Chapter 9

Wireless Communications
Multiple Access
Hamid Bahrami
Electrical & Computer Engineering

Communication System Block Diagram
Duplexing
l Duplexing: transmit and receive at the same time
l Example: telephone, how about walkie-talkie
Terminal Terminal
A B
Simplex
Terminal Terminal
A B
Half-duplex
Terminal Terminal
A B
Full-duplex
Duplexing
l Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
l Multiplexes the Tx and Rx in one time slot in which transmission
and reception is on 2 different frequencies
l It provides simultaneous transmission channels for mobile/base
station (forward and reverse channels)
l At the base station, separate transmit and receive antennas are
used to accommodate the two separate channels
l At the mobile unit, a single antenna (with duplexer) is used to
enable transmission and reception
l To facilitate FDD, sufficient frequency isolation of the transmit
and receive frequencies is necessary
Duplexing
l Time division duplexing (TDD)
l Multiplexes the Tx & Rx in one frequency at different time
slots
Time Division Duplexing
Amplitude
T R T R
Time
l Ex: in a simple 2-way radio where a button is pressed to

talk and released to listen
l Only possible for digital transmission
Multiplexing
l Multiplexing (channelization) is the process of
simultaneously transmitting several information
signals using a single communication channel
Frequency Division Multiplexing
l The available bandwidth is divided into non-overlapping
frequency slots and each message is assigned a frequency
slot within the available band
l Signals are transmitted by different frequency bands and
then added together to form a baseband signal
l The signals are narrowband and frequency limited
fN-1
Frequency Band N
fN-2
Frequency
f3
Frequency Band 2
f2
f1
Frequency Band 1
f0
Time
Time Division Multiplexing
l Digital signals from several sources are multiplexed in
time and transmitted over a single communication
channel
l The communication channel is divided into frames; each
frame is further segmented into slots; each user is
assigned a slot (or channel) within each time frame
l Only for digital communication
Slot Slot Slot Slot

... N
s1 s2 ... sk 1 2 ... N
s1 s2 ...
Sync word Information or data word

FRAME
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
l Multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously on the
same time and same frequency
l Each signal is assigned a distinct code sequence
l The code sequences (spreading codes) are orthogonal (or
almost orthogonal)
Example of orthogonal codes
Code 1 = {1, 1, 1, 1}
Code 2 = {1, 1, -1, -1}
Code 3 = {1, -1, -1, 1}
Code 4 = {1, -1, 1, -1}

FDM/TDM/CDM
Spatial Multiplexing
l Multiplexing in space using multiple antenna at
the Tx and Rx
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
l Optical communication
Multiple Access
l Multiple access: used to allow many

mobile users to share simultaneously
a finite amount of radio spectrum
l Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
l Time division multiple access (TDMA)
l Code division multiple access (CDMA)
l Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
l Demand Access Multiple Access (DAMA)
l Random Access Multiple Access (RAMA)
l Hybrid Multiple Accesses
Multiple Access
l To transmit multiple signals in a point-to-point
communication system, we use multiplexing.
l In a multi-user system with multiple receivers (a
point-to-multipoint or broadcast system), a system
with multiple transmitters (a multipoint-to-point
or multi-access system), or a system composed of
many users communicating directly with each
other (a multipoint-to-multipoint system), we can
use the same concept to transmit these multiple
signals. This is called multiple access.
Multiple Access
l Multiple access: used to allow many

users to share simultaneously a finite
amount of radio spectrum
l Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
l Time division multiple access (TDMA)
l Code division multiple access (CDMA)
l Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
l These are sometimes called channelization
protocols. These are contentionless protocols.
Good for circuit switch.
l Random Access Multiple Access (RAMA): Less
coordinated and controlled. Contention based
protocols. Good for packet switch.
l Hybrid Multiple Accesses
Multiple Access
Multiple Access Protocol
Contentionless Contention
(Scheduling Access) (Random Access)
CDMA
Fixed Demand Repeated Random Random Access

