICLEI 1997), also including at the process behind the its establishment at
university level. university level, including an analysis of
Within the tertiary sector, there have been various landmarks
the problems related to it and their roots.
in the process of design of approaches and mechanisms to bring
in environmental concerns and matters related to sustainable It also states what universities need to do
development to university policies - some of which set in motion in order to claim excellence in the field of
well before UNCED-, which include many important documents sustainable development, listing a set of
such as: criteria that need to be fulfilled in order to
achieve this goal.
• the Magna Charta of European Universities (1988)
Key words: sustainable development,
• the Talloires Declaration of University Presidents for a
Sustainable Future (1990) education, universities, research, publica-
• the Halifax document “Creating a Common Future: tions.
an Action Plan for Universities” (1991) (Lester Pearson
Institute for International Development 1992)
• the “Urgent Appeal from the CRE” to the Preparatory
Committee of UNCED (1991) Walter Leal Filho
• the COPERNICUS “Universities Charter or Sustainable London Metropolitan University,
Development” (1994) United Kingdom
• the Lüneburg Declaration on Higher Education for
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Sustainable Development (2001)

• The Ubuntu Declaration on Education and Science and Technology for Sustainable Devel-
opment (2002)
• Graz Declaration on Committing Universities to Sustainable Development (2005)
• G8 University Summit Sapporo Sustainability Declaration (2008)
• G8 University Summit: Statement of Action (2010)
Moreover, in a further reflection of the maturity of the topic at a scientific level, a specialist journal
was launched in the year 2000. Titled “The International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education”
(IJSHE), this unique periodical has established a prestigious international network of practitioners, aca-
demics and legislators working on sustainable development in higher education. IJSHE is the world´s first
journal to specifically focus on the subject of sustainability and sustainable development at universities,
especially the 600 or so of them worldwide which have committed themselves towards sustainability
by signing international agreements and convention such as the Bologna Charter, The Halifax Declara-
tion, the Talloires Declaration and the Copernicus Charter for Sustainable Development, among others.
IJSHE is important in the sense that:
• it provides up-to-date information on new developments and trends

• it reports on international experiences, especially from Europe and North America, but also
from other parts of the world (e.g. Africa, Latin America, Asia, Oceania)
• it is a tool for the dissemination of reliable information
• it enables networking and information exchange on a global basis
Last but not least, IJSHE represents a step forward in the provision of a peer-reviewed journal, which may
promote the work of the people working in the field and disseminate their work and their own institutions,
on an international basis. Now on its 11th volume (2010), IJSHE has already provided a significant contribution
towards addressing the lack of specific scientific articles on sustainability in higher education, addressing
matters such as misconceptions, comparison of policy and practice, overcoming barriers to campus greening
and promoting approaches such as back-casting or a university´s role in promoting sustainability in health
care. IJSHE has already many awards for its innovative focus, including the Aurelio Puccine Award, conferred
in a special ceremony held in Rome, Italy in the summer of 2001. The medal states “the challenge of current
generations is to make sure that a better world will be here waiting for the new ones”.
Moreover, over the course of the past ten years, the literature has registered various works which
have attempted to throw some light onto the ways by which sustainability -seen as both a process
and as a goal- may be effectively implemented, emphasising what can be done at university level. For
example, a publication outlining practical examples of the introduction of sustainability components
into university activities titled “Sustainability and University Life” (Leal Filho 1999a), provides concrete
examples of action at various fronts such as administration, planning, teaching, extension and re-
search. The ultimate aim of the book is to show the “hows” of sustainability and the practical problems
experienced as part of the process” at the time. Since then much progress has been made and many
publications have provided a solid basis for the development of sustainability as a research topic and
as an area of importance in university programmes, as seen in Appendix 1.
They illustrate the fact that topic has become mature and is the subject of much scholarly atten-
tion on a worldwide scale.
An Overview of Misconceptions on Sustainability
Despite the progress here outlined there is still a deficiency, in the literature, of empirical works
which have tried to ascertain, first hand, what is hoped, expected or otherwise among those in charge
of sustainability policies, from attempts to promote sustainability in the framework of institutions of
higher education. On the basis of the need to fill in such a gap, an informal study was performed among
some European institutions in the year 2000 (Leal Filho 2000b) and repeated again in early 2010.
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The hypothesis was simple: if sustainability is so important and so useful, why only a few universi-
ties are active in this area?
Box 1. Costing less.
A proposal was made, in a university in northern England, to replace ordinary paper used in
administration and stationary, with recycled one. After comparing the prices of both modali-
ties of papers, the administration decided that it should continue to purchase non-recycled
paper, since it would cost less. The fact that bulk purchases would substantially lower the
costs and that the use of recycled paper would be a good example of environmental concern,
were ignored.
Another rationale of the study was the intention to build up a rough profile of the reasons why
universities may be reluctant to actively pursue efforts towards sustainability. To this purpose, an informal
set of consultations was performed with the Rectors, Vice-Rectors, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Deans
of Faculties of Natural Sciences of a sample of forty randomly chosen European universities, in January
2000 and again in January 2010. The technical basis of the consultations was to identify, by means of
informal interviews and informal discussions, the themes or factors which may be responsible for the
above outlined reluctance, and which may ultimately prevent some universities from being actively
engaged in sustainability-oriented efforts or activities.
Based on the fact that –on both occasions- the consultations took place in the context of conferences
and visits and were informal, added to the fact that confidentiality in treating the impressions deriving
from them was promised, no mention will be made to the specific universities, nor will any names be
provided. However, in order to offer an overview of the breadth of the discussions, the distribution of
countries is herewith provided (Table 1).
Box 2. Saving money.
A university in the eastern part of Germany decided to invest on a new power station. In addi-
tion to the purchase of a new system, measures were put in place to cut consumption out of
hours and to improve the efficiency of the illumination of rooms. Savings of around 6% of the
total energy bill were seen in the first year alone.
Table 1. Countries and number of universities involved in the consultation (2000 / 2010).
Country Universities consulted
Austria 2
Denmark 1
France 3
Great Britain 7
Germany 15
Italy 4
Netherlands 1
Portugal 2
Spain 3
Sweden 1

As stated in the first study, it should be stated that the findings deriving from the above outlined
process should be seen with care, since the sample is rather small and the nature of the collected data
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is subjective since it is based on the personal opinions of the individuals involved. On the other hand,
since these people occupy key positions in the administration of their institutions, it is assumed that
their own, personal opinion and views, might have an effect on their decisions to favour a certain ap-
proach. Hence, albeit not conclusive, the findings may be regarded as symptomatic as to the current
state of affairs and therefore as being of relevant to the present appraisal.
Box 3. Teaching stuff to staff.
A college in northern Italy started to run seminars on matters related to sustainable develop-
ment and gender issues to staff. In addition to being popular, such seminars have motivated
the creation of „green teams“within the institution, with staff getting together to discuss ways
of making the institution´s initiatives less environmentally harmful.
Due to the level of seniority of the interviewees and the fact that the main thrust of the consulta-
tion was to identify possible misconceptions, only two -central- questions were asked in the context of
the consultations, being thus of direct relevance to this chapter. These were:
i. what the interviewees´ personal opinion on the concept of sustainability is;
ii. what they perceive as being the major barriers in pursuing sustainability in the context of
their institutions.
The rationale behind these two questions is simple: by identifying the opinions on the concept of
sustainability, it is possible to infer whether it is regarded as a matter of relevance or otherwise. In addi-
tion, by determining the items seen as barriers to its implementation, it is also possible -by default- to
identify where action is needed. Due to their strategic value and potential implications, each finding is
discussed individually and contextualised.
a) Personal opinion on sustainability
In the 2000 study there was an agreement among 34 of the interviewed officials, that the mat-
ter of sustainability is an important one. This is the equivalent to over 80% of the total. Only six of the
persons involved in the consultations have shown some degree of reservation on the relevance of the
topic, classifying it as a „fashion“ (3), as „abstract“ (2) or as „difficult to implement“ (1). On the other hand,
there were representatives of institutions quite enthusiastic about it. One institution has indeed taken
the step of creating a chair on sustainable development, that should have „sustainable businesses“as
a focal point, while another has set in motion doctoral programmes to investigate the various aspects
of sustainability. The 2010 study showed a much stronger awareness about the value of sustainability
and no respondent stated it is not important, as seen in Table 2.
Table 2. Personal opinion on sustainability.
Number of opinions on the 2000 Number of opinions on the 2010

Opinion
Survey Survey
Sustainability is important 34 38
Sustainability is relevant 2 2
Sustainability is not important 4 0
The fact that personal opinions may be overall regarded as optimistic has a strong meaning, since
it shows that the thematic sustainability may count on a great deal of sympathy.
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Box 4. Spreading the word.
In an attempt to raise the profile of the subject matter of sustainability, a university in northern
Germany chose to set up a „Commission on Sustainability“ right in the heart of its decision-
making: the Senate. By doing that, it is making sure that all important players are aware of what
the institution is doing in this field.
b) Barriers to sustainability
When asked about the items that might pose an obstacle to sustainability, the 2000 sample pro-
vided a range of opinions, which fall into five main fronts: „it is too abstract“ (12 respondents), „it is too
broad“ (19 respondents), „no personnel to deal with it“ (4 respondents), „it demands substantial resources
which we do not have or can justify“ (3 respondents) and, „it lacks a scientific basis“ (2 respondents).
The 2010 sample has shown a slightly different set of answers to the barriers, as described in Table 3.
The good news is that the numbers of those who regard sustainable development as too abstract or
too broad has decreased. However, lack of qualified personnel is now regarded a greater problem as
it did 10 years ago. In addition, it can be seen that competition of other universities is regarded as a
problem by some respondents.
Table 3. Barriers to sustainability.
Number of opinions on the 2000 Number of opinions on the 2010

Opinion
Survey Survey
Too abstract a topic 12 6

Too broad a topic 19 5
No personnel 4 12
It demands too much resources 3 9
Lacks a scientific basis 2 1
Too competitive 0 7
The above shows that even though some improvements have been seen since the year 2000, there
are still many misconceptions of what the process of sustainable development is and what sustainability
represents to an institution. Such misconceptions and the contradictory interpretations associated with
them are usually translated into a negative view, which on its turn usually reflects on an institution´s will-
ingness -or lack thereof- to join in efforts towards making their activities more environmentally-friendly
and the university business more sustainable. Let’s examine the bases of such misconceptions:
i. sustainability is too abstract: partly because of the scope of the theme and partly because
of lack of information, some respondents see the theme as too abstract and as too distant
of the reality. The truth is that, if carefully looked at and properly inferred to the activities of
higher education institutions such as teaching, research, extension or even purchasing and
electricity use, sustainability is as close to their lives as it could be.
ii. sustainability is too broad: second to „abstract“, the adjective „broad“ is also often used, as an
argument against the undertaking of sustainable measures. Once again, a mistake is being
made, since one can apply the principles of sustainable development to different parts of
the university life, contextualising it.
iii. we have no personnel to look after it: such a misconception finds its basis on the fact that,
traditionally, a job at a university (e.g. tutoring, counselling) is performed by someone for-
mally qualified. This is especially the case in countries which attach a great value to formal
education, such as Germany, where practical and operational skills (also greatly valued else-
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where) usually comes in second place. The reality is that anyone familiar with the principles
and practices of sustainable development and sensitive to the impact university activities
have on the environment, is in a position to potentially do a good work in this area. It is
often a question of having someone sufficiently motivated and qualified to do the job and
undertake the necessary consultations and liaisons needed to do it effectively. This reply
raises one issue, namely the lack of adequately training personnel to tackle matters related
to sustainable development.
iv. the resources needed do not justify it: this misconception is not based on facts. Although
financial considerations do not always come on top of the list of what higher education
institutions expect by conforming their work with the principles of sustainability, they do
play an important role. As exemplified by the pilot project „50-50“ now widely spread in
Germany, savings in areas such as energy consumption can be translated into immediate
financial benefits, which institutions can then use to purchase goods or services, or re-invest
in infra-structure.
v. the theme has no scientific basis: this was not often mentioned, but unfortunately still re-
ferred to as a problem, which shows ill-information. Sustainability is now an item found on
the very top of the scientific agenda. In many European countries, substantial resources
are available for research on sustainability and in the European Commission´s 7th Research
Framework Programme, sustainability is a research topic to which considerable funding is
available. Universities which deny the scientific basis of sustainability are not only wrong,
but also losing valuable opportunities for acquiring research projects and increasing their
research income.
vi. too competitive: here it is meant that there is much competition for funds and resources
for sustainability initiatives. This is something not inherent to sustainability: other areas of
knowledge are also under the same competition and submission of research bids is a normal
part of academic work.
The last three items show that, although there is on the one hand quite a broad support basis to
sustainability, there is a need, on the other hand, to deal with the misconceptions above outlined so
that universities may be in a position to take full advantage of the potential sustainability offers.
When carefully examined, the above outlined misconceptions have deeper roots than one may in
principle be able to identify. Some of factors that influence an individual´s attitudes towards sustain-
ability are described below:
Knowledge Information on the meaning of sustainabilityand its implications
Background The nature of his/her training often influences an individual´s degree of

receptivity in relation to sustainability
Experience Previous experience with environmental and social affairs facilitate

understanding on the role of sustainability
Perception Values Differing from the previous ones due to its high degree of complexity, an
individual´s values often determine whether his/her attitudes are favour-
able or otherwise
Context Sustainability is not only related to ecological components per se, but
also entail items such as economics, politics and social matters. How-
ever, links with the latter are often ignored by universities
The list, albeit not exhaustive, does illustrate some of the key items to which attention should be
focused.
It should be acknowledged that, although most of these factors may be regarded as subjective
and -when individually looked- disconnected, they, combined, help to clarify why there are so many
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misconceptions in relation to sustainability. True, mention to a single item may not have much of a
meaning, but together, they provide a rough overview of some of the key features of the problem.
A key question one may pose at this stage is why is sustainability - as a process- in some contexts so
difficult to understand? There are various reasons for that.
The first reason is because sustainability is not a subject per se. Since it is not classified as being
of the domain of any given science -rather being a component which may be incorporated into all
disciplines- there tends to be a trend towards perceiving it as an abstract concept. Another aspect of
the problem is that items such as sustainability or specific variables such as „Local Agenda 21“ are often
ill-defined (Patterson and Theobald 1999) being implemented under great financial and administrative
constrains.
The second reason is because sustainability is seen as being too theoretical. Here part of the dif-
ficult lies on the fact that sustainability and sustainable approaches are seen as theoretical matters, part
of the political discourse and hence a mere theoretical expression.
The third reason is because sustainability is seen as too broad. This feeling is felt in some contexts
(e.g. the civil service, the engineering profession), where the subject is seen as too broad and, by default,
as impossible to handle.
A further reason is because sustainability is regarded as being too recent a field. This is observed
in some southern European countries, which see it as a new issue and a new field of action, as opposed
to having being part of the process all along. As a result of this misconception, some universities think
they should wait and see how it develops, as opposed to taking a more proactive role.
Furthermore, some people perceive sustainability as a fashion. This is unfortunately observed in
many situations and derives from the suspicion on the real purpose of sustainability.
Perhaps the most worrying feature in relation to the above state of affairs is that one or more of
the above points are used, every day, as an excuse for not taking action. It is this crucial that these are
duly addressed.
Universities, Regional Development and Sustainability
Universities are widely acknowledged as institutions where the combination of good quality
teaching, well founded research and an extensive programme of extension (i.e. courses, seminars and
events targeted to further and continuing education) provides a significant contribution to a country´s
scientific and economic development.
No matter where they are located, it is a matter of fact that Universities are intimately associated
with the city they are based. This is particularly so in cities of medium size (e.g. up to 200.000 inhabitants)
to small cities (up to 120.000 inhabitants) where local universities are important employers (sometime
being number 1 or number 2 after the city administration) and very much influence a city´s cultural
diversity and the existence of amenities. In all cities hosting universities there are theaters, cinemas and
a lively programme of cultural activities. In addition, in those cities which host many universities this
trend is even clearer: not only the high number of university students means that the substantial infra-
structure needed to host them is available (from public transport to housing), but also because their
purchase power is very important to the economies of the hosting cities. Indeed, in cities which host 5
or more universities (e.g. London, Hamburg, Paris, Madrid, but also Tokyo, New York, San Francisco or
Toronto) the sheer students numbers mean the provision of direct and indirect employment to tens of
thousands of people, from university services to restaurants and entertainment.
In many contexts, the very title (official name) of the University reflects the city or region they are
based at, in a clear demonstration of their local affinity. Examples such as the University of Bradford
(UK), University of Aalborg (DK), University of Hamburg (DE), University of Gröningen (NL), University
of Padova (I), Oporto University (P), Uppsala University (SE), to name all but a few, attest this. But it is
not only a matter of location. The study programme of many universities is often directly linked to their
geographical position. This explains why the small University of Freiberg - a mining area in eastern
Germany- offer an extensive study programme in mining, whereas the University of Bergen in Norway
(surround by oil fields) has an extensive off-shore engineering programme.
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The link with sustainability offers however a different picture: few European universities (and, inter
alia, cities) have a strong sustainability profile. Indeed, it is fair to say that many European regions are
lagging behind and are missing the various opportunities teaching and research on matters related to
sustainable development offer. This is not to say that these universities are not aware about what sus-
tainability is. This is not the problem. It is a noticeable, sheer lack of emphasis, that disturbs: sustainable
development is, along with climate change, one of the most important challenges of modern times.
Yet, it is central to the activities of only a handful of universities. Some of the elements which illustrate
the links between sustainability and regional development are:
• Regional engagement
• Handling concrete issues and problems
• High quality
• Dialogue with stakeholders and partners
It can be seen that by means of high quality academic inputs, a dialogue with regional stakeholders
and partners can be achieved, by means of which concrete problems can be handled.
An analysis of the extent to which sustainability is present at university programmes in Germany
(based on existence in the curriculum, research and extension) has shown that there exists much room
for improvement. As seen in Table 4, only a few universities fully realize the advantages which may be
brought about by a due emphasis to sustainability as part of their programmes. Indeed, since some of
the country´s largest universities have a weak sustainability profile, one can see that substantial efforts
are needed so as to allow a broader dissemination of matters related to sustainable development in
university programmes.
Table 4. Emphasis of some German universities to sustainability.
University / Student numbers City/Region Emphasis on sustainability
University of Lüneburg / ca. 7.000 Lüneburg, Lower Saxony, Germany Strong

