Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2008

Vol. 7, No.
1, 2008 ISSN 1648-3898

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2008
Editorial Board ISSN 1648–3898
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp Estonian Chemistry Teachers Association, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. Prof., Dr. Jānis Gedrovics Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Academy, Latvia
Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Vilnius Pedagogical University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Dr. Miia Rannikmäe Tartu University, Estonia
Dr. Alona Rauckienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Dr. Kurt Riquarts Kiel University, Germany
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania, emphasizes theoretical,
experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international academic
journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions received
are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision
of the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into on
reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
Published since 2002

The journal is published three times per year in March, August and October.
Address:
Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”
Donelaičio Street 29,
LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: +370 687 95668
Home page: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/journal.htm
ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“,

Lithuania; The associated member of Lithuanian
Scientific Society and ICASE
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index
(http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/bei.htm), Copernicus Index (http://journals.indexcopernicus.com) and
EBSCO: Academic Search Premier (http://search.ebscohost.com)
2
ISSN 1648–3898 CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
LET’S DEVELOP MODERN GENERAL NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Andris Broks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Articles
CORRELATES OF CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE PROCESSES WITH

SOME DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS:
THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA
Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
INVESTIGATING PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ SATISFACTION WITH

SOCIAL SERVICES AND FACILITIES IN TURKISH UNIVERSITIES
Mehmet Erdogan, Muhammet Usak, Halil Aydin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
FOLLOWING THE LOGIC OF STUDENT THINKING PATTERNS

ABOUT ATOMIC ORBITAL STRUCTURES
Andero Vaarik, Mare Taagepera, Lembi Tamm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN PREGNANCY

Pavol Prokop, Jana Fančovičová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
PUPILS’ FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT VERTEBRATE SPECIES

Christoph Randler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
ICT IN NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
KHIMIYA/CHEMISTRY. BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3
ISSN 1648–3898
LET’S DEVELOP MODERN GENERAL NATURAL SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
Dear Readers!
Nowadays, there is an urgent need to increase the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of Natural Science and Tech-
nology Education (NSTE). To solve the corresponding problems, we need the appropriate development
of S y s t e m i c NSTE D i d a c t i c s because all serious improvements in our modern life and education
are systemic changes.
Traditionally, the Professional NSTE systems in our schools are dominating and today it is one of the
points, why we need serious improvement – the development of modern G e n e r a l N S T E as funda-
mental background of modern Professional NSTE, as well as modern General Education for all. It is urgent
to turn special attention to principal difference in understanding the concept “didactics” by professional
scientists/engineers and educators.
Didactics is the theory of learning. What, why and how to learn - these are the basic questions for all
kinds of education. In Professional NSTE concept “didactics” is traditionally understood only as the content
and the methodology of Sciences and Technologies themselves.
EDUCATION General Education Professional Education
Didactics Didactics
Natural Science and Technology
of General of Professional
Education (NSTE)
NSTE NSTE
Humanities * *
Social Science and Social Technol-
* *
ogy Education
Systemic DIDACTICS of NSTE
Nowadays, for the development of modern General NSTE, we need a much broader approach to Sci-
ences and Technologies, taking away isolating gaps among different branches, stages and kinds of educa-
tion, as well as among Natural Sciences, Technologies and Education themselves.
Working for higher effectiveness of General NSTE, we need to develop and implement the systemic
overlapping of scientific content and science methodology with general pedagogical concepts and
structures of learning, as well as with corresponding the content and the methodology of modern
technologies.
Growing diversity in our life also needs the s y s t e m i c development of appropriate hierarchical
diversity in education. At the same time it is important to know that traditions are very strong and the in-
novative approaches are not popular. The answer to the question “what NSTE for what life?” becomes more
and more waited and urgent.
Let me wish success to all colleagues, developing systemic didactics of General NSTE and ask them to
inform each other by publishing corresponding articles in our Journal of Baltic Science Education.
Sincerely yours,
Prof Dr Andris Broks
University of Latvia,
Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief of JBSE
4
CORRELATES OF
CONCEPTUAL
KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE
PROCESSES WITH SOME
DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
OF UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS: THE CASE OF
UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA
Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole Abstract. The conceptual knowledge of

the science process of University of Botswa-
© Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole
na science students was sought through a
questionnaire. Copies of the questionnaire
were administered during briefing labora-
tory sessions in which the students had no
Introduction practical lab work to do. The expressed
conceptual knowledge was scored using a
validated list of definitions of science proc-
Recently, science teachers in Botswana expressed concern
esses. The analysis revealed that there was
over the state of the acquisition of science process skills in the no correlation between the students’ con-
schools. This came in the wake of curricular demands for conceptual knowledge of the processes and
tinuous assessment which for science is mainly the assessment of their demographic variables of gender,
practical work (Ministry of Education of the Republic of Botswana age, present programme of study, year of
with University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, un- study, desired profession, secondary school
dated). In Botswana, the objective of acquiring science process science programme followed, their school
skills or investigation and experimental skills is stated in the junior and home environments. Their ability
and senior secondary school science syllabuses. The science pro- to provide correct conceptual definitions
cesses specifically required at the junior secondary school level did not corroborate their stated level of
familiarity with the science processes. No
are observing, classifying, measuring, communicating, inferring,
student gave correct definitions for three
predicting, formulating hypothesis, experimenting, interpreting
of the science processes, only 3% and less
data, and controlling variables (Republic of Botswana, 1991). could give correct definitions for 10 of the
Others not specifically mentioned are counting numbers, raising 15 processes, and only for the processes
questions, formulating models, making operational definitions, of classification and communication were
and manipulation. It is assumed that the exposure at secondary the percentages of correct definitions up to
school should prepare students sufficiently to pursue science 23.3% and 8.2% respectively. It was sug-
programmes at tertiary level. Thus at the tertiary level students gested that science educators at all levels
are supposed to just apply the science processes they had already should ensure that their students acquire
learned. Therefore this study was to survey and ascertain tertiary both conceptual and practical knowledge
science students’ conception of the science processes they were of the science processes.
Key words: undergraduate students’ con-
expected to use.
ceptual knowledge of science processes.
In course of my teaching the Year 3 B Ed Science Education
students at the University of Botswana it became apparent that
they could not explain what was meant by controlling variables.
Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole
They could not also explain many of the other processes clearly.
University of Botswana,
At the tertiary level, science students still do a lot of cookbook
Gaborone, Botswana
experiments. It is usually in their final years that they do projects
that may really expose them to “doing science.” It was, therefore,
5
CORRELATES OF CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE PROCESSES WITH ISSN 1648–3898
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS: THE CASE OF
(P. 5-16)
the intention in this study to determine the conceptual development of science process knowledge
among tertiary students in science and science-related programmes in the university. More specifically,
answers were sought for the following research questions:
i) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes corroborate their stated
familiarity of the same?
ii) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on their years of
exposure to science learning?
iii) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on their gender?
iv) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on their age?
v) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on their specific
programme of study?
vi) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on their proposed
career aspirations?
vii) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on the environment
of the secondary schools they attended?
viii) Do tertiary science students’ conceptions of science processes depend on the environment
in which they grew up?
Theoretical Framework
The premise of this study was underpinned by two theoretical understandings:

1. Science practical work constitutes a domain of knowledge. This framework is similar to
Campbell, et al’s (2005:5) framework that the scientific approach to enquiry is a domain of
knowledge.
2. Undergraduate science practical work should improve students’ conception of science
processes.
As a domain of knowledge, practical work usually gets learned where the practitioners work.
Farming is learned in the farm, mechanic work is learned in the mechanic shed, tailoring is learned in
the tailor’s shed, etc. It is not different for science. Hence a commonly quoted reference for practical
work in science is Solomon’s (1980:13) statement that science teaching must take place in the labora-
tory as science simply belongs there as naturally as cooking belongs to the kitchen. There is therefore
a general acceptance of the view that the science processes usually employed by scientists have to be
acquired in the laboratory. However each science process has a theoretical or conceptual part as well
as an operational or practical part.
Many researchers have investigated the value of practical work in schools (Beatty & Woolnough,
1982; Gayford, 1988; Gould, 1978; and Kerr, 1963). The popular claims for practical work as summarized
by Harlen (1999:7) are:
That it served to motivate, to teach skills, to enhance conceptual learning, to give insight into
the scientific method, and to develop scientific attitude such as open-mindedness, objectivity
and willingness to suspend judgement.
However, Hodson (1993) did not find much convincing evidence in support of these claims. Fur-
thermore, Hofstein & Lunetta (1982) pointed out that apart from poor facilities, the following are some
of the factors that militate against effective practical work in schools:
Few teachers in secondary schools are competent to use the laboratory effectively…
Too much emphasis on laboratory activities leads to a narrow conception of science…
Too many experiments performed in school are trivial…
Laboratory work in schools is often… unrelated to the capabilities and interests of the children
(Quoted by Harlen, 1999:7).
6
ISSN 1648–3898 CORRELATES OF CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE PROCESSES WITH
(P. 5-16)
Pandilla (1990:1) reported that science process skills were popularized by the curriculum project,
Science – A Process Approach (SAPA) and were defined as a set of broadly transferable abilities, appro-
priate to many science disciplines and reflective of the behaviour of scientists. Of particular interest in
this study was the conceptual understanding of the science processes themselves.
According to Allie, et al, (1998), students’ understanding of a variety of physics concepts have been
reported for students at different levels; on the other hand, the procedural understanding of science
students is rarely studied nor used as a starting point for teaching. By procedural understanding or
‘procedural knowledge’ (Millar, et al, 1994) they mean what some refer to as ‘declarative knowledge’
(e.g. Black, 1993), that is, understanding about science concepts, phenomena and laws. Campbell, et al
(2005) concluded that their studies on tertiary entry physics students’ ideas about measurement “indicate
that the point and set paradigms are useful theoretical constructs underlying a range of measurement
actions at different stages of experimentation, …” (p.79) The studies did not however reveal whether
students had a broad conceptual understanding of what measurement meant.
Sere, et al (1993) reported that some French physics students who were proficient in applying
certain algorithms, such as calculating means, standard deviations and confidence intervals with their
measurement data, showed little understanding of the underlying concepts. This could be because
such algorithms might just be provided as formulae without effective discussion of the concepts.
Tomlinson, et al (2001) suggested that students should be required to use a set of well-defined
key words in their practical report. Such well-defined key words would have a conceptual part and a
practical part. The conceptual part would be procedural knowledge and relate to what some modern
cognitive psychologists refer to as cognitive objectives of instruction (Lesh & Clarke, 2000). Reynolds
(1991) reported that an experimental-based physical science programme in the US found no cognitive
effect on grades 4 to 8 students. There would be no such effect if the cognitive objective was not seen
as important, and students might end up not understanding why they did the practical. This type of
practical could be regarded as rote practical work. Conceptual understanding and appropriate use
of technical vocabulary should be important science objectives, but certainly not memorization of
technical vocabulary.
Usually science students in tertiary institutions continue to do practical work in their programmes.
It is not clear whether they have proper conceptual understanding of the science processes they prac-
tise. The conceptual part would relate to the underlying constructs of the processes which have been
elaborated by the conceptual definitions provided by the educators mentioned in the next section.
This study was to determine the correlates of conceptual knowledge of science processes possessed
by undergraduate students, and whether exposure to tertiary science programmes at the University of
Botswana had any effect on this knowledge.
Methodology of Research
This study began by the author condensing the conceptual definitions and meanings of science
process skills provided by Pandilla (1990), Gbamanja (1991, pp.122-133), Standards Department of the
Ministry of Education of the Province of British Columbia (1999), Valentino (2000), and National Science
Teachers Association’s (2004) write-up on Professional Reference for Teachers on Process skills. This was
in order to provide acceptable meanings or definitions of the processes. After validation through expert
judgement by science education lecturers in the university, these condensed meanings were taken to
be standard. The final version of the definitions is in the appendix.
The study adopted a simple survey approach that employed a three-part questionnaire for data
collection. The first part solicited subjects’ demographic data; the second part required them to select
from the options of not familiar, uncertain, and very familiar in order to express their familiarity with
each science process; the third part requested them to provide their conceptions or definitions of each
science process. The questionnaire was piloted with a small number of B Ed (Science) students.
The population for the study were students of science and science-related programmes in the
University of Botswana. The sample consisted of entering students to Final Year science and science
7
(P. 5-16)
education students who took physics as their major or minor subject. Entering students were secondary
school graduates just admitted to the university.
Copies of the questionnaire were administered on Year 1, 2, 3 & 4 students during their first physics
laboratory briefing sessions in the second semester when they had no practical work to do; they had
ample time to complete the questionnaire. Copies were also administered on entering students during
their first laboratory briefing sessions in the next academic year. In all the cases, completed copies of
the questionnaire were collected immediately on the spot.
The assessment of the subjects’ responses was done by the author alone in order to avoid the
complications of inter-rater reliability. It focused on the extent the subjects’ ideas were correct or
acceptable and not whether the exact words were used. However, one of the science educators that
validated the instruments also helped to check the consistency of the scoring before the data were
analysed. This educator was of the opinion that very good consistency was reflected in the scoring of
the responses. The scoring was on the ordinal scale of 0 for incorrect, 1 for partially correct, and 2 for
correct definitions.
Results of Research
The analysis involved assessing the subjects’ conceptions or definitions of each science process and
scoring them in a coded form as incorrect, partially correct or correct, based on their congruence with the
standard definitions. These scores were then correlated with the demographic data of the subjects.
Claims of familiarity and actual definitions
Table 1 presents the students’ claims to levels of familiarity with the science processes. A glance at
the column of ‘very familiar’ shows that less than 50% of the students claimed familiarity with 8 processes
and over 50% claimed familiarity with the remaining 7 processes. Put in another way, there were 8 out
of 15 processes that majority of tertiary science students could not claim familiarity. This list included
inferring, raising questions, formulating hypothesis, making operational definitions, formulating models,
predicting, controlling variables, and manipulation. It is obviously a matter of serious concern that more
that 50% of tertiary science students could not conceptualise these science processes.
Table 1. Percentages of students Claiming Familiarity with the Processes.

Not Very Not
Uncertain
familiar familiar indicated
Observation 1.1 18.7 79.4 0.8
Classification 4.9 38.1 54.0 3.0
Counting numbers 2.8 6.2 90.0 1.0
Measurement 0.9 10.4 86.3 2.4
Inferring 33.8 44.2 16.2 5.6
Communication 4.7 29.8 63.4 2.1
Raising questions 12.4 36.4 49.0 2.1
Formulating hypothesis 13.3 47.4 36.7 2.5
Experimenting 3.5 22.2 72.7 1.6
Making operational definitions 23.9 50.6 21.8 3.7
Formulating models 31.6 43.9 20.9 3.5
Interpreting data 5.0 30.2 63.6 1.2
Predicting 11.7 39.2 46.9 2.1
Controlling variables 21.9 41.5 33.8 2.7
Manipulation 30.6 38.3 29.8 1.2
Table 2 presents the percentages of subjects’ who stated their conceptions of the science processes.
The first thing one noticed in the table was the fact that the total number of subjects who gave their
8
(P. 5-16)
conceptions of the processes was very low compared to the number of subjects who indicated their
levels of familiarity with the processes. Those who gave their conceptions were about 17.4% of those
who indicated their levels of familiarity. Of this 17.4%, not all gave their conceptions to all the science
processes.
Table 2. Percentages of students providing definitions for the processes.
Partially Not
Incorrect Correct
Correct indicated
Observation 82.5 12.8 1.2 3.5
Classification 40.7 30.8 23.3 5.2
Counting numbers 74.3 6.4 0 19.3
Measurement 62.4 21.4 2.3 13.9
Inferring 61.7 6.2 1.9 30.2
Communication 48.1 37.3 8.2 6.3
Raising questions 50.3 36.6 3.1 9.9
Formulating hypothesis 69.8 15.4 0 14.8
Experimenting 70.1 20.7 0.6 8.5
Making operational definitions 66.1 3.6 0 30.3
Formulating models 61.3 16.1 1.8 20.8
Interpreting data 58.3 32.6 1.1 8.0
Predicting 59.5 30.1 2.9 7.5
Controlling variables 61.8 12.7 2.9 22.5
Manipulation 77.3 1.7 0.6 20.5
A glance at the column of ‘correct’ in Table 2 reveals that the students’ claims of familiarity with
the processes could not be substantiated by their ability to propose acceptable, articulate, conceptual
definitions of the processes. It was only with the processes of classification and communication that
less than 50% of the students gave incorrect definitions. Well over 50% gave incorrect conceptions for
the other 13 processes. The percentages of respondents who gave correct definitions for classification
and communication were 23.3 and 8.2 respectively; those who gave partially correct definitions were
30.8% and 37.3% respectively. Apart from these two processes, the percentages of respondents that
gave correct definitions were not more than 3 for the science processes.
No subjects gave correct definitions for counting numbers, formulating hypothesis and making
operational definitions. Only 0.6% of the respondents gave correct definitions for experimentation and
manipulation. If correct and partially correct definitions were combined, only classification and com-
munication had above 45% but not more than 54% of respondents giving acceptable definitions; for
all other processes, those who gave correct and partially correct definitions were less than 40%. It was
surprising that observation had the highest percentage of incorrect definitions.
The percentages of students who gave correct conceptual definitions of the science processes were
generally very low, not more than 3% except for classification and communication. Therefore these
percentages for correct definitions were not used for further analysis in this paper. Also, the numbers
of those aged below 18, those aged above 23, and those who were doing some other science related
programmes were very few (10 and below); so they were also not included in these analyses since their
percentages could create some false impression.
Groups within demographic factors were compared to find out if and how their conceptions of
the processes were influenced by the factors. Table 3 presents a summary of this comparison in terms
of the percentages that gave no correct definitions and the combined percentages of those who gave
correct and partially correct definitions. This table reflects the actual sample sizes that responded. The
bold figures in the table could be interpreted as being the better or best sub-group within the factor.
9
(P. 5-16)
Correlating definitions with Gender
Each gender gave no correct definitions for 4 processes out of 15 processes. Females were better
in 10 processes and males were better in 5 processes based on the combination of percentages that
gave correct and partially correct conceptual definitions. Since the scores for the conceptual definitions
of the science processes were ordinal scores, and gender is dichotomous, nonparametric analyses were
done using Mann-Whitney U for the gender factor. This showed that females were significantly better
in their conception of classification and inferring, while males were significantly better in predicting.
Table 3. Sub-groups with no correct and those better in giving correct definitions.
Composition No correct definitions in x Better than others in y