Assigned Assigned Access w/reservation
FDMA Polling ALOHA Implicit

TDMA Token Passing Slotted ALOHA Explicit
Frequency Division Multiple Access
l Individual frequencies are assigned to individual
users on demand for the duration of calls
l Frequency distances are far enough à no interference
l When the call is finished à the channel is released and
available for a new call
l If the transmission path deterioratesà switches the system
to another channel
Guard band (at the edges & between) to
minimize crosstalk
1 2 ! n
B
FRAME
l The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at
a time
l If a channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot
be used by other users à the waste of bandwidth
l After the assignment of a voice channel, the base
station and the mobile transmit simultaneously and
continuously
l The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively
narrow à narrowband systems
l The symbol time of a signal is large as compared to
the average delay spread à little or no equalization
l Low complexity à but it is changing
l Fewer bits are needed for synchronization as frame
bits
l Higher cell sit system cost ß the need of bandpass
filters and single channel per carrier design
l Duplexers ß both tx and rx operate at the same time
l Require tight RF filter to minimize the adjacent
channel interference
l Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA) is the multiple access
scheme for 4G systems (LTE and IEEE
802.16/WiMAX)
l Guard band Bguard: allocated at the edge of the allocated
spectrum band
l Channel bandwidth: Bc
l The total spectrum allocation: Bt
l The number of channels: N
Bt - 2 Bguard
N=
BC
Channel Channel Channel
1 2 ...... Ns
Bg Bc
Bs
MHz
Practice
l Design a Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM) signal set
consisting five voice channels, each in the frequency range 300 to
3400 Hz. The multiplexed composite is to occupy the spectral
region from 30k to 50 kHz. Decide the allocating frequency bands
for each channel by using the maximum guard band frequency.
The voice channel bandwidth is 3100 Hz.

The maximum guard bandwidth is (3100 + Guard )´ 5 £ 50000 - 30000 Þ Guard £ 900Hz
Channel 1: 30000 ~ 33100 Hz and Guard band: 33100 ~ 34000 Hz
l Example: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
l Developed by Bell Labs and introduced in 1978.
l 1G, Analog, 800MHz FM band
l Each AMPS channel has a one way bandwidth
of 30KHz (60KHz each duplex channel)

l 416 channels in 824-849MHz band (uplink)
and 416 channels in 869-894MHz band (downlink)

Example 9.2, page 452
l If a US AMPS (advanced mobile phone system) cellular
operator is allocated 12.5 MHz for each simplex band, and if
Bguard is 10 KHz, and Bc is 30 kHz, find the number of
channels available in an FDMA system.
12.5 ´10 6 - 2 ´10 ´103

N= = 416
30 ´10 3
Time Division Multiple Access
l Divide the radio spectrum into time slots
l In each slot, only one user is allowed to either transmit or
receive
l Buffer-and-burst method à non-continuous transmission
(digital communication)
One TDMA Frame

Control Bits Information Data Trail Bits
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot N
Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

l Shares a signal carrier frequency with several users,
where each user makes use of non-overlapping time slots
l Data transmission is not continuous, but occurs in bursts
à low battery consumption
l Handoff process is simple ß discontinuous transmission
l Duplex is not required
l Adaptive equalization is necessary ß high data rate
l The guard time should be minimized
l High synchronization
l IS-54
l The original TDMA format for AMPS
l By dividing a 30-kHz channel into 3 time slots, enabling 3 different
users to occupy it at same time
l Provides a 3-fold increase in traffic capacity relative to AMPS, given
the same bandwidth allocation
l A second phase of the IS-54 standard provides for 6 (instead of 3)
TDMA user channels in each 30 kHz radio channel
l IS-136 (also called called D-AMPS)
l Enhanced TDMA with special control channels to allow short
message service, battery life extension, other features, 6
timeslots, three users occupy in rotation
l GSM (Global System for Mobile)
l Pan-European digital cellular standard to replace six
incompatible analog cellular systems then in use in
different geographic areas in early 80’s
l Employing TDMA and each radio channel carries 8
timeslots (8 speech channels) and the radio channel
bandwidth (for all 8 channels) is almost 270Kbps.
l Freq. band 850MHz or 1900MHz (in many countries
900 and 1800MHz)
l AT&T network is mainly a GSM based network.
l Efficiency of TDMA
l A measure of the percentage of transmitted data that contains
information as opposed to providing overhead for the access
scheme
æ bOH ö
h = çç1 - ÷÷ ´100%
è bT ø
bOH = N r br + N t b p + N t bg + N r bg
bT = T f R
bOH =overhead bits per frame Tf: frame duration