University of Zittau-Görlitz / ca. 4.000 Zittau, Saxony, Germany Strong
Hamburg University of Applied Sciences / ca. Hamburg, Germany Medium
13.000
University of Duisburg-Essen / ca. 31.000 Essen, North-Rhine Westphalia region Medium
Free University of Berlin / ca. 30.000 Berlin Weak
University of Munich/ ca. 47.000 Munich Weak
University of Kiel /ca. 23.000 Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein Weak
University of Hamburg / ca. 39.000 Hamburg Weak
This trend is unfortunately not new. In an earlier paper, Leal Filho (2009c) has outlined the fact
that proportionally little emphasis seems to given to sustainability by large universities. Indeed,
many universities perform activities in the area of environmental protection (e.g. energy savings pro-
grammes, waste management, etc) and regard this as their contribution to sustainability, neglecting
the fact that Campus operations are indeed important contributions, but by far not the only ones.
In order to claim excellence in the field of sustainable development, universities need to have fulfill
six main criteria:
1. the existence of a core number of staff who have formal qualifications in the field by means
of doctoral degrees on matters related to sustainable development;
2. the existence of a strong publications profile on sustainable development issues published
in international journals;
3. the existence of a robust research programme with externally-funded projects handling
sustainable development matters;
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4. the implementation of principles of sustainable development as intrinsic part of university

teaching programmes;
5. the integration of sustainable development in the context of university activities and opera-
tions (e.g. campus greening);
6. the existence of a programme of extension (outreach) on sustainable development topics,
for the non-students public.
It is admittedly not easy to fulfill all the six criteria. Most universities will fulfill a couple of them,
but it is seldom to see universities which provide emphasis to all six criteria, which would be an ideal
scenario.
But the problem of reduced emphasis is not only limited to sustainable development. The world
climate change survey, for example, undertaken in 2009 and which involved 1.250 students from 166
universities in 43 countries (Leal Filho 2010b), showed that the emphasis to matters related to climate
change at university programmes also leaves much room for improvements (Table 5).
Table 5. Level of emphasis to matters related to climate change according to the sample (in %).
Latin North
Scale Europe Africa Asia/Oceania
America America
The topic is very well covered so we have

13 9 8 11 17
more than enough
The topic is covered. We have enough. 21 14 23 17 27
The topic is not as well covered as we
43 20 34 32 41
would like to
The topic is poorly covered 12 33 10 22 7
The topic is not covered at all 9 19 19 17 6
I do not know/am not sure 2 5 6 1 2
(After Leal Filho 2010b)
This state of affairs suggests that action is needed in order to allow universities to integrate sustain-
able development in regional development. . Some of the measures that can be undertaken without a
great deal of extra resources are:
a) fostering the links between the theory and the practice of sustainability: by means
of case studies, pilot projects and regional initiatives on-the-ground, it can be illustrated
how close to reality sustainability is and how cities and regions may benefit from it. There
are various good examples of initiatives related to Agenda 21, the Gothenburg Declaration
and from the EU Action Plan for Sustainable Development, for example, which provide an
excellent basis against which the real value of sustainability efforts can be seen.
b) going into the specifics: although the broader, theoretical discussion on sustainability is
helpful, there ought to be more attempts to get into specific issues and themes of regional
relevance. For example, energy use, sustainable water consumption or sustainable produc-
tion are some of the contexts where there are relevant approaches can be used and in the
context of which clear outcomes can be expected.
c) disseminating the value of sustainability: a major problem seen in both industrialised and
developing nations alike, is that the value of approaches towards sustainability is not widely
acknowledged. A further problem is that not all good experiences are duly documented,
a problem „Sustainability and University Life“(Leal Filho 1999a), “Teaching Sustainability at
Universities” (Leal Filho 2002), the “Handbook of Sustainability Research” (Leal Filho 2005)
have tried to address. Here there is a clear need for more demonstration and information, so
as to raise its profile, which may lead to increased acceptance and hopefully, further use.
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Discussion
There are at present signs that the subject matter of sustainability is progressively being dissemi-
nated as both an aspect of teaching programmes and as a context for research. As demonstrated by
Leal Filho (2010a) the ground for the introduction of concepts of environmental education and sustain-
ability is very fertile. However, prior to being able to fully take advantage of the degree of acceptance
sustainability has, it would be important to cater for the training needs of university staff, so that they
feel confident to introduce concepts of sustainability as part of their works.
As seen in the data and examples described in this paper, which are symptomatic of the reality in
many institutions of higher education in Europe, a certain degree of preparedness to pursue sustain-
ability may be felt, also at the regional level. This state of affairs is also seen in some developing coun-
tries, where innovation at university level takes place at a relatively lower pace than in industrialised
nations and where the lack of resources sometimes prevent active engagement on the debate on
international themes. But a number of features need to be put into place so as to enable all universities
to fully engage on the debate on sustainability and take advantage of the opportunities it provides.
Some of these are:
a) an understanding of the role may play in implementing sustainable development (Romero
1995, Simai 1995, Selman 1996);
b) reliable in-service training provisions on matters related to sustainability to academic
staff;
c) set-up of research centres or working groups to debate how best to pursue it via specific
initiatives;
d) development of partnerships and networks (intra-institutional and inter-institutional) to
exchange ideas and experiences (Speller 1992, UNESCO 1995);
e) the setting-up and execution of specific projects.
Last but not least, attempts to implement regional initiatives related to sustainability at universities
should be followed according to a proper structure (e.g. Sustainability Programme, Sustainability Action
Plan, etc). A Plan or Programme helps to provide a sense of direction as to where efforts are going into
and help to establish if results have been achieved.
Conclusions
One of the first documents outlining the need for further engagement of universities into envi-
ronmental affairs, the „Magna Charta of European Universities“ promulgated in Bologna in September
1998, states that:
„ ...universities must give future generations education and training that will teach them,
and through them, others to respect the great harmonies of their natural environment and of
life itself. “

Among the most effective ways of achieving this, mention can be made to the need to afford
sufficient emphasis to sustainability, since it deals not only with „ecological“ matters, but also with the
pool of factors that influence the environmental balance and quality of life.
Although the value of sustainability is broadly acknowledged within the university community,
there are still various misconceptions that need to be addressed so as to clear the way for action. Prior to
being able to undertake long-term works in this area, it is important that such misconceptions are duly
addressed. One of the ways to do that is via concrete initiatives at the regional level, in the framework
of which the practicality and efficiency of sustainable approaches are shown. This need, which has been
largely overlooked in the past, should be duly addressed, since it is not only responsible for the lack of
action in the past, but future, long-term progress depends on it.
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References
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Blowers, A. (Ed) (1993). Planning for a Sustainable Environment. Earthscan, London.
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Level. CRE, Geneva.
Leal Filho, W. (ed) (1998). Umweltschutz und Nachhaltigkeit an Hochschulen: Konzepte-Umsetzung. Verlag Peter
Lang, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W (Ed) (1999a). Sustainability and University Life. Verlag Peter Lang, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (1999b). Getting people involved. In: Buckingham-Hatfield, S. & Percy, S. (Eds) Constructing Local
Environmental Agendas. Routledge, London.
Leal Filho (1999c). Sustainable What? Dealing with Misconcepts on Sustainability at Universities. In: Bor, W. van
den, Holen, P. and Wals, A. (Eds) (1999), The Concept of Sustainability in Higher Education. Peter Lang Scientific Publish-
ers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2000a). Communicating Sustainability. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2000b). Dealing with misconceptions on the concept of sustainability
In: International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 9-19.
Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2002a). Teaching Sustainability – towards curriculum greening. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers,
Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2002b). International Experiences on Sustainability. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. and Ubelis, A. (Eds) (2004). Integrative approaches towards sustainability in the Baltic Sea Region. Peter
Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2005). Handbook of Sustainability Research. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. Ubelis, A., Berzina, D. (eds) (2006). Sustainable Development in the Baltic and Beyond. Peter Lang
Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (ed.) (2006). Innovation, Education and Communication for Sustainable Development. Peter Lang
Leal Filho, W., Salomone, M. (Eds) (2006). Innovative Approaches to Education for Sustainable Development. Peter
Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W., Manolas, E., Sotirakou, M., Boutakis, G. (eds) (2007). Higher Education and the Challenge of Sustain-
ability: Problems, Promises and Good Practice. Evrographics, Orestiada.
Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2010a). Sustainability at Universities: Opportunities, Challenges and Trends. Peter Lang Scientific
Publishers, Frankfurt.
Leal Filho, W. (2010b) Climate Change at Universities: Results of a World Survey. In Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2010). Uni-
versities and Climate Change – Introducing Climate Change at University Programmes. Springer, Berlin.
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Constructing Local Environmental Agendas. Routledge, London.
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tional Association of Universities. Kogan Page, London.
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Selman, P. (1996). Sustainable Development: Managing and Planning Ecological Sound Places. Paul Chapman,
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Appendix 1. Some publications on sustainability at university programmes
• Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2000a). Communicating Sustainability. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers,
Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2002a). Teaching Sustainability – towards curriculum greening. Peter Lang
• Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2002b). International Experiences on Sustainability. Peter Lang Scientific
Publishers, Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W. and Ubelis, A. (Eds) (2004). Integrative approaches towards sustainability in the
Baltic Sea Region. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2005). Handbook of Sustainability Research. Peter Lang Scientific Publish-
ers, Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W. Ubelis, A., Berzina, D. (eds) (2006). Sustainable Development in the Baltic and
Beyond. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W. (ed.) (2006). Innovation, Education and Communication for Sustainable Develop-
ment. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W., Salomone, M. (Eds) (2006). Innovative Approaches to Education for Sustainable
Development. Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
• Leal Filho, W., Manolas, E., Sotirakou, M., Boutakis, G. (eds) (2007). Higher Education and the
Challenge of Sustainability: Problems, Promises and Good Practice. Evrographics, Orestiada.
• Leal Filho, W. (Ed) (2010). Sustainability at Universities: Opportunities, Challenges and Trends.
Peter Lang Scientific Publishers, Frankfurt.
Walter Leal Filho Senior Professor at London Metropolitan University Business

School , UK and the director of the Research and Transfer Centre
“Applications of Life Sciences” at the Hamburg University of
Applied Sciences in Germany.
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IDEOLOGY, EPISTEMOLOGY
AND PEDAGOGY:
BARRIERS AND DRIVERS
TO EDUCATION FOR
SUSTAINABILITY IN
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Michael Littledyke, Abstract. The Brundtland Report

(Brundtland Report, cited in United
Evangelos Manolas
Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, 1999) definition of
��
educa-
tion for sustainability (EfS) allows us to
conceptualise sustainability in a number
of ways in education, such as ecological
Introduction
sustainability, sociocultural sustainability
and, political sustainability. Whilst EfS
Education for Sustainability (EfS) has high international pri-
issues have multi-dimensional meanings,
ority, as demonstrated by UNESCO’s (United Nations Educational,
including effects, root causes, change
Scientific and Cultural Organisation) highlighting of EfS in the
strategies and preferred futures each
United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
curriculum area can contribute. This
(DESD, 2005-2014), which ‘seeks to integrate the principles, values,
paper focusses on how approaches to
and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of educa-
science education can contribute to or
tion and learning, in order to address the social, economic, cultural
inhibit EfS, according to what degree it
and environmental problems we face in the 21st century’ (UNESCO,
informs understanding of sustainability
2010, p. 1). National and local initiatives are required to support
issues, how it may support values and
UNESCO’s DESD initiative. Some countries have well developed
beliefs underpinning sustainability and
supporting statements, though practice is commonly inconsistent
how priorities in constructing curricula
with guidance. For example, Australia’s comprehensive national
can influence pedagogy. Epistemology,
strategy for sustainable living has an aim ‘to equip all Australians
as conceptions of knowledge associated
with knowledge and skills to live sustainably’ (��
Australian Govern-
with science, and ideology, as political
ment Department of Environment, Water, heritage and the Arts,
influences that shape curricula, can
2009, p. 4). The Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative provides
direct approaches to pedagogy, which
a comprehensive strategy for EfS in schools (AuSSI, 2009), whilst
may or may not support EfS. Examples of
the National Curriculum to be initiated in 2011 identifies EfS as a
approaches to science education that may
sustainability theme (ACAR, 2010). State governments also have
support EfS are discussed with implications
local guidance for implementation of EfS in schools; for example the
for appropriate pedagogy to support EfS
New South Wales Government provides comprehensive guidance
summarised.
for schools to develop a School Environmental Management Plan
(SEMP) to implement EfS through the curriculum, grounds and Key words: epistemology, ideology,
resources management (NSW Government, 2010). pedagogy, science education,
Although guidance for EfS is in place in many countries, the sustainability.
message is not impacting significantly on lifestyles, which remain
unsustainable. Australia, which is broadly typical of developed
countries, would require the equivalent of the resources of four Michael Littledyke
planet Earths to maintain average levels of consumption (EPA University of New England, Australia
Victoria, 2010). Greenhouse gas emissions per capita are also Evangelos Manolas
among the highest in the world, which is influenced by the federal Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
government’s reliance on cheap coal as fuel for power stations,
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along with high levels of coal exports, even though solar energy is plentiful renewable energy source.
Although sustainability issues, particularly related to climate change, are commonly highlighted in the
media, Australia, like all developed countries, has a long way to go to achieve sustainability. In schools,
although there is good support for EfS, curriculum and assessment pressures particularly from English
and maths at primary school and from general subjects at secondary level tend to relegate EfS to
marginal status in many instances (Littledyke, Taylor and Eames, 2009). These trends are consistent with
contradictions in guidance and practice for EfS in many countries. The reasons for the contradictions
are complex, but an understanding of the barriers that inhibit EfS and drivers that may promote it is an
important aspect of EfS if informed action for EfS is to be realised. To contribute to understanding these
barriers and drivers, this paper will focus on science education as a significant contributing curriculum
area for EfS and how ideological, epistemological and pedagogical factors acting as barriers or drivers
can affect how approaches to science education may or may not influence EfS to effect informed action
for sustainability.
The Importance and Scope of EfS and the Role of Science Education
We are at a critical, crisis phase of human history in our impact on the environment, as exemplified
by a statement from the Union of Concerned Scientists:
Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course. Human activities inflict harsh and often
irreversible damage on the environment and on critical resources. If not checked, many of our current
practices put at serious risk the future that we wish for human society and the plant and animal kingdoms
and may so alter the living world that it will be unable to sustain life in the manner that we know. (Union
of Concerned Scientists, 1992).
A major issue in the current crisis is climate change associated with observed
��
increase in anthro-
pogenic greenhouse gas concentrations, which are mainly produced from the burning of fossil fuels
and from deforestation (Yencken and Henry, 2008). Ackerman and Stanton (2006) indicate possible
consequences of different scenarios of increases in global temperatures, which could rise between 1.4
and 5.8º C (2.5 to 10.4º F) by 2100 if present levels of greenhouse gas emissions are maintained (Human
Development Report, 2007/08). These possible scenarios range from damaging (such as more extreme
weather events with pole-ward migration of plant and animal species and extinctions of less adaptable
species, increased tropical diseases, with decreases in crop yields plus communities facing widespread
droughts) to catastrophic (such as major decreases in agricultural production with decreasing food sup-
plies, major rises in sea levels causing massive damage to coastal communities and major cities, and a
possibility of shut down of the ocean’s circulation system removing the crucial currents that warm and
stabilize the climate of Northern Europe).
In spite of the potential danger and significant risk from these possible scenarios, most people are
unwilling to take appropriate action. For example, Kuckartz (2009) shows from surveys in Europe that
many people are sensitive to climate change issues (80-90%), while fewer are knowledgeable (20-50%)
but even fewer take personal action to combat the problem (5-20%). We are clearly having major nega-
tive impact on the planet and we need urgent action to achieve sustainability, as ‘human beings may
be ever more sawing off the branch on which it is perched’ (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 2008, p. 206). Effective
EfS, leading to positive action to protect the environment is essential to ward off potential catastrophe.
However, development of effective EfS requires clear understanding of its scope and influence.
Sustainable development is defined in the ‘Brundtland Report’, Our Common Future, made by the
World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 as ‘development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland
Report, cited in United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1999, p. 1). This definition
allows sustainability to be conceptualised in a number of ways to inform EfS:
• ‘ecological sustainability – the integrity of ecological systems and diversity are sustained
• economic sustainability – people have livelihoods that are underpinned by appropriate and
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sustainable development and resource use