Demographic Factors
(Numbers and %) number of processes number of processes
Gender 257
Females 68 (26.5) 4 10
Males 189 (73.5) 4 5
Age 242
18-20 216 (89.3) 4 6
21-23 19 (7.9%) 9 9
Present Programme of study 255

B. Ed (Science) 18 (7.1) 11 8
B. Sc. 237 (92.9) 4 7
Year of study 296

Entering Students 158 (53.4) 6 3
Year 1 68 (22.9) 8 7
Year 2 25 (8.4) 10 5
Professions Desired 255

Engineering 78 (30.6) 10 2
Medicine 74 (29.0) 6 7
Pure Science 42 (16.5) 7 1
Information/Computers 22 (8.6) 12 5
Secondary School Programme 253

Double Award Science 30 (11.9) 12 1
Separate Sciences 223 (88.1) 4 14
School Environment 257

Urban 113 (44.0) 4 7
Semi-urban 77 (30.0) 5 3
Rural 67 (26.1) 8 5
Home Environment 253

Urban 82 (32.4) 6 6
Semi-urban 87 (34.4) 8 5
Rural 84 (33.2) 6 4
Correlating definitions with age of respondents
Those aged 18-20 and 21-23 gave no correct definitions for 4 and 9 processes respectively. Those
aged 18-20 and 21-23 were better than the rest in 6 and 9 processes respectively based on the com-
bination of percentages of respondents that gave correct and partially correct conceptual definitions.
Spearman correlation did not show any significant difference between the mean conception scores of
different age brackets.
10
(P. 5-16)
Correlating definitions with programmes of study
Bachelor of Education (Science) students and Bachelor of Science students gave no correct defini-
tions for 11 and 4 processes respectively. B Ed. (Science) students and B.Sc. students were better than
others in 8 and 7 processes respectively based on the combination of percentages of respondents that
gave correct and partially correct conceptual definitions. Kruskal-Wallis test showed no significant dif-
ference between the mean conception scores of the programme groups.
Correlating definitions and Year of Study
Entering students, Year 1, and Year 2 students gave no correct definitions for 6, 8, and 10 processes
respectively. Entering students, Year 1, and Year 2 students were better than the others in 3, 7, and
5 processes respectively based on the combined percentages of respondents that gave correct and
partially correct conceptual definitions. Spearman correlation showed that Year 1 students were better
than the rest in their conception of measurement, interpreting data and predicting, and Year 2 students
were better in their conception of formulating hypothesis.
Correlating Definitions with professions desired
Students who desired careers in information and computer science, engineering, science, and
medicine gave no correct definitions in 12, 10, 7, and 6 processes respectively. Aspirants for informa-
tion and computer science, engineering, science, and medicine were better than others in 5, 2, 1, and
7 processes respectively based on the combination of percentages of subjects that gave correct and
partially correct conceptual definitions. Kruskal - Wallis test showed no significant difference between
the mean conception scores of aspirants of different professions.
Correlating Definitions with secondary school science programme followed
Students who did separate sciences (i.e. biology, chemistry and physics) and those who did other
combinations (like double award science, combined science, etc.) in secondary schools gave no correct
definitions in 4 and 12 processes respectively. Students who did separate sciences and those who did
other science combinations were better than the rest in 14 and 1 process respectively if the percent-
ages of those who gave correct and partially correct conceptual definitions were combined. Spearman
correlation showed that those who did separate sciences were significantly better than the rest in their
conceptions of raising questions and formulating hypothesis, while those who did double award science
were significantly better in their conceptions of predicting.
Correlating Definitions with secondary school environment
Students who attended senior secondary schools in urban, semi-urban and rural environments
gave no correct definitions in 4, 5, and 8 processes respectively. Students who schooled in urban, semi-
urban and rural secondary schools were better than the rest in 7, 3, and 5 processes respectively if the
percentages of those who gave correct and partially correct conceptual definitions were combined. No
significant differences were shown by Spearman correlation.
Correlating Definitions with home environment
Students who grew up and lived in urban, semi-urban and rural environments gave no correct
definitions in 6, 8, and 6 processes respectively. Students who lived in urban, semi-urban and rural
areas were better than the rest in 6, 5, and 4 processes respectively if the percentages of those who
gave correct and partially correct conceptual definitions were combined. No significant differences
were shown by Spearman correlation.
11
(P. 5-16)
The above analysis seemed to suggest that with regard to having conceptual knowledge of sci-
ence processes:
i) Female students were better than male students;
ii) Students aged 21-23 were better than those aged 18-20;
iii) B.Sc. and B Ed (Science) students were at par;
iv) Year 1 students could be better than the rest;
v) Aspirants for medicine were better than students aspiring for other careers;
vi) Students who did separate sciences in secondary schools were better than the rest;
vii) Students who lived and schooled in urban areas were better than others.
Discussion
Poor conceptual knowledge of science processes
Practical work is seen as a necessary aspect of science teaching and learning. The poor conceptual
knowledge shown by students in this study seemed to confirm the view that many science teachers are
not competent to handle science practical work effectively (Hofstein & Lunetta, 1982). This does not
appear to be a few isolated cases within Botswana. The sample comprised a large number of science
students in the only university that admits students for science and science related careers in Botswana.
The students in the study hailed from different parts of the country and could be considered to be very
representative of Botswana undergraduate science students.
The findings that under every demographic factor, the percentages of subjects that gave incorrect
definitions were very high (above 50%) and the percentages that gave correct definitions very low (about
3% and lower) have serious implications for the future of science learning and teaching in Botswana.
It is like the type of sandy foundation laid by teaching measurement without the history of what the
original problem was that led to standardizations. Without it, people would be doing rote practical work
in schools and not be able to describe what they were doing and why they were doing it.
There is something basically wrong with an undergraduate science student being able to perform
some processes without having an articulate, conceptual knowledge of it. It may not be the case that
this ignorance exists only in Botswana. It definitely requires further investigation of how practical work
is taught in science classes in different parts of the world.
The case for classification and communication
It is not clear why 23.3% and 8.2% of subjects gave correct definitions for classification and com-
munication respectively and less than 3% gave correct definitions for the other science processes. It
may be because these terms are used often in common language and there is no real difference in
meaning between common language and science meaning of the terms. This is not quite the case
with many of the other processes. For instance, whereas observation in common language may refer
to the use of sight, its use in science extends to all the five senses and their man-made extensions.
Some see manipulation in common language as having the ability to outwit somebody or getting
away with certain behaviours, like “cooking experimental results,” as some subjects actually wrote. For
this purpose, science teachers ought to stress the distinction between science language and common
language usage of science terms.
The cases of no correct conceptual definition
No one gave any acceptable conceptual definitions for counting numbers, formulating hypothesis
and making operational definitions. Many considered counting numbers to mean knowing and using
the natural numbers or the positive integers. That is the way any scientifically uninformed mind would
think of it, not knowing that scientifically it goes beyond that. Besides, except there is a definite effort
12
(P. 5-16)
to teach and learn such a concept, people simply assume that they know what is meant by counting
numbers since they have been counting from childhood.
Many thought that formulating hypothesis was just making a wise guess; they did not state that the
guess would be about solutions to problems, answers to questions and relationships between variables,
and that the statement would still need verification. The idea of formulating hypothesis is very common
in science classes. This would definitely be the case of thinking that something is talked about so much
that it is assumed known. Poor conceptual knowledge of this particular process actually shows that no
efforts are made to consider the conceptual knowledge of science processes.
Making operational definitions appeared to be totally strange to the subjects; it is not the type of
expression you hear often in common everyday language so that one could guess the meaning from
the context. Hence it would need teaching for it to be clearly known.
It was surprising that observation had the highest percentage of incorrect definitions. Observa-
tion would normally be the first science process to be mentioned in the science syllabuses. It is also
the science process that is most naturally available and most frequently used by any normal person.
Yet, not only does it appear not taught, but even learners at the tertiary level could not articulate any
acceptable conception of it. This highly underscores the need for teaching before students can appreci-
ate the underlying constructs for the science processes.
Female Students
In Botswana the drive is strong to encourage female participation in every area of endeavour. Be-
sides, the social structure is such that females learn not to overly depend on males to provide for them.
Even though these conceptions may not be taught, my opinion is that female students more than the
male students would expend more thought to arrive at acceptable conceptions.
Separate versus Combined sciences
Those who do separate sciences in Botswana are usually the upward bound science stream. They
follow more in-depth syllabi and are generally exposed to more laboratory work than the rest in schools.
That gives them reasonable edge over the others.
Years of exposure to science teaching and learning
It is a matter of concern that more that 50% of undergraduate science students could not concep-
tualise the science processes. It is more disturbing that their conceptions of these science processes
were not improved by more years of exposure to science teaching and learning. It actually means that
just doing science practical work at any level does not by itself impart the conceptual knowledge. It
requires focussed teaching effort to impart this conceptual knowledge.
On the whole one could opine that the low percentages who got some of the definitions correct
may have achieved it by their personal efforts or they might have been taught by some few exceptional
teachers.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The above results have revealed the following about the University of Botswana science students’
conceptual knowledge of science processes.
1. Generally the students showed poor conceptual knowledge of science processes, including
those fresh from secondary schools (the entering students).
2. Classification was the only science process that up to 23.3% of the respondents gave a cor-
rect conceptual definition, followed by communication with 8.2%.
3. Very low percentages of respondents (not more than 3%) gave correct definitions for 10 of
13
(P. 5-16)
the 15 science processes.

4. No respondent gave correct definitions for the processes of counting numbers, formulating
hypothesis, and making operational definitions.
5. On the whole, there were no significant differences in the mean conception scores of groups
within demographic factors of the respondents. Hence the students’ conceptual knowledge
of science processes was not influenced by any of the demographic factors studied.
It could be noticed that not only has science practical work not enhanced conception of science
generally (Hodson, 1993), it has also not enhanced the conception of science processes in particular.
Of much concern is the idea that even at tertiary level such conceptual knowledge is not regarded as
important and therefore not taught. Gbamanja (1991:123) has suggested that “even though process
skills were designed to develop scientific attitudes at the primary school level, it should be an integral
part of science teaching at all levels of education.” The following recommendations were considered
appropriate following the above results and discussion:
i) Science educators in the university should ensure that their students are knowledgeable
about the science processes, both conceptually and operationally.
ii) Science teachers should make efforts to teach conceptual and practical knowledge of sci-
ence processes effectively to science students in the secondary schools.
iii) Analysis of students’ conceptions of the science processes should be conducted to identify
any misconceptions and to consider ways to remedy them.
iv) International studies may be done to determine the extent of this problem.
14
(P. 5-16)
Appendix A.
DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTIONS OR EXPLANATIONS OF SCIENCE PROCESSES
i) Observation is the process of using the senses and their technological extensions to notice ob-
jects, events, situations, phenomena, characteristics, properties, etc in the environment.
ii) Classification is the process of putting things into groups based on the similarities and dif-
ferences in their characteristics, properties, features, etc.
iii) Counting numbers is the process of determining how many units something is. This includes
carrying out basic mathematical operations on the numbers.
iv) Measurement is the process of determining the extent or degree a property is present or
possessed using appropriate instruments.
v) Inferring is the process of making suggestions or conclusions about a set of conditions based
on observations and data.
vi) Communication is the process of using spoken or written language or various forms of graphic
representation to pass and obtain information from one person or system to another.
vii) Raising questions is the process of asking in order to gain information and understanding
about something.
viii) Formulating hypothesis is the process of making a verifiable statement of relationship be-
tween variables based on some observation or information.
ix) Experimenting is the process of conducting a series of practical and mental activities in order
to verify hypotheses or theories; it involves many other processes like manipulation, control
of variables, measurement, observation, etc.
x) Making operational definitions is the process of defining certain concepts in concrete terms
as a way of guiding observation and/or action.
xi) Formulating models is the process of structuring a physical or mental form that can be used
to describe the behaviour of something that is not quite familiar.
xii) Interpreting data is the process of treating or transforming data in various ways in order to
make sense of it, i.e. to find some pattern or relationships.
xiii) Predicting is the process of forecasting about the future based on past experience, observa-
tion or known and reliable information.
xiv) Controlling variables is the process of identifying which variables to keep constant
and which ones to change in a systematic way in an investigation or experiment. A variable
is controlled when its value is kept constant.
xv) Manipulation is the process of careful and effective use of the body parts, or the application
of manual dexterity, for safe and effective handling of objects, living or non-living.
References
Allie, S., Buffer, B., Kaunda, L., Campbell, B., & Lubben, F. (1998). First-year physics students’ perception of the
quality of experimental measurements. International Journal of Science Education, 20(4): 447-459.
American Association for the Advancement of Science (1989, 1990). Effective learning and teaching. Science
for All Americans – Online, Chapter 13. Retrieved on 26 June.2007 from http://www.project2061.org/publications/
sfaa/online/Chap13.html.
Beatty, J.W. & Woolnough, B.E. (1982). Practical work in 11-13 science. British Educational Research Journal,
8:23-30.
Campbell, B., Lubben, F., Buffer, B., & Allie, S. (2005). Teaching Scientific measurement at the university: under-
standing student’s ideas and laboratory curriculum reform. Monograph endorsed by the African Journal of Research
in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education.
15
(P. 5-16)
Gayford, C. (1988). Aims, purposes and emphasis in practical biology at Advanced Level – a study of teachers’
attitudes. School Science Review, (69): 799-802.
Gbamanja, S.P.T. (1991). Modern methods in science education in Africa. Owerri: Totan Publishers Limited.
Gould, C.D. (1978). Practical work in sixth form biology. Journal of Biological Education, 12: 33-38.
Harlen, W. (1999). Effective Teaching of Science : A Review of Research. Glasgow: The Scottish Council for Re-
search in Education.
Hodson, D. (1993). Re-thinking old ways: towards a more critical approach to practical work in school science.
Studies in Science Education, (22): 85-142.
Hofstein, A. & Lunetta, V.N. (1982). The role of the laboratory in science teaching: neglected aspects of research.
Review of Educational Research, (52): 201-217.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston (2004). Professional reference for teachers: Process skills. Retrieved on 17 January
2006 from http://go.hrw.com/resources/go_sc/gen/HSTPR009.PDF.
Kemp, J.E., Morrison, G.R. & Ross, S.M. (1994). Designing effective instruction. New York: Merrill, an imprint of
Macmillan College Publishing Co.
Kerr, J.F. (1963). Practical Work in School Science. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Lesh, R. & Clarke, D. (2000). Formulating operational definitions of desired outcomes of instruction in math-
ematics and science education. In A.E. Kelly & R.A. Lesh (Eds.) Handbook of Research Design in Mathematics and
Science Education. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 113-149.
Mager, R.F. (1984). Preparing instructional objectives, 2nd ed. Belmont, California: Fearon.
Millar, R., Lubben, F., Gott, R. & Duggan, S. (1994). Investigating in the school science laboratory: Conceptual
and procedural knowledge and their influence on performance. Research Papers in Education, 9, 207-248
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Botswana with University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate
(undated). Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education: Coursework Assessment of Practical Skills in Science
Syllabuses. Gaborone: Examinations, Research and Testing Division.
Pandilla, M.J. (1990). The science process skills. Research matters – to the science teacher, No,9004. Retrieved
on 17 January 2006 from
http://www.educ.sfu.ca/narstite/publications/research/skill.htm.
Republic of Botswana (1991). Three-Year Junior Secondary Syllabus: Science. Gaborone: Ministry of Education.
Reynolds, A.J. (1991). Effects of an experimental-based physical science programme on cognitive outcomes.
Journal of Educational Research, 84(5): 296-302.
Sere, M.G., Journeaux, R. & Larcher, C. (1993). Learning the statistical analysis of measurement error. Interna-
tional Journal of Science Education, 15(4), 427-438.
Solomon, J. (1980). Teaching Children in Laboratory. London: Croom Helm.
Standards Department, Ministry of Education, Province of British Columbia (2000). Developing science skills
and processes. Retrieved on 17 January 2006 from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/science 810/scdeve.htm.
Valentino, C. (2000). Developing science skills. Retrieved on 17 January 2006 from
http://www.eduplace.com/science/profdev/articles/valentino2.html.
Woolnough, B.E. (1997). Motivating students or teaching pure science? School Science Review, 78 (283): 67-72.
Received 07 December 2007; accepted 14 January 2008.
Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole

Associate Professor of Science Education, Department
of Mathematics and Science Education, University of
Botswana, Private Bag UB 00702 Gaborone, Botswana.
Phone: (267) 355 2161; Mobile: (267) 7149 3216
16
INVESTIGATING
PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’
SATISFACTION WITH
SOCIAL SERVICES AND
FACILITIES IN TURKISH
UNIVERSITIES
Abstract. The purpose the study was