Nr = # of reference burst per frame R: System bit rate
Nt = # of trail (preamble) burst per frame
br = # of overhead bits per reference burst
bp = # of overhead bits per preamble
bg = # of equivalent bits in each guard time interval
l Number of channels in TDMA system
m(Bt - 2 Bguard )
N=
BC
m: the maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio channel
l Example 9.4: If GSM uses a frame structure where each frame

consists of eight time slots, and each time slot contains 156.25 bits,
and data is transmitted at 270.833 kpbs in the channel. Find (1) the
time duration of a bit (2) the time duration of a slot, (3) the time
duration of a frame, and (4) how long must a user occupying a
single time slot wait between two successive transmissions.
Example 9.4
1
The time duration of a bit : Tb = = 3.692µs
270.833
The time duration of a slot : Tslot = 156.25 ´ Tb = 0.577ms
The time duration of a frame : Ts = 8 ´ Tslot = 4.615ms
Waiting time : 4.615ms
Code Division Multiple Access
l It is classified as a spread spectrum multiple access.
Another possibility is FHMA.
l The narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very
large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal
l The spreading signals a pseudonoise code sequence that
has a chip rate which is greater than the data rate
Chinese
English
Principles
OF
CDMA
Arabic English
Major
Hindu
l Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency,
either TDD or FDD
l Soft capacity limit à increasing the number of users
raises the noise floor in a linear manner
l Multiple fading might be substantially reduced ß the
signal is spread over a large spectrum
l Channel data rates are high à the symbol duration is
short and less then the channel delay spread
l RAKE receiver can be used
l Self-jamming is a problem ß not perfectly orthogonal
l Near-far problem
l Reverse Link (from mobile unit to base station)
l Near-far problem
l The power of each user do not appear equal at the base station
l Many mobile users share the same channel
l Power control:
l To maximize the total user capacity
l To minimize power consumption of portable units
l Forward Link (from base station to mobile unit)

l Link does not suffer much from near-far problem since all cell
signals can be received at the mobile with equal power
l When at excessive intercell interference, the power control can
be applied by increasing the power to the mobile
l Advantages
l Voice Activities Cycles (35% talking, 65% listening)
l Improved call quality
l No Equalizer Needed (only correlator needed)
l No hard handoff
l No guard time
l Less fading
l No frequency management needed
l Capacity advantage
l Enhanced privacy
l Coexistence
l Simple system planning
l IS-95 (Interim Standard 95) also called cdmaOne
l Qualcomm, a San Diego-based company
l IS-95 was used as a 2G standard
l Each channel bandwidth was 1.2288 MHz (much
larger than narrowband)
l Offer greater traffic capacity than GSM
l CDMA 2000 (3G)
l Supports data rate of up to 153Kbps
l Channel bandwidth is 1.25MHz
l Verizon and Sprint Nextel networks
CDMA Transmitter
Data signal ak(t)dk(t) Transmitted Signal
Baseband
dk(t) x BPF
Modulator xk(t)
ak(t)
PN Code ~
Generator Acos(w ct )
Chip Clock
l The data symbols dk(t) are spread into ak(t)dk(t)

l Then spread signal is modulated
sk (t ) = 2 Pk ak ( t ) d k ( t ) cos ( 2p f ct + fk )
(CDMA) Channel
sk(t) hk(t) yk(t)
L
hk (t ) = å b kld [t - t kl ] e jy kl
l =1
yk (t ) = ò-¥ h (t )s ( t - t k ) dt
¥
L
= 2 Pk å b kl ò-¥ ak ( t -t k )d k ( t -t k ) cos (wc t + fk )d [t -t kl ] e jy kl dt
¥
l =1
L
= 2 Pk å b kl ak ( t -t kl ) d k ( t -t kl ) cos (wc t + q kl )
l =1
CDMA Receiver
r(t )
y( t ) Tb
Demodulator
ò0 (×)dt
Decision
Device
ŝkl
2 Pk cos (w c t + q k ) ak (t - Td )
l Detection accomplished by de-modulating & de-spreading