• socio – cultural sustainability – diversity of social and cultural norms and traditions are
respected with harmony
• political sustainability – there are societal processes that encourage good governance, social
participation, and active citizenship.’ (Lang, 2005, p1)
EfS, therefore, must address these four components, which makes it interdisciplinary in nature,
though curriculum subject areas have particular parts to play.
Historically, Environmental Education (EE) focussed on maintenance and improvement of the natural
environment, which was particularly supported by science education, while EfS has emerged in recent
years with a wider focus, being concerned with the development of suitable attitudes, values, practices
and behaviours in line with sustainable development across school and all aspects of life contexts. The
United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD, 2005-2014) through educa-
tion aims to instil in individuals:
… respect for dignity and economic justice for all; respect for the human rights of future generations;
accept that economy occurs within the bounds set by ecology and not the other way around. (UNESCO,
2004, p.14)
EfS, therefore, addresses knowledge of the issues, values and attitudes about and behaviour towards
sustainability. Before EfS was established, EE, as a precursor to EfS was commonly defined as education:
about the environment (including cognitive understanding of environmental matters); in and through
the environment (including direct experience of studying and working in the environment); and for the
environment (as concerned with values and attitudes appropriate to environmental protection) (NCC,
1990). EE included a strong component of science education, particularly ecology and understanding
of interactions in ecosystems, ideally experienced in natural settings, alongside investigations into the
effects of human activities on the environment. Implicit in this approach was the idea that understanding
of issues alongside learning in suitable contexts will lead to individuals taking appropriate actions to
support the environment. However, actions are not always linked to knowledge; people do not always
act rationally even when consequences are possibly damaging, leading to a contradictory knowledge –
action gap (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002). How to address this gap is a preoccupation of EfS educators
and is an essential issue for achieving sustainability.
It is now generally accepted that EfS requires wider scope than EE to include environmental, socio-
cultural, economic and political dimensions of sustainability, though science education continues to
play a potentially significant role in EfS in supporting understanding of the issues through scientific
perspectives. Approaches and attitudes towards science education are also important to its impact
on EfS. Also, an important dimension for EfS is development of critical understanding of how various
influences can impact negatively and positively on EfS as a basis for having informed views on what
actions are appropriate. Such influences on EfS, can be investigated through analysis of how ideology,
epistemology and pedagogy influences learning in school contexts, as values underpinning epistemo-
logical assumptions and pedagogy can be linked to affect what happens in schools.
The Interplay between Ideology, Epistemology and Pedagogy in Influencing the Curriculum,
Approaches to Science Education and EfS
Figure 1 shows how ideology, as views on the nature and purpose of education, epistemology, as
views on the nature of science, and pedagogy, as views on appropriate teaching methods, interact to
shape how the curriculum is formed and transacted, which affects EfS directly.
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views on the
nature and
pupose of
education
IDEOLOGY
CURRICULUM
EPISTEMOLOGY PEDAGOGY
views on views on
the nature appropriate
of science teaching
methods
Figure 1: The interplay of ideology, epistemology and pedagogy on the curriculum.
Thus, the curriculum is not value free, and particular ideas can be used to legitimise the ideological
values and interests of a dominant group, which can impact on curriculum development and how it
is transacted (Bowles and Gintis, 1976). For the purposes of this paper, an ideology can be defined as
‘that system of beliefs which gives general direction to the educational policies of those who hold
beliefs’ (Scrimshaw, 1983, p. 2), while the curriculum can be defined as ‘...all those activities designed or
encouraged within the school’s organisational framework to promote the intellectual, personal, social
and physical development of its pupils (Morrison and Ridley, 1988, p. 2)’. Epistemological considerations
are also significant; as such considerations are central to pedagogy. The development of the curriculum
is influenced by the ideological and epistemological assumptions of teachers, school managers,
educationalists, curriculum planners, politicians and people in the wider community, which collectively
impact on pedagogy.
Epistemological Considerations
The ‘project’ of modernity has had great influence on how the world is viewed. It came into focus in
the eighteenth century through the intellectual efforts of Enlightenment thinkers to develop objective
methods of enquiry, as characterised by science, as a means of understanding the universe. Universal
morality and law were defined as a way of following its rules, and autonomous art was a way of reflect-
ing its inner harmony and logic. Knowledge was the means to control nature, to remove scarcity and
want, and to liberate human thought from the irrationalities of superstition, myth and religion. Harvey
described modernity as follows:
Generally perceived as positivistic, technocentric and rationalistic, universal modernism has been
identified with the belief in linear progress, absolute truths, the rational planning of ideal social orders,
and the standardisation of knowledge and production. (PRECIS 6, quoted in Harvey, 1989, p. 9)
Science was a major influence in the development of modernity, and is a focus of analysis for this
paper. Underpinning the modern model of science are assumptions about science as:
• objective
• capable of yielding ultimate truths
• proving things
• having a defined and unique subject matter
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• having unique methods

• being value free (Harlen, 1992, p. 2)
This positivist view of science assumes that the word can be independently, objectively and
accurately described, that scientists uncover ‘truths’ about the universe and science education’s purpose
is to transmit those ‘truths’. Many people continue to hold the modern, positivist model of science, as
evidenced by draw a scientist activities by pre-service teachers on science education courses, which
commonly show ��
the ‘egghead scientist’, who is typically a lab-coated male, balding, often with spec-
tacles and using test tubes, bunsen burners and other school chemistry equipment. The ‘egghead sci-
entist’ points to an essentially modern model of science as clinical, abstract, physical, unemotional and
reductionist view, as practised by a stereotypical clever, but eccentric and emotionally dysfunctional
individual (Littledyke, 2008).
Problems of Objectification through Science
However, as an integral, critical component of EfS, it is important to understand how objectifica-

tion in modern, positivist science has damaging implications to relationships with nature and to other
people. Monod presents objectification as the central tenet of science, and asserts that science depends
upon ‘the postulate of objectivity’ (1972, p. 30). Objectification disengages emotion and ethics, creating
the conditions for exploitation and domination, and such objectification has been an all too prominent
feature of the way in which science has been applied to the natural environment. For example, Bacon,
often regarded as a founder of positivist empiricism, illustrates the power of objectification in his use of
images of brutality and force, as were applied in the persecutions of witches, in his scientific approach
to nature when he wrote in his De Dignitate et Augementis Scientarium (1623):
The way in which witchcraft, magic, and all superstitions are prosecuted and run aground ... not only sheds
useful light on how people accused of such things should be treated, but we can also borrow from it useful
directions for unveiling nature’s secrets. No one need have scruples about penetrating these caverns and
corners when interrogating the truth is his only object. (Cited in Merchant, 1980, p. 168).
In another of his works, Novum Organum (1620), he argued:
The new interrogation method leads to the analysis and dismemberment of nature. The spirit provides
the suggestions and the hands do the work. In this way human knowledge and human power are one.
(ibid., p. 171).
He encouraged scientists to dominate and subdue nature, to dissect and destroy, if necessary,
using mechanistic, reductionist techniques to uncover nature’s secret ‘truths’. This approach has set the
scene for subsequent application of science for over three hundred years.
An example of how objectification can support people in distancing themselves from the damaging
effects of their actions is illustrated by Milgram’s classic study on ‘obedience to authority’ (1974), which
involved experimental subjects who were instructed to inflict apparent electric shocks on a subject, who
was an actor in reality. The aim was supposedly to investigate how learning processes were influenced
by negative stimuli, but the real purpose was to see how much pain people would administer under
order of a white-coated scientific authority figure. 65% of the subjects were prepared to inflict shocks
up to 450 volts (a normally lethal dose) under instruction of the ‘researcher’, showing that humans have
a great capacity for inflicting damage when they absolve themselves of responsibility for their actions.
Milgram noted that college students who attended his lectures were aghast at the behaviour of the
experimental subjects, though, on being drafted to the military, many performed brutal actions under
military order, showing that people are very susceptible to submission to authority and become instru-
ments of its destructive process.
Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems and are sensitive to such objectifying practice with lack
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of sensitivity to life components. Hence, objectivist, reductionist approaches to science and technology
through ‘mechanorphism’ (where the natural word is treated like a machine) will damage or destroy
the system. Application of such technology, which is based on linear, causal and mechanical thinking,
is inappropriate to ecosystems as their dynamic self-regulating systems are incompatible with such
interference (Orr 1992).
Objectification also works through discipline practices, which shape behaviour. As Foucault pro-
posed, discipline ‘dissociates power from the body ... it reverses the course of the energy, the power that
might result from it, and turns it into a relation of strict subjection’ (1977, p. 138). Foucault considered
that discipline practices, once externalised in public punishments or executions are now internalised
more subtly in modern institutions. Training processes for businesses, the police, schools etc. mould
pliable minds to particular categories reflecting modern values. In this way, objectivist approaches
embedded in the discipline of science can influence how science is expressed, which may account for
how a significant number of scientists can readily engage in research that has environmental or socially
destructive effects, such as polluting technologies and weapons technology.
Modern, objectivist, positivist science as a discipline has a role in disconnecting from consequences
of action. Eagan and Orr (1992) show how modern science within a fragmented, subject-dominated
school curriculum reflects values that are alienated from nature. Also interdisciplinary studies, which are
essential to understanding the scientific, social, economic and political dimensions of environmental
issues in EfS, are very difficult to establish. Such objectification processes are central in modern rela-
tionships with the environment. When living things are seen as objects of use or of no consequence,
then permission is available to destroy them. When this attitude is also linked with anthropocentrism,
where human concerns are seen to be of greatest significance, then this creates potent conditions for
environmental exploitation. White (cited in Fox, 1990, p. 7) highlights the essential problems of anthro-
pocentrism as follows:
We deserve our increasing pollution because, according to our structure of values, so many other
things have priority over achieving a viable ecology. The problem with our structure of values is that a
man-nature dualism is deep rooted in us ... Until it is eradicated not only from our minds but also from
our emotions, we shall doubtless be unable to make fundamental changes in our attitudes and actions
affecting ecology.
Swimme discusses how modern science has been criticised for supporting positivism, objectifica-
tion, dualism, reductionism, determinism and mechanism leading to exploitive and destructive practices
both socially and ecologically. Whilst modern science has produced undoubted benefits, such as in medi-
cal advances, it has contributed to militaristic, patriarchal, anthropocentric and Eurocentric dominance
(Swimme, 1988). Thus, modern science has had major social, ethical, technological and environmental
impact through its position as the dominant paradigm for some three hundred years, the period of so-
called modern era. As many people evidently continue to hold inappropriate modern views science, an
important feature of EfS is to challenge and critically understand the process of objectification through
modern, positivist science.
Reconstructing Science
A new model of science, which overturned modern science, has emerged in the last hundred years
or so. In this model science is conveyed as:
• human endeavour to understand the physical world

• producing knowledge which is tentative, always subject to challenge by further evidence
• building upon, but not accepting uncritically, previous knowledge and understanding
• a social enterprise whose conclusions are often subject to social acceptability
• constrained by values (Harlen, 1992, pp. 2-3)
Discussions from the philosophy of science show that knowledge is seen as having a permanently
conjectural (Popper, 1963), and the construction of knowledge takes place in a social context, which
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influences that knowledge (Kuhn, 1970; Medawar, 1979). Findings from science also challenge the mod-
ern model of science; for example quantum physics shows that matter is inherently unpredictable at a
quantum level and cannot be accessed independently of an observer, which destroys the concept of
achieving absolute objectivity in engaging with the world (Atkins, 2003). Truth in science is not a fixed
concept and ideas about the world can be revised in the light of new evidence. Also, although reduc-
tionism through detailed analysis of parts of systems has been significant in science, whole systems can
also be influenced by interactions of parts. The field of complexity shows that complex dynamic systems
interact in inherently unpredictable ways and produce emergent new forms of order from the interactions
(Kaufmann, 1992; Lewin, 1993; Prigogine and Stengers, 1984). Reductionism, a characteristic feature of
modern science, is therefore inadequate as a complete method. Furthermore, neurophysiology shows
that our brains construct experience of world from sensory input and can adapt physically to changing
conditions by responsively developing flexible neural networks (Doidge, 2007), which finally destroys
positivism as a finite philosophical stance.
Such findings from science contradict the positivism, objectification, reductionism and determinism
of modern science to provide a postpositivist approach to knowledge, where knowledge is an essen-
tially a human construct derived from interactive relationship with the world, which can be described
by probability rather than certainty, and whole systems are a focus for understanding how their parts
interact. This postpositivist position is important to EfS, as methods of engaging in EfS issues require
postpositivist methods. It is also important to understand the significance of positivism in history, in
present influences on how people and groups view the world and how institutions may function, as
positivism, with its long and dominant history, remains prevalent in its institutional effects and in the
minds of many people.
Influences of Ideology
Education has been greatly influenced by ideological influences, and there are two opposing
trends:
Instrumental ideologies; ‘instrumentalism’, ‘revisionism’ and advocates of ‘economic renewal through
education’ emphasise the need to fit learners into society and to create a skilled workforce which will
improve the national economy (DES, 1985). The intention is to improve the efficiency of existing organisa-
tions and structures (Oliver, 1982). The ‘objectives’ model of curriculum planning (Hirst, 1974) applies to
these ideologies. Thus, the structure and nature of knowledge is defined, the learning outcomes identi-
fied and strategies for achieving these outcomes devised as teaching plans. Instrumental ideology also
supports ‘knowledge centred ideology’ as representing culture to be transmitted through instruction
rather than experiential learning (Lawton, 1973). The methods of teaching emphasise instruction and
the teacher as the director of the learning process in which the learner is the recipient of knowledge.
Instrumental ideology founded on economic rationalism, prioritising education to support economic
growth has been dominant in education systems and drives curricula, planning and teaching. Such
ideology works directly against EfS.
‘Reconstructionist’ ideology, however, emphasises education as a process of social change. Thus,
education is planned for what society ought to be rather than what it is (Scrimshaw, 1983). Teachers
become activators of social change through fostering a critical, analytical and active approach to
learning and the curriculum is founded on principles of egalitarianism and democracy. The ‘process’
model of curriculum planning (Blenkin and Kelly, 1987) applies to this ideology, in which teachers are
facilitators of the learning process. Thus, the learner is actively involved in the construction of meaning
through interaction with the curriculum. It is evident that a ‘reconstructionist’ ideology of education is
also associated with a learner centred ideology where the curriculum is seen ‘in terms of activity and
experience, rather than knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored’ (Board of Education [Hadow
Report], 1931, p. 75). The process of learning is of prime significance and empiricism, subjectivity, the
development of personal meaning, practical activity and problem solving are the modes of learning.
Reconstructionist ideology is appropriate to EfS, in which processes of learning are emphasised, with
actions linked to informed understanding of implications of choices based on positive values about
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human and environmental relationships.

Instrumental ideologies have had most significant influence on education in recent years. For
example, free market economics ideology (where deregulation, privatisation of state owned industries,
low direct taxation and reduction of the Welfare State are emphasised - sometimes characterised as
‘Thatcherism’ or ‘Reaganomics’ after the then British and American prime ministers), has a prevalent
influence in development of British curricula in the 1980s, which has also influenced how many other
curricula are presently structured. Groups have unequal chances of being heard and acted on (Harnett
and Naish, 1990) and the increased powers of the Secretary for State enshrined in the Education Reform
Act (ERA, 1988) in Britain ensured that power was effectively governmentally centralised. The so-called
‘New Right’ of the 1980s was very influential in the educational reforms.
Two main strands in ‘New Right’ political thinking have been identified and have had particular
influences on education:
1. Neo-conservative thinking emphasises tradition, authority and national identity /security