Mehmet Erdogan, Muhammet Usak,
to investigate the satisfaction level of
Halil Aydin
© Mehmet Erdogan prospective chemistry teachers with social
© Muhammet Usak services and facilities offered by their
© Halil Aydin
department and faculty, and also explore
the effects of gender and university on the
student satisfaction. 101 last year students
in the chemistry teaching major in four
different universities in Turkey participated
in the study. The instrument, Prospective
Introduction Science Teacher Satisfaction Questionnaire
(PSTSQ) was used for data collection. PST-
One of the important indicators of quality in higher education
SQ consists of seven sub-themes on a five
is student satisfaction. Student satisfaction is important because
it directly contributes to student success, motivation and reten- point Likert type scale. Pilot testing of the
tion. This is apparent in several research studies done with college instrument indicated that Cronbach alpha
students (Corazzini & Wilson, 1977; Elliot & Shin, 2002; Student (α) was 0.887. The findings revealed that
Life Studies, 1999). Corazzini and Wilson (1977) revealed that the prospective chemistry teachers expressed
students tended to change major, seek assistance at counseling
average level of satisfaction with social
service, drop out and express dissatisfaction with the university in
services and facilities provided by their
other ways when their needs (such as instructional, academic and
social) are not met by the university. In order to ensure retention of faculties and departments. Furthermore,
the students in the university, the best way is to satisfy their needs statistical analysis showed that there was
and expectations, and also to provide an agreement between no effect of gender on the satisfaction
students’ needs and various aspects of university environment with social services and facilities, but the
(Banning & Kaiser, 1974) such as academic environment, social
university enrolled strongly contributed to
services and so on. Thus, satisfaction, as a concept, can be basically
students’ satisfaction.
identified as person’s attitude toward an object, issue and events
and can be ensured by meeting the needs and expectations of
that person (in our context, teacher candidate). Key words: prospective chemistry teacher,
Assuring quality in teacher education in universities is a con- satisfaction, social services and facilities.
tinuous effort that can be influenced by many factors. One of the
factors contributing to this quality is regarded as satisfaction of
Mehmet Erdogan
teacher candidates. When considering one of the most important
Akdeniz University, Turkey
missions of pre-service teacher education, which is fostering stu- Muhammet Usak
dents’ growth and development as healthy and highly motivated Dumlupınar University, Turkey
individuals for their teaching profession, student satisfaction within Halil Aydin
the university culture / campuses should be ensured because Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
17
INVESTIGATING PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ SATISFACTION WITH SOCIAL SERVICES ISSN 1648–3898
AND FACILITIES IN TURKISH UNIVERSITIES
(P. 17 -26)
satisfaction highly correlated with motivation (Elliot & Shin, 2002) which is related to academic achieve-
ment (Barrett, 1999). One method of appraising the degree of quality of student services, facilities and
programs which are parts of campus environment is to assess student awareness, usage and satisfaction
by frequently administering student surveys.
There are several factors explored in the literature that associate with student satisfaction emerged
from both campus environment and student characteristics. During the process of preparing and train-
ing students towards their professional life, it is necessary to pay extra attention to teaching contents,
educational and instructional applications, classroom settings, and supplying students’ needs by their
educational institutions in university campuses, where they spend most of their time during their
university education (Karagozoglu, 1996). In this respect, education is not a concept that only covers
instructors, students, and a sequence of subjects to be learnt and targets to be achieved, but it is a
complex system covering educational settings like buildings, classes, laboratories, programs, methods,
teaching aids, evaluation and rewarding systems, psychological assistance services, economical support
systems, and many other systems like these (Ozguven, 1997). Sunar (1986) claimed that in higher educa-
tion, non-educational services supplied by faculties like accommodation, catering, economical support,
health, culture, sports, etc. which directly affects students’ satisfactions would increase fruitfulness of
such educational institutions. As far as background variables are concerned, gender and GPA (Karemera,
et al., 2003; Unbach & Porter, 2002), and university enrolled (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2007; Erdoğan & Uşak, 2006;
Erdoğan & Uşak, 2004; Erdoğan et al., 2004) have also shaped and contributed to student satisfaction.
For improving the productivity of education and for making the students achieve expected learn-
ing outcomes, designing proper learning environment and introducing social services and/or facilities
are as much important as educational and instructional activities supplied by the university. University
years for undergraduate students are periods during which such youngsters gain professional formation,
produce and carry out beneficial scientific projects for their society together with develop and orientate
their personality, and form their ideals (Küçükkömürler, 2000). During this period, managements and
arrangements done by their faculties and departments within the campus environment to orientate
students’ experiences will increase student satisfactions (Ashworth and Harley, 1994).
Some of the main social services facilities offered by faculties and departments which are likely to
influence student satisfactions (Ashworth & Harley, 1994; Patti et al., 1993; Sunar, 1986) are as follows;
1. Transportation services offered by university or the municipality,

2. Medical supports,
3. Guidance (social and psychological)
4. Sportive opportunities,
5. Library service,
6. Security,
7. Cafeteria/Catering,
8. Computer clusters and the quality of the computer machines,
9. Internet
10. Social activities organized by the faculty to improve students’ motivation,
11. Cultural programs.
12. Housing and accommodation (university apartment, dormitory…etc)
Together with the activities which provide students with opportunities to spend their spare times
effectively and efficiently, supporting students’ social activities and supplying their social necessities
which would influence their achievements and the institution’s productivity is crucially important.
Despite this importance, there is limited number of studies addressing to students’ satisfaction and
opinions with social services and facilities. A need emerged from the literature directed us to carry out
this research study. Therefore, this study focuses on determination of current situation in providing
prospective teachers’ social necessities and their satisfaction levels with social services and facilities
offered by their department and faculty.
18
ISSN 1648–3898 INVESTIGATING PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ SATISFACTION WITH SOCIAL SERVICES
(P. 17 -26)
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the satisfaction level of prospective chemistry teachers
with social services and facilities offered by their department and faculty in four universities in Turkey.
Along with this, whether their gender and the university that they enrolled contributed to their satisfac-
tion with social services and facilities was also investigated in the study.
Participants
101 (49 males, 53 females) fifth-year students in chemistry teaching major in four different universi-
ties in Turkey participated in the study. The participants were selected based on their own voluntariness
from Dokuz Eylul University, Gazi University, Middle East Technical University (METU) and Karadeniz
Technical University (KATU). Initially, 191 questionnaires were distributed, but only 101 of them were
returned. The return rate is 59%. Most of the students’ ages fell between 20 and 22. Most of the students’
cumulative GPA ranged from 2.00 to 3.00 out of 4.00. Demographic characteristics of the participants
are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographical characteristics of the sample.
Number of participant (%)
University
METU 13 12.9
Dokuz Eylül University 23 22.8
Gazi University 32 31.7
KATU 33 32.7
Gender
Male 49 48.5
Female 52 51.5
Age groups
20-22 60 59.4
23-25 40 39.6
26 and above 1 1
GPA
1,50 – 1,99 5 5
2,00 – 2,49 38 37.6
2,50 – 2,99 24 23.8
3,00 – 3,49 23 22.8
3,50 – 4,00 6 5.9
Unknown 5 5
Data Collection Instrument
Prepared by Erdoğan and Uşak (2004), Prospective Science Teachers Satisfaction Questionnaire
(acronym as PSTSQ) prepared for determining student satisfaction in science major in faculty of edu-
19
(P. 17 -26)
cation (e.g. science education, chemistry teaching, physics teaching, biology teaching) was used for
collecting data from the participants. This questionnaire was prepared based on an extensive review of
professional literature on student satisfaction (Carilli, 2000; Community College, 2003; Cypress College,
2001; Elliott & Shin, 2002; Hom, 2000; Howard Community College, 2000; Fujita–Starck, & Thomson,
1994; Kelly, 1994; Knight, 1994; Northern Nevada College, 1995; Patti et al., 1993; Pell & Jarvis, 2003;
Walker-Marshall & Hudson, 1999). The item pool was firstly developed and then the items that most
related to Turkish case was drawn from the pool based upon an expert view. PSTSQ consisted of two
parts. First part was designed to determine participants’ some background information such as gender,
name of the university, G.P.A. and age. The second part was designed to determine students’ satisfac-
tion with their overall department and faculty. This part included 82 closed-ended items on a five-point
Likert-type (1- strongly disagree referring to strongly dissatisfied and 5-strongly agree referring to
strongly satisfied). By taking the literature reviewed in the consideration, the items were categorized
under seven main headings, called here as theme, which were (1) General Satisfaction with 10 items,
(2) Administration with 12 items, (3) Curriculum / Program with 12 items, (4) Academic Staff with 13
items, (5) Social Facilities with 13 items, (6) Skills Promoted by Courses with 8 items and (7) Laboratory
and its Facilities with 14 items.
The questionnaire was validated by taking expert opinions during preparations. After piloting the
instrument with 100 last-year prospective science teachers, the reliability analysis was run and Cron-
bach’s alpha ( a ) reliability coefficient of the instrument was found 0.887. This indicates that the internal
consistency of the items in the instrument is high. Separate reliability analyses were performed for each
of seven themes. Cronbach’s alpha ( a ) reliability coefficient of each sort of items in the questionnaire
is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Reliability of each theme in the PSTSQ.
Themes in the questionnaire Cronbach’s alpha (α)
General Satisfaction (10 items) 0.71

Administration (12 items) 0.78
Curriculum (12 items) 0.81
Academic Staff (13 items), 0.88
Social Facilities (13 items) 0.83
Skills promoted by courses (8 items) 0.83
Laboratory and its Facilities (14 items) 0.89
Total 0.887
For the present study, one of the themes of PSTSQ, which is Social Facilities including 13 items,
was used, analyzed and reported.
Data Collection and Analysis
Data was collected from the participants in 2004-2005 academic year. Initial sample (N=191) of
the study constituted all the five year students in chemistry teaching in these selected four universities.
The PSTSQ were distributed to this initial sample, but only 101 students completed and returned it. The
reason of this was that the ones not responded were not willing to participate in the study
Data obtained through PSTSQ from the participants were subjected to statistical analysis by mak-
ing use of SPSS (version 11.0). After performing the data cleaning process (such as detecting missing
responses and replacing with mean), descriptive analysis (average, SD and frequency) was firstly run to
determine the students’ overall satisfaction. And then, to find out whether there was significant mean
20
(P. 17 -26)
difference between male and female students in terms of satisfactions with social services and facili-
ties, independent t-test was performed. Furthermore, to explore whether there were significant mean
differences among the students in different universities, one-way-ANOVA was conducted.
Results of Research
Means and standard deviations of the items in the selected theme regarding as determining pro-
spective chemistry teachers’ satisfactions with social services and facilities offered by their department
and faculties are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations of the items in “Social Facilities”.
Items in the Theme of Social Facilities X Standard Deviation (SD)

Mean ( )
Computer clusters 2,98 1,41

Quality of computers 3,04 1,38
Library services 3,08 1,39
Ease of finding related material in the library 3,09 1,53
Transportation opportunities from/to the faculty/department 3,66 1,31
Silent study area offerings 3,25 1,22
Guidance services 2,96 1,16
Security 3,32 1,22
Cultural program organizations 3,01 1,26
Social activities organized by the department 2,78 1,19
Social activities organized by the faculty 2,79 1,12
Cafeteria/Catering services 3,34 1,32
Sportive opportunities 2,72 1,27
As observed in Table 3, mean values of each item in this selected theme varied between 3.66 and
2.77. This result basically suggests that students’ overall satisfaction with social services and facilities is
around medium level ( X = 3.07). That is, students expressed moderate level of satisfaction with social
services and facilities. Examining each items in the above table, it is clear to say that their satisfaction
with the items, each addressing to sportive opportunities (e.g. organizing sportive activities, providing
sport centers and areas within the campus) ( X = 2.72), social activities (e.g. concert, trip, cinema) or-
ganized by their department ( X = 2.78) and by their faculty ( X = 2.79), guiding services that provides
the students with psychological counseling, and orientation ( X = 2.96), and computer services (e.g.
number of the computers, and computer labs) ( X = 2.98) were below average. Their satisfaction with
these items tended to be toward dissatisfaction. On the other hand, they were more satisfied with silent
study areas ( X = 3.25), security services ( X = 3.32), cafeteria and/or catering services ( X = 3.34), and
transportation services from and to faculty and/or department ( X = 3.66). Their satisfaction with these
items tended to be toward satisfaction.
In general manner, it seems that participants’ satisfaction level were lower on sportive opportuni-
ties, social activities organized by the departments and the faculties, guiding services and computer
services; and moderate on cultural programs organized by their faculties, the quality of computers,
library services, and ease of finding related materials in the library. On the other hand, their satisfaction
levels were just above the moderate level on transportation opportunities, silent study area offerings,
cafeteria/catering services and security. That is to say that they were not totally happy with the social
facilities offered by their departments and faculties, but there was a tendency towards satisfaction.
The result of independent t-test that was performed to determine whether there was a significant
21
(P. 17 -26)
mean difference between male (n=52) and female (n=49) prospective chemistry teachers’ satisfaction
levels with social services and facilities was not significant [t (99) = 1.116, p=0.246]. This result refers that
there was no significant mean difference between male and female students with regard to their overall
satisfaction with social services and facilities. Put another way, gender, as a factor, did not contribute
to the satisfaction with social services and facilities. On the other hand, the result of one-way ANOVA,
performed to explore whether there were significant mean differences among students in four different
universities in terms of satisfaction with social services and facilities, was significant [F (3, 97) = 71.15,
p<0.001, η2= .688]. This result indicated that students’ satisfaction with social services and facilities was
significantly contributed by the university that they enrolled. The strength of relationship between stu-
dents’ overall satisfaction with social services and facilities and the university enrolled, as assessed by η2,
was strong, with the university factor accounting for 68.8 % of the variance of dependent variable.
Table 4. Post hoc analysis results among universities.
Universities 1 2 3
Mean ( X )
METU (1) 53.00
Gazi Unv. (2) 51.87 –
Dokuz Eylül Unv. (3) 27.43 * *
KATU (4) 31.64 * * –
(*) An asterix = showing the significance difference on 0.05 significant level,