l This involves the correlation of the received signal with the
delayed version of the spreading signal (despreading
operation)
l In other words, the received signal is multiplied again by a
synchronized version of the PN code
Performance Analysis
for Multiple users
ò
K
rk (t ) = å yk ( t ) + n(t )
k =1
K L
= å å 2 Pk b kl ak ( t -t kl ) d k ( t -t kl ) cos ( 2p f c t + q kl ) + n(t )
k =1 l =1
K
rk (t ) = å yk ( t ) + n(t )
k =1
K L
= å å 2 Pk b kl ak ( t -t kl ) d k ( t -t kl ) cos ( 2p f c t + q kl ) + n(t )
k =1 l =1
Performance Analysis
l Assuming the first user is desired
r ( t )a1 ( t ) cos ( 2p f ct ) dt
( i + 1)Tb
z1 = òiT
b
z1 = ò r ( t )a1 ( t ) cos ( 2p f ct ) dt
Tb
0
K L
z1i = å å 2 Pk b ò ak ( t -t kl ) a1 ( t )d k ( t -t kl ) cos (wc t ) cos (wc t + q kl )
Tb
kl 0
k =1 l =1
+ ò n ( t ) a1 ( t ) cos (wc t ) dt
Tb
0
Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
l Separating the signals of multiple users using
beamforming
Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA)
l Available spectrum is divided into subbands
l Each subband is then considered as a CDMA system
l It is the principle of multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)
Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency
Hopping Multiple Access (DS/FHSS)
l Signal of each user is a DS signal whose center frequency
hops periodically in a pseudo-random fashion.
l Avoids near-far problem, soft hand-off is not possible
Other Hybrid Techniques
l Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)
l Different spreading codes are assigned to different cells
l Within each cell, only one user is allocated a particular time slot
such that only one user is transmitting in each cell at one slot
l Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH)
l At the start of a new TDMA frame, the user hops to a new
channel
l This avoids severe fades or erasure in any particular channel
l The user is allowed to hop according to a predefined sequence
l TXs are made to transmit on different frequencies at different
times
Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
l Similar to FDM by using three principles
l Multirate, multisymbol and multicarrier
l Distribute the data over a large number of carrier allows
smaller transmission rate, e.g., bigger symbol duration
l Reduce the effect of ISI
l No/Less frequency selective fading
l Possible guard interval between symbols
l Orthogonal relationship between the subcarrier signals
allow subcarriers to overlap each other without
interference
l No cross talk between carriers
l No need for inter-carrier guard band
OFDM Case Study – Tx
Wireless Local Area Network
Data à Serial to Parallel à Modulation à IFFT à Parallel to Serial à Guard à Mod
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/OFDM_transmitter_ideal.png
OFDM Case Study – Rx
Wireless Local Area Network
Demod à Guard removal à Serial to Parallel à FFT à DeMod à Parallel to Serial à Data
Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA)
Multicarrier DS-CDMA
l Statement of problems
l Variety of services, including voice, data, image and
video
l DS-CDMA suffers ISI and Multi-user Interference
(MUI)
l OFDM has the potential benefit
l Multicarrier DS-CDMA
l Marries the best of the OFDM and DS-CDMA
l 4G
Random Access
l In packet radio (PR), many users attempt to access a
single channel in an uncoordinated (or minimally
coordinated manner).
l Collision can happen and is detected by the basestation
(access point or AP). The AP broadcasts an ACK or a
NACK signal for successful and unsuccessful reception
of user’s data.
l The users use a contention technique to transmit on a
common channel.
l PR is easy to implement but has low spectral efficiency
and may cause delay. It is only used for transmission of
data (less sensitive to delay) and not in voice systems.
Random Access Protocols
l Pure ALOHA: a user accesses a channel as soon as a
packet is ready to be transmitted. After transmission the
user wait for ACK. (Developed in University of Hawaii in
early 70’s)
l In case of collision (when NACK is received), the
terminal waits for a random period of time and then
retransmits the same packet.
l There is almost no timing in the system.
l Very easy to implement but large delay especially when
the number of users is large.
l Pure ALOHA
Sending a packet
Waiting for ACK
No
ACK Randomly
received? selected a delay
Yes
Continue the next

packet
l Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into equal time-
slots. All users have synchronized clocks.
l If a user has a packet to transmit, its transmission
is done only at the beginning of each time-slot.
The rest of the protocol is similar to ALOHA.
l This prevents partial collision and improves the
throughput (reduces delay).
l Still for large number of users, the delay can be
high.
l Slotted ALOHA
l In pure and slotted ALOHA protocols the users don’t listen to
the channel.
l By listening to the channel before transmission, greater
efficiency is achieved.
l Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): A users with a packet
to transmit, constantly monitor the channel. If the channel is
idle, the user transmits.
l CSMA with Collision Detection (CD): The user continues
listening to the channel during its own transmission. If senses
a collision, it stops transmission.
l CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CA): If the channel is busy,
the user waits (backs off) for a random amount of time (why
random?).
l Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA)
l Inter-Frame Space
l DIFS: distribution coordination function IFS
l SIFS: short IFS
DIFS SIFS DIFS SIFS DIFS
Terminal A Packet A
Packet B
Terminal B
Packet C
Terminal C
ACK ACK
AP
Backoff Intervel Packet Arrival Residual Backof Time