(Quicke, 1988). Teacher autonomy in curriculum planning and ‘localised’ concerns (Golby,
1988) were replaced by the need to address the heavy and complex demands of a rapidly
implemented statutory National Curriculum, which is founded on a subject based, knowl-
edge centred and objectives model of curriculum planning (Hirst, 1974). As a feature of
governmental control, the objectives curriculum model supplanted the previous emphasis
on learner centred, process focussed and integrated curriculum approach, which prioritised
the developmental needs of children in the so-called ‘progressive’ curriculum (Blenkin and
Kelly, 1987).
2. Neo-liberal thinking emphasises free market economics and the extension of its principles
into areas of social activity, including education (Demaine, 1988; Gamble, 1983; Levitas,
1986). Quasi competition between schools was introduced through Local Management of
Schools with schools having direct control of budgets rather than Local Education Authori-
ties. Also an assessment system linked to ‘league tables’ of schools’ performance was central
in this thinking, as it is through such data that parents are supposed to exercise their choice
(Taylor and Tytler, 1993). The effect of the policy was to restrict choice further to those who
are prepared to pay for education and that ‘inner city schools become increasingly disad-
vantaged’ (Whitty, 1989, p. 339).
Neo-conservative and neo-liberal influences work against the aims of EfS. A subject-based
curriculum associated with neo-conservative thinking makes it difficult to develop meaningful
connections to real life issues, which are complex and interdisciplinary. Also, ideas about free market
economics in neo-liberal thinking are problematic. McKibben (2007) discusses how ideas of free market
economics are associated with assumptions about continued economic growth. Focus on growing the
total size of a country’s economy developed particularly after world war two and has become dominant
in global economics. He considers that there has been a misconceived global fixation on economic
growth based on an assumption that the Earth’s resources are infinite, and this is a root cause of the
environmental crisis that we currently face. However three fundamental challenges to the fixation on
growth have emerged.
Firstly, growth is creating more inequality than prosperity. Inequality is a moral and sustainability
issue with ecological, economic, socio-cultural and political impact. About one fifth of the world’s
population live in abject poverty while another fifth suffer diseases of affluence, such as being overweight
or obese, while a small number of people are mega-wealthy with fortunes greater than most countries
(Friedman, 2005). The technical revolution levels the global playing field to a degree, so more countries
can compete and consume, as exemplified by the rapid growth of countries like China and India where
large numbers of people have been lifted out of poverty to engage in consumption patterns equivalent
to developed countries, which exacerbates and intensifies problems of sustainability (Friedman, 2008).
In developed countries growth also produces more inequality than prosperity; for example, in USA the
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mean wage has not increased and income of lowest 90% has declined steadily since 1979 ($27,060 in
1979 and $25,646 in 2005 respectively), and same general pattern is true for 80 countries. However the top
1% of people captured more of the National gain in income than did the bottom 50%. That is, growth is
benefitting only a very small percentage of the population (New Economics Foundation, 2003, p. 36).
Secondly there are natural limits to growth, which was made clear in 1972 in Limits to Growth as
a forewarning to our emerging crisis (Meadows et al., 1972). We have not the energy to sustain ever-
increasing growth, nor can we cope with the pollution that is associated with it, or the resources to fuel it.
The clear evidence of problems of our relations with the environment is highlighted in UNESCO’s priority
of EfS in the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD, 2005-2014). Clearly,
the Earth cannot sustain current and projected levels of human inflicted damage to its systems.
Thirdly, growth is not making us happy. For example, in 1946, the USA was ranked the happiest place
to live by its inhabitants in surveys of four countries, which fell to eighth among eleven countries thirty
years later, and after forty years it was tenth from twenty three countries, many from the third world.
In the meantime, there has been a steady decline in the number of Americans who say they are happy
with their marriages, satisfied with their jobs or gain pleasure from where they live (Layard, 2005, p. 10).
As the most economically wealthy country in the world, the USA demonstrates that high Gross National
Product (GNP) and continued economic growth of a country does not equate with happiness.
Free market economics ideology associated with continued economic growth based on
competitive global market forces is also a feature of modern thinking in that it is based on short term
views, failing to see interconnections and consequences of actions, with exploitation of people and the
environment: that is, it is objectivist, reductionist and positivist in essence. A new model of economics
is needed to create sustainability, one that enables people to draw resources from the Earth in a way
that does not destroy it. McKibben (2007) refers to Schumaker (1972), who espoused economics that
value human happiness and the environment over accumulation of material goods, and termed the
concept ‘Deep Economy’ as an echo of ‘Deep Ecology’ coined by Naess (1973) as a means to examine
critically and improve our relationship with nature. A combination of change in approaches to economy
and ecology is needed. An example of this is Bhutan’s concept of Gross National Happiness, where
value is placed on human happiness over economic growth (Bhutan, 20101). There is clearly a need
for EfS to develop critical views about excessive consumption patterns in society, named by James
(2007) as ‘Affluenza’, a collective ‘disease’ of compulsive consumption. ‘Affluenza’ drives economic
markets and directly creates the damaging environmental effects that we are threatened with at this
fragile time in human history.
Implications for Pedagogy
As has been discussed, modern, positivist epistemology with instrumental and economic growth-
centred ideology is inappropriate for EfS, and contributes significantly to our present problems with the
environment through objectification and disconnection from consequences of actions. Stereotypically,
pedagogical implications of these features are teacher-directed, transmission approaches to prescribed
knowledge within a fragmented curriculum that is unconnected to real life experiences. In contrast, EfS
is supported by a postpositivist philosophy and reconstructionist, learner centred ideologies, in which
knowledge is constructed by learners with teachers as facilitators to critically understand the environmen-
tal, social, economical and political dimensions of contemporary issues, leading to informed action.
Constructivist methods of teaching match our understanding of neurophysiology and how we
construct the world, and are also supportive of EfS. Constructivism views individuals as active construc-
tors of understanding. People create understanding from their experiences and the resulting ideas may
or may not be similar to other individuals’ ideas. Hence people carry self-constructed concepts, which
they use to understand their experience, and this may or may not conflict with commonly accepted
views, such as scientific theories. Information which conflicts with these personal constructs may cre-
ate a change in the construct if it is shown to be meaningful, whilst it may be rejected or unnoticed if
it does not make sense.
Constructivist models for teaching have been developed to support teachers in helping students
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make meaningful sense of phenomena. For example, Ollerenshaw and Ritchie (1993) developed
Driver and Oldham’s (1986) recommended models for the creation of science curricula on constructiv-
ist lines:
ORIENTATION
Arousing children’s interest and curiosity
ELICITATION/STRUCTURING
Helping children to find out and clarify what they think
INTERVENTION/RESTRUCTURING
Encouraging children to test their ideas: to extend, develop or replace them
REVIEW
Helping children to recognise the significance of what they have found out
APPLICATION
Helping children to relate what they have learned to their everyday lives
(Ollerenshaw and Ritchie, 1993, p. 6)

Primary Connections (Australian Academy of Science, 2010) have developed the ‘5Es’ model for
constructivist engagement, based on similar principles, which are described in sequence as:
ENGAGE
Engage students and elicit prior knowledge
EXPLORE
To provide hands on shared experiences of the phenomenon
EXPLAIN
Develop scientific explanations for experiences of conceptual understanding
ELABORATE
Extend understanding to a new context or make connections to additional concepts through a
student-planned investigation
EVALUATE
Students re-represent their understanding and reflect on their learning journey and teachers
collect evidence of achievement and outcomes
(Australian Academy of Science, 2010, Primary Connections, 2005, p viii)
Constructivist pedagogy puts the locus of control with the learner, with the teacher as facilitator
of learning. EfS requires critical understanding of issues from a scientific-environmental, socio-cultural,
economic-political perspective, which implies reconstructionist approach to knowledge, supported by
ethically informed values, leading to action for change. This implies that to be effective, EfS needs to draw
on constructivist theory and actively engage students in learning about sustainability issues generally
using democratic, cooperative or collaborative strategies within the concept of a learning community
where all involved learn from each other, as well as from learning resources, with challenges to exist-
ing views and attitudes in the process of seeking change for sustainability. It requires a change from a
transmission model to a transformatory approach to teaching and learning. The teacher is a facilitator of
learning rather than a director, and encourages learners to investigate sustainability issues to understand
the multi-dimensional nature of the issues and explore possibilities for change.
Jensen’s (2002) model of action-competence shown in Figure 2 is particularly appropriate for EfS.
Four dimensions provide focus for investigation and students are encouraged to actively engage across
dimensions to identify and act on change strategies based on understanding the causes and symptoms
of sustainability issues and identified preferred strategies to achieve preferred futures.
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Figure 2: Knowledge required for sustainability (Adapted from Jensen’s Action Competence Model:
Jensen, 2002, p. 330 by Jenkins, 2009, p. 56).
In approaching EfS, integration between cognitive and affective domains of learning is also needed,
as discussed by Littledyke (2008). Multi-strategy teaching including mixed approaches to learning
involves what Gardner (1983) termed multiple intelligences. Drama, art and music as particularly sup-
porting the affective domain can be used within the full curriculum range with a variety of resources
and stimuli in a range of indoor and outdoor settings to enhance motivation, interest, concern, care,
empathy, and enjoyment of learning to drive meaningful learning for informed action.
Features of Suitable Pedagogy to Support EfS
We can identify desirable features of suitable pedagogy for EfS, based on understanding of episte-
mology, ideology and pedagogy as they impact on our understanding, values and actions concerning
sustainability. Features of suitable pedagogy include:
Learner centred emphasis: Learners have priority to direct their investigations and ask meaningful
questions, to achieve meaningful understanding of the issues.
Active, constructivist methods: Students’ existing views are accommodated, extended or challenged
with support from teachers and peers to achieve understanding of commonly accepted views and
challenge them if necessary.
Teachers as facilitator of learning: Teachers act as guides supporting student-directed learning, as
well as being part of the learning process themselves.
Democratic, shared learning within a learning community: Teachers and students act as co-learners
in a shared community of learning. The learning community models what is necessary in the wider
social and political community, as shared views need to be achieved to establish what is required for
effective action for sustainability.
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Multidisciplinary approach: Integrated approaches are required to investigate environmental, social,

political and economic dimensions of sustainability issues.
Real contexts for learning: Learning is focussed on real contexts, which exemplify sustainability is-
sues, including contexts that offer possibilities for local action for sustainability.
Critical examination of existing structures and practices: Views, attitudes and common practices are
deconstructed, identified and challenged when they are unsustainable as part of the process to find
alternatives.
Cognitive and affective integration: Meaningful learning to support informed action is supported
by understanding, positive attitudes and active engagement in sustainability investigations.
Metacognition: Learners are supported to be aware of their own learning process and to be critically
aware of their role in EfS issues, as well as contradictory influences from society, which can mitigate
against EfS.
Exploration of change strategies for sustainability: Consequences of various actions are explored to
understand cause and effect of various lifestyles, technologies and social-economic-political structures
as a basis for identifying pro-sustainability actions.
Action for sustainability: Action needs to take place at personal and community level. What has
been established through sustainability investigations needs to be put into practice in and out of school.
Involvement of families and local communities is important to reinforce the process and to extend the
impact of sustainable action
School and teachers as models for sustainability: Teachers and schools examine how practices are or
are not sustainable and make corresponding changes. Schools become sustainable in their use of energy
and resources with sustainable grounds management to encourage biodiversity. Teachers and schools
exhibiting sustainable practices will model, inspire and motivate students towards acting sustainabil-
ity, which is essential for future generations to meet the Brundtland report’s exhortation to meet ‘the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’
(Brundtland Report, cited in United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1999, p. 1).
Implications for Science Education Pedagogy to Support EfS
The above principles are applicable across all areas of the curriculum for effective support of EfS,
which is essentially interdisciplinary in nature. However science education has a particularly important
role in informing the underlying reasons behind the causes, symptoms, preferred futures and strategies
to achieve them for sustainability (Jensen, 2002). Littledyke and Taylor, (2009) and Ross et al., (2000) pro-
vide more detailed examples of approaches to science education for EfS. Table 1 provides examples of
how particular science concepts can inform EfS issues and can be explicitly linked to particular forms of
action for sustainability. The concepts and associated actions are all interlinked in complex ways, while
the principles are important to justify action for sustainability.
Table 1. Examples of science concepts linked to EfS issues and relevant action.
Linked science Links to examples of EfS

Key concept Links to action for sustainability
concepts issues
Permanence of matter Recycling of materials Natural recycling and need for Reduce, recycle, reuse
Change of state through ecosystems recycling of human-processed Recycling of packaged materials,
Chemical change Materials can accumulate materials to conserve resources composting
(From a student per- in the environment and Polluting / toxic chemicals in Support for ecologically sustainable
spective, materials can can pass through food ecosystems practice - e.g. ‘organically’ grown
be invisible but do not webs Greenhouse gases linked to fossil produce, use of ‘green’ chemicals in
disappear) Importance of respiration fuels and production processes the home
/ photosynthesis cycles for consumer items
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Linked science Links to examples of EfS

Key concept Links to action for sustainability
concepts issues
Energy transfer in Energy through food Sustainable approaches to Reduced carbon imprint through:
Natural ecosystems webs / chains agriculture, industrial processes, Electricity (or gas) use in home –
Industrial processes Insulation energy use insulation, lights, standby, renewable
and machines Heat transfer through Implications of fossil fuels on energy sources, etc.
various materials greenhouse gases and climate Transport - cycle, shared, fuel ef-
Science of the green- change ficient transport, etc.
house effect Sustainable energy sources Eat balanced, appropriate amount,
Energy conservation low on food chain, support organic,
local production, reduced packaging
Biodiversity Complex interactions in Threatened ecosystems and Impact of resource depletion on

ecosystems endangered species – extinctions ecosystems and habitats – reduced
Interconnectedness Environmental ethics - animal consumption
through ecology, welfare, environmental action Protect endangered species and
Evolutionary patterns Empathy with other living things – ecosystems – environmental
(history of living things), ‘the family of life’ responsibility
DNA (genetic code) Awe, wonder and beauty of Eating patterns – organic production
nature supports rich ecosystems, impact
Our place in history and the of eating low on food chain, animal
universe cruelty, low fish stocks
Ideas about conservation of matter are essential to understand the basis of various forms of pol-
lution linked to human activity, particularly the basis of climate change associated with greenhouse
gas emissions and how polluting chemicals from industrial processes can have damaging effects on
ecosystems and human health. Actions to reduce consumption as purchasers of produced goods, to
recycle materials with support of local government authorities or through composting for garden use,
and to reuse wherever possible are essential principles for EfS, supported by scientific understanding
about materials, their properties and uses in industry and in the home.
Ideas about energy transfer through natural systems and through industrial processes are impor-
tant to understand principles of fuels fused for powering machines including transport, energy flow
through ecosystems to justify sustainable eating patterns and the importance of energy conservation to
justify reduced carbon imprint. Associated actions are linked to general levels of consumption (another
manifestation of reduce, recycle and reuse), to energy conservation in the home, to use of transport and
choices in food, which have ecological as well as health implications (for example, eating a balanced
diet, eating low on the food chain – that is, adopting a vegetarian diet or eating less meat – supporting
organic, ecologically sustainable practices and local food production to avoid ‘food miles’ with extensive
fuel use for transport and corresponding greenhouse gas emissions).
Biodiversity concepts linked to ecosystems interactions and evolutionary patterns are important
to give a basis for environmental ethics. Such ideas show how consumption patterns affect habitats
through resource depletion, while understanding ecological, genetical and evolutionary relationships
shows that all living things are part of the ‘family of life’. Experiences of natural beauty through learn-
ing in natural settings, and knowledge of our place in the universe can support awe and wonder at the
magnificent diversity of our planet. Such understanding and empathy can support care for living things
to justify environmental actions, including sustainable eating and purchasing patterns for health and
general protection and care for living things.
In addition, such concepts and attitudes supported through science will also justify issues of eq-
uity in how we treat other people with the need for equitable distribution of resources. In these ways,
science knowledge links closely to attitudes and action to support EfS and the wider links between the
environmental, social, economic and political dimensions can be made clearly to justify and support
action that is essential for sustainability.
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Table 2. Summary of the epistemological, ideological and pedagogical influences in modern,

positivist and postpositivist approaches to science education.
Modern, positivist approaches to science Postpositivist approaches to science

education education
Epistemological assumptions Science as objective proof, yielding truth, being Science involving human endeavour, informed
value free and with unique methods, implement- by values, exploring whole systems and inter-
ed primarily through reductionist approaches. connected ideas, producing tentative knowledge
Such views are still held by many but have subject to challenge and social acceptability.
been overturned by findings in science and the Such views are supported by findings in science
philosophy of science. and the philosophy of science.
Ideological influences Instrumental ideology, fitting learners into Reconstructive ideology emphasising social
society, associated with education to support change through critical approach to understand-
economic growth. ing EfS issues and possible solutions.
Assumptions of continued economic growth Problems and possible actions to solve EfS
are unsustainable and associated with ideas of issues need to be investigated and supported
exploitation of unlimited resources and social by positive attitudes to promote suitable action
inequity. for change.
Associated pedagogy Knowledge centred pedagogy within a subject Learner centred pedagogy in a shared learning
based curriculum, disconnected with real world community, with multi disciplinary approach,
application and with focus on individual learning. active learning, metacognitive reflection, and
Objectives led, with cognitive emphasis, and meaningful understanding of real world applica-
summative, hierarchical assessment prioritised tion of ideas.
to inform selection for employment. Process led with cognitive / affective integration,
Teachers as directors, with transmission ap- with critical, analytical approach to learning and
proach and learners as recipients of knowledge. investigation of change strategies to identify and
Such pedagogy acts as significant barrier to EfS promote action for sustainability.
and is often driven by prescribed curricular and Teachers as facilitators, with constructivist
assessment pressures plus limited perspectives approach to scaffold and support learners’
of teachers and schools. investigations. Schools and teachers as models
for sustainability.
Such pedagogy acts as a driver to support
effective EfS.
Conclusions
This paper has discussed how ideological, epistemological and pedagogical assumptions of cur-
riculum planners and those who implement curricula affect EfS. Table 2 summarises the discussion
and illustrates how modern, positivist or postpositivist approaches to science education can provide
barriers or drivers to EfS. As unsustainability is not tenable option for society, postpositivist pedagogical
approaches that support sustainability must be seen as an imperative rather than an option. Some of
these pedagogical approaches are being put into practice; for example the development of resources
to support teaching for sustainability, the establishing of eco-schools as models for sustainability
practice and some very good guidance for development of EfS at national, regional and local level (see
introduction). However, understanding of the barriers and drivers to EfS is also needed to counter the
barriers and to foster a more systematic integration of EfS within the curriculum to achieve effective
action for sustainability.
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DEVELOPMENT: A
RESEARCH PROJECT ON
EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION
Abstract. Within the framework of the