(-) Dash = showing non-significant differences between pairs of means on 0.05 significant level
After obtaining significant result, in order to examine pairwise differences among universities, post
hoc analysis with Dunnett’s C procedure was run. Since the variances among the four groups were not
homogeneous, Dunnett’s C test that assumes un-equal variances among the groups was chosen for
post-hoc (Green and Salkind, 2005). The results of these pair-wise differences, the means and standard
deviations for each university are reported in the Table 4.
It is apparent in Table 4 that there was no significant mean difference between METU and Gazi
University, and Dokuz Eylül University and KATU. On the other hand, the other pairwise differences were
significant. Related to these significant differences, it can be claimed that satisfaction levels of prospec-
tive chemistry teachers on social facilities in METU ( X = 53.00) and in Gazi University ( X =51.87) were
significantly different from those of in Dokuz Eylül ( X =28.12) and in KATU ( X = 31.64).
Total score for the theme was ranged from maximum 65 to minimum 13. Considering these range, it
can be interpreted that last year prospective chemistry teachers in METU and in Gazi University expressed
high level of satisfaction; on the other hand, those in Dokuz Eylül and KATU expressed satisfaction below
the average, and even it can be judged that as dissatisfaction. This study only focused upon this theme
aiming to investigate prospective chemistry teachers’ satisfaction with social services and facilities in
their universities. Other themes will be a topic of further research papers.
Discussion and recommendations
In this study, we tried to investigate the satisfaction level of prospective chemistry teachers in four
Turkish universities with social services and facilities offered by their educational faculties and depart-
ments. Existing literature in Turkey indicated that there are few studies investigating students’ satisfac-
tion, e.g. with their department (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2007), with curriculum and/or program (Erdoğan &
Uşak, 2006), with academic department – administration academic staff (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2004), and
with science laboratory and laboratory services (Erdoğan et al. 2004). Therefore, this study will be one
of the few studies on students’ satisfaction, and will be one of the first studies regarding as the social
22
(P. 17 -26)
services and facilities offered by their departments and faculties in Turkey. From this perspective, the
results of this study can be used by the universities or the system of higher education planners in Turkey,
or somewhere else in the world to identify areas for strategic improvements.
On the other hand, student satisfaction is a very significant topic observed in professional world
literature. Feldman and Newcomb (1969) performed a comprehensive review of student satisfaction
researches conducted prior to the 1960s. This included huge body of research and served possible factors
and dimensions affecting student satisfaction. Douglas, Douglas and Barnes (2006) investigated general
satisfaction of 864 UK university students. They found that most important aspects of a university’s service
offerings, indicated by UK students, were regarded as the core service – the lecture. Sohail and Shaikh
(2004) conducted a research with 310 Saudi male university students to investigate students’ percep-
tion of service quality. Their findings indicated that students’ concept of service quality was significantly
correlated with physical environment, layout, lighting, classrooms, appearance of buildings, grounds
and overall cleanness. Another research done by Sohail and Saeed (2003) with 201 university students
in Malaysia pointed out that students’ dissatisfactions were basically about teaching methods used,
availability of the lecturer for consultation after class time and insufficient specialization of lecturers.
Overall results of the study indicated that there was a moderate level of satisfaction, since the mean
values ranged from 2.77 to 3.66, as seen in Table 4. When considering 65 was the maximum and 13 was
the minimum scores could have been taken by the respondents, and also investigating the table it is
easily judged a moderate level of satisfaction on this theme. Hence, in some aspects there was a tendency
towards satisfaction, and also in some other aspects there was a tendency towards dissatisfaction.
At the beginning part of Community College of Rhode Island Research Report on Noel Levitz
Students Satisfaction Inventory Survey (2003), students are viewed as consumers who have a choice
about whether to invest in education and where to enroll and also students are seen as individuals who
have definite expectations about what they want from their campus experiences. It is concluded that
satisfaction with university occurs when an expectation is met or satisfied by an institution. Related
to this issue Elliott and Shin (2002) stated that student satisfaction have a positive impact on student
motivation, student retention, recruiting efforts and fundraising. As a result, they concluded, universities
have exhibited their commitment to student satisfaction through mission statements, goal/objectives,
marketing strategies, and promotional themes. Therefore, recently, higher education is placing greater
emphasis on meeting the expectations and needs of students (Cheng & Tam 1997, as cited in Elliott &
Shin, 2002). To satisfy what students need and expect from the university, universities should re-engineer
their organizations and adapt themselves to student needs. This effort allows them to develop a system
for continuously monitoring how effectively they meet or exceed student needs (Elliott & Shin, 2002).
Through these efforts, universities can attract higher quality students and ensure students’ retention
in their campuses. May be that’s why successful universities invest now to retain students, rather than
invest later to attract new students (Elliott & Shin, 2002).
Students during their undergraduate study of education spend most of their time in university
campuses. Underlying factors which make them healthy and happy in their campus life are directly
related to their satisfactions with the social services and facilities offered them by their universities/
faculties and departments. Moreover, as Sunar (1986) expressed, non-educational services supplied by
faculties like accommodation, catering, economical support, health, culture, sports, etc. which directly
affect students’ satisfactions would increase fruitfulness of such educational institutions. Therefore,
educational faculties, as in this study context, chemistry teacher training departments should pay some
extra attention and be more careful about social facilities that they offered to their students, in order to
make their students more satisfied and happy.
Related to gender effects on satisfaction, as a result of independent t-test conducted in this study, it
was found that there was no statistically significant mean difference between male and female student
with regard to overall satisfaction with social services and facilities. Our results are contrary to claim of
Umbach and Porter (2002). While they were discussing the results of some studies, they claimed that
female students reflect lower satisfaction than males do. The claim was also supported by the findings
of Bell (1994) and Carilli (2000). On the other hand, few Turkish studies indicated a parallel conclusion
with our results in respect to gender effects on satisfaction (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2007; Erdoğan & Uşak,
23
(P. 17 -26)
2006; Erdoğan et al 2004; Erdoğan & Uşak, 2004). In all four studies, they claimed that there were no
significant differences between male female students’ satisfaction levels.
The other issue investigated in this study is comparison of student satisfaction in different univer-
sities. Apart from above studies done in Turkey, we could find a limited number of studies (e.g. Onkol
et al., 2005) performed on student satisfaction in Turkey. In the international level, researchers gener-
ally preferred to investigate student satisfaction in one university. Although there are some studies
investigating the student satisfaction in more than one university with a wide survey (National Student
Satisfaction Report, 1997; Walker-Marshall and Hudson, 1999), as far as we found, there are very few
studies comparing the results among universities in Turkey. In four of the studies conducted in Turkey,
statistically significant difference among universities with respect to students satisfaction with their
department (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2007), with curriculum and/or program (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2006), on aca-
demic department – administration academic staff (Erdoğan & Uşak, 2004) and with science laboratory
and its facilities (Erdoğan et al., 2004) were reported to be identified. A parallel result was observed in
this study, as a result of ANOVA conducted. The university enrolled was found to have strong impact
on prospective teachers’ satisfaction with social services and facilities. Follow up-test (post hoc test)
results indicated that satisfaction levels of students in METU and Gazi University were relatively more
than of those in Dokuz Eylül University and KATU. This might be explained in two ways; either different
university provides the students with different social opportunities or the quality of the social services
and facilities provided for the students differs according to the university.
In a study conducted by Walker-Marshall and Hudson (1999), it was discussed the relationship
between academic success and student satisfaction. It was stated that students who had a better
preparation during pre-university period and had reached their target by gaining a place in their
wanted universities became academically more successful and at the same time more satisfied with
their universities. They commented that it is not known whether more successful students owe their
academic success to their higher levels of satisfaction or vice versa. However in the study it was clearly
shown a relationship between satisfaction with university and academic preparation and success in
the university. If we discussed our satisfaction results from this perspective, may be METU and Gazi
universities attracted more academically successful students than Dokuz Eylül University and KATU, and
therefore, they were more satisfied. It was evidenced with the results of research studies that GPA is a
very important predictor of college performance (Karemera et al, 2003), thus of satisfaction (Unbach &
Porter, 2002). The other view may be that because of their satisfaction they were more successful. The
reason of this issue cannot be decided as a result of this study.
Due to accessibility problem of all chemistry teacher training programs in Turkey, this study was
limited to four big educational faculties with 101 respondents. Another limitation of this study is that
this study was conducted with only to fifth year prospective chemistry teachers. In other words, they
were mature students. Walker-Marshall and Hudson (1999) stated in their study that maturation or
length of time spend in college may play a role in satisfaction. They found out that juniors and seniors
were slightly less satisfied than freshmen and sophomores. We do not know in advance what would
be the results, if we had taken younger students as participants for this study. There is a need further
studies to gain data from wider range of ages and from different universities to generalize the results
of this study. Moreover, the scope of this study was exploratory in nature, not explanatory; therefore,
deep information about why the respondents were satisfied or dissatisfied with social services and facili-
ties offered by their faculties and departments was not elicited in this study. To reach this aim, further
qualitative studies are needed.
References
Ashworth, A., Harley, R.C. (1994). Assessing quality in further and higher education. United Kingdom: Biddles
Ltd., Guilford and King’s Lynn.
Barrett, W. O. (1995). How college affects students [Review of the book: How college affects students]. Arts
Education Policy Review, 95 (3), 37-41.
Banning, J. H., & Kaiser, L. (1974). An ecological perspective and model for campus design. Personnel and Guid-
ance Journal, 52, 370-375.
24
(P. 17 -26)
Carilli, V. (2000). Student satisfaction at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Unpublished Doctoral dis-
sertation, The United States of America. Dissertation Abstract International (UMI 3021507)
Cheng, Y.C. and Tam, M.M. (1997) Multi-models of quality in education, Quality Assurance in Education, 5, pp.
22-31.
Cypress College (2001) Marketing Commutations Analysis: Summary of College’s Student Satisfaction Inven-
tory, 04 February 2005 date http://www.cypresscollege.org/news/doc uments/SSI.pdf
Community College (2003) Student Satisfaction. Inventory Survey / Novel-Levitz (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 481 942)
Community College of Rhode Island (2003) Research Report: Noel Levitz Student Satisfaction Inventory Survey.
Office of Institutional Research and Planning, USA.
Corazzini, J.G., & Wilson, S. (1977). Students, the environment, and their interaction: Assessing student needs
and planning for change. Journal of the National Association for Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors, 40
(2), 68-72.
Douglas, J., Douglas, A., & Barnes, B. (2006). Measuring student satisfaction at a UK University. Quality Assur-
ance in Education, 14 (3), 251-267.
Elliott, K.M., and Shin, D. (2002) Student satisfaction: An alternative approach to assessing this important
concept, Journal of Higher Education, Policy and Management, 24 (2), 197 -209
Erdoğan, M. & Uşak, M. (2007). An investigation on examining prospective science teachers’ satisfaction with
their department. Science Education International, 18 (4), 277-288.
Erdoğan, M., & Uşak, M. (2006). The satisfaction of prospective science teachers with pre-service science teacher
education program: A comparison among Turkish universities. Paper presented at III. International Symposium on
Teacher Education, 4 – 5 May, Çanakkale, Turkey.
Erdoğan, M., Tan, G., & Uşak, M (2004) “Biyoloji öğretmen adaylarının laboratuvar kullanımı ve laboratuvar çalışma
olanakları konusundaki memnuniyet düzeylerinin belirlenmesi” [The determination of the satisfaction level of prospec-
tive biology teachers with use of laboratory and laboratory facilities]. Poster session presented at VI. Annual National
Conference of Mathematics and Science Education, 9-11 September 2004, Istanbul/Turkey, Marmara University
Erdoğan, M., and Uşak, M. (2004). Factors affecting prospective science teacher satisfaction level on their depart-
ment. Paper presented at the conference of Earli’ Jure, Istanbul, University of Bahcesehir.
Feldman, K.A., & Newcomb, T.M. (1969). The impact of college on students. (2 Vols.) San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Fujita–Starck, Pamela J. and Thomson, J. A. (1994). The Effects of Motivation and Classroom Environment on the
Satisfaction of No crediting Education Students, Paper presented at the Anual Forum of the Association for Institutional
Research,, 34th, New Orleans, LA, May 29 – June 1, 1994.
Green, S.B., & Salkind, N.J. (2005). Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and understanding data
(4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Hom, W. (2000) An Owerview of Customer Satisfaction Models, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
Research and Planning Group for California Community Colleges, 38th Pacific Grove, CA, April 2000 (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No.ED 463 825)
Howard Community College (2000) Student Satisfaction. YESS Survey Results (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No.ED 464 685)
Karagözoğlu, G. (1996). Teacher Training the Twenty First Century, Dokuz Eylul University, Buca Faculty of
Education, Izmir, Turkey, X-XV.
Karemera, D., Reuben, L.J., & Sillah, M.R. (2003). The effects of academic environment and background charac-
teristics on student satisfaction and performance: The case of South Caroline State University’s School of Business.
College Student Journal, 37 (2), 298-309.
Knight, W. E. (1994) Influences on the Academic, Career, and Personal Gains and Satisfaction of Community
College Students, Paper presented at the Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research,, 34th, New
Orleans, LA, May 29 – June 1, 1994.
Küçükkömürler, S. (2000). Günümüzde öğretmen yetiştiren okulları tercih eden öğrencilerin özellikleri, II. Ulusal
Öğretmen Yetiştirme Sempozyumu, 10-12 Mayıs, Çanakkale. 450-455.
Kotler, P. and Fox, K.F. (1995) Strategic marketing for educational institutions. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Northern Nevada College, (1995) Student Satisfaction Inventory Results, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No.ED 387 151)
Özgüven, E. (1997). Yüksek öğretimde niteliği geliştirme. Yüksek Öğretimde Sürekli Kalite İyileştirme Sem-
pozyumu: 1, 49-58. Ankara: Haberal Eğitim Vakfı.
Önkol, P., Tan, G., Erdoğan, M., & Mısırlı, A. (2005). TQM: a need or a must? In Nikos P. Terzis (Ed.), Quality in Educa-
tion in the Balkans: Vol. 5. (pp. 413-435). Greece: Publishing House Kyriakidis Brothers s.a
Patti, M.V., Tarpley, R.S., Goree, C.T., and Tice, G.E. (1993, November 9-12). The relationship of college facilities
and service to student retention. Paper presented at the Mid-South Educational Research Association Annual Meet-
ing. New Orleans, L.A. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 368 312)
Sevier, R.A. (1996) Those important things: what every college president needs to know about marketing and
25
(P. 17 -26)
sudden recruiting, College and University, Spring, pp.9-16.

Sohail., M.S., & Saeed, M. (2003). Private higher education in Malaysia: Students’ satisfaction levels and strategic
implications. Journal of Higher Education, Policy and Management, 25 (2), 173-181.
Sohail, M.S., & Shaikh, N.M. (2004). Quest for excellence in business education; a study of student impressions
of service quality. The International Journal of Educational Management, 18 (4), 223-228.
Student Life Studies (1999). Evidence of the quality and effectiveness of undergraduate education at the Univer-
sity of Missouri Colombia. Retrieved 12 February, 2004, from http://www.missouri.edu/~wwwsls/education.html
Sunar, F. (1986). Planlı dönemde yükseköğretimde öğrencilerin sosyal ihtiyaçlarının getirdiği problemler ve
çözüm önerileri. Unpublished Master Thesis, Ankara University, Ankara.
Tam, M. (2002). University impact on student growth: a quality measure? Journal of Higher Education Policy
and Management, 24 (2), 211-218.
Walker-Marshall, A., and Hudson, C. M. (1999) Student Satisfaction and Student Success n the University System
of Georgia, Paper presented at the Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research,, 39th, Seattle, WA,
May 30 – June 3, 1999.
Received 11 July 2007; accepted 15 February 2008.
Mehmet Erdogan
PhD Candidate and Research Assistant at Middle East Technical
University, Ankara, Turkey
Address: Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Education,
Department of Educational Sciences, 06531, Ankara, Turkey
Phone: +90 5054935045
E-mail: [email protected] & [email protected]
Muhammet Usak
Dr., Assistant Professor at Dumlupinar University, Turkey.
Address: Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Education,
Department of Elementary Education, Kütahya, Turkey
Phone: +90 5063667199
Halil Aydin
Dr., Assistant Professor at Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey.
Address: Dokuz Eylul University, Buca Faculty of Education,
Department of Biology Education, 35150, İzmir, Turkey
Phone: +90 5057058543
E-mail: [email protected] & [email protected]
26
FOLLOWING THE LOGIC
OF STUDENT THINKING
PATTERNS ABOUT ATOMIC
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
Andero Vaarik, Mare Taagepera, Abstract. The aim of the present study
was to follow the logic of student thinking
Lembi Tamm
patterns about atomic orbital structures
© Andero Vaarik
© Mare Taagepera on both the atomic model visualization
© Lembi Tamm and the corresponding symbolic represen-
tation levels. The students´ factual knowl-
edge was measured by the percent correct
answers with and without explanations,
the misconceptions were documented, and
Introduction the cognitive organization was analyzed
using knowledge space theory. The study
Interest in science has been investigated from different per- was carried out with 255 students studying
spectives associated with student motivation (Teppo & Rannikmäe, chemistry at the 8th and 9th lower second-
2003). A European wide survey again documented low student ary school and 10th to 12th secondary
interest in science due to the perceived relevance and difficulty of school levels.
the courses as well as perception of limited career opportunities The major findings included (1) the high
(Teppo & Rannikmäe, 2003; Candidate Countries Eurobarometer on proportion of correct answers on multiple-
Science & Technology Education, 2002). Science would be less diffi- choice questions, without correct explana-
cult and more understandable for students if it were presented with tions, leading to false positive results which
more emphasis on how students learn. Learning science involves do not necessarily reflect understanding
understanding the principles that shape science, which requires of the material; (2) the lack of a logic
conceptualization and visualization skills besides mathematical structure in students’ thinking due mostly
and problem solving skills (Drechsler & Schmidt, 2005). to the misunderstanding of symbols; and
Researchers have noted that even when students´ factual (3) misconceptions about what charges
knowledge base increases, the cognitive organization of knowl- represent and the placement of electrons
edge is weak and misconceptions persist (Taagepera & Noori, in ionic vs. covalent bonding.
2000). When too much factual information is presented there
is little memory left for processing so that knowledge could be Key words: science education, knowledge
transferred from working to long-term memory (Johnstone, 1991; space theory, visual representation, sym-
Baddeley, 1986, 1990). Since chemistry is taught at three different bolic representation, misconception.
levels: microscopic, macroscopic, and symbolic, changing back and
forth among these levels is part of what makes chemistry difficult
Andero Vaarik
to understand (Johnstone, 1997). University of Tartu, Estonia
It is not always obvious when students have problems. One Mare Taagepera,
somewhat unexpected problem area for students is their inability University of California, USA
to visualize atomic orbital models (the microscopic level) when Lembi Tamm
given a representation at the symbolic level and vice versa. Espe- University of Tartu, Estonia
27
FOLLOWING THE LOGIC OF STUDENT THINKING PATTERNS ABOUT ATOMIC ISSN 1648–3898
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
cially difficult seems to be visualizing ions from their symbols (Drechsler et al., 2005; Robinson, 2003;
Francisco et al., 2002). Butts and Smith report the results of interviews with students who had studied
chemical bonding. Some of these students consider sodium chloride to be molecular, suggesting that
covalent bonds were present between sodium and chloride, but that ionic bonds between molecules
were needed to create the full structure (Butts et al., 1987). Taber suggests that students acquire this
idea because they don not “share the framework of electrostatics knowledge” of teacher, and also
because they are taught about the formation of ionic bonds in a way which promotes the molecular
model (Taber, 1994).
The aim of the present study was to follow the logic of student thinking patterns about atomic
orbital structures on both the atomic model visualization and the corresponding symbolic representa-
tion levels.
The students´ factual knowledge was measured by the percent correct answers with and without
explanations, the misconceptions were documented, and the cognitive organization was analyzed us-
ing the knowledge space theory. (Taagepera et al., 2002; 2004; Arasasingham et al., 2005) developed by
Falmagne (Doignon & Falmagne, 1999; Falmagne et al., 2003; Falmagne, 1999).
This study was carried out with 255 students at the Tallinn Nõmme Gymnasium in the basic general
chemistry understandings at 8th to 9th (ages 13 - 15) lower secondary school, 10th to 11th (ages 15 - 17)
secondary school and 12th (ages 17-18) science class. A 9-question test with hierarchical ordering was
constructed to follow the students´ understandings of chemistry by experts (three gymnasium teachers
and students as well as university professors) who tend to visualize models for physical phenomena
before assigning symbolic representations (Appendix 1, Figure 1). The students had access to the pe-
riodic table.
Three methods of analysis were used: the percent of correct answers for a particular multiple-
choice question (with and without explanations), the use of knowledge space theory to determine the
cognitive structure and the analysis of misconceptions. A trial test was given to university students and
standardized before the test was used for analysis. The Knowledge Space Theory analysis was performed
using the Hexagon Data Analysis software (hDA, 2002).
The Test
The test was hierarchical proceeding from simple to complex questions which were based on
understanding the previous question(s) in an effort to follow the logic structure which the students
had or had not developed (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Hypothetical expert learning pathway.

* where Ф is the null state (no correct responses) and Q is the state where all questions are correct
28
ISSN 1648–3898 FOLLOWING THE LOGIC OF STUDENT THINKING PATTERNS ABOUT ATOMIC
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Questions 1 – 4 and 7 are at the microscopic visual level representations and questions 5, 6, 8 and
9 use symbolic representations. In question 1 students had to determine the atomic structure from
the information in the periodic table. In question 2 students had to draw the orbital structure from the
atomic number. Question 3 requires understanding covalent and ionic bonding at the orbital level.
Question 4 asks for a representation of an ionic structure, questions 5 and 6 ask for understanding of
symbolic representation single ions and salts, respectively. Question 7 involves the formatting a salt at
the microscopic level when electrons indicating charges need to be balance. Question 8 asks for the
same information on a symbolic level. Finally, question 9 involves stoichiometry at the symbolic level
The Knowledge Space Theory (KST)
The hierarchical order of the test allows for the determination of conceptual understanding by
constructing knowledge structures and a critical learning pathway which show the students´ cognitive
organization of knowledge using the knowledge space theory (Doignon, Falmagne, 1999). KST depends
on collecting student data from a set of questions that reflect different levels of conceptual develop-
ment or their response state (list of correctly answered problems). The most highly populated response
states of the students are used to construct a knowledge structure which is well graded or in other words,
where each state is connected to a prior state by containing one more problem and a subsequent state
by containing one less problem. The structure starts from the null state, (Ø), where no questions are an-
swered correctly, to the full expert state, (Q), where all questions are answered correctly and achieved by
successively mastering each question in the order consistent with a learning pathway (see Figure 1).
Our nine-question test can have 29 (512) possible response states. From all the possible student
response states, KST recognizes a subset which is called the knowledge structure and major response
states called knowledge states and represents the original response structure at least to p = 0.05 level of
significance. The lucky-guess and careless-error parameters are estimated, usually at 0.1. Finally, from
the highest probability knowledge states the most probable learning pathway is identified as the criti-
cal learning pathway consisting of response states which best define the classes or school. (Taagepera,
Arasasingham, Potter, Soroudi, Lam, 2002).
Results of Research
A general pattern for all grades was analyzed. The % correct answers increased by grade level, the
cognitive structure analysis by grade level will be the subject of a separate study. Table 1 presents the
results of the multiple-choice test with and without explanations.
Table 1. Percent correct answers on the multiple-choice test.

