Chapter 2

The Physical Layer

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 Highlights
 Some concepts
 The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication
 Transmission medium
 Wireless Transmission
 Digital modulation and
multiplexing
 Message switch

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Simplified Data Communications Model

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 Fundamental Concepts (1)
 信道(Channel)：传送信息的媒体
 数据率(Bit Rate)：数据传输速率 (bps)
 波特(Baud)：码元传输速率
 1 Baud = (log2V) bps，其中V是信号的电平级数
 传播速度(Propagation Speed)：通信线路上，信号
单位时间内传送的距离（⽶/秒）
 带宽(Bandwidth)：信号占⽤的频率范围 (Hz)
 信道容量(Channel Capacity)：信道的最⼤数据率
 吞吐量(Throughput)：⽹络容量的度量，表示单位时间
内⽹络可以传送的数据位数（bps）
 误码率BER(Bit Error Rate)：信道传输可靠性指标
P= 传送错的位数 / 传送总位数
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 Fundamental Concepts (2)
 时延(Delay
Delay))：从向⽹络中发送数据块的第⼀⽐特开
始，到最后⼀位数据被接收所经历的时间
 时延的组成：
时延的组成：传播时延、发送时延、处理时延、排
队时延
传播时延：
传播时延：信号通过传输介质的时间。
发送时延：
发送时延：设备发送⼀个数据块所需要的时间（数据块⻓
度/信道带宽)
处理时延：
处理时延：交换机/路由器检查数据、选路的时间
排队时延：
排队时延：在交换机/路由器中排队等待的时间

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 Sources of Delay (1)
 1. Nodal processing delay  2. Queueing dealy:
 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on
congestion level of
router

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 Sources of Delay (2)
 3. Transmission delay:  4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical
 L=packet length (bits) link
 time to send bits into  s = propagation speed
link = L/R in medium
 propagation delay =
d/s

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 Simplex, Half-duplex, Full-duplex
 Simplex
 Transmission occurs in only one direction
 eg. FM Radio broadcasting
 Half-duplex
 Transmission can be made in both direction, but
at one time only one direction is available
 eg. talkie and walkie （对讲机）
 Full-duplex
 Transmission can be made in both directions
simultaneously
 eg. Phone conversation

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Parallel transmission vs. Serial transmission

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Asynchronous Transmission vs.
Synchronous Transmission

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 同步串⾏传输和异步串⾏传输
 同步串⾏传输
以时钟信号线对传输的数据线上的信号进⾏⽐特同步
以数据块（帧或分组）为单位传输
 异步串⾏传输
独⽴时钟，⽆须同步
以字符为单位进⾏传输
发送两个字符之间的间隔是任意的
接收⽅依靠字符中的起始位和停⽌位来同步

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2.1 The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

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 The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication
 Fourier Analysis
 Bandwidth-Limited Signals
 Maximum Data Rate of a
Channel

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Fourier Analysis

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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals
(a) A binary signal (‘b’) and its root-mean-square Fourier
amplitudes.
(b) – (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)

 The range of frequencies transmitted without

being strongly attenuated is called the bandwidth.
 For example, a telephone wire may have a
bandwidth of 1 MHz for short distances
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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)

 T=8/b, first harmonic f=b/8

voice-grade line:
Max harmonics=3000/f=24000/b
 When data rates ≥38.4 kbps, there is no
hope at all for binary signals, even if the
transmission facility is completely noiseless.
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 Bandwidth
 No transmission facility can transmit signal
without losing some power
 All transmission facilities diminish different
Fourier components by different amounts
 Range of frequencies transmitted without being
strongly (0.5) attenuated is called bandwidth
 Telephone wire’s bandwidth: 1 MHz
 UTP 5: 100MHz
 bandwidth is a physical property of the
transmission medium, depends on
 construction
 thickness
 length
bandwidth (Hz, bps) 18
 Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
 Nyquist's theorem (1924)
 If a signal has been run through a low-pass
filter of bandwidth H, the signal can be
completely reconstructed by making 2H
samples per second
C=2Hlog2V
 Shannon’s Theorem (1948)

Example: Voice phone line 300Hz-3300Hz, S/N dB=30dB

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 Maximum Data Rate of a Channel（2）
 Shannon’s Theorem (1948)

Example: ADSL 1MHz, S/N dB=40dB

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2.2 Guided Transmission Media

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Guided Transmission Media

 Magnetic Media
 Twisted Pair
 Coaxial Cable（EoC）
 Power line
 Fiber Optics

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 Magnetic Media
 Bandwidth (bps)
A tape can hold 800 GB,
A box can hold 1000 tapes: 800 TB,
24⼩时快递,
bandwidth=800T x 8bits/86400s sec=70 Gbps
 Cost
 tape cost $4000 per box per usage
 $1000 for shipping
 shipping 1 GB for under 0.5 cents

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 Twisted Pair
Category 3 UTP