María Novo,
Bologna Process, the UNESCO Chair in
Environmental Education and Sustain- María-Ángeles Murga-Menoyo
able Development, based at the National & María-José Bautista-Cerro
University of Distance Education of Spain,
is developing research in the field of
educational innovation with the aim of
incorporating in its learning model the
methodological procedures resulting Introduction
from recent developments in informa-
tion technology. The teaching innovation A decade has now gone by since the Bologna Declaration
projects presented in this work have been (1999), which was the official point of departure for the construc-
designed for students of Environmental tion of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), and halfway
Education and Sustainable Development through the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable
as part of their Environmental Sciences Development, it seems that some trends can now be identified,
and Education Courses, who were used to based on the changes that both these factors are producing in
test the learning potential of two teaching
the training programmes delivered by the University. There is a
methodologies: a) the Cmap Tools editor
wealth of literature available (Heinze & Knill, 2008; Laurel, 2008;
for the construction of concept maps,
Rute Cardoso et al., 2008; Fejes, 2006; Keeling, 2006; Papatsiba,
which is particularly designed to enhance
2006; Ravinet, 2008; Zgaga, 2006; Barkholt, 2005; Furlong, 2005;
understanding of the relations that make
Nyborg, 2005; Saarinen, 2005; Huisman & Van der Wende, 2004;
up the conceptual structure of the topics of
study; and b) online collaborative learning
Reichert & Tauch, 2004; Tauch, 2004; Wächter, 2004; Witte, 2004;
groups, intended to promote team work Froment, 2003; Kladis, 2003) and several international institutions
and encourage participation, dialogue and bodies have published their experiences of best practice
and divergent thought, all of which are (European Commission, 2005; Unesco, 2009).
central to education for sustainability. This article hopes to contribute to identifying these trends,
Each pilot project generated material and proposing some results from the line of work which, with the
resources specifically designed for this framework described above and in the field of educational inno-
purpose and entailed a consistent assess- vation and the resulting evaluatory research, is being carried out
ment process. by the Unesco Chair in Environmental Education and Sustainable
Key words: Cmap Tools, educational Development of the National University of Distance Education
information technology, environmental (Spain). As indicated in a previous paper (Novo & Murga, 2009, p.
education, learning methodologies, online 167) “our methodological position was based on the significant
collaborative learning groups, sustainable learning that the student ought to build, with our help, in order
development. to rearrange his or her cognitive maps, values and attitudes, upon
finding relationships between the new things learned and the old
María Novo, María-Ángeles Murga- things already learned”.
Menoyo & María-José Bautista-Cerro This research, supported by two projects funded by the EU
National University of Distance Education, European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), is known as New
Spain strategies for excellence in learning processes within the framework
of the EHEA: the case of Environmental Education for Sustainable
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Development, and has a dual purpose. On one hand, it seeks to demonstrate the relevance of different
methodological procedures for educating students in a model of sustainable development. On the
other, it aims to contribute to the construction of knowledge by identifying a range of teaching-learning
methodologies of proven effectiveness, available for possible use according to the requirements of the
Chair’s various educational programmes, the profiles of the students involved, and the model of higher
education that Europe demands.
Since the Chair is involved with a distance learning educational system, from an instrumental
perspective, information and communication technologies occupy a central part of the educational
projects which are designed and implemented. As a result, information technology is the third ele-
ment which, along with the two already mentioned, found in the educational innovation initiatives
undertaken by the Chair.
The line of work considered here presents a dual perspective. It may be viewed as a longitudinal
educational innovation project manifested in successive pilot projects of a complementary nature. At
the same time, it may be presented as an heuristic project belonging to the category of evaluative re-
search, which evaluates results and initiates processes of improvement, attached to the action-research
paradigm. Thus, each pilot project has two main methodological stages. The first one involves designing
the educational project, producing materials and means, and implementation. The second stage consists
of evaluative research design, creation of instruments, and data gathering and processing.
Frames of Reference
The theoretical framework of these projects responds to a dual requirement. On one hand, it fol-
lows the principles and values fostered by the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. On
the other hand, it adheres to the educational model promoted by the European Higher Education Area
(EHEA). Both frameworks are described as follows.
The UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
A first frame of reference for the research presented is the educational model proposed by UNESCO
for the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Its main features are interdisciplinarity and
globality, based on values, critical thinking and a multi-methodological approach to problem-solving,
student participation in the decision making process, importance of the local (UNESCO, 2006). All these
features were already central to Environmental Education from the beginnings of the movement (Leal
Filho et al., 1995 and 1996; Leal, 2002; Novo, 2006-a and 2009). All coincide in the idea that “education
plays a special role in sustainable development. It connects past and future, conserves the old and
shapes the new” (Schavan, 2007, p. 11).
Since the start of the Decade, emphasis has been placed on the choice of pedagogical methods
which permit this type of education to be carried out in a rigorous and systematic manner. As a document
published by the French National Commission for UNESCO states, “People who participate in training
for interventions in projects for sustainable development are of various origins, and with extremely
varied levels and backgrounds of knowledge and know-how. To enable them to acquire and develop
the required competencies to become real professionals poses many problems, as much for the training
content as for the choice of pedagogical methods” (Blandin, 2009, p. 19). Our proposal is consequently
concerned with designing and experimenting with methods of educational innovation which contribute
to an understanding of the principles and strategies of sustainability.
The priorities which underpin the model in the context of learning processes at university level
are the following: to build knowledge on the basis of the learning subject’s experiences; strengthen
the bonds between the intellectual and the affective (learn through other people’s reality); reveal the
relationship between elements and factors of the phenomena; emphasize the procedural perspective;
proceed to analyze the contexts and, as a matter of urgency, privilege creative behaviour and consid-
eration of future scenarios.
Also, as has been indicated on previous occasions (Novo, 2002, p. 437), the importance of the
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systemic focus on education for sustainable development is vital. It is not possible to understand the
highly complex physical and social reality if not from a perspective which relates the whole to its parts,
the global and the local, and shows the interrelation between environmental problems arising in various
contexts, and the need to achieve interdisciplinary models of analysis. In respect of these, as Chernikova
indicates (2006, p. 216), “inter faculty activities are particularly interesting as educators need interdisci-
plinary links in order to understand scientific discourse and sustainability issues”. However, tension still
persists in our universities “between social and academic objectives, between disciplinary traditions
and the frequent calls for greater interdisciplinarity” (Scott, 2006, p. 542).
As a result an educational model focused on relations rather than isolated objects is required. A
model which stimulates “the acquaintance with the interrelations between nature, social environment”
as well as “the ability to comprehend interrelationships (…) synthesis or reintegration of parts into
new wholes” (Reintam et al., 2006, p. 429). This approach represents a genuine change of paradigm
for students, since they learn to focus on interaction where previously they only saw independent or
barely connected concepts. It is with this aim in view that the authors have selected the innovation
projects, as is explained in the following sections. The two experiences presented here attempt to
provide students with the competences to make connections, both in the conceptual field (systemic-
complex thought), and in the area of collaborative learning.
In respect of values, the Unesco General Conference, held in October 2003, subscribes to the
principles, goals and contents of the Earth Charter as an important ethical reference for sustainable
development and recommends its text as an educational instrument within the framework of the
aforementioned Decade (UNESCO, 2003, p. 36). One of the most significant of these is the principle
of responsibility – universal, differentiated synchronic and diachronic; a principle which permits
almost all actions taken by mankind to be seen as moral actions, thus they inter-relate with other
living beings (not just those of their own kind); their role as a link in the species; the footprint they
leave on the physical world; or their glocal and differentiated responsibility which requires them to
respond according to their own status, ability and possibilities, prioritising a rigorous application of
the precautionary principle (Murga, 2009). Therefore, “its value as a tool for teaching about sustainable
development in the university classroom” (Clugston et al., 2002, p. 547) is significant.
As Lubbers (2008, p. 30) points out, the Earth Charter calls “for a fundamental change of mind
and heart, and acknowledges the capital importance of harmonising diversity with unity, the exercise
of freedom with the common good, short-term objectives with long-term goals”. Numerous good
educational practices attest to its relevance as an instrument in the service of sustainability (Unesco/
ECI, 2007; Murga-Menoyo & Novo, 2007; ECI/Earth Charter Initiative, 2008).
At the present time, with important changes occurring in the organisation of European university
systems, there is a general consensus that “the sustainability principles have to be incorporated into
the strategy of the university reflecting sustainability initiatives in education, research and mainte-
nance” (Ciegis & Gineitiene, 2006, p. 511).
The European Higher Education Area (EHEA)
A second focus of our frame of reference is the Bologna Process, which addresses “several im-
portant issues, such as national and regional differences, diversity of languages, different educational
traditions and systems, diversity of stakeholders, and the co-existence of universities and a strong
non-university sector” (Wit, 2007, p. 461). The strategy to be followed, for various reasons, demands
considerable efforts on the part of educational institutions and centres.
In Spain, in addition to structural changes in the organisation of teaching, a radical change is
taking place in the dominant University teaching model. Curricula have shifted their focus from what
is taught by the teacher to what the student should learn – the learning outcomes – results which
are expressed in a term imported from the business world, namely “competencies”. The underlying
concept “represents a dynamic combination of cognitive and meta-cognitive skills, knowledge and
understanding, interpersonal, intellectual and practical skills, and ethical values” (González & Wage-
naar, 2008, p. 9). This change with respect to the teaching role, requires greater intensity, including
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a new emphasis on the role of teacher as specialist in the domain of methodologies which facilitate
learning processes. The change must be taken into account in the educational innovation projects
undertaken as part of this reform.
The new higher education model that is being established in Spain is mainly motivated by Dec-
larations such as that of Bologna (1999), and Communiqués and documents subsequently issued at
a supranational level by the EU (Prague, 2001; Berlin, 2003; Bergen, 2005; Glasgow, 2005; London,
2007; etc.). This indubitably reflects the priority of training students in the competencies needed for
both the economic and social viability of a united Europe. This model is thus included in the Tuning
Project created by a wide network of European universities led by the University of Deusto (Spain)
with funding from the EU (González & Wagenaar, 2003).
Nevertheless, since it is profoundly imbued with the European concern for the employability
of its citizens and competitiveness of its economy, the model places special emphasis on two of the
four great pillars that the well known Delors Report attributes to education, i.e. learning to know and
learning to do, with the danger that the other two, learning to be and learning to live together may,
in practice, be sidelined (Murga-Menoyo, 2006). This threat, from the perspective of education for
sustainable development, must be counteracted.
With this aim, it is appropriate to recall that in the field of acquiring ethical competencies,
especially those linked to the last two pillars, the choice of methodology is not insignificant, as it is
necessary to strengthen those learning methodologies that contribute to the construction of different
aspects of the students’ moral personality, including what has been termed conviviality – the capacity
for dialogue, social skills and the ability to transform their environment.
Likewise, it should also be stressed that, together with ethical instrumental and interpersonal
competencies, systemic skills are particularly relevant in the field of sustainable development, as
they may help students to devise an integrated model of reality. As Makarevics (2008, p.71) points
out, these are “skills and abilities related to systems as a whole. They presuppose the combination
of understanding, receptivity and knowledge which allows an individual to see the parts of a whole
and their connections in the unity”.
In addition to the foregoing, a third focus defining the context of our activity consists of the
virtuality of information technology and its extraordinary possibilities for promoting methodologies
which provide a vehicle for learning processes. Recent advances have developed potentially innova-
tive tools which, applied to the field of e-learning, improve aspects such as educational interaction,
access to information or procedures, resources and ways of working.
In the case of the innovative educational projects which are presented next, a virtual tool, the
Cmap Tools editor for creating concept maps, and a teaching technique whose impact is reinforced by
the possibilities offered by Internet, namely online collaborative learning groups, occupy, respectively,
a major position from the methodological perspective.
Characteristics of the Educational Innovation Projects
The two projects described in this work were implemented during the academic years 2006/07
and 2008/09, respectively. They were proposed as pilot schemes with voluntary participation by
the students who enrolled for the subject Environmental Education and Sustainable Development,
without any restriction and with the advantage of obtaining additional marks that would improve
the students’ final grade. The relevant characteristics of each project are described in Table 1.
Some of the specific objectives included in the first project were: promoting attitudes and values
of cooperation and solidarity and constructive dialogue in the students, for which purpose working
groups were organised for online collaborative work. The aim was to successfully carry out a group
activity with pre-established content and characteristics which would result in both individual and
group achievements.
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Table 1. Characteristics of the two educational innovation projects.
Project 2
Project 1
Concept Maps using
Online collaborative learning groups
Cmap Tools
Time period Academic year 2006/07 Academic year 2008/09
Expected work load 1 ECTS (25 hours) 1 ECTS (25 hours)
Main objectives Promote attitudes and values of co- Encourage the acquisition of
operation, solidarity and constructive cognitive skills with an emphasis on
dialogue in the students systemic thought
Additional objectives Acquire instrumental skills and make Acquire instrumental skills and make
use of ICT use of ICT
Tasks Design an educational project asso- Construction of concept maps about

ciated with an environmental topic an environmental topic
Learning material Teaching Guide Teaching Guide

Documental archive Video class
Teaching methodology Promote the self-organization of Practical lesson on the use of the
online working groups for collabora- Cmap Tools editor in the framework
tive learning of the course
As has been argued in several works (Murga, 2007, p. 171), the technique of collaborative learning
“allows educational achievements concerning a very wide range of fields, among many others: those
of systemic and cognitive character, of technical, relational and social type. And it offers the best op-
portunity to train in ethical scopes because it not only requires the students to assume the disciplinary
contents, but also to, simultaneously, internalize values and co-responsibility, solidarity, and cooperation
attitudes, or negotiated resolutions of conflicts, which are all basic from the sustainability point of view”.
Extensive literature has been published on this topic (Tokoro & Steels, 2004; Du et al., 2007; Alexandrov,
Ramirez & Alexandrov, 2005; inter alii).
The second project focused on encouraging the acquisition of cognitive skills with an emphasis on
systemic thought, so that students could: a) accurately learn the basic concepts of the subject; b) un-
derstand the reciprocal relations between those concepts, and perceive the corresponding sphere of
knowledge as an integrated whole; and c) progress in articulating their own pedagogical philosophy
based on solid arguments. For this purpose students had to make a concept map of one of one of the
topics of the subject using the Cmap Tools editor, which is free educational software.
The educational value of concept maps is very high when working in a systemic thought context, as they
permit visualisation of the labyrinths of relations developed by each student in order to articulate concepts
and principles of a topic (Novak & Cañas, 2006). Furthermore, the integration of metacognitive strategies such
as this one “provides the teacher (and the learner) with a clear picture of how the learner responds to and acts
upon incoming information” (Bruer, 1993). Consequently, “learners become the agents of their own learning
since they are actively participating in their own learning process” (Vanhear & Pace, 2008, p. 52).
Both projects additionally sought to encourage students to acquire instrumental competencies
and use ICTs (Information and Communications Technologies) at the service of autonomous learning.
By means of the virtual platform supporting the academic subjects, students were able to access
various types of information in respect of the projects: a) a letter of presentation explaining the goals,
conditions of participation and the effects of the results on final marks; b) a Teaching Guide with precise
directions for carrying out the specific activity proposed; c) a theoretical-practical video class on the use
of software; and d) a file containing Appendices, with significant documents relating to the thematic
content of the activity.
After implementing the projects, the results were evaluated in order to establish strong points,
weaknesses and possible areas for improvement.
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General Background of Research
Our research is within the general framework of the search for synergies among the objectives of
the education for sustainable development and some instruments and techniques that allow to make
progress in the field of teaching innovation. In this work, we have focused on two techniques, which
are widely acknowledged in the educational field (Novak & Cañas, 2006; Cañas et al., 2004; Tokoro &
Steels, 2004; Du et al., 2007; Alexandrov, Ramirez & Alexandrov, 2005), and we have applied them to
the context of virtual learning: the Cmap Tools editor for the creation of concept maps and the use of
online collaborative learning groups.
Sample of Research
As shown in Table 2, a total of 98 out of 815 students registered in the courses showed initial inter-
est in taking part in the projects. In the first project (Online collaborative learning groups), 37 subjects
(8.8% of the total students registered in the course) showed interest in participating, and 30 of them
satisfactorily completed the project. The remaining 7 left the project during the first week. This means
that the abandonment rate was 18.9%. In the second project (Concept Maps using Cmap Tools), 61
subjects volunteered to participate (15.4% participation rate). However, only 46 successfully completed
the project. This means that the abandonment rate was 24.6%.
Table 2. People involved in the projects.
Project 2:
Project 1:
Concept Maps using
Online collaborative learning
Cmap Tools
groups
Students registered in the course 420 395

Students that showed initial intention to participate 37 61
in the project
Students that successfully completed the project 30 46
Participation rate 8.8 % 15.4 %
Abandonment rate 18.9 % 24.6 %
A significant increase is noted in the number of students who voluntarily decided to participate
in the pilot projects. While in the 2006/07 course 8.8% of those registered took part, in 2008/09 the
percentage rose to 15.4%, which may be due, among other factors, to the students’ awareness of the
advantages to their learning processes deriving from educational innovation projects. The unwanted
counterpoint to this would be the greater abandonment occurring in this second project, which would
have to be explained through a more in-depth analysis taking into account complex variables that were
not considered in the research.
Performance Indicators for Evaluating Research
The following principles were established as indicators of results: a) the participation rate in rela-
tion to the total number of students enrolled on the course; b) achievements in respect of the specific
objectives of each of the projects, assessed through indicators such as the quality of the tasks carried
out, frequency and relevance of participation in forums, or group atmosphere; c) satisfaction of the
students taking part in the experiment; and, finally, d) satisfaction of the teaching team with the results
of the experiment. Table 3 describes the performance indicators used to evaluate the projects.
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Table 3. Performance indicators for evaluating research.
Project 1: Online collaborative Project 2: Concept Maps

learning groups using Cmap Tools
Participation rate Participation rate

Performance indicators
Quality of the group work Complexity of the concept map

Associated with the objec-
Associated with the objec-

tives of the project
tives of the project

Collaborative attitude of the students Number of basic concepts selected
Attitude of each collaborative group Importance of the concepts identified
Number of correct relations between the

Participation in the virtual forum
concepts
Student satisfaction Student satisfaction
Teacher satisfaction Teacher satisfaction
Instrument and Procedures
The tools used to evaluate the projects are described in Table 4. Data was compiled using: a) the
actual work submitted by the students when they had finished the activity, b) a multiple-choice test
which was completed online within a ten minute time limit, c) a report of the students’ participation in
the virtual forum of their collaborative learning group, and d) a satisfaction questionnaire, completed
by each student, with a scale of 1 (minimum) to 10 (maximum), carried out on an ad hoc basis.
Table 4. Instruments for evaluation research.
Project 2: Concept Maps using