Response (%)
Questions
A B C D
Question 1: Which of the following boxes represents Li 2 5 84* 9

structure? 67**
Question 2: Which of following boxes represents the 2 5 91* 2

orbital structure for an atom with the atomic number 9? 70**
Question 3: Which of following boxes represents LiF 12 59 15* 14

ionic structure? 10**
Question 4: Which of following boxes represents Na ionic 51* 40 6 3

structure and charge? 42**
29
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Response (%)
Questions
A B C D
Question 5: Which of following boxes represents chloride 6 91* 3

ion charge?
50**
Question 6: Which of following boxes represents the 95* 2 2 1

potassium chloride structure? 40**
Question 7: Which of following boxes represents the 11 18 71*

magnesium chloride structure? 30**
Question 8: Which of following boxes represents the 6 4 13 77*

magnesium chloride structure? 33**
Question 9: HCl + MgO. Write compounds and balanced 58*

the reaction 18**
* - represents the correct answer and ** indicates the correct answer with the correct explanation
Some general trends are noted. Students did well on questions #1 and 2 which asked about
atomic structure. There was considerable confusion with questions #3 and 4 which referred to pictorial
representations of ionic structures, but not with symbolic representations of ionic structure. Question
#5 and 6 asked for understanding of symbolic representation single ions and salts or question # 7 and
8 involved magnesium chloride formatting on symbolic and microscopic level. The scores were much
lower when justification was required. A lot of students said that the information was on the periodic
table, but they used it incorrectly. This was not accepted as a correct explanation. A similar situation
occurred in questions 5, 6 and 8.
In the first question 9% of students gave the answer (D), thinking that Li is a molecule. In the second
question some of students said that all 9 electrons should be located in outer shell. The third question
turned out to be the most difficult: 85% of students could not identify ionic bonding and 59% of students
depicted LiF as a covalent compound (B) explaining that in order for a loss or gain of electrons the orbit-
als had to be close together. In the fourth question 40% of the students thought that the charges on
the ion represent the number of electrons in the outer shell and lose the electron in the inner shell (B).
In the fifth question most of students offered no explanation or said that the periodic table shows that
the chloride ion has a formal charge where the oxidation number is -1 or that Cl is a diatomic molecule
and therefore the formal charge is 0. In question 6 the students gave as an explanation that K and Cl
ion formal charge should be same (both - or both +) otherwise they would not dissociate. The students
have seemingly memorized the symbolic representation without understanding the atomic model in
question 5 and 6 which the symbol represents. In the seventh question the students focused on the fact
that “magnesium chloride” contains one Mg ion and two Cl ions not noticing that the Mg and Cl were
interchanged and not ionic (B) or gave as an explanation that Mg loses one electron and Cl gains one
electron because Cl ion did not have enough space to gain more electrons (A). The question 8 13% of
students picked out drawing (C) and explained that Mg2+ and Cl2- formal charges should be balanced
because Mg loses two electrons and Cl gains two electrons. In question 9 most of students explained that
the compounds are acids and alkaline oxides and balanced the reaction and didn’t explain the answer.
The common products were given as: H + MgCl, ClMgO + H2, MgCl + H2O, MgHCl + H2O etc.
30
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Discussion
1. Percent of correct answers with and without explanation
The results of the multiple-choice test with explanations were analyzed in terms of (I) the correct
answers and (II) the correct answers with explanation (Figure 2). The analysis indicated that the results
with the correct answers (without explanations) were much higher, on the average of about 30% higher
(Mean = 63,6 SD= 25,7 for the correct answer and Mean = 35,2 SD.= 19,9 for the correct answer with
explanation). If the student cannot explain why the answer is correct, then the student most probably
does not understand the concept.
100
90 correct answer
80
70
%, Correct
60 correct answer
with right
50 explanation
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of question
Figure 2. Comparison of the results of the multiple-choice test with and without explanations.
The percent of correct answers for problems which deal with symbols, visual representations and
the combined total are given in Table 2. The questions which deal with symbols only (#5, 6, 8, 9) show
almost a 3-fold difference between the answers given with and without explanations. The problems which
require visualization (#1, 2, 3, 4, 7) show a much wider spread of answers and appreciable overlap. The
main reason for this is the particularly low score on question #3 where ~60% of the students indicated
that LiF had a covalent bond. Vanessa Kind has also reported that students find ionic bonding hard to
describe and learn (Kind, 2004)
Table 2. Statistical analysis of percent correct answer.
Symbolic Visual Total
Correct answer no explanation (Mean) 87.3 52.9 63.6
Standard deviation (SD) 9.5 30.6 25.7
Correct answer with explanation (Mean) 33.2 35.8 35.2
Standard deviation (SD) 7.5 25.3 19.9
The combined total of symbolic and visual questions again shows an almost 2-fold difference
between the answers given with and without explanations. This indicates a problem with false positive
results in multiple-choice tests. The significant difference between correct answers only between sym-
bolic (Mean = 87.3 SD = 9.5) and visual (Mean = 52.9 SD = 30.6) representations showed that students
preferred to learn in symbols rather than in visual representations. This could possibly result from the
31
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
teachers themselves, who preferred to teach with greater emphasis on symbolic representations and
weak links to visual representation of atomic orbitals. There was no significant difference between the
% correct answers for symbolic (Mean = 33.2 SD = 7.5) and visual (Mean = 35.8 SD = 25.3) representation
for the students, who understood the chemical concept as shown by a correct explanation.
2. Knowledge Space Theory Analysis of the Cognitive Structure
All 255 students were assigned a response state. For instance, if a student answered questions 1 and
2 correctly, the student is in a response state [1, 2]. If after optimization the response state contributes
to the knowledge structure, it becomes a knowledge state.
Students with correct answers on the multiple-choice tests without explanations displayed a
maximum of 64 response states and in multiple-choice tests with explanations displayed a maximum
of 87 response states. Optimization of all sets of data gave well-defined knowledge structures with 12
and 22 knowledge states. The overall knowledge structures with knowledge states are given in Figure
3 where the bold line indicates the major critical learning pathway.
Figure 3. KST knowledge structures (the bold line indicates the major critical learning pathway).
The knowledge structure for the correct answers without correct explanations was less complex
(containing 12 versus 22 knowledge states) since students apparently have similar superficial under-
standing of the material (Figure 3).
The multiple-choice tests with explanations were more similar to the experts´ critical learning
pathway (Figure. 1 – expert learning pathway). When students understand the material as shown by the
correct explanations, their thinking pattern starts to resemble that of the experts (teachers).
The major difference in the critical learning pathways for the students and experts was that the
experts usually visualize the atomic structure first before giving it a symbolic representation (Figure 1 –
expert learning pathway), while the students have seemingly memorized the symbolic representation
without understanding the atomic model which the symbol represents (Figure 4). Robinson has also
indicated that students have problems connecting symbols that describe chemical processes with the
quantitative information which the formulas provide (Robison, 2003).
There were particular problems with ionic structures (questions 3 and 4, which appeared at the
end of the critical learning pathway). Students thought that the charge on the ion (negative or even
positive) represents the number of electrons in the outer shell (question 4). Thus in order to form an
ion, an electron from an inner shell has to leave. The other major misconception was in question 3 --
the structure of LiF. It seems to be the most difficult question for the students because most of them
explained that the atoms need to be close together for the transfer of electrons - close enough to form
32
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Figure 4. Students´ critical learning pathways.
a covalent bond (!) (Table 1, answer B).

In an effort to overcome the problem of visualizing orbital structures, which are reflected in the
percent correct answer as well as the KST analysis, it would be helpful to: (1) have more well designed
orbital drawings or visualization in the textbooks and the problem assignments; (2) use computer simu-
lations which would allow the student to have more practice in visualizing the structures; and (3) spend
more time making the connections between symbols and the visualized microscopic orbital models
starting with students’ pretest results.
Conclusions
The percent correct analysis indicated that the multiple-choice test results with just the correct
answers (without explanations) was higher, on the average of about ~30% higher. It is therefore possible
to get false positive results from a multiple-choice test, which does not necessarily reflect understanding
of the material. The knowledge state analysis, reflecting the cognitive structure, indicated that the major
difference in the critical learning pathways for the students and teachers (experts) was that the experts
usually visualize the atomic structure first before giving it a symbolic representation. The knowledge
structure for the correct answers without correct explanation was less complex (containing 12 versus
22 knowledge states) since students apparently have the same superficial understanding.
In an effort to overcome the problem of visualizing orbital structures, which are reflected in the
percent correct answer as well as the KST analysis, it would be helpful to: (1) have more orbital drawings
or visualization in the textbooks and the problem assignments; (2) use computer simulations which
would allow the student to have more practice in visualizing the structures; and (3) spend more time
making the connections between symbols and the visualized microscopic orbital models.
References
Teppo, M., Rannikmäe, M. (2003). Increasing the relevance of science education - student preferences for dif-
ferent typs of teaching scenarions. Journal of Baltic Scienece Education, No.2, 49-61.
European Commission (2002). Candidate Countries Eurobarometer on Science & Technology Education, No 3.
Drechsler, M. Schmidt, H. J. (2005) Upper secondary school students´ understanding of models used in chem-
istry to define acids and bases. Science Education International, 16 (1), 39-53.
Taagepera, M. Noori, S. (2000). Mapping students` thinking patterns in learning organic chemistry by the use
of knowledge space theory. Journal of Chemical Education, 77 (9), 1224-1229.
33
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Johnstone, A.H. (1991). Thinking about thinking. International Newsletter on Chemical Education, No. 6, 7-11.
Baddeley, A.D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A.D. (1990). Human memory: Theory and practice. London: Erlbaum.
Johnstone, A. H. (1997). Chemistry Teaching--Science or Alchemy? 1996 Brasted Lecture Citation. Journal of
Chemical Education, 74, 262 – 268.
Robinson, W. R. (2003). Chemistry problem-solving: symbol, macro, micro and process aspects. Journal of
Chemical Education, 80 (9), 978-982.
Francisco, J. S., Nakhleh, M. B., Nurrenbern, S. C., Miller, M. L. (2002). Assessing student understanding of general
chemistry with concept mapping. Journal of Chemical Education, 79 (2), 248-257.
Butts, B., Smith, R. (1987). HSC Chemistry students´ understanding of structure and properties of molecular
and ionic compounds. Research in Science Education, 17: 192 – 201.
Taber, K. S. (1994). Misunderstanding the ionic bond. Education in Chemistry, 31 (4), 100-103.
Taagepera, M., Arasasingham, R., Potter, F., Soroudi, A., Lam, G. (2002). Following the development of the bond-
ing concept using knowledge space theory. Journal of Chemical Education, 79 (6), 756-762.
Taagepera, M., Arasasingham, R. D., Potter, F., Lonjers, S. (2004). Using knowledge space theory to assess student
understanding of stoichiometry. Journal of Chemical Education, 81 (10), 1517-1523.
Arasasingham, R. D., Taagepera, M., Potter, F., Martorell, I., Lonjers, S. (2005). Assessing the effect of web-based
learning tools on student understanding of stoichiometry using knowledge space theory. Journal of Chemical
Education, 82 (8), 1251-1262.
Doignon, J. P., Falmagne, J. C. (1999). Knowledge spaces. Springer: London
Falmagne, J.-C., Doignon, J. P., Cosyn, E., Thiery N. (2003). The assessment of knowledge in theory and in practice.
Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, Paper 26.
Falmagne, J. C. (1999). ALEKS, an application of knowledge space theory. Electronic Notes in Discrete Mathemat-
ics, 2. Tutorial given at the OSDA98, Amherst, MA.
Hexagon Data Analysis. http://hda.gaelanlloyd.com
Kind, V. (2004). Students´ misconception about basic chemical ideas. Institute of Education, University of London.
http://www.chemsoc.org/pdf/learnnet/rsc/miscon.pdf
Appendix 1
Question 1 - Which of the following boxes represents Li structure? Mark the correct answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 2- Which of following boxes represents the orbital structure for an atom with the atomic
number 9? Mark the correct answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
34
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Question 3- Which of following boxes represents LiF ionic structure? Mark the correct answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 4- Which of following boxes represents Na ionic structure and charge? Mark the correct answer
with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 5 - Which of following boxes represents chloride ion charge? Mark the correct answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 6 - Which of following boxes represents the potassium chloride structure? Mark the correct
answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
35
ORBITAL STRUCTURES
(P. 27 -36)
Question 7- Which of following boxes represents the magnesium chloride structure? Mark the correct
answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 8- Which of following boxes represents the magnesium chloride structure? Mark the correct
answer with X
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 9. Write compounds and balanced the reaction.
HCl + MgO
Explain ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Received 13 September 2007; accepted 20 February 2008.
Andero Vaarik M.Sc., Faculty of Physics and Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu,
Estonia.
Chemistry Teacher, Tallinn Nõmme Gymnasium, Tallinn, Estonia.
Mustamäe tee 181-107, Tallinn, Estonia 12912.
Mare Taagepera Professor emeritus, Department of Chemistry, University of

California, Irvine.
Visiting professor, Faculty of Physics and Chemistry, University of
Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
Lembi Tamm Associated professor, Faculty of Physics and Chemistry,

University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
Tähe 4, Tartu, 51010 Estonia.
Phone: +372 737 5520.
36
STUDENTS’
UNDERSTANDING
OF HUMAN PREGNANCY
Pavol Prokop, Jana Fančovičová Abstract. Research into students’ concepts

© Pavol Prokop about the human body has focused on
© Jana Fančovičová several organ systems, but the reproduc-
tive system has been largely overlooked.
The few studies that addressed children’s
concepts of birth were conducted mainly
among kindergarten or primary school
children. However, no study has yet
attempted to examine how adolescent
students perceive human pregnancy. We
Introduction administered a Human Pregnancy Under-
standing Questionnaire (HPUQ) consisting
Conceptions that are different from scientists are generally of 50 Likert-type items to 300 university
called misconceptions (Fisher, 1985). Misconceptions in science students in Slovakia. We found several
may be characterized as follows: they are found in males and misunderstandings of human fertilization,
females of all ages, abilities, social classes, and cultures. Misconcep- fetus respiration, and organ development.
tions serve a useful function in everyday lives of people; they are Moreover, several misconceptions found
often resistant to conventional teaching approaches; they interact in Slovakian primary school children in the
with knowledge presented by teachers, and result in unintended previous research still persist in adult stu-
learning outcomes. They resemble the ideas of previous genera- dents. Analysis of covariance shows that
tions of natural philosophers; they are products of direct observa- students’ HPUQ scores were significantly
tion, everyday language, the mass media and peer culture, and they affected by gender whereas females have
are found frequently among teachers as well as students (Munson, better scores than males. The effect of high
1994; Yen, Yao, & Chiu, 2004). school type attendance (with/without hu-
Yip (1998a) distinguished between misconceptions that are man biology course) did show only weak
generated either through children’s life experiences or ‘naive’ ex- effect on students’ HPUQ score.
planations related to more complex or abstract phenomena which
are not related to personal experiences. Some misconceptions are Key words: birth education, pregnancy,
formed as a result of a lack of understanding during instruction students’ understanding.
and other sources of misconceptions come from teachers (Yip,
1998a). Teachers may propagate incomplete or erroneous views
to their students through inaccurate teaching or uncritical use of
textbooks (Barras, 1984; Sanders, 1993). Thus, the identification of Pavol Prokop, Jana Fančovičová
misconceptions held in future teachers studying at undergradu- Trnava University, Slovakia
ate level are necessary for improving teaching strategies used by
university teachers.
37
STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN PREGNANCY ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 37 -47)
Articles on the teaching of human biology have addressed a number of important issues, especially
children’s understanding of human bodily function (Nagy, 1953a; Gellert, 1962) and related misconcep-
tions (Mintzes, 1984). Some researchers have examined children’s ideas about particular organs or organ
systems, such as brain and mind (Johnson & Wellman, 1982), digestive system (Teixeira, 2000; Rowlands,
2004), urinary system (Tunnicliffe, 2004), skeleton (Tunnicliffe & Reiss, 1999a) or whole body (Reiss &
Tunnicliffe, 2001; Reiss et al., 2002; Prokop & Fančovičová, 2006). Surprisingly, few studies were focused
on the reproductive system and birth. Understanding of the human pregnancy is relatively more im-
portant for girls than boys, because child development is physiologically connected with the mother.
Females generally invest more into reproduction relative to males (Andersson, 1994), the importance
of understanding about pregnancy should be therefore greater for females than for males. However,
boys as future fathers also should have developed basic concepts about pregnancy, because they may
influence prenatal period of their offspring through care they provide to the wife.
Nagy (1953b) investigated children’s ideas about birth. Interviews and written responses included
both US and Hungarian children between the ages 4 and 10. She found that the youngest children (es-
pecially 4 – 6 yrs old) do not know that birth does exist and life has a beginning. Some knew begins, but
without the mother. Then, as the age increases, children’s concepts about birth became more realistic
and scientifically acceptable. Most of 8 – 10 yrs olds knew that birth is connected with the mother and a
significant proportion of them also included the role of father. Similar results were obtained by Bernstein
and Cowan (1975) in their follow up research. Interestingly, the children studied by Moore and Kendall
(1972) studied in middle America attributed the origin of babies to divine causes.
Kreitler and Kreitler (1966) reported three theories used by 4 – 5½ yr old children about birth:
the baby is created in the mother’s belly from the food she eats, the baby has always existed in the
mother’s belly, and the baby was swallowed by the mother. In contrast to Nagy (1953b), Bernstein and
Cowan (1975), Kreitler and Kreitler (1966) also asked some children what process takes place with the
baby inside the mother’s belly. Their responses were mostly ambiguous and hardly generalized. Up to
fifty percent of children reported that the fetus grows, develops, and eats. The majority of girls, but no
boys, thought that baby inside mother’s belly suffer. The Goldman and Goldman (1982) made a study
on children’s sexual thinking in a number of different countries. They found, for example that Swedish
children had attained realistic perceptions about the length of pregnancy and the birth exit by 9 years
and that many children thought the anus was the baby’s natural exit whilst others though a caesarean
operation was the normal process.
More recently, Žoldošová and Prokop (2007) investigated birth theories of 6-10 yr olds in Slovakia
about what happens with the baby inside the mother’s. She used both interviews and drawings of
children’s ideas about prenatal development and found several misconceptions about this topic that
have not been previously reported. For example, children drew the umbilical cord connected on the
fetus’ mouth or thought the fetus breathes through two special tubes connected to the mother’s lungs.
According to Slovakian children, the fetus inside uterus cannot hear or see and is placed in the mother’s
blood, water, or air she breathes.
In the present study, we investigated Slovakian university students’ concepts of human pregnancy.
This is a very interesting topic within other science phenomena, because it is either subjective to all
people, but understanding of pregnancy can be obtained mostly indirectly (i.e. from media, biology
lessons, books, parents, etc.). To date, however, no study attempted to investigate students’ concepts
of human pregnancy.
Adolescents should have basic information about human pregnancy as a result of high school or
at least secndary school biology settings. However, not all high schools contain biology education in
their curricula. Thus, students attending high school biology should have better understanding of hu-
man pregnancy than other students. To examine this, we decided to compare university students with
various high school histories which allow us to evaluate the impact of high school biology curriculum
on students’ understanding of human pregnancy.
38
ISSN 1648–3898 STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN PREGNANCY
(P. 37 -47)
Purpose of the study
This study was conducted to assess Slovak students’ understanding of human pregnancy with
respect to gender and high school type. The study focuses on the following questions:
1. Is there any difference between the mean scores of males and females on the eight dimen-
sions of the human pregnancy understanding questionnaire?
2. Is there any difference between the mean scores of students attended high schools with
human biology included to biology curricula in comparison with students that did not at-
tend the human biology course?
University students studied to be primary or secondary school teachers. They came from various
types of high schools, so their academic experiences with human biology and prenatal development
differ. Each student was asked to write their sex, age and type of graduated high school. In Slovakia, all
school age pupils taught about the human pregnancy when 12/13 year old (grade 7 in secondary school).
However, biology is not taught in each type of the high school. Thus, the type of high school was then
coded as school with biology course (123 females and 23 males) or without biology course (112 females
and 30 males, 12 unclear), because prenatal development is part of this subject in Slovakia. This allows
us to examine the potential effect of school environment on students’ understanding of pregnancy.
The study was conducted in October 2005, when the university students were not affected by
any university courses that could influence their understanding of human pregnancy. A sample of 300
university 1st graders (239 females and 53 males, 8 unidentified) students completed a written human
pregnancy understanding questionnaire (HPUQ, see below) to determine their understanding of human
pregnancy. Students that failed to note their age, sex, siblings or school were excluded from further
analyses. Age of students ranged from 18 to 23 (mean = 19.8, SD = 1.2). No one student has had own
children nor was married. Although our sample was strongly female-biased, power tests showed that the
power of gender differences was appropriate. We used multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) to
examine factors influencing students’ understanding of human pregnancy. The MANCOVA is an extension
of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) methods to cover cases where there is more than one dependent
variable and where the dependent variables cannot simply be combined. This technique also seeks to
identify the interactions among the independent variables and the association between dependent
variables. Statistical design of this study is similar to Tuncer, Ertepinar, Tekkaya & Sungur (2004).
The Human Pregnancy Understanding Questionnaire (HPUQ)
As far as we know, no questionnaire that focuses to students’ understanding of human pregnancy