l Reservation Protocol: The transmission time is divided
into slots. Unlike previous contention based random
access protocols, here a user can reserve slots for
transmission.
l One can think of it as a middle ground between multiple
access schemes and other random access protocols.
l Specially good for transmission of high priority packets
and for transmission without interrupt (continuous
transmission).
l Reservation and some other protocols (such as Polling)
are sometimes called controlled-access protocols.
l WiFi uses CSMA/CA with reservation.
Capture Effect and Hidden
Terminal
l Often the closest transmitter is able to capture a
receiver because of small path loss. This is called
near-far (or capture) effect.
l Good because many packets of this terminals
arrive at the receiver despite collision.
l Bad because a strong transmitter may make it
impossible for the receiver to detect a much
weaker transmitter which is attempting to
communicate to the same receiver (hidden
terminal).
Example: IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
• 802.11b • 802.11a
– 2.4-5 GHz unlicensed spectrum – 5-6 GHz range
– up to 11 Mbps – up to 54 Mbps
• 802.11g
– 2.4-5 GHz range
– up to 54 Mbps
• 802.11n: multiple antennae
– 2.4-5 GHz range
– up to 200 Mbps
v all use CSMA/CA for multiple access

v all have base-station and ad-hoc network versions
80211. Wireless LAN Architecture
v wireless host communicates
Internet with base station
§ base station = access point
(AP)
v Basic Service Set (BSS) (aka
“cell”) in infrastructure mode
hub, switch
or router contains:
AP
§ wireless hosts
BSS 1 § access point (AP): base
station
AP
§ ad hoc mode: hosts only
BSS 2
IEEE 802.11 Multiple Access
• avoid collisions: 2+ nodes transmitting at same time
• 802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting

– don’t collide with ongoing transmission by other node
• 802.11: no collision detection as in Ethernet!

– difficult to receive (sense collisions) when transmitting due to weak
received signals (fading)
– can’t sense all collisions in any case: hidden terminal, fading
– goal: avoid collisions: CSMA/C(ollision)A(voidance)
IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA
802.11 sender
1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then sender receiver
transmit entire frame (no CD)
2 if sense channel busy then DIFS
start random backoff time

timer counts down while channel idle data
transmit when timer expires
if no ACK, increase random backoff interval,
SIFS
repeat 2
802.11 receiver ACK
- if frame received OK
return ACK after SIFS (ACK needed due to hidden
terminal problem)
IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA
idea: allow sender to “reserve” channel rather than random access of data
frames: avoid collisions of long data frames
• sender first transmits small request-to-send (RTS) packets to BS using
CSMA
– RTSs may still collide with each other (but they’re short)
• BS broadcasts clear-to-send CTS in response to RTS
• CTS heard by all nodes
– sender transmits data frame
– other stations defer transmissions
avoid data frame collisions completely

using small reservation packets!

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Wireless Communications

Electrical & Computer Engineering

l Ex: in a simple 2-way radio where a button is pressed to

Slot Slot Slot Slot

Sync word Information or data word

Code 2 = {1, 1, -1, -1}

Code 3 = {1, -1, -1, 1}

Code 4 = {1, -1, 1, -1}

l Multiple access: used to allow many

l Multiple access: used to allow many

Multiple Access Protocol

Fixed Demand Repeated Random Random Access

FDMA Polling ALOHA Implicit

The voice channel bandwidth is 3100 Hz.

l 1G, Analog, 800MHz FM band

l Each AMPS channel has a one way bandwidth

of 30KHz (60KHz each duplex channel)

and 416 channels in 869-894MHz band (downlink)

12.5 ´10 6 - 2 ´10 ´103

One TDMA Frame

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot N

Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

bOH =overhead bits per frame Tf: frame duration

m: the maximum number of TDMA users supported on each radio channel

l Example 9.4: If GSM uses a frame structure where each frame

l Many mobile users share the same channel

l To minimize power consumption of portable units

l Forward Link (from base station to mobile unit)

l The data symbols dk(t) are spread into ak(t)dk(t)

sk(t) hk(t) yk(t)

l Detection accomplished by de-modulating & de-spreading

Wireless Local Area Network

Data à Serial to Parallel à Modulation à IFFT à Parallel to Serial à Guard à Mod

Wireless Local Area Network

Waiting for ACK

Continue the next

Backoff Intervel Packet Arrival Residual Backof Time

v all use CSMA/CA for multiple access

• 802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting

• 802.11: no collision detection as in Ethernet!

start random backoff time

avoid data frame collisions completely

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