Project 1: Online collaborative learning groups
Cmap Tools
Report on the education project designed by each group Concept maps made by the students
Evaluation instruments
Participation report on the virtual forum Written test about basic concepts
Questionnaire on student satisfaction Questionnaire on student satisfaction
Project evaluation session by teachers Project evaluation session by teachers
The evaluation of the experience by the teaching team took the form of a self regulated group
debate. On this occasion no specific data collection instrument was prepared.
Data Analysis
The data were subjected to an analysis process using descriptive parameters such as: a) percentages
of students that achieve the different grades; b) average of the grades corresponding to the students
taking part in the experience versus the ones not participating; c) group means corresponding to each
of the indicators of student satisfaction with the project.
Results of Research
The results of the evaluation research will be presented under four subheadings. The first will
indicate how many subjects voluntarily took part in the two teaching innovation projects which have
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been carried out, referring to the participation rate in respect of the relevant population. Next come
the results in respect of the objectives of the projects, reflecting the learning outcomes, both individual
and collective. Then the data on the degree of satisfaction that students feel about the experiences they
have undergone is provided. Finally, the global evaluation of the projects from the teachers’ point of
view will be described.
The evaluation was based on evidence, data and facts, which have allowed an analysis and rigorous
assessment and the maximum objectivity possible within the limitations of the work and the nature of
the information to be obtained.
Individual and Group Achievements
All the groups and students on the online collaborative learning project fulfilled the undertaking to
hand in both individual and group set tasks within the established time frames. In addition, there was
a high rate of participation in virtual forums, with an average quarterly group exchange of 115 mes-
sages. In terms of atmosphere, the teaching team considered the group to be pleasant and extremely
co-operative. As a result, except for two members of one of the groups, the other students obtained
an extra point in their final subject mark which shows that the methodology was able to positively
contribute to the students’ academic performance.
The learning outcomes achieved in the second project, concept maps using Cmap Tools, are shown
in Figure 1. When the final marks for the subject obtained by students participating in the project are
compared with those of students who did not take part, there is a striking difference in the percentage
of students who were graded “very good” amounting to 52.27% of the project members, compared
to 29.12% in students who did not take part. Furthermore, the percentage of students who failed was
4.54% compared to 19.78% of those who did not take part.
Figure 1: Percentage of students that achieved the different grades.
Given that the percentage of “excellent” marks is similar in both groups, it could be thought that
those who are situated on pass/fail border are those who perhaps due the influence of the project have
improved their performance, moving up to a higher grade. And also it was noted that poor performance
meriting a fail mark was avoided.
In both projects, online collaborative learning groups and concept maps using Cmap Tools, the data
shows positive results in respect of the proposed objectives.
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Student Satisfaction
Student satisfaction with the experience is indicated in Table 5 which shows the average marks of
the two groups of students participating, respectively, in the educational innovation experiences. In
the case of the online collaborative learning groups, project acceptance can be qualified as high overall
as the marks in eight of the cases are higher than 8 out of a possible ten; and the other four students
are all above 5.8.
Students largely agree that the collaborative groups have helped them to increase their knowledge
(8.30), to understand and relate significant aspects of the subject (8.30), to improve their skills with the
technologies (8.70) and motivate them to use the tools (8.70). They consider that the online collaborative
groups offer a useful methodological model for facilitating study. The lowest grading, a simple average
position (6.70), was obtained by the question on the capacity of groups to accompany students and
support them in their learning process. In this respect the motivation afforded by the methodology
does not appear to be significant, although this may have been influenced by the short time span that
the groups were in operation, only two months.
With respect to the project constructing concept maps with Cmap Tools, students acknowledge that
its strength lies in facilitating the acquisition of knowledge (8.9% is the average grading awarded by the
group for this aspect) however, the potential for stimulation and study motivation is also given a high
grade (8.9 points). The lowest grades, still on the threshold of six points, correspond to the assessment
of the editor’s capacity for consolidating computer skills, and if this result is interpreted by comparing
it with the level of 8.70 points which this same item achieves for collaborative groups, it points to the
greater suitability of this technique in relation to the initial profile of students in this aspect, and the
possibility of self exclusion of participants on grounds of expertise, as the technical complexity of using
the editor is objectively greater than that required for the work of the online collaborative groups.
Table 5. Group means of student satisfaction.
Concept maps Online collaborative

Cmap Tools learning groups
Indicators
Average group Average group
grading grading
(scale 1-10) (scale 1-10)
The procedure helped me to consolidate knowledge 8.9 8.30

I found the experience stimulating and motivating 8.9 6.70
The methodological procedure is attractive and useful 8.5 8.70
My interest in Environmental Education has increased. 8.2 8.30
I now find it easier to analyse, understand and relate content. 8.0 8.30
It has facilitated my acquisition of significant knowledge. 7.9 8.30
Thanks to this activity I also use the subject’s virtual platform more
5.8 8.70
assiduously
I am more skilled than before in using the Internet as an autono-
5.8 8.70
mous learning tool
One curious fact is that the students participating in the collaborative learning groups show a
less varied satisfaction profile than those corresponding to the project using the Cmap Tools editor,
which could mean that there is a general feeling of satisfaction which is more diffuse and homogenous
among these students. The second group appears able to more accurately discern the strengths of the
methodology for the objectives described in the various items of the questionnaire.
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Teacher Assessment
In the session interpreting the results the teaching team identified some coincidences in the
strengths and weaknesses of both projects. The following four points were listed as strengths: a) the
intense social and affective and cognitive involvement of the participants; b) the matching of the
activities to the interests and needs of the students; c) the adjustment between the times established
and used for carrying out activities; and d) the efficacy of guidance and the appropriateness of the
educational materials.
The main weaknesses were seen to be the following: a) minority participation; b) the slowness in
the self organisation process of the collaborative learning groups; c) the need to dedicate additional
time to teaching the students the technological skills needed to take part in the project; d) the col-
laborative group’s tendency to divide the work, thus detracting from the essential purpose of the
methodology; and f ) the requirement for greater commitment from teachers to the subject demanded
by both methodologies.
Conclusions
The evaluative research carried out confirms that the methodology of online collaborative learning
groups is of interest to the purposes of the subject. The satisfaction which students acknowledge that
they feel largely supports the motivational capacity of this methodology to facilitate learning processes
and encourage team work, the values of participation and dialogue for reaching consensus. As a result it
may be stated that online collaborative learning groups are an appropriate instrument for encouraging
the acquisition of ethical competencies. They seek assimilation of disciplinary contents, but, inevitably,
by the very nature of the procedure, they require the daily application of attitudes of co-responsibility,
solidarity, cooperation and negotiated settlement of conflicts. All these are directly linked to the objec-
tives for environmental education for sustainable development to be achieved in higher education.
With respect to the Cmap Tools editor, the software tool that facilitates the creation of concept
maps, the results of the assessment of the achievements of the corresponding educational innovation
project have not only shown the motivating power of ICTs through the satisfaction shown by students,
but also the potential of this computer tool for reinforcing both the learning subjects’ analytical thinking
and their comprehension of the relationships between basic concepts, thus contributing to develop-
ment of a systemic and complex system of thought.
Both projects have shown their appropriateness for the objectives of environmental education
for sustainable development, both in terms of their suitability for the new learning model demanded
by the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) of the University. Its greatest weakness lies in the per-
manent attention required from the teacher in monitoring the learning process, a requirement that is
incompatible with high staff-student ratios.
The results of our research are particularly relevant within the context of the UNED, a distance
learning university of international scope, where information and communication technologies are now
essential for its teaching-learning processes. These technologies make it possible to develop learning
processes from the perspective of significant learning and collaborative learning, as it has become clear
in both of the projects described. Likewise, UNED´s experience could be of interest to other higher
education centers working in virtual learning contexts.
Finally, it should be noted that researching in order to innovate always means beginning processes
involving a great deal of self learning and that it is the achievements and the mistakes that show us the
path to success. In this respect the experiences of innovative education the authors have presented
provide different steps forward in a stable research project which will continue in future, always seeking
the motivation and integral development of the students and their progress towards the collaborative
dynamics which are so essential for a cooperative world.
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Acknowledgements
This article was made possible thanks to funding received from the EU ERDF (European Regional
Development Fund) and allocated by the Office of the Pro-Vice-Chancellor for Teaching Quality and
Innovation of the National University of Distance Education (UNED), in the annual Call for Research Net-
works for educational innovation: pilot projects for adapting education to the European Higher Education
Area in its I and III edition, 2006 and 2008 (UNED, BICI nº 33 of 12 June 2006, and BICI nº 34 of 30 June
2008, respectively).
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EDUCATION FOR
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT: CURRENT
FAD OR RENEWED
COMMITMENT TO ACTION?
Paul Pace Abstract. The paper will compara-

tively highlight the main characteristics
of environmental education and some
of its variants. Similarly the paper will
critically analyse major international
events addressing the need to implement
Introduction
environmental education and their impact
The original idea to write this paper can possibly be traced on the educational community. These two
back to the CEEE 2002 conference (Gent, Belgium). During that con- reviews will act as a backdrop to a critical
ference two things helped the author focus on the realities facing analysis of why the resources invested
environmental education: a remark made by a young participant, in environmental education have not
i.e. “Don’t just talk about it … give us new ideas about how to do provided the turnout expected. Strategies
more”; and the clear rift between theory and practice that surfaced
adopted to get results have further compli-
throughout the workshop sessions. After all these years, during
which environmental education had to flourish and permeate our cated the situation, giving rise to confusion
society, such situations raise important questions – that need to be and lack of direction in the field, a schism
answered particularly when we are more than midway through the between theory and practice, and a further
UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. fragmentation of resources. The paper
Are we witnessing the gradual demise of the environmental concludes by making several reflections
education movement or is this another phase in its evolution? In
and concrete proposals about making the
other words, have we arrived at the cross-roads – a paradigm shift?
Has the theoretical framework, constructed to support practice, UN Decade of Education for Sustainable
developed into an academic lucrative exercise – an irrelevant Development a worthwhile experience …
standalone? Has practice run amok without any sense of direction particularly at the grassroots level.
responding only to the whims of project funding agencies? Asking Key words: curriculum development;
these questions may, for some, seem a futile rhetorical exercise. environmental education; education for
However, a closer analysis of the development of environmental
change; education for sustainable devel-
education shows that avoiding these and similar questions about
our actions will inevitably lead us to the same mistakes and render opment.
our progress a series of jump-starts.
The Backdrop – Learning from Our Past
For reasons that will be elucidated further on, the author will Paul Pace
use the term environmental education and refrain from using other University of Malta, Malta
variants, i.e. Earth Education (van Matre, 1990); Environmental
and Development Education (EDE) (UNCED, 1992); Environmental
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Education for Sustainability (EEfS) (Tilbury, 1995); Education for Sustainability (EfS) (Huckle and Sterling,
1996); Education for a Sustainable Future (ESF) (UNESCO, 1997); Education as Sustainability (EaS) (Foster,
2001); Sustainable Development Education (SDE) (Smyth, 2002); Education for Sustainable Development
(ESD) (UNESCO, 2005); etc.
Possibly most of the problems facing the dissemination of environmental education are related
to the great efforts spent, throughout these past two decades, reinventing the wheel. Conscious of the
risk of being labelled a staunch conservative or even accused of limiting the scope of environmental
education, the author believes that most of what had to be said about environmental education was
said during the Tbilisi Conference way back in 1977 – and any ‘new elaboration’ is really a rehash of the
same principles under a new guise. The Tbilisi document’s Declaration and Recommendation No. 2
(UNESCO, 1980) outlines the characteristics of environmental education.
These characteristics and the commitment towards sustainable development were confirmed
ten years later at the International Congress on Environmental Education and Training (Moscow, 1987),
also appropriately termed ‘Tbilisi plus ten’ (UNEP, 1987). Ten years later, the International Conference on
Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability (Thessaloniki, 1997) noted
that the recommendations and action plans proposed by the afore mentioned events were “still valid
and not fully explored” (Scoullos, 1998, p79).
Moreover, the declaration reaffirms (in point 11) that:
Environmental education, as developed within the framework of the Tbilisi recommendations

and as it has evolved since then, addressing the entire range of global issues included in Agenda
21 and the major UN Conferences, has also been dealt with as education for sustainability. This
allows that it may also be referred to as education for environment and sustainability (Scoullos,
1998, pp80-81).
Rather than going through all the principles of the various other offshoots of environmental edu-
cation, that have been proposed along these last few years (see above), the paper will just focus on the
latest one, i.e. the principles for ESD. Even a cursory review of the ESD principles reveals a close similar-
ity with the ones outlined at Tbilisi (see Table 1). There is, obviously a broader emphasis on sustainable
development issues – a direct result of the significance attributed to this concept since the publication
of the Bruntland Report (WCED, 1988) and the Rio Summit (UNCED, 1992) – but the characteristics of the
process have remained practically the same. This broadening of emphasis was also reported by Stokes
et al (2001) in educational systems throughout the European Union.
Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of Education for Sustainable Development and Envi-
ronmental Education.
Education for Sustainable Development

Environmental Education
(proposed by the DESD International Implementation
(proposed by the Tbilisi Conference - UNESCO-UNEP, 1978)
Scheme - UNESCO, 2005)
based on the principles and values that underlie sustainable considers the environment in its totality: natural and built, tech-
development and deals with the well being of all three realms of nological and social (economic, political, technological, cultural
sustainability: environment, society and economy – historical, moral aesthetic)
presents a holistic and balanced perspective
promotes life-long learning is a lifelong process - provided for all ages, at all levels and in
formal, non-formal and informal education
engages formal, non-formal and informal education
is interdisciplinary is interdisciplinary
addresses content, taking into account context, global issues and examines environmental issues from a local, national, regional
local priorities and international perspective
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Education for Sustainable Development

Environmental Education
(proposed by the DESD International Implementation
(proposed by the Tbilisi Conference - UNESCO-UNEP, 1978)
Scheme - UNESCO, 2005)
is based on local needs, perceptions and conditions, but acknowl- promotes local, national, regional and international cooperation in
edges that fulfilling local needs often has international effects and the prevention and solution of environmental problems
consequences
is locally relevant and culturally appropriate focuses on current and potential environmental situations, while
taking into account the historical perspective
accommodates the evolving nature of the concept of sustainability considers environmental aspects in plans for development and
growth
fosters positive patterns of conduct towards the environment and
the nations’ use of their resources
is responsive to changes in a rapidly changing world
enables learner to discover the symptoms and real causes of
environmental problems
builds civil capacity for community-based decision-making, social looks outward to the community
tolerance, environmental stewardship, adaptable workforce and
quality of life encourages initiative, a sense of responsibility and commitment to
build a better tomorrow
provides learners with the opportunity for making decisions and
accepting their consequences
uses a variety of pedagogical techniques that promote participa- utilises diverse learning environments and a broad array of
tory learning and higher-order thinking skills. educational approaches to teaching/learning with due emphasis
on experiential learning
enables learners to have a role in planning their learning experi-
ences
involves the individual in critical thinking and an active problem-
solving process within the context of specific realities
What is being criticised is not the ability of the various researchers to highlight particular emphases
and subtleties in the process, but the tendency of viewing the evolution of environmental education
as a linear process – with one ‘new’ phase being considered ‘better’ than and hence replacing the ‘older’
phase. The evolution of environmental education can be compared more to a branching system, rather
than to a linear one, with new forms developing and coexisting happily with other forms, each fitting
particular niches in the various educational systems worldwide. As long as sustainable development
remains the main focus, every version is a valid one and its validity is directly dependent on its con-
tinued relevance to the context for which it was developed. And taking the evolution analogy further,
what is wrong with maintaining existing labels – as long as they are still valid and they do not conflict
with current needs? (After all our body still carries remnants from our ancestral past without causing
any problem with its current functionality). Promoting one version of environmental education over
another is rather reductionist and insensitive to the diversity of educational needs, cultures and socio-
economic backgrounds.

While the basic content and action framework for environment and sustainability is largely in
place, the translation of these parameters into action for education will need to take into account
particular local, regional or national contexts. (Scoullos, 1998, p81)
No universal models of ESD exist. While there is overall agreement on principles of sustainability
and supporting concepts, there will be nuanced differences according to local contexts, priorities, and
approaches. Each country has to define its own sustainability and education priorities and actions. The
goals, emphases and processes must, therefore, be locally defined to meet the local environmental,
social and economic conditions in culturally appropriate ways. (UNESCO, 2005, Annex II, p5)
For example, while the theme of Conservation of Ecological Diversity would probably feature quite
low in the list of priorities of an ESD programme for urbanised and/or industrialised communities of a
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developed country, it would feature quite high for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) because of its
social and economic relevance.
The undue emphasis on finding new definitions to environmental education and promoting one
form over another might seem much-ado-about-nothing, but there are certain dangers (listed below)
inherent in this attitude that might be the true reason why environmental education has not provided
deliverables that correspond to the efforts invested in it over the years.
The Transient Nature of Fads