exists. We therefore constructed our own questionnaire consisting of 50 Likert-type items scored from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) focusing on students’ understanding of human prenatal develop-
ment. Several items were derived from Žoldošová and Prokop (2007) who investigated primary children’s
understanding of human pregnancy. The questionnaire comprises eight dimensions as follows:
1. Human fertilization (HFert).

2. Fetus organ development (FODevel).
3. Fetus respiration (FResp).
4. Importance of amniotic fluid during pregnancy (AFluid).
5. Fetus nutrition (FNutr).
6. Development of fetus’ senses (FSens).
7. Fetus behavior (FBehav).
8. Mother’s regimen during pregnancy (Regimen).
Half of items were formulated either positively (true items) or negatively (false items) following
39
(P. 37 -47)
Likert (1932). False items were scored in reverse order. This means that the higher the score the better
understanding of human pregnancy was expressed.
Validity and reliability of the questionnaire
Three university experts reviewed the questionnaire in order to maintain validity. All were asked
if the items in each dimension were relevant to the goal of the questionnaire. Revisions were based on
their comments and suggestions. Reliability was calculated by Cronbach’s alpha for whole test (α = 0.6)
which suggests that the scale has “moderate” reliability.
Results of Research
Effects of attending high school biology course and gender on students’ understanding of human
pregnancy
Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used for examining effects of various fac-
tors on students’ understanding of human pregnancy. Namely, high school type (categorized as with
or without biology course) that students visited, and gender were used as factors. The age of each
student was treated as a covariate, thus yielding tests uncontaminated by individual differences in
age. A homogeneity-of-slopes GLM analysis did not reveal significant interaction between factors and
covariate which suggest that their effect was similar between these subgroups. Females have better
understanding of pregnancy than males (F8, 276 = 5.14, p < 0.001), but the effect of high school type on
students’ understanding of pregnancy does not show significant effect (F8, 276 = 1.55, p = 0.29).
Differences between dimensions (Figure 1)
A one-way ANOVA was used to measure differences between mean scores per each of eight dimen-
sions. Mean scores significantly differ (F7, 2392 = 91.2, p < 0.001), while mother’s regimen during pregnancy
(Regimen) and the importance of amniotic fluid (Fluid) were relative better understood than other
dimensions. Perhaps surprisingly, fetus respiration (FResp) acquired lowest score relative to others.
5.0
4.0
Mean score ± SD
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Regimen Fnutr AFluid Fbehav Hfert FODevel FSens FResp
Dimension
Figure 1. Mean scores of eight Human Pregnancy Understanding Questionnaire.
40
(P. 37 -47)
Students’ understanding of fertilization (Table 1)
Univariate ANCOVA showed that attendance of human biology course influenced students’ re-
sponses about human fertilization (F1, 283 = 6.39, p = 0.01). Students attending biology course reached
higher mean scores than others. Detailed inspection of data (controlling for the effect of age) shows
significant differences in five of eleven questions caused by gender.
Most females do know that they would have sex during pregnancy. Similarly, females are more
informed about ultrasound survey than males, but, in general, only few students (13%) correctly know
that it is too early during the 1st month of pregnancy. Males are more successful about the number of
sperm during ejaculation or about the fusion of male and female gametes. Surprisingly, one third of
students, especially females, think that ovum can be fertilized at any time ignoring time of ovulation.
About half of students do not know where fertilization takes place. Similarly, only half of students are
right that sex of fetus is determined immediately after fusion of male and female gamete; and 27 % of
students believe that sex is determined later during prenatal development. The size of the ovum and
sperm viability is also poorly understood.
Table 1. Students’ understanding of human fertilization (%).

Higher score with
Item (True/False) Agree Disagree Don’t know
respect to gender
1. Women should not have sex during pregnancy (F) 27 69.3 3.7 NS
7. The sex of child is determined in 2nd moth of pregnancy

24 55.6 20.3 NS
(F)
15. Sperm inside women’s reproductive tract are viable for

55 22 23 NS
about 48 hours (T)
22. Fertilization occurs in the uterus (F) 39.6 47.3 13 NS
27. Number of sperm released during sexual encounter is

59.3 15.3 25.3 Males**
more than 100 million (T)
33. Fertilization predominantly occurs in ovaries (F) 45.3 50.3 4.3 NS
36. The sex of child is determined during fusion of male and

56.7 27 16.3 NS
female gametes (T)
40. Several sperm can enter one ovum (F) 56.3 36.6 7 Males**
42. The sex of child can be determined via ultrasound from

73.3 13 13.7 Females**
1st moth of pregnancy (F)
46. Woman’s ovum is visible with naked eye (P) 22.6 56 21.3 NS
50. Woman’s ovum can be fertilized at any time during

30 63.6 6.3 Males**
menstrual cycle (F)
** Differences in favor better understanding of males or females at p < .01 level of significance (t-test for independent samples).
NS = not significant difference.
Students’ understanding of fetus organ development (Table 2)
No significant effects of controlled variables were detected on students’ understanding of children’s

organ development. As shown in Table 4, significant parts of students do not have sufficient understand-
ing of organ development of the fetus. Relative better understanding (more than 60 % of students) was
found for premature birth and start of development of organs of particular organ systems. Less than 50
% of students have the right idea about the length of the fetus, hair development, nervous and circula-
tory systems. Gender differences were weak.
41
(P. 37 -47)
Table 2. Students’ understanding of fetus organ development (%).

Higher score with
respect to gender
3. The length of fetus in 5th moth of pregnancy is about

48 17 35 NS
25 cm (T)
8. When is child born at 7th moth of pregnancy, it is

63.7 32 4.3 NS
viable (T)
17. Hair and nails develops in 8th moth of pregnancy (F) 55.7 17.6 28.7 NS
20. Child’s body is covered by little hairs in 5th moth of

39.1 15.8 45.1 Females**
pregnancy (T)
23. Organs of particular organ systems started to

68.2 11.1 20.7 NS
develop at first 3 moths of pregnancy (T)
32. Nervous system develops as last (F) 26.9 32.3 40.8 NS
34. Circulatory system of the mother and the fetus is

41.0 39.6 19.4 NS
mutual (T)
** Differences in favour better understanding of males or females at p < .01 level of significance (t-test for independent samples).
Students’ understanding of fetus respiration (Table 3)
No significant effects of controlled variables were detected on students’ understanding of fetus

respiration. Fetus respiration is viewed equivocally. Although the majority of students rejected the
idea that the fetus is connected on a special respiratory tube, the role of the placenta was understood
only by 22 % of all students. About 40 % are not sure whether the fetus breathes with lungs. Females
significantly better understood embryo breathing than did males.
Table 3. Students’ understanding of fetus respiration (%).

Higher score with
respect to gender
25. Instead of fetus breath placenta (T) 22.0 44.2 33.8 NS
30. Child is connected on special respiratory tube (F) 3.7 84.5 11.8 NS
39. During prenatal development, emryo breath with

18.1 60.3 21.6 Females*
lungs (T)
* Differences in favour better understanding of males or females at p < .01 level of significance (t-test for independent samples).
Students’ understanding of the importance of amniotic fluid (Table 4)
Univariate ANCOVA showed that interaction between gender × school (F1, 283 = 4.39, p = 0.03) influ-
enced students’ understanding of the importance of amniotic fluid. Females attending biology course
have better understanding about this topic than other females. Gender differences without interaction
with school were not significant.
The majority of students do not know that the fetus gulps amniotic fluid, but the protective function
of amniotic fluid was better understood. A significant part of students does not know whether blood is
or is not inside the uterus during pregnancy. This is because blood on children after birth could reflect
its presence in uterus (Žoldošová & Prokop, 2007).
42
(P. 37 -47)
Table 4. Students’ understanding of the importance of amniotic fluid (%).

Higher score with
respect to gender
4. Blood is inside uterus, child is therefore bloody

20.7 70.7 8.6 NS
after birth (F)
10. Child can gulp amniotic fluid (T) 27.9 46.8 25.3 NS
14. There is silence inside uterus (F) 12.9 59.5 27.6 NS
19. Amniotic fluid protects fetus against infection

82.7 6.9 10.4 NS
and rapid shocks (T)
26. Amniotic fluid regulates emryo’s body

73.5 8.3 18.2 NS
temperature (T)
Students’ understanding of fetus nutrition (Table 5)
A univariate ANCOVA failed to find any significant predictors of students’ understanding of fetus
nutrition.
Most problematic seemed to be questions focused on the connection of the umbilical cord and
the role of amniotic fluid in fetus nutrition. About one third of students think that the umbilical cord is
connected on the small intestine which suggests that the relationship between placenta and umbilical
cord is poorly understood. About half of students (mainly females) incorrectly feel that the fetus is fed
from the amniotic fluid. Surprisingly, 14 students (4 %) think that the umbilical cord is connected on
the fetus’ mouth and other 7 students (2 %) don’t know. The role of placenta was better understood by
females in comparison with males.
Table 5. Students’ understanding of fetus nutrition (%).

Higher score with
respect to gender
2. Fetus obtains nutrition from mother’s circulatory

73.0 19.8 7.2 NS
system (T)
6. Umbilical cord is connected on small intestine and

36.5 34.8 28.7 NS
obtains nutrition from there (F)
11. Fetus has enough nutrition in amniotic fluid (F) 46.6 38.5 14.9 Males**
16. Birth is started at that time when fetus does not

8.3 74.1 17.6 NS
have enough food (F)
21. Umbilical cord is connected on emryo’s mouth, by

4.0 94.0 2.0 NS
which fetus obtain nutrition (F)
45. Fetus obtain the same nutrition as its mother (T) 71,6 19.8 8.6 NS
49. Fetus is feed by placenta (T) 71.6 10.1 18.3 Females**
Students’ understanding of fetus senses (Table 6)
Females attending biology course reached better scores than other students (F1, 283 = 4.05, p =
0.045). Other effects remained non significant.
43
(P. 37 -47)
The majority of students, especially females, know that the fetus can hear voices outside the uterus.
Greatest problems were found in cases of some new findings of fetus abilities. For example, only one
third of students know that the fetus can dream; a similar proportion of students were right that the fetus
can distinguish various tastes, or light from dark. Also, it seems that it is unclear to students whether
the fetus has closed or opens eyes during pregnancy. Few students have the right idea about how the
twins are connected with the umbilical cord.
Table 6. Students’ understanding of fetus senses (%).
Higher score with

respect to gender
5. Although ears startd to develop in 2nd moth of

21.6 61.5 16.9 NS
pregnancy, child hear only after birth (F)
9. Identical twins have mutual umbilical cord (F) 23.9 47.1 29.0 NS
24. Fetus dreams (T) 32.2 25.6 42.2 NS
35. Fetus is able distinguish between sweet, acid and

25.1 31.9 43.0 NS
bitter taste (T)
37. Fetus cannot hear us when we talk something (F) 13.2 75.6 11.2 Females**
43. Fetus has closed eyes through prenatal develop-

56.9 27.2 15.9 NS
ment (F)
47. Fetus is able to distinguish between light and

39.1 36.8 24.1 NS
dark (T)
Students’ understanding of fetus behavior (Table 7)
Females showed significantly greater understanding of fetus behavior than did males (F1, 283 = 19.04,
p < .0001). Other variables showed no significant effects.
As mentioned previously, students have problems with understanding whether the fetus drinks
amniotic fluid. Thus, only a minority of students correctly know that the fetus can hiccup after drinking
a lot of amniotic fluid. Fetus movement inside the uterus was relative well understood. About half of
students were not sure about face-play of the fetus.
Table 7. Students’ understanding of fetus behavior (%).

Higher score with
respect to gender
12. Women feel fetus movement from 7th

29.0 65.8 5.2 NS
month of pregnancy (F)
28. Fetus can hiccup when drink a lot of water

25.0 37.6 37.4 NS
(T)
31. If the fetus movement inside uterus are too

13.8 78.2 8.0 Females**
strong, there is a risk of injury (F)
41. Fetus sometimes scowl and pucker lips (T) 53.7 19.3 27.0 Females**
44
(P. 37 -47)
Students’ understanding of female regimen during pregnancy (Table 8)
Females showed significantly better understanding of female regimen during pregnancy than
males (F1, 283 = 16.7, p < .0001). Almost all students well know the effects of stress, smoking, and nutri-
tion on fetus development.
Table 8. Students’ understanding of female regimen during pregnancy (%).