Referring to the problems encountered by information technology in education, Maddux and
Cummings (2004) see fads as presenting a serious problem, in that their ephemeral nature tends to kill
off promising innovations before they are given a fair trial. Maybe this is what Smyth (1995) refers to as
the ‘injustice’ done to environmental education when it was ‘packaged’ and presented differently from
other educational packages. Due to its novelty the attention was drawn to the packaging not to the
inside of the package and environmental education (contrary to its original remit) sparked off a fashion
of superficial change. Educational institutions readily accepted the idea of including environmental is-
sues in their programmes, without endorsing the radical innovation in the educational system that the
environmental education movement envisaged. Rather than opting for a rethinking of teaching and
learning approaches, most educational institutions opted for the easiest way out: re-labelling traditional
practices, such as Nature Study and Environmental Studies, as Environmental Education.
The transformative nature of environmental education was acknowledged from day one:
“By its very nature, environmental education can make a powerful contribution to the renova-
tion of the educational process.” (Tbilisi Declaration – UNESCO, 1980, p12).
Incompatibility problems, between the educational paradigm promoted by the environmental

education movement and the established educational paradigm (Pace, 1997), were to be expected. The
most common implementation strategies involved ‘including’ environmental education within the cur-
riculum rather than transforming or adapting to it. What was needed was a commitment to face these
problems and find lasting solutions. But rather than reforming education (Smyth, 1995), the strategy
adopted was, to say the least disappointing.
While it was understandable that educational institutions, notorious for their inherent resistance
to change, simply whitewashed over their current practices, what was worrying was the strategy
adopted by the promoters of environmental education. From being considered as the panacea of all
environmental ills, environmental education suddenly became irrelevant, narrow in scope and in need
of replacement by a broader concept. This was a case of changing the game because the players were
not playing by the rules. Usually, when the going gets tough, the tough get going – they do not change
the game. It would have been much more productive if the energies invested in promoting new forms
of environmental education were invested in understanding what really went wrong and what could
be done to address the crux of the matter and avoid repeating the same mistakes.
And it seems that we still have not learned from our experience. Reflecting on how ESD (and the
associated decade) is being promoted as the missing piece of the puzzle – the new panacea for our ailing
world, we are once again running after the latest fashion. If the principles identified in Tbilisi were mis-
interpreted, are not we running the risk of misinterpreting the ones being proposed for the Decade?
A Lack of Vision
“Environmental education”, like “education”, is an abstract concept – an idea that describes various
perceptions (Jickling, 1992). It also implies a process and the analysis of its manifestations and develop-
ment improves our understanding of the concept. However, regardless of the depth of our analysis, we
can never arrive at a precise definition of the concept due to its evolving nature. On the other hand,
what can (and needs to) be done is to fine tune our vision by examining
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“…the implications which logically follow from use of the concept to see if application of the
term is consistent with those essential criteria teased out during analysis.” (Jickling, 1992, p4).
In hindsight, educational institutions were too preoccupied with implementing environmental

education without understanding what it really meant and what they should have been doing. Jickling
(1992, p1) attributes the expression and proliferation of such questionable ideas about environmental
education to a lack of attention to philosophical analysis that would have provided us with a clear vision.
Rather than going for something new, it would be more sensible to revisit our efforts and see why, where
and what went wrong and learn from our past experiences.
A Politically Insensitive Stance
The tendency of creating ‘new forms’ of environmental education and overly promoting them as
being the ‘in-thing’ has been counter productive and may conflict directly with the popularisation of
environmental education. Instead of elucidating the educational process, it is generating confusion
and frustration particularly in developing countries. First of all, there is virtually no simple equivalent
expression of these terms other than in the English language (Leal Filho, 1996). Secondly, in countries
where environmental education is struggling to get recognition, because governments have other
seemingly more urgent socio-economic priorities, changing terms might throw years of negotiation
and hard-won success down the drain (Leal Filho, 1996; Smyth, 2002).
Starting all over again is disheartening, non productive and unsustainable. It is not a good and
efficient use of resources, especially for small scale economies such as families, schools, SIDS and
other developing countries. A sustainable way of promoting education for sustainable development
is to build upon previous achievements, make good use of available resources and invest in capacity
building. Gradually, but surely, such a strategy would help to develop the critical mass of promoters and
practitioners (Smyth, 2002) needed to make the difference in sustainable development. This would be
far more effective in changing policies and influencing lifestyles than a couple of academic gurus or as
Smyth (1995) calls them the “priesthood of the environmentally enlightened”.
There is also another political danger in this excessive emphasis on language. It tends to systemati-
cally generate discourse which is very specialised, exclusive and alienating (Leal Filho and Pace, 2002).
The environmental education community is thus split into a caste system: the ones in power who lay
down policies and the ones who follow them (Robottom, 1987). Understanding what is happening in
environmental education and being involved in it tends to become a purely academic exercise and at a
grassroots level such an exercise is deemed irrelevant to the realities faced daily (Alexander, 1984). This
stance is hard to reconcile with the commitment to empowerment that environmental education (in
all its forms) is expected to promote. Unfortunately there are other instances when the environmental
education community is faced (and has to deal) with conflicting or inconsistent messages.
Two Weights - Two Measures
In their enthusiasm to show the way forward, certain researchers have tended to be prescriptive
rather than adaptive and open for change and diversity. This in itself is already sending several conflict-
ing messages that are manifested in various forms, for example:
a) promoting education for something gives the inherent message that the role of education
is to make people think and behave in a particular way (Jickling, 1992). This conflicts with
one of the basic principles of environmental education: developing autonomous learners
who are critical thinkers in their quest for meaning and active in finding their own sustain-
able life patterns.
b) while advocating the need to respect and value contextualised initiatives, particularly in
reference to the value and conservation of traditional indigenous knowledge, certain au-
thors tend to be rather judgemental in their choice of ‘successful’ case studies. What are the
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criteria used to judge whether the initiative is good environmental education or not? Were
contextual issues considered?
c) the issue of how to approach environmental education has also been rather confusing.
It is a well established reality that learning is not a linear experience. On the other hand a
large part of the educational programmes available adopt a linear approach. The point of
departure is not the learner but the subject matter that has to be transmitted. Moreover, a
linear approach fails to acknowledge the fact that individuals learn in different ways through
different experiences.
d) reading through the literature one tends to get the feeling that certain terms, such as “science
and technology” and “ecology” for example, have become “dirty words” in ESD discourse.
These extremist views are hard to reconcile with, for example, real situations where science
and technology are actually offering solutions or with the advocacy of “whole systems think-
ing” and “ecological paradigms”.
e) there is also a lot of going to and fro in the philosophical stances adopted by certain environ-
mental educators. For example, while being very vociferous on the shedding of ‘old’ practices
in preference for the newly proposed ones, some individuals do not think twice to accept
consultancy on promoting the very same practices that they felt were superseded.
The Action – Looking at the Future
It is quite clear that education, particularly in the formal sector, is finding problems of relevance
(Sterling, 2001). Environmental education has been offering solutions from the day of its inception.
However, the uncertainty generated by the environmental education research community – the constant
changing of goal posts – is not helping the educational community to make the desired step.
The wrong perceptions (or the confusion generated) about environmental education have forced
education reformers to look elsewhere and adopt different evaluation paradigms for solutions, thus miss-
ing the wood for the trees. Reports about the implementation problems of environmental education in
the educational system (e.g. Commission for the European Communities, 1995; Economic Commission
for Europe, 2005) characteristically reveal a predominance of a top-down approach to implementation
in which the solutions are sought from outside the targeted community. When faced with change
coming from the outside, educational communities tend to either disregard the proposed change or,
if they cannot avoid it, they tend to adopt practices that are only a travesty of the new lifestyle. For ef-
fective change to occur, it needs to come from within the educational community itself (Leal Filho and
Pace, 2002).
In other words the individuals concerned should feel the need for the change, desire it and be-
come actively involved in implementing it. The need to actively involve the grassroots has been clearly
proposed by Caring for the Earth in 1991 (IUCN/UNEP/WWF). Prior to this publication, plans directed at
environmental action were traditionally addressed to governments and other policy makers. However,
this document, when considering “... those who shape policy and make decisions that effect the course of
development and the condition of our environment ...”, intends every individual and not just people in
‘high places’ (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991). Rather than emphasising the traditional top-down approach,
Caring for the Earth addresses the general public and invites them to take concrete actions towards
sustainable living. This citizens-as-active-participants approach to environmental action, rather than
passive recipients of directives, was to become the main theme of Agenda 21.
Relevance is one of the basic characteristic of a successful strategy targeting the grassroots. If we
are not careful, the notion of ‘education for change’ might give wrong impressions that change is some-
thing that we will have to face in the future. Change IS happening out there, but due to their traditional
ways of ‘preparing the citizen for life’; educational institutions are not keeping up with the change, and
are rapidly becoming irrelevant (Sterling, 2001). This might explain the high percentage of drop-outs
experienced in most educational systems.
The Economic Commission for Europe (2005) identified the following key themes of sustainable
development:
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“… poverty alleviation, citizenship, peace, ethics, responsibility in local and global contexts,
democracy and governance, justice, security, human rights, health, gender equity, cultural diversity,
rural and urban development, economy, production and consumption patterns, corporate respon-
sibility, environmental protection, natural resource management and biological and landscape
diversity.” (p.4).
These key themes are issues that are experienced everyday, in one form or another, at the grassroots
level. The grassroots level should be the main target as it is the closest one could get to reality. More
specifically, environmental education programmes need to target the individual learner. Programmes
based on the development of competencies tend to be learner centred – preparing learners to take
concrete steps towards discovering their own sustainable life patterns. Thus a competence is what
one can do (ability) in a given context, based on what is learned (knowledge), to achieve a set aim and
produce meaningful knowledge. Three main areas of competences can thus be identified (for example
see Box 2):
• Cognitive and meta-cognitive competences – enabling the individual to learn about the
environment, to understand the dynamics and interaction of its various components and
to contextualise the knowledge learnt.
• Action and behavioural competences – empowering the individual to play an active role in
the resolution of environmental problems.
• Social and citizenship competences – enabling the individual to form groups and work
effectively in them.
Table 2. List of competences relevant to environmental education developed for the European
Portfolio for Environmental Education (Pace, 2005).
Cognitive and meta-cognitive Social and citizenship

Action and behavioural competences
competences competences
• Awareness of environmental issues • Consistency in knowledge-values- • Awareness of values

• Clarity of concepts behaviours • Participation
• Awareness of complexity • Change in lifestyle • Take responsibility
• Awareness of uncertainty • Moving about in natural environments • Decision making
• Ability to foresee • Perceiving • Considering limits
• Application of knowledge • Express emotions • Consistency
• Hypothesis construction • Perseverance • Independence
• Hypothesis testing • Motivation • Encouragement
• Use of appropriate terminology • Self-fulfilment • Level of discussion
• Identification of erroneous argu- • Classification of matter • Respect for differing views
mentation • Observation • Conflict management
• Forming reasoned opinions • Decision making • Team work
• Processing information • Practicability • Flexibility
• Evaluation • Rationality • Optimism
• Self-reflection • Handling quantitative data
• Classification of matter • Written communication
• Systems thinking • Text analysis
• Observation • Autonomous learning initiative
• Handling equipment
• Information technology skills
Any environmental education programme that is committed towards promoting sustainable devel-
opment necessitates the translation of these competences into action. This is the major challenge that
has always characterised environmental education and which has been reaffirmed at the Ahmedabad
Conference (CEE, 2007) and the Bonn Conference (UNESCO, 2009). Overall, it is not on the aspect of
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resource development or the provision of training that we have failed to deliver as much as one would
have expected. The major fault seems to have been rooted in our traditional perceptions of the learn-
ing process. The development of learner centred pedagogies aimed at transforming passive individuals
into autonomous critical lifelong learners who are committed to action (for example: Vanhear & Pace,
2008; Pace, 2010; and Leal Filho, Pace & Manolas, 2010) seems to be the next phase in the evolution of
environmental education.
“The overall goal of the DESD is to integrate the principles, values, and practices of sustainable
development into all aspects of education and learning. This educational effort will encourage changes
in behaviour that will create a more sustainable future in terms of environmental integrity, economic
viability, and a just society for present and future generations.” (UNESCO, 2005, Annex I, pp1-2).
Conclusion
While not downplaying the urgency to get environmental education on the road, we need to un-
derstand that education is a gradual process that simply cannot be hurried. People take time to change:
most of our communities have gradually adapted to a more comfortable but unsustainable way of
life – going back (or rather moving on) to a sustainable lifestyle will likewise take some time. Without
being overly optimistic, looking back we have made progress, not as much as we would have desired,
but we have managed to put environmental issues on the political agenda and there is a heightened
awareness of environmental concerns. Nevertheless, we cannot relent in our efforts to promote an
education that prepares individuals for sustainable development, but rushing things may drive us into
repeating the same mistakes.
Besides working at the grassroots level, we need to secure a place for environmental education with
policy makers whose main commitment is usually paying only lip service to the process at international
conferences. Policy makers are usually interested in short-term high yield enterprises; that is why they
prefer to sponsor and promote educational programmes that are characterised by the transmission of
subject content over programmes that promote transformative pedagogies. What would probably tip
the balance is experiences and celebration of contextually successful practices, but communication
was never a quality of environmental educators. Moreover, as previously highlighted we are repeatedly
changing tactics and we are not presenting a solid united front on what is really needed to prepare
citizens for the challenges of sustainable development.
The important question is: Have we learnt from the experience? Or shall we repeat the same mistakes
again? Let us not forget Moscow 1987. The aim of the congress was the drawing up of an “International
Strategy for Action in the Field of Environmental Education and Training for the 1990s”. In an attempt
to reverse the state of environmental illiteracy the congress dedicated the 1990s as the ‘World Decade
for Environmental Education’. Almost two decades later we are still trying to understand why and where
we failed! If we are not careful we will be running the risk of wasting the present decade as well.
In other words, rather than being preoccupied with what version is currently in fashion, educators
should use whichever term they feel comfortable working with (whether it is EE or ESD or whatever)
that fits with their specific context. Getting there is more important than debating how we plan to ar-
rive there! As long as we are part of an educational process that is contextually relevant, participatory,
emancipatory and leading towards sustainable development we are in the game!
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323
GREEN MANAGEMENT,
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
SMALL BUSINESS IN
BRAZIL: IMPLICATIONS FOR
TRAINING AND EDUCATION
FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Abstract. This paper presents the results Davi Fouad Soubihia,

of a study on the analysis of training needs
regarding environmental (green) manage-
Charbel Jose Chiappetta Jabbour,
ment and climate change topics in micro Walter Leal Filho
and small enterprises (MSEs) in Brazil and
its implications on education for sustain-
able development. It reports on an e-mail
survey of Brazilian small enterprises,
whose results indicate that they are indeed
interested in environmental manage- Introduction
ment and climate change topics in an
education for sustainable development Education for sustainable development is a key element in the
context. The study indicates that proposals training of personnel working at enterprises, especially in respect
for courses on environmental manage- of fostering environmentally sound management. An analysis of
ment and climate change should follow a the findings of previous studies on environmental management
systemic perspective and take sustainable in the enterprises sector reveals that there is a focus on large sized
development into account. By applying enterprises and corporations (Boiral, 2006; Kolk & Pinkse, 2007),
factor analysis, it was found that the topics whereas there is a paucity of studies on small enterprises and how
of interest can be grouped into thematic they can adopt environmental management practices to improve
modules, which can be useful in the design their relationship with the environment. This is a paradox since
of training courses for the top manage- small enterprises are responsible for a great part of the total in-
ment leaders of those companies. dustrial pollution that affects the environment (Pimenova & Vorst,
Key words: climate change, education for 2004; Hillary, 2004).
sustainable development, environmental The lack of theoretical and empirical lack of studies on green
training. management in small sized enterprises (Zhang, Bi & Liu, 2009;
Hillary, 2004) means that, in order for them to become involved
Davi Fouad Soubihia in environmental management, there is a need to overcome a
University of Sao Paulo Business School, typical barrier: lack of knowledge about sustainable development
Sao Paulo, Brazil as a whole and environmental management issues in particular
Charbel Jose Chiappetta Jabbour (Hillary, 2004; Brío & Junquera, 2003).
University of Sao Paulo Business School,
Sao Paulo, Thus, the importance of adopting human resources prac-
Brazil United Nations University Institute of tices to foster education for sustainable development as well
Advanced Studies, Yokohama, Japan as awareness on environmental management issues needs to
Walter Leal Filho increase. Among these needs, one of the most critical ones in
Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, raising environmental awareness among top managers of small
Germany
London Metropolitan University Business sized enterprises is training (Cloquell-Ballester et al., 2008; Brío &
School, UK Junquera, 2003).
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ISSN 1648–3898 GREEN MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND SMALL BUSINESS IN BRAZIL:
IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING AND EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
(P. 324-333)
Training aligned to environmental management is called “environmental training”, which aims at

providing the target public with knowledge and environmental awareness, in lines with the goals of
education for sustainable development (Leal Filho, Manolas & Pace, 2009). In order for the environmental
training be effective, it is necessary to analyze the training needs of the target public (Unnikrishnan &
Hegde, 2007; Brío, Junquera & Ordiz, 2008; Sarkis, Gonzalez-Torres & Adenso-Diaz, 2010) and ensure the
training offered is in line with the principles of sustainable development.
A training needs analysis can be useful for identifying topics of interest, guiding the design of
environmental management courses, and providing information to supporting organizations to small
sized enterprises. A major research focusing on this topic was carried out with Spanish SMEs (Cloquell-
Ballester et al., 2008).
Nevertheless, there is a dearth of literature on the analysis of training needs regarding environ-
mental management including in topics such as climate change, mainly in emergent economies, like
Brazil. Hence, it can be said that the following question stimulated this study: Which are the major
training needs concerning environmental management and climate change in small sized enterprises
located in Brazil?
Consequently, the objectives of this research are:
• Identify the main topics within the scope of environmental management and climate change
that are of interest of small enterprises’ in Brazil in a sustainable development context;
• Group the identified topics providing guidelines for the design of environmental training
for small sized enterprises in line with the principles of education for sustainable develop-
ment;
• Highlight and discuss the implications for those who formulate policies to support small
sized enterprises.
Scientific Information Sources
Environmental Management and Climate Change
According to Haden et al. (2009), environmental management concerns the incorporation of

environmental objectives and strategies into the general objectives and strategies of an organization.
Jabbour (2010) adds that environmental management should be based on a systemic approach to
incorporate environmental issues into all organization levels. Among all issues included in the envi-
ronmental management research field, climate change and global warming can be highlighted due
to their importance.
Jeswani, Wehrmeyer, & Mulugetta (2008) consider climate change and global warming as among
the major environmental humanity issues, which results from the buildup of Greenhouse Gases (GHG)
in the atmosphere. According to Baumert, Herzog & Pershing (2005), the productive sector is the one
that contributes the most to climate change. Wittneben & Kiyar (2009) argue that the productive sector
is responsible not only for the challenge of reducing emissions, but also for the understanding of how
the climate change influences businesses. Climate change has become a problem for all individuals,
organizations, and nations (Jeswani, Wehrmeyer & Mulugetta 2008), especially due to the dependence
of the productive system of fossil fuels (Wittneben & Kiyar 2009).
Galbreath (2010) states that climate change is no longer a merely scientific issue. Boiral (2006), based
on a study carried out in 2004 with the 500 largest enterprises in the world, adds that 80% of the inter-
viewees believed that climate change would affect their business as well as pertinent regulations.
Nonetheless, there is little information on how small enterprises get prepared and update on
environmental management or, more specifically, on climate change.
Small Sized Enterprises and Environmental Issues
Investigating micro-enterprises (MEs) and small sized enterprises (SEs) will always be highly con-
sidered due to their importance to the economic development of nations. In Brazil, this scenario is not
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different. It is estimated that Brazilian MEs employ approximately 6.179.810 workers and SEs employ
7.068.717 (Sebrae, 2008).
In this study, the enterprises were classified according to the number of employees: ME, up to 20
employees; and SE, up to 100 employees (Sebrae, 2008).
Studies on MEs and SEs are also important due to the significant environmental impact caused
by small sized companies (Hillary 2004). Pimenova & Vorst (2004) argue that limited information has
been found on environmental impacts and environmental management in small sized enterprises. Ac-
cording to Hillary (2004), MSEs can be responsible for up to 70% of the industrial pollution. Therefore,
it seems important to focus on MSEs when considering industrial environmental improvement (Zhang,
Bi & Liu, 2009).
Evaluation of Training Needs in Small Sized Enterprises
Milkovich & Boudreau (2008) consider training as a systematic process that promotes the acquisi-
tion of skills or concepts, establish rules, and perform actions that result in an improved adequacy of
employees to meet organization demands. Ivancevich (1995) defines this concept as the systematic
process through which the behavior of the employees is guided towards the organization objectives.
Ramus (2002) state that environmental training improves people’s ability to contribute towards
environmental activities. The author argues that the ability of participating in the solution of environ-
mental problems and the motivation to do so increase if the organization has a structured environ-
mental training program. Environmental training is also a requirement in organizations that have the
ISO 14001environmental management system (Unnikrishnan & Hegde, 2007). Jabbour & Santos (2008)
highlight that all company members should receive environmental training.
Some studies focus on the importance of environmental training. Sarkis, Gonzalez-Torres &
Adenso-Diaz (2010) carried out a study with large sized companies in the automotive sector in Spain.
The authors concluded that environmental training is a mediator variable that influences the success of
environmental management practices in the enterprises studied. They proved statistically that environ-
mental management practices work only if the environmental training has an intermediated role, i.e., if
it is offered. In other words, the companies studied adopt environmental practices (such as eco-design)
only if they also offer environmental training to their employees. In addition, the authors believe that
the more technical and in-depth an environmental management practice adopted is, the more it will
be dependent on environmental training.
Unnikrishnan & Hegde (2007) conducted case studies on the major characteristics of the envi-
ronmental training in companies in India. So far, it seems to be the only study available that focuses
on environmental training based on a qualitative approach. The authors concluded that half of the
analyzed companies worry about environmental training issues. They also found that environmental
training requires the support of the top administration, and that the cleaner technology suppliers are
responsible for offering environmental training to the companies studied.
To guarantee the success of the environmental training and to ensure it is line with the principles of
education for sustainable development, it is necessary to evaluate the existing needs. This process may
identify some gaps that can then become the subject of the training within an organization. Cloquell-
Ballester et al. (2008) argue that small sized enterprises need to improve their relationship with the
environment. However, to do so, the authors believe that it is necessary to know the main environmental
management topics to be taught to small sized enterprises’ employees. It is also necessary to evaluate
the training needs first in order to design the adequate courses for smaller enterprises.
General Characteristics of Research
A quantitative analysis method – an e-mail survey – was used aiming at performing an exploratory
analysis to meet the objective of investigating the need for training concerning environmental manage-
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ment and climate change in MSEs located in Brazil.

The sample consisted of micro and small sized enterprises located in the state of São Paulo, which
is the most industrialized state in Brazil. Among the companies studied, 120 were listed in a data bank
containing e-mail addresses of their managers.
In order to elaborate the questionnaire, environmental management and climate change issues
that could be of interest to the managers of those enterprises were selected. These topics (Table 1) were
chosen based on a study conducted by Cloquell-Ballester et al. (2008) and on other topics considered
adequate by the researchers (Unnikrishnan & Hegde, 2007). Each one of those topics generated one
question. The questionnaire was pre-tested and improved. The questionnaire was sent to three research-
ers on environmental management. They proposed a set of improvements in the questionnaire, with
the aim to make the questionnaire clearer. The final version consisted of 18 questions. These questions
were defined based on the literature review. For each variable, the respondents had to choose from 5
qualifications in a Likert scale from “no interest in the topic” to “strong interest in the topic”.
Table 1. Topics of environmental management and climate change in the study.

• New Technologies with lower global warming potential
• Environmental management systems
• Renewable energies
• Best practices for reducing emissions from industrial processes
• Metrics for evaluating industrial emissions
• Environmental regulations focused on warming emissions of global warming gases
• Atmosphere pollution and its effects
• Enterprise sustainability
• Environmental technologies for emission reduction
• Natural catastrophes and emergency situations due to climate change
• Knowledge and international language about environment and climate change
• Development of products with the lowest environmental cost
• Practices for the development of environmentally improved products
• Kyoto protocol
• Carbon credits
• Success practical examples
• Influence of climate change on the market I operate
• Influence of climate change on the creation of new markets
A webpage was created to allow access to the questionnaire. To the respondents was sent an
email with a direct link to the survey questionnaire. The e-mail survey was adopted due to advantages
highlighted by Kaplowitz, Hadlock & Levine (2004). The questionnaires responded by managers of MSEs
were automatically sent to the authors of this research. Therefore, 120 questionnaires were sent out and
43 were returned. In Brazil, there is a low business involvement in academic research. Therefore, even
small, this sample is consistent with Brazilian reality.
Data Analysis
The data analysis was performed using the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) software.
SPSS was used to run Exploratory Factor Analysis and Correlation Coefficients. The reliability of the
instrument was considered excellent with global Cronbach’s Alpha of 0,909. The analysis of the results
is presented next, discussing the descriptive statistics, correlations between variables and the charac-
teristics of the main factors formed.
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Results of Research
Table 2 presents the variables used in this study and the distributions of frequencies along the
scale. The highest frequency value found was 60.5% for the variable “Development of Products with
the Lowest Environmental Cost” (V12), followed by 53.5% for the variable “Influence of Climate Change
on the Market I Operate” ( V17).
Table 2. Distribution of frequency of the variables used in this study (%).
1 – No interest in 5 – Strong interest

Variables 2 3 4
the topic in the topic
V1 – New Technologies with lower global warming 4.7 2.3 37.2 11.6 44.2
potential
V2 – Environmental management systems 4.7 2.3 20.9 27.9 44.2
V3 – Renewable energies 4.7 4.7 18.6 32.6 39.5
V4 – Best practices for reducing emissions from 2.3 4.7 27.9 14.0 51.2
industrial processes
V5 – Metrics for evaluating industrial emissions 7.0 20.9 18.6 14.0 39.5
V6 – Environmental regulations focused on warming 11.6 7.0 18.6 20.9 41.9

emissions of global warming gases
V7 Atmosphere pollution and its effects 4.7 4.7 20.9 23.3 46.5
V8 – Suste Enterprise sustainability 7.0 2.3 18.6 20.9 51.2
V9 – Environmental technologies for emission 0 7.0 16.3 27.9 48.8

reduction
V10 – Natural catastrophes and emergency situa- 9.3 14.0 25.6 18.6 32.6
tions due to climate change
V11 – Knowledge and international language about 14.0 14.0 23.3 16.3 32.6
environment and climate change
V12 – Development of products with the lowest 7.0 2.3 7.0 23.3 60.5
environmental cost
V13 – Practices for the development of environmen- 2.3 4.7 25.6 23.3 44.2
tally improved products
V14 – Kyoto protocol 16.6 11.6 30.2 9.3 32.6
V15 – Carbon credits 20.9 14.0 20.9 16.3 27.9
V16 – Success practical examples 7.0 4.7 11.6 34.9 41.9
V17 – Influence of climate change on the market I 4.7 7.0 16.3 18.6 53.5
operate
V18 – I Influence of climate change on the creation 2.3 4.7 23.3 23.3 46.5
of new markets
With regard to the means, the highest value were on “Development of Products with the lowest
environmental impact” (V12), “Environmental Technologies for Emission Reduction” (V9), and “Influence
of Climate Change on the Market I Operate” (V17), respectively. The profile of the sample, which consists
of manufacturing companies, may justify the high V12 mean (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Graph of the mean of the variables used in this study.
The results of the correlation analysis show that approximately 70% of the correlations between
the variables are significant. This can suggests that there is a relationship between the topics considered
in this study and the need of systemic approach for their treatment.
Table 3. Correlation Coefficients.
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V 10 V 11 V 12 V 13 V 14 V 15 V 16 V 17 V 18
V1 1
V 2 .739** 1
V 3 .464** .556** 1
V 4 .548** .553** .532** 1
V 5 .459** .423** .493** .598** 1
V6 .472** .340* .434** .435** .640** 1
V7 .128 0.152 .189 .188 .066 .365* 1
V 8 .467** .470** .486** .428** .318* .426** .327* 1
V9 .449** .334 .275 .530** .527** .721** .344* .236 1
V 10 .240 .278 .397** .186 .222 .383* .647** .422** .278 1
V 11 .200 .186 .534** .526** .553** .449** .110 .356* .448** .390** 1
V 12 .290 .196 .359* .152 .297 .669** .318* .309* .466** .274 .018 1
V 13 .371* .391** .327* .285 .365* .493** .157 .541* .372* .245 .119 .634** 1
V 14 .233 .261 .494** .433** .371* .418 .239 .382* .420** .360* .569** .329* .351* 1
V 15 .351* .342* .403** .251 .432** .317* .122 .400** .341* .265 .519** .245 .415** .745** 1
V 16 .332* .074 .276 0 .278 .557** .195 .269 .296 .273 .113 .645** .307* .481** .402** 1
V 17 .232 .143 .310* -0.78 .197 .405** .173 .444** .235 .494** .299 .342* .338* .299 .375* .544** 1
V 18 .416** .287 .370* .098 .281 .388* .038 .409** .364* .414** .249 .430** .446** .420** .515** .499** .752** 1
*Significant correlation for p≤0.05.

**Significant correlation for p≤0.01.
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With regard to the Factor Analysis, 5 factors were extracted (considering eigenvalue ≥ 1.0, explana-
tion of 75.2% of the variance accumulated, and KMO test of 0.695), as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Factors, factor loadings, and communalities of the variables used in this study.
Factors
Variables Communalities
1 2 3 4 5
V1 0.797 0.746
V2 0.891 0.822
V3 0.544 0.605
V4 0.619 0.834
V5 0.583 0.692
V6 0.776 0.844
V7 0.982 0.870
V8 0.588 0.645
V9 0.682 0.718
V10 0.804 0.834
V11 0.898 0.855
V12 0.810 0.831
V13 0.586
V14 0.706 0.708
V15 0.617 0.703
V16 0.611 0.718
V17 0.818 0.761
V18 0.796 0.765

In order to interpret the Factor Analysis’ results and name the factors generated, Tables 5,6,7,8, and
9 were drawn. The factors generated were interpreted as follows.
Factor 1 was denominated “Interest in great environmental tendencies” since it includes emergent
generic and comprehensive topics, with Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.845.
Table 5. Formation variables and Factor 1 denomination.
Factor 1: Interest in great environmental tendencies
Variable Question Factor Loading
V1 New Technologies with lower global warming potential 0.797

V2 Environmental management systems 0.891
V3 Renewable energies 0.544
V4 Best practices for reducing emissions from industrial processes 0.619
V8 Enterprise sustainability 0.588
Factor 2 was denominated “Knowledge to make environmental management tools feasible” since
it includes knowledge and theoretical techniques pertinent to environmental management, with
Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.821.
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Factor 2: Knowledge to make environmental management tools feasible
V5 Metrics for evaluating industrial emissions 0.583

V11 Knowledge and international language about environment and climate 0.898
change
V14 Kyoto protocol 0.706
V15 Carbon credits 0.617
Factor 3 was denominated “Benchmarking of climate change management” since it includes ex-
amples of how companies deal with climate change, with Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.815.
Factor 3: Benchmarking of climate change management
V16 Success practical examples 0.611

V17 Influence of climate change on the market I operate 0.818
V18 Influence of climate change on the creation of new markets 0.796
Factor 4 includes the variables related to the emissions of global warming gases and products.
Therefore, it was denominated “Intelligence for environmental improvement of products”, with Cron-
bach’s Alpha value of 0.824.
Factor 4: Intelligence for environmental improvement of products
V6 Environmental regulations focused on warming emissions of global warming 0.776

gases
V9 Environmental technologies for emission reduction 0.682
V12 Development of products with the lowest environmental cost 0.810
Factor 5, was denominated “Problems caused by climate change”, with Cronbach’s Alpha value of
0.780.
Factor 4: Problems caused by climate change
V7 Atmosphere pollution and its effects 0.982
V10 Natural catastrophes and emergency situations due to climate change 0.804
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Discussions

The objective of this study was to analyze the training needs regarding environmental manage-
ment and climate change topics in Micro and Small Brazilian enterprises, in a sustainable development
context. Since there are very few studies on environmental management in small sized enterprises
(Brío & Junquera, 2003; Zhang, Bi & Liu, 2009) and a documented analysis of training needs in MSEs was
observed only in a few occasions (such as in a study conducted by Cloquell-Ballester et al.,2008), there
is a certain degree of innovation on this paper.
The main conclusions of this research are:
• Special interest in topics about “development of green products” and “Influence of environ-
mental management and climate change on businesses”;
• Significant relationship between variables (topics) demonstrating a systemic behavior;
• Education for sustainable development must consider small enterprises;
• Grouping of topics into 5 great thematic blocks.
Based on these results, supporting organizations (governmental or non-governmental) to MSEs can
plan courses on environmental management which may take the principles of education for sustainable
development into account. Managers of micro and small sized enterprises can conduct initiatives for
capacitating their employees focusing on topics of most interest.
Conclusions
The study indicates that proposals for courses on environmental management and climate change
should follow a systemic perspective and take sustainable development into account. By applying fac-
tor analysis, it was found that the topics of interest can be grouped into thematic modules, which can
be useful in the design of training courses for the top management leaders of those companies. There
is a special interest in topics about “development of green products” and “Influence of environmental
management and climate change on businesses. Thus, education for sustainable development must
consider small enterprises.
The academic world can contribute to it by offering extension courses on the topics discussed. Thus,
there is a great venue regarding the contribution of Academy to improve environmental and climate
change awareness among Micro and Small enterprises.
References
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Davi Fouad Soubihia Junior Researcher in Business Administration in University of São

Paulo Business School at Ribeirão Preto (FEA-RP/USP), Avenida
Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, CEP: 14040-905 Brazil.
Charbel José Assistant Professor of Environmental Management and
Chiappetta Jabbour Organizational Theory in University of São Paulo at Ribeirão
Preto (FEA-RP/USP), Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto,
SP Brazil. PostDoctor Fellow at The United Nations University,
Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan.
Walter Leal Filho Senior Professor at London Metropolitan University Business
School , UK and the director of the Research and Transfer Centre
“Applications of Life Sciences” at the Hamburg University of
Applied Sciences in Germany, Lohbruegger Kirchstraße 65,
Sector S4 / Room 0.38
21033 Hamburg, Germany.
Website: http://www.haw-hamburg.de/international.html
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Prof., Dr. Janis Gedrovics, co-editor, Latvia Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp, co-editor, Estonia
Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy Tungla 7,
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E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: +371 29162147 Phone: + 372 7 422241
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ISSN 1648–3898
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Compiled by: Vincentas Lamanauskas

Linguistic Editors: Gintaras Vaidogas,
Gražina Lamanauskienė
Cover design by: Jurgina Jankauskienė
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15-12-2010. Publishing in Quires 8. Edition 200
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Vol.9, No.

ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“ /Lithuania/,

CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATION

TEACHING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL:

IDEOLOGY, EPISTEMOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY:

EDUCATIONAL ADVANCES AND TRENDS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:

GREEN MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND SMALL BUSINESS IN BRAZIL:

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

New Perspectives in Education for Sustainable Development

Walter Leal Filho

Abstract. This article identifies general Maris Klavins,

Total number of students 112,555

Number of students per 10,000 inhabitants 492

Questioning and Data Sampling

Table 2. Information on the higher education institutions in Latvia.

Riga International School

Figure 1: Approaches to introducing sustainability-related content within curricula (identified

Case Study of the Faculty of Geography and Earth Science

Received 03 September 2010; accepted 02 November 2010

Maris Klavins Professor, Head of the Department of Environmental Science of the

Abstract. Sustainable development is a

Sustainable Development (2001)

• it provides up-to-date information on new developments and trends

An Overview of Misconceptions on Sustainability

Box 1. Costing less.

Box 2. Saving money.

Country Universities consulted

Box 3. Teaching stuff to staff.

a) Personal opinion on sustainability

Table 2. Personal opinion on sustainability.

Number of opinions on the 2000 Number of opinions on the 2010

Box 4. Spreading the word.

Table 3. Barriers to sustainability.

Number of opinions on the 2000 Number of opinions on the 2010

Too abstract a topic 12 6

Knowledge Information on the meaning of sustainabilityand its implications

Background The nature of his/her training often influences an individual´s degree of

Experience Previous experience with environmental and social affairs facilitate

Universities, Regional Development and Sustainability

Table 4. Emphasis of some German universities to sustainability.

University / Student numbers City/Region Emphasis on sustainability

University of Lüneburg / ca. 7.000 Lüneburg, Lower Saxony, Germany Strong

4. the implementation of principles of sustainable development as intrinsic part of university

The topic is very well covered so we have

Appendix 1. Some publications on sustainability at university programmes

Received 10 September 2010; accepted 15 November 2010

Walter Leal Filho Senior Professor at London Metropolitan University Business

Michael Littledyke, Abstract. The Brundtland Report

sustainable development and resource use

Figure 1: The interplay of ideology, epistemology and pedagogy on the curriculum.

• having unique methods

Problems of Objectification through Science

However, as an integral, critical component of EfS, it is important to understand how objectifica-

In another of his works, Novum Organum (1620), he argued:

• human endeavour to understand the physical world

human and environmental relationships.

1. Neo-conservative thinking emphasises tradition, authority and national identity /security

Implications for Pedagogy

Features of Suitable Pedagogy to Support EfS

Multidisciplinary approach: Integrated approaches are required to investigate environmental, social,

Implications for Science Education Pedagogy to Support EfS

Linked science Links to examples of EfS