Higher score with
respect to gender
13. Mother’s stress can negatively affects fetus (T) 93.7 5.8 0.5 Females**
18. Mother would smoke during pregnancy (F) 4.9 94.5 0.6 Females **
29. Mother should eat much more during preg-

61.5 35.9 2.6 Females **
nancy (F)
38. Diet selection during pregnancy is very

95.6 2.9 1.5 NS
important (T)
44. Medicaments can negatively affect fetus (T) 63.2 25.6 11.2 NS
48. Nutrition just before pregnancy can affect fetus

50 37.4 12.6 NS
development (T)
Discussion and Conclusion
Understanding of human birth and pregnancy is important for the healthy development of a
new generation. Our study attempted to show effects of gender and attending biology course on the
level of students’ understanding of pregnancy. In summary, gender has been found to be major factor
influencing what students know about the prenatal development. In contrast, the effect of biology
course was equivocal.
Females scored generally better than males, but this effect was greater in topics closely related
to ‘practical life’ during pregnancy such as foetus behaviour or female regimen during pregnancy. In
contrast, males scored better in topics subjected on human fertilization. Yip (1998b) examining similarly
aged students in Hong Kong reported that about 40 % of them erroneously thought that conception
would be most likely to occur just before menstruation. Our study corroborates his finding, because
about 30 % of students (predominantly girls) thought that fertilization can occur at any time during
the menstrual cycle.
Importantly, we found no clear effect of attending biology course on students’ understanding of
pregnancy. Slovak biology curricula contain anatomy and physiology of human reproductive system in
grade 7 (12/13 yrs old children). This also contains basic information about the prenatal development
and care about newborns. However, significant part of children that left secondary school and attended
high schools that not include biology or human biology in their science curricula. High school students
that enrol biology course acquire deeper information about anatomy of reproductive system and human
pregnancy, such as foetal developmental changes during each month of pregnancy. Thus, if the human
biology in high school biology courses provides important part of students’ additional understanding
of human pregnancy, its effect should be evident. Contrary to this expectation, we failed to find effect
of high school on students’ understanding of human pregnancy. Only the interaction between school
type and gender showed significant effect. However, the significance of this effect was found only in
two dimensions – the importance of amniotic fluid and foetus senses.
Current studies report that schools were significantly less likely to be cited by English pupils as
sources of biological knowledge about identity and taxonomic position of several species of animals
45
(P. 37 -47)
and plants (Tunnicliffe & Reiss, 1999b, 2000). Direct observations or TV/Video/CD seem to play more
important roles as previously expected. Our data do not allow us to explain what sources of information
are utilized by Slovak students in relation to human pregnancy, but schools probably do not play a key
role. Perhaps future research in this area would provide more light on this problem.
Slovakian students’ understanding of human pregnancy showed several misunderstandings from
fertilization processes to foetus intrauterine development. About half of students are not clear when
fertilization takes place or what number of sperm can enter the female’s ovum. Foetus sex determination
is not clear at least for one third of them. Development of foetal organs and organ systems or the role of
placenta during foetal respiration is fairly puzzled for most students. In addition, several misconceptions
found in Slovakian primary school children examined by Žoldošová and Prokop (2007) still persisted in
our student sample. About 20 % of students believe that blood is inside the uterus or do not know how
a fetus breathes. More than 35 % of students thought that the umbilical cord is connected on the small
intestine and obtains nutrition from there. A similar proportion of students did not know whether the
foetus can see during pregnancy.
In conclusion, we hope that these findings encourage both biology/science teachers and research-
ers to examine students’ concepts of pregnancy at a deeper level. Although biology curricula contains a
lot of information about human reproductive organs and prenatal development, their implementation
through traditional teaching approaches into students’ knowledge system seem to be less effective.
Future research in this area therefore seems to be necessary.
References
Andersson, M. (1994). Sexual selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Barras, R. (1984). Some misconceptions and misunderstandings perpetuated by teachers and textbooks of
biology. Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 201-206.
Bernstein, A. C. & Cowan, P. A. (1965). Children’s concepts of how people get babies. Child Development, Vol.
46, No. 1, pp. 77-91.
Fisher, K. M. (1985). A misconception in biology: Amino acids and translation. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, Vol. 22, No. 1, 53-62.
Gellert, E. (1962). Children’s conceptions of the content and functions of the human body. Genetic Psychology
Monographs, Vol. 65, pp. 293-405.
Goldman, R. J. & Goldman, J. D. G. (1982). Children’s Sexual Thinking. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Johnson, C.W. & Wellman, H.M. (1982). Children’s developing conceptions of the mind and brain. Child Devel-
opment, Vol. 53, No. 1, pp. 222-234.
Kreitler, H., & Kreitler, S. (1966). Children’s conception of sexuality and birth. Child Development, Vol. 37, No.
2, 363-378.
Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 140, 1–55.
Mintzes, J. J. (1984). Naïve theories in biology: children’s concepts of the human body. School Science and
Mathematics, Vol. 84, No. 7, pp. 548-555.
Moore, J. E. & Kendall, D. C. (1971). Children’s concepts of reproduction. Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 7, pp.
42-46.
Munson, B.H. (1994). Ecological misconceptions. Journal of Environmental Education, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 30-34.
Nagy, M. (1953a). Children’s conceptions of some bodily functions. Journal of Genetic Psychology, Vol. 83, pp.
199-216.
Nagy, M. (1953b). Children’s birth theories. Journal of Genetic Psychology, Vol. 83, pp. 217-226.
Prokop, P., Fančovičová, J. (2006). Students’ ideas about the human body: Do they really draw what they know?
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 2, No. 10, pp. 86-95.
Rowlands, M. (2004). What do children think happens to the food they eat? Journal of Biological Education,
Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 167-171.
Sanders, M. (1993). Some erroneous ideas about respiration: the teacher factor. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 919-934.
Teixeira, F.M. (2000). What happens to the food we eat? Children’s conceptions of the structure and function
of the digestive system. International Journal of Science Education, Vol., 22, No. 5, pp. 507-520.
Tuncer, G., Ertepinar, H., Tekkaya, C. & Sungur, S. (2004). Environmental attitudes of young people in Turkey:
effects of schol type and gender. Environmental Education Research, Vol. 11, No. 22, pp. 15-233.
Tunnicliffe S. D. (2004). Where does the drink go? Primary Science Review, Vol. 85, pp. 8-10.
46
(P. 37 -47)
Tunnicliffe S. D., & Reiss, M. J. (1999a). Students’ understanding about animal skeletons. International Journal
of Science Education, Vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 1187-1200.
Tunnicliffe S. D., & Reiss, M. J. (1999b). Building a model of the environment: how do children see animals?
Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 142-148.
Tunnicliffe S. D., & Reiss, M. J. (2000). Building a model of the environment: How do children see plants? Journal
of Biological Education, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 172-177.
Reiss, M. J. & Tunnicliffe, S. D. (2001). Students’ understandings of human organs and organ systems. Research
in Science Education, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 383-399.
Reiss, M. J., Tunnicliffe, S. D., Andersen, A. M., Bartoszeck, A., Carvalho, G. S., Chen, S.Y., Jarman, R., Jónsson, S.,
Manokore, V., Marchenko, N., Mulemwa, J., Novikova, T., Otuka, J., Teppa, S. & Rooy, W. V. (2002). An international study
of young peoples’ drawings of what is inside themselves. Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 58-64.
Yen, F. C., Yao, T. W., & Chiu, Y. C. (2004). Alternative conceptions in animal classification focusing on amphibians
and reptiles: a cross-age study. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 2, 159-174.
Yip, D. Y. (1998a). Identification of misconceptions in novice biology teachers and remedial strategies for im-
proving biology learning. International Journal of Science Education, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 461-477.
Yip, D. Y. (1998b). Children’s misconceptions on reproduction and implications for teaching. Journal of Biological
Education, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 21-26.
Žoldošová, K., & Prokop, P. (2007). Primary pupils’ preconceptions about child prenatal development. Eurasia
Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 239-246.
Received 26 June 2007; accepted 25 February 2007.
Pavol Prokop PhD., an assistant lecturer at the Department of Biology, Trnava

University, Slovakia; he is also researcher at the Institute of
Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 06
Bratislava, Slovakia.
Phone: + 421335516047.
Jana Fančovičová PhD. student at the Department of Biology, Trnava University.

Priemyselná 4, P.O. Box 9, 918 43, Trnava, Slovakia.
47
PUPILS’ FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE
ABOUT VERTEBRATE SPECIES
Abstract. Biodiversity has become a Christoph Randler

challenging educational topic and basic © Christoph Randler
knowledge about animal or plant species,
their identification and life history has
been targeted as a fundamental aspect.
There are few studies aiming at assessing
pupils’ knowledge about vertebrates and
it’s identification skills in pupils. Further,
many educational practitioners and con-
servationists claim a significant decrease
of species knowledge in today’s children
and adolescents. Here, I try to quantify the
knowledge about animal species using Introduction
a large, illustrated questionnaire deal-
ing with 54 vertebrate species. 879 lower Biodiversity has become a challenging educational topic
secondary school pupils and 65 primary
especially since the conference of Rio in 1992 (van Weelie and
Wals, 2002; Gaston & Spicer, 2004). Today, the value – even in
school pupils (4th graders) from three
currency – and the general importance of biodiversity is unques-
geographic regions throughout Germany
tioned (Gaston & Spicer, 2004). However, biodiversity is a rather
participated in the study. Species knowl-
‘ill-defined’ and complex construct at least in terms of educational
edge was dependent on educational level circumstances (van Weelie & Wals, 2002). Such complex and ab-
and gender. It did not increase parallel to stract constructs usually have to be transformed into smaller
age or grade but rather reached a peak entities to aid learning and understanding especially in school
during the age of 14 years or during the students, and of course, also in the general public. The most
7th grade, respectively. Further, species common entity used by conservation groups are species (van
knowledge did not decrease between the Weelie & Wals, 2002). Especially spectacular species, such as the
early 1980ies and 2005. Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis Dalton, 2005)
or dolphins (Barney, Mintzes & Yen, 2005) were used as a venue
Key words: biodiversity, factual animal
in environmental education and conservation. Therefore, basic
knowledge about animal or plant species, their identification and
species knowledge, gender.
life history has been targeted as a fundamental aspect for learn-
ing and understanding in biodiversity (Lindemann-Mathies, 2002;
Randler & Bogner, 2002; Gaston & Spicer, 2004; Randler, Ilg & Kern,
Christoph Randler
2005) as well as in the framework of ecological questions (Leather
University of Heidelberg,
& Helden, 2005). Such a fundamental view of biodiversity is shared
Germany
by both, educational instructors and practitioners as well as by
conservation biologists. Many conservation agencies and NGOs
48
ISSN 1648–3898 PUPILS’ FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT VERTEBRATE SPECIES
(P. 48 -54)
make use of flagship species to raise money, again, emphasising the value of species (Czeck, Krausman
& Borkhataria, 1998; Dalton, 2005).
Animals are fascinating for children and adolescents, e.g. in Norway animal-related activities
received high scores, such as bird feeding (74%), or watching hare, fox and moose (63%). Watching
TV programmes received an almost similar proportion compared to learning about animals in schools
(Bjerke, Kaltenborn & Ødegardstuen, 2001), suggesting that schooling might not be the main source of
animal knowledge. Further, engagement in animal-related activities decreased parallel to age (Bjerke et
al. 2001) suggesting that species knowledge may also decrease. There are few studies aiming at assessing
knowledge about vertebrates and identification skills in pupils (overview: Randler & Bogner, 2002), mostly
complaining about the low species knowledge in general. Further, many educational practitioners and
conservationist claim – often without sustain – a significant decrease of species knowledge in today’s
children and adolescents. As there are not many studies in this respect, such a claim may belong to the
‘folklore’ of environmental education (Hendee, 1972).
The aim of the study was 1) to quantify the knowledge about biodiversity using a large, illustrated
questionnaire dealing with vertebrate species, and, 2) the results will be compared with previous studies
to look for possible changes during one generation.
Pupil sample
The data for the present study were collected during the second half of the German school year
in 2005. In Germany, pupils were split into three different educational (or stratification) levels after the
4th grade (primary school) due to their cognitive abilities. A total of 879 secondary school pupils partici-
pated in the study. Three geographical regions in Germany were covered: Schleswig-Holstein (N=139),
Niedersachsen (N=222) and Baden-Württemberg (N=518). Data from Schleswig-Holstein and Nieder-
sachsen covered the Gymnasium (highest educational level) and data from Baden-Württemberg were
distributed between Gymnasium (N=365) and Realschule (N=153; medium educational level). Age was
distributed from 9 to 19 years (mean = 12.67 years ± 2.09 sd) but 263 pupils were 11 years (29.9%) and
254 (28.9%) 12 years old. Therefore, a total of 30.8% were 5th graders (N=271). This allows a comparison
with data derived from Eschenhagen (1982; see below). 363 pupils (41.3%) were boys and 515 (58.6%)
girls (one pupil did not answer the question). An additional sample at the end of the primary school (4th
graders) was taken (N=65: 37 boys/28 girls; mean age: 10.02 years ± 0.45 sd).
Questionnaire
To measure knowledge about species, I applied a questionnaire with colour illustrations as many
vertebrate animals are richly coloured and colour is one of the main identification keys. Previous edu-
cational studies often used black-and-white illustrations to test species knowledge. Up to six photos
were depicted on an A4-sized questionnaire. The pupils had to identify the respective animal as precise
as possible, e.g. as Great Tit (Parus major) or as Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). This was scored with 1.0.
However, if the genus or family name was correct but the species identification was not, then it was scored
0.5 (e.g. tit or duck), otherwise the value 0 was assigned. This was to ensure that prevailing concepts
were not emitted but taken into account (Eschenhagen, 1982 used a similar procedure). The selection
of the species followed a rather detailed procedure. Previous studies often used a battery of species
without any substantial reasoning about the abundance or frequency of these species. Therefore, Ran-
dler & Bogner (2002) displayed a listing which should be taken into account when selecting species for
such questionnaires. Listings of different authors (review studies) were used for each taxonomic class
to find the most common species (e.g. hunting statistics were used for classifying mammals, breeding
bird atlases were used for classifying birds, Red Data Books were used to assess the threat status and,
subsequently, non-threatened species were used).
49
PUPILS’ FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT VERTEBRATE SPECIES ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 48 -54)
The final scale consisted of 28 bird, 14 mammal, 6 amphibian, 3 reptile and 3 fish species. This dif-
fered slightly from the number of species represented in the German fauna (x24= 33.758; p<0.001). In
detail, amphibians were over-represented (p<0.01) and fish were under represented (p<0.001; mainly
due to the high number of marine fish species), while the numbers of mammals, birds and reptiles in
the questionnaire were representative compared to the number of species in Germany (always p>0.05).
Interestingly, there was a high congruence with a German book “100 animals one should know” (Schmid
2000) which validates the selection process: 87% of the vertebrate species used in the present study
were also depicted in Schmid (2000). Further, there was a high congruence with a previous large scale
study (Eschenhagen, 1982).
Previous data on species knowledge in Germany
Eschenhagen (1982) made a large survey study concerning knowledge about animal species (mainly
vertebrates) using 48 species including 18 invertebrates. 21 out of his 30 vertebrates were also used
in this present study which allows a comparison of correct identifications over a time span of 25 years.
Eschenhagen (1982) could not use coloured printouts but he used models or taxidermy specimens that
were presented to the pupils. The sample sizes was different but it comprised 604 5th graders from four
different schools in NW Germany. Eschenhagen (1982) used the same method of scoring (see above)
and expressed values of correct identification as percentages. For each vertebrate species a percentage
of correct identification was calculated and compared with the percentage reported by Eschenhagen
(1982) in a matched pair comparison.
Statistical procedures
The matched pair comparison with Eschenhagen (1982) was based on the Wilcoxon test. Thus
positive ranks mean a higher knowledge in today’s pupils’ while a negative rank or percentage implies a
lower knowledge. Apart from bivariate statistics general linear modelling was used to test the influence
of all relevant factors influencing species knowledge in one single model. The first model contained
such factors as age, gender, grade and educational level and all two-way-interactions. By performing a
stepwise backward procedure always the variable or interaction with the highest non-significant P-value
was removed until the final model contained only significant explanatory variables.
Results of Research
The biodiversity scale proved to be highly reliable (Cronbach’s alpha=0.88, using all 54 items). This
suggests that the scale is valid and could be used for assessing factual species knowledge (‘biodiversity
knowledge’). Significant differences in species knowledge existed between primary school pupils (mean
score: 17.4 ± 6.9), secondary medium stratification pupils (21.5 ± 4.0) and secondary highest stratification
pupils 23.4 ± 6.8 (ANOVA-F2, 941=27.865; P < 0.001). These differences remained significant in a Post-hoc
Bonferroni correction (P < 0.05).
Concerning age a quadratic or cubic function explained a higher amount of variance compared
to other regression models (R2=0.027; Figure 1) and concerning grades, also quadratic (R2=0.057) and
cubic functions (R2=0.075) explained most of the variance (Figure 2).
50
(P. 48 -54)
Figure 1. Relationship between age and biodiversity knowledge in pupils. The vertical axis shows
the identification score (maximum = 54).
Figure 2. Relationship between grade and biodiversity knowledge in pupils. The vertical axis shows
the identification score (maximum = 54).
51
(P. 48 -54)
This suggests that species knowledge does not increase parallel to age or grade but rather reaches
a peak during the age of 14 years or during the 7th grade, respectively. In a GLM based on the data of
the secondary school pupils, species knowledge was used as dependent variable and gender, age,
grade and educational level as factors. All four factors had a significant influence on species knowledge
(Table 1). As both, age and grade contributed to the model, this suggests that learning about species
may take place both during formal school learning and other informal settings. Pupils in the highest
stratification (Gymnasium) scored higher compared to pupils in the medium stratification (Realschule),
thus the educational level reflects cognitive abilities. Girls scored significantly better compared to boys
although the effect size was low (Table 1).
Table 1. General linear model (Final GLM after a stepwise deletion of non-significant factors; see
methods) using species/biodiversity knowledge as dependent variable. Data are based
on secondary school pupils from two educational stratification levels.
Sum of squares
Source df Mean of squares F P-value Partial Eta2
Type III
Corrected Model 6324.337 19 332.859 9.266 <0.001 0.170
Constant 22166.503 1 22166.503 617.123 <0.001 0.418
Age 1928.505 10 192.850 5.369 <0.001 0.058
Grade 3984.840 7 569.262 15.848 <0.001 0.114
Educational level 2495.384 1 2495.384 69.472 <0.001 0.074
Gender 238.566 1 238.566 6.641 0.010 0.007
Corrected total variation 37142.909 877
R2 = 0.170 (corrected R2 = 0.152)
In comparison with Eschenhagen (1982) I found no significant decrease or increase in species

knowledge concerning 21 species used previously by this researcher. Negative ranks were found in
seven and positive ranks in 14 species (Wilcoxon Test: Z=-0.956; P=0.339).
Discussion
Age and grade were found significant predictors of species knowledge. However, the increase was
not parallel to age/grade but followed a cubic or quadratic pattern where knowledge increased until
the age of 14 years or the 7th grade respectively. Usually, interest into animal species at school is high-
est during the 5th and 6th grade (Löwe, 1987, 1992; Vogt, 1998) and this interest extents into activities
outside school. Interest in biology in general then decreases during the age of puberty (7th/8th grade)
which might be reflected by the decrease in knowledge. As interest correlates positively with learning
and instruction in biology (Gläser-Zikuda, Fuß, Laukenmann, Metz & Randler, 2005), a decrease in spe-
cies interests might be mirrored by a decrease in species knowledge. Engagement in animal-related
activities –as another possible predictor of species interest and knowledge – also decreases with age
(Bjerke et al., 2001) suggesting that species knowledge may also decrease.
What are the sources of species knowledge? Apart from learning at schools, especially out-of-
school activities in terms of informal free-choice learning (Falk, 2005) seem to influence learning about
animal species. Such informal learning takes place in zoos, museums, parks and aquariums (Falk, 2005).
Watching TV programs about animals and nature, for example, received almost a similar proportion
compared to learning about animals in schools (Bjerke et al., 2001). One central question is whether
this species knowledge is obtained by directly encoutering them in nature or by learning from nicely
52
(P. 48 -54)
coloured books. This question si difficult to answer but Bjerke et al. (2001) found a high proportion of
pupils that had etsablished a brid feeder or were watching animals outdoors.
Educational level showed a significant influence on species knowledge again emphasising that
learning about species is a difficult task which is reflected by the different cognitive abilities of pupils
in the different school stratifications (educational levels). Consequences for school practice might be
that the number of species used in teaching and learning about biodiversity should be lower in lower
stratifications (Randler et al., 2005).
Gender showed a significant but marginal influence (eta2=0.007; see Table 1). This contrasts with
other studies dealing with identification and classification tasks. For example, Lazarowitz (1981) found
no gender differences in 7th graders, while 9th grade boys scored better compared to girls. Ryman (1974,
1977) also reported higher scores in boys, while Killermann (1998) described a different pattern in plant
species identification where girls scored higher. Thus, a clear pattern is not visible and gender differ-
ences seem marginal and overestimated in the special field of species knowledge. However, it seems
that nowadays girls generally perform better even in subjects that were considered to be a domain of
boys such as physics.
Conclusion
It is one of the most interesting results that species knowledge did not decrease between the early
1980ies and 2005. These results seem valid because I focused on the same grade as Eschenhagen (1982)
and I used the same method of scoring. Therefore, as a decrease in species knowledge is not apparent
such claims should be regarded as ‘folklore’ of environmental education. It is far more important that
species knowledge did not decrease although teaching and learning about species and species iden-
tification decreased significantly in German biology syllabi, e.g. in Baden-Württemberg lessons about
the identification of animal or plant species were obligate during 1970ies and the 1980ies, but were
removed from the syllabus at the end of the 1980ies and were absent during the 1990ies. This further
emphasises the function of learning in informal settings outside the school curricula (e.g. Falk, 2005).
It is difficult to formalize a set of species that should be learned during the school curriculum but
at least a set of 80-100 vertrebrate species seem appropriate.
Acknowledgements
This study was partly funded by the University of Education, PH Ludwigsburg through a grant #
1430 5771 “Biodiversität lehren und lernen (Teaching and learning in biodiversity)”, and a grant from
the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung Germany (JP C.R.). I want to thank especially Vera
Idel for input the data. The most and important aspect was the willingness of the pupils to participate in
the study and especially their motivating teachers. Thanks go to Simone Athen, Kristina Weber, Juliane
Keller, Annette Gaus and Eberhard Hummel.
References
Barney, E.C., Mintzes, J.J. & Yen, C.-F. (2005). Assessing knowledge, attitudes, and behavior toward charismatic
megafauna: the case of the dolphins. Journal of Environmental Education. Vol 36, pp. 41-55.
Bjerke, T., Kaltenborn, B.P. & Ødegardstuen, T.S. (2001). Animal-related activities and appreciation of animals
among children & adolescents. Anthrozoös, Vol. 14, pp. 86-94.
Czeck B., Krausman, P.R. & Borkhataria, R. (1998). Social construction, political power, and the allocation of
benefits to endangered species. Conservation Biology, Vol. 12, pp. 1103-1112.
Dalton, R. (2005). A wing and a prayer. Nature, Vol. 437, pp. 188-190.
Eschenhagen, D. (1982). Untersuchung zu Tierartenkenntnissen von Schülern. Unterricht Biologie, Vol. 68, pp. 40-44
Falk, J.H. (2005). Free-choice environmental learning: framing the discussion. Environmental Education Rese-
53
(P. 48 -54)
arch, Vol. 11, pp. 265-280.

Gaston, K.J. & Spicer, J.I. (2004). Biodiversity. Blackwell Oxford.
Gläser-Zikuda, M., Fuß, S., Laukenmann, M., Metz, K. & Randler, C. (2005). Promoting students’ emotions and
achievement – conception and evaluation of the ECOLE approach. Learning & Instruction, Vol. 15, pp. 481-495
Hendee, J.C. (1972). Challenging the folklore of environmental education. Journal of Environmental Educa-
tion, Vol. 3, pp. 1-8.
Killermann, W. (1998). Research into biology teaching methods. Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 33, pp. 4-9.
Lazarowitz, R. (1981). Correlations of junior high school students’ age, gender, and intelligence with ability in
construct classification in biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. Vol. 18, pp. 15-22.
Leather, S. R. & Helden, A. J. (2005). Magic roundabouts? Teaching conservation in schools and universities.
Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 39, pp. 102-107.
Lindemann-Matthies, P. (2002). The influence of an educational program on Children’s perception of biodiversity,
Journal of Environmental Education. Vol. 33, pp. 22-31.
Löwe, B. (1987). Interessenverfall im Biologieunterricht. Unterricht Biologie, Vol. 11, pp. 62-65.
Löwe, B. (1992). Biologieunterricht und Schülerinteresse an Biologie, Weinheim: Beltz.
Randler, C. & Bogner, F. (2002). Comparing methods of instruction using bird species identification skills as
indicators. Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 36, pp. 181-188.
Randler, C., Ilg, A. & Kern, J. (2005). Cognitive and emotional evaluation of an amphibian conservation program
in elementary school students. Journal of Environmental Education, Vol. 37, pp. 43-52.
Ryman, D. (1974). The relative effectiveness of teaching methods on pupils‘understanding of the classification
of living organisms at two levels of intelligence. Journal of Biological Education, Vol. 8, pp. 219-222.
Ryman, D. (1977). Teaching methods, intelligence, and gender factors in pupil achievement on a classification
task. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 14, pp. 401-409.
Schmid, U. (2000). 100 Tiere, die man kennen sollte. Kosmos, Stuttgart.
Van Weelie, D. & Wals, A. (2002). Making biodiversity meaningful through environmental education. International
Journal of Science Education, Vol. 24, pp. 1143-1156.
Vogt, H. (1998). Zusammenhang zwischen Biologieunterricht und Genese von biologieorientiertem Interesse.
Zeitschrift für Didaktik d. Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 4(1), pp. 13-27.
Received 08 January 2008; accepted 04 March 2008.
Christoph Randler Professor at University of Leipzig, Institute of Biology I, Didactics

of Biology.
Johannisallee 21-23, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany.
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
54
ISSN 1648–3898 INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS
INFORMATION
FOR CONTRIBUTORS EDITORIAL POLICY
Journal of Baltic Science Education (JBSE) publishes original scientific research articles in the field of Natural Science Education
and related areas for all educational levels in the Baltic countries. It is possible to publish special (thematic) issues of JBSE. The
papers should be submitted and will be published in English. JBSE will promote to establish contacts between researchers and
practical educators both in the Baltic countries and countries around.
The authors of the manuscripts are responsible for the scientific content and novelty of the research materials. Articles,
published before in other international journals or papers’ collections will not be accepted for publication in JBSE.
As a publication that represents a variety of cross-disciplinary interests, both theoretical and practical, the JBSE invites manuscripts
on a wide range of topics, especially in the following areas:
• Didactics of natural sciences. • Philosophical, political, economical and social aspects
• Theory and practice in natural science teacher of natural science education.
education. • The supplementary natural science education.
• Integrated natural science education. • ICT in natural science education.
• Natural science and technological literacy. • The standardisation of natural science education etc.
• General and professional natural science education.
MANUSCRIPTS GUIDELINES
The structure of the research paper presented to the Journal of Baltic Science Education should be as follows: abstract - short
report of the investigation; introduction inc. aim and subject of the research; research methodologies and methods; results of the
research incl. discussion; conclusions; list of references in APA style.
The papers should be submitted in English. If English is a second language for the author, please consider having the
manuscript proof read and edited before submitting. The preliminary text of the article can be sent as a.doc file in the attachment
by e-mail: [email protected]
The text must be elaborated in Word for Windows, using 12 point Times New Roman letters. An article should not exceed 7-10 A4
pages, included figures, tables and bibliography. Publishing of longer articles should be negotiated separately. Texts margins: top and
bottom 20mm, left - 25mm, right - 20mm. The title: capital letters, 14pt, bold; space between the title and the author’s name is one line
interval. Author’s name and surname: small letters, 12pt, bold. Under the name, institution: 11 pt, italics; space between the title and the
text: 1 line interval. Abstract – about 100-150 words - precedes the text. The text: 12pt Single or Auto spacing, in one column. Key words:
no more than five words. The language must be clear and accurate. The authors have to present the results, propositions and conclusions
in a form that can suit scientists from different countries.
Titles of the tables and figures: 11 pt, small letters. Space between figures or tables and the text: 1 line interval. Introduction, titles
of chapters and subchapters: 12pt, bold, small letters. Numbers: Arabic, subchapters numbered by two figures (1.1, 1.2, etc.). Figures,
tables and captions should be inserted within the manuscript at their appropriate locations. Diagrams and graphs should be provided
as finished black and white line artwork or electronic images. When there are a number of illustrations, the author should endeavour to
reduce the amount of text to accommodate the illustrations in the limited space available for any article.
References in the text should be presented in brackets (Knox, 1988; Martin, 1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated:
(Martin, 1995, p.48). The list of references should be presented after the text. The Words List of References: 11pt, bold, small letters.
The references should be listed in full at the end of the paper in the following standard form:
For books: Saxe, G.B. (1991). Cultural and Cognitive Development: Studies in Mathematical Understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
For articles: Bekerian, D.A. (1993). In Search of the Typical Eyewitness. American Psychologist, 48, 574-576.
For chapters within books: Bjork, R.A. (1989). Retrieval Inhibition as an Adaptive Mechanism in Human Memory. In: H.L. Roediger III
& F.I.M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of Memory & Consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
On a separate page, author - related data should be presented in English: name, surname, degree and academic title, institution,
full correspondence address in the clearest and most complete form /ordinary post and e-mail addresses /, position (to ensure anonymity
in the review process). The author (authors) should confirm in writing, that the manuscript has not been published in other
journal or handed over (transferred) to other journal for publication.
EDITORIAL AND REVIEW PROCEDURES
Manuscripts will be sent anonymously to reviewers with expertise in the appropriate area. All manuscripts will be rewieved
by two experts before JBSE’s accept them for publication. This process usually takes about two months. The journal co-editors
will make minor editorial changes; major changes will be made by the author(s) prior to publication if necessary. JBSE’s redaction
will sent to author(s) only one correcture which must be sent back within 2 weeks. JBSE will not review submissions previously
published elsewhere through print or electronic medium.
Manuscripts submitted to the JBSE cannot be returned to authors. Authors should be sure to keep a copy for themselves.
Authors’ signatures should be at the end of the paper and its second checked proofs.
Authors who are not JBSE subscribers are required to pay the fee of 50 euros in order to publish a paper in the journal.
Individual cases can be negotiated individually with editors of JBSE.
Manuscripts, editorial correspondence (and other correspondence for subscription and exchange), and any questions should
be sent to editor-in-chief or to regional redactors.
Mailing Addresses
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, editor-in-chief, Dr. Naglis Švickus, co-editor, Lithuania
Siauliai University SMC ”Scientia Educologica”
P. Vishinskio Str. 25; LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania Kretingos Str. 55-10; LT-92300 Klaipėda, Lithuania
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: + 370 687 95668 Phone: +370 687 89985
Prof., Dr. Janis Gedrovics, co-editor, Latvia Prof., Dr. habil. Aarne Tõldsepp, co-editor, Estonia
Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy Tungla 7,
Imantas 7 linija No 1; Riga, LV-1083, Latvia Tartu, EE-51006, Estonia
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: +371 29162147 Phone: + 372 7 422241
55
ISSN 1648–3898
JBSE
56
ISSN 1648–3898
JBSE
KHIMIYA/CHEMISTRY. BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMI-
CAL EDUCATION
ISSN 0861-9255
Chemistry provides a forum for sharing and discussing ideas and news about new ways of teaching and present-
ing experimental and theoretical aspects of chemistry. The main journal sections and topics are: news, letters to
the editor, new approaches, teaching efficiency, teaching chemical experiment, curriculum matters, Bulgarian
educational tradition, advanced chemistry for teachers, people in chemistry, archives, reviews.
Chemistry. Bulgarian Journal of

Chemical Education, ISSN 0861-
9255, provides a forum for sharing
and discussing ideas and news about
new ways of teaching and presenting
experimental and theoretical aspects
of chemistry. We also encourage the
discussion of philosophical and his-
torical issues that arise in chemistry.
The articles appearing in this journal
are indexed and abstracted in CHEM-
ICAL ABSTRACTS, GOOGLE
SCHOLAR and SCOPUS.
Prof. Dr. B. V. Toshev

Editor-in-Chief
Ms. E. Avramova
Managing Editor
Editorial Board:
• Prof. Dr. D. Lazarov
• Dr. St. Manev
• Dr. V. Pavlova
Advisory Board:
Prof. Dr. V. Lamanauskas (Pri-
mary Science Education), Prof. Dr.
I. Petkov (Organic Chemistry), Prof.
Dr. V. M. Petrusevski (Scence Educa-
tion), Dr. D. Todorovsky (Inorganic
Chemistry)
Published by the Ministry of Education and Science (BULGARIA)
Manuscripts should be submitted in duplicate to:
Professor B.V. Toshev, Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Sofia, 1 James Bourchier Blvd., 1164
Sofia, BULGARIA, phone: +359 2 8161372, e-mail: [email protected]; or Ms. Elena Avramova, 125
Tzarigradsko chaussee Blvd., bl. 5, 1113 Sofia, BULGARIA, phone: +359 2 9714515.
57
Compiled by: Vincentas Lamanauskas

Linguistic Editors: Gintaras Vaidogas,
Gražina Lamanauskienė
Cover design by: Jurgina Jankauskienė
Layout design by : Linas Janonis
Contact person: Rytis Vilkonis
31-03-2008. Publishing in Quires 8. Edition 300
Publisher
SMC „Scientia Educologica“,
Donelaicio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
Printing
K. J. Vasiliauskas`s enterprise Lucilijus,
14 lyros Street, apt. 25, LT–78288 Šiauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: [email protected], phone/fax +370 41 595 518.
http://www.lucilijus.lt
ORDER FORM
Journal of Baltic Science Education, ISSN 1648-3898
1. We want to order JBSE (please select):
Number of
Description
copies
1. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 2008, Vol. 7, No. 1
4.
5.
TOTAL
* You can add an additional line necessarily.
2. Institutional and Individual Rate: 20 EURO for one copy (excluding postage).
Order for 2006-2007: 50 EUR. Copies of JBSE/2003-2005: 5 EUR for one
copy.
3. Methods of payment: payment has been made by bank transfer (settle the
account).
4. Please send our journals to:
NAME:
DEPARTMENT:
ADDRESS:
POST/ZIP CODE:
INSTITUTIONAL CODE:
COUNTRY:
TELEPHONE:
FAX:
E-MAIL:
DATE:
SIGNATURE:
Please return this order form to

SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Donelaičio Street 29, Siauliai, LT-78115 Lithuania,
or by E-mail: [email protected]
BECOME A FRIEND OF
YOU CAN ADD YOUR SUPPORT to the effort of the Editorial Board of JOURNAL OF
BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION to transform the journal into a forum for sharing and
discussing ideas and news about science education and presenting experimental and theoretical
aspects of natural science education. We welcome contributions that treat these subjects in their
scientific, historical, cultural, political and social context.
The Journal of Baltic Science Education publishes original scientific research articles in the field
of natural science education and related areas for all educational levels in the Baltic countries
and countries around.
This peer reviewed Journal is indexed and abstracted in: British Education Index, EBSCO:
Academic Search Premier and Copernicus Index.
YOU CAN ADD YOUR SUPPORT by becoming a Friend with a tax-deductible contribution.
Friends receive our journal, their names appear in one of the issues of the journal and website at
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt
http://www.gu.projektas.lt/JBSEwww/indeks.htm
AMOUNT OF DONATION
Regular members donate 30 to 60 ($ or €);

Associates donate 100 or more ($ or €).
Payment Method:
[ ] Check enclosed, payable to SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania; or

[ ] Postal Money Order – Payee Professor Vincentas Lamanauskas/JBSE (See the mail address).
Mail address:
SMC „Scientia Educologica“,
Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania.

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2008

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Vol. 7, No.

1, 2008 ISSN 1648-3898

Published since 2002

ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“,

LET’S DEVELOP MODERN GENERAL NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

CORRELATES OF CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE PROCESSES WITH

INVESTIGATING PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ SATISFACTION WITH

FOLLOWING THE LOGIC OF STUDENT THINKING PATTERNS

STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN PREGNANCY

PUPILS’ FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE ABOUT VERTEBRATE SPECIES

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

ICT IN NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

KHIMIYA/CHEMISTRY. BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

LET’S DEVELOP MODERN GENERAL NATURAL SCIENCE

EDUCATION General Education Professional Education

Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole Abstract. The conceptual knowledge of

The premise of this study was underpinned by two theoretical understandings:

Claims of familiarity and actual definitions

Table 1. Percentages of students Claiming Familiarity with the Processes.

Table 2. Percentages of students providing definitions for the processes.

Correlating definitions with Gender

Composition No correct definitions in x Better than others in y

Present Programme of study 255

Year of study 296

Professions Desired 255

Secondary School Programme 253

School Environment 257

Home Environment 253

Correlating definitions with age of respondents

Correlating definitions with programmes of study

Correlating definitions and Year of Study

Correlating Definitions with professions desired

Correlating Definitions with secondary school science programme followed

Correlating Definitions with secondary school environment

Correlating Definitions with home environment

Poor conceptual knowledge of science processes

The case for classification and communication

The cases of no correct conceptual definition

Separate versus Combined sciences

Years of exposure to science teaching and learning

Conclusions and Recommendations

the 15 science processes.

DEFINITIONS, DESCRIPTIONS OR EXPLANATIONS OF SCIENCE PROCESSES

Received 07 December 2007; accepted 14 January 2008.

Hezekiah Ukegbu Emereole

Abstract. The purpose the study was

1. Transportation services offered by university or the municipality,

The Purpose of the Study

Table 1. Demographical characteristics of the sample.

Number of participant (%)

Data Collection Instrument

Table 2. Reliability of each theme in the PSTSQ.

Themes in the questionnaire Cronbach’s alpha (α)

General Satisfaction (10 items) 0.71

Data Collection and Analysis

Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations of the items in “Social Facilities”.

Items in the Theme of Social Facilities X Standard Deviation (SD)

Computer clusters 2,98 1,41

Table 4. Post hoc analysis results among universities.

METU (1) 53.00

Gazi Unv. (2) 51.87 –

Dokuz Eylül Unv. (3) 27.43 * *

KATU (4) 31.64 * * –

(*) An asterix = showing the significance difference on 0.05 significant level,