Category 5 UTP

 Most common transmission media, Can be used for

transmitting either analog or digital signals
 Two insulated copper wires, about 1 mm thick, the
wires are twisted together in a helical form(螺旋状)
 Two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna. When
the wires are twisted, the waves from 2 wires cancel
out, so the wire radiates less effectively(串扰：⾃身信
号对环境影响)
 The bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire
and the distance traveled, several megabits/sec can
be achieved for a few kilometers
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 Twisted Pair (2)
Category 3 UTP

Category 5 UTP

 UTP & STP

 Bandwidth
 Category 3 UTP: 16MHz
 Category 5 UTP: 100MHz
 Category 6 UTP: 250MHz
 Category 7 UTP: 600MHz

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 Coaxial Cable

 It can span longer distances at higher speeds

 Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used
 50-ohm cable, is commonly used when it is intended
for digital transmission
 75-ohm cable, is commonly used for analog
transmission and cable television
 High bandwidth(1GHz)
 Excellent noise immunity

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 Power line

 both inside the home as a LAN and outside

the home for broadband Internet access
 designed to distribute power signals

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 Fiber Cables
From 1981 to 2009
 CPU (4.77M to 3G Hz)
 A gain of a factor of 16 per decade
 Physical limits: speed of light, heat dissipation
 Data communication (45M to 100G bps)
 A gain of a factor of 16 per decade
 Error rate: 10-5 to almost 0

(a) Side view of a single fiber

(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers
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Comparison of Fiber and Copper ware

 High bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Security

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2.3 Wireless Transmission

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication

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 Transmission Frequency Band
 Using narrow frequency band
 Most transmission use narrow frequency band to get
the best reception
 Spread Spectrum (bluetooth, wlan, cdma)
 FHSS: Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Hedy Lamarr (1913-2000)
 DSSS: Direct sequence spread spectrum
 UWB (Ultra-WideBand) communication.
UWB sends a series of rapid pulses, varying their positions
to communicate information.

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 Radio Transmission (VLF,LF,MF,HF)

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves

follow the curvature of the earth (1000km)
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the
ionosphere at a height of 100~500 km

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 Microwave Transmission
Microwave(100M~10GHz)
 Before fiber optic, microwaves formed the heart
of the long-distance telephone transmission
system
 waves travel in nearly straight lines, the
transmitting & receiving antennas must be
accurately aligned
 Distance between repeaters: 80km
 Multipath fading is often a serious problem
(weather and frequency dependent)
(At about 4GHz, absorbed by rain)

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 Politics of Electromagnetic Spectrum
 National governments allocate spectrum
 Worldwide:ITU-R; USA: FCC
 ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) bands
 some frequency bands for unlicensed usage
 FCC mandates that all devices in ISM bands use spread
spectrum techniques to minimize interference
between uncoordinated devices
 Power is under 1 watt
（限制频率范围，调制技术，信号强度）

ISM bands in USA 35

 Infrared Transmission
 widely used for short-range communication
 relatively directional, cheap
 do not pass through solid objects
 no government license is needed to operate
an infrared system

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 Lightwave Transmission
(Unguided optical signaling)
 Aiming a 1-mm-wide laser beam at a
small target 500m away, ...
 Laser beams cannot penetrate rain or
thick fog

Convection currents interfere with laser communication systems 37

2.4 Communication Satellites

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 Communication Satellites
 Act as a big microwave repeater in the sky
 Contains multiple antennas and multiple transponders
 Transponder
 listen to some portion of the spectrum
 amplifies the incoming signals
 rebroadcasts it at another frequency (downward beams)
 Downward beams
 Broad: a substantial fraction of the earth’s surface
 Narrow: spot beams cover an area hundreds of kms in
diameter (bent pipe)
 Station keeping
 Lifetime: about 10 years

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 Communication Satellites
and Some of Their Properties

altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and

number of satellites needed for global coverage
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 The Principal Satellite Bands

A modern satellite has around 40 transponders, each

with an 80-MHz bandwidth

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 GEO: VSATs Using a Hub

 Problem
 Micro-station do not have enough power to
communicate directly with one another via the
satellite

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 LEO: Iridium
 LEO
 The ground stations do not need much power
 Round-trip delay is only a few ms
 Iridium
 Altitude: 750km
 6 satellite necklaces, 11x6=66 satellites
 Each satellite has a max of 48 cells (spot
beams)
 1628 moving cells cover the earth
 Communication between distant customers
takes place in space
 实施情况
 90年策划，97年发射，98年运营，99年破产
 受到移动电话⽹的冲击 43
 Iridium Cells

(a) The Iridium satellites form six necklaces

around the earth
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth

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 LEO: Globalstar
 48 LEOs satellites
 Relaying on the ground
 puts much of the complexity on the ground,
ease to manage
 lower-powered telephones can be used (a few
milliwatts)

45
 Iridium & Globalstar

(a) Relaying in space.

(b) Relaying on the ground.

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2.5 Digital modulation and multiplexing

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 Baseband transmission
 bandwidth efficiency, clock recovery, and
DC balance.
 NRZ
 NRZI
 Manchester
 AMI

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Baseband transmission

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 Baseband transmission
 bandwidth efficiency
 NRZ need a bandwidth of at least B/2 Hz when the bit rate
is B bits/sec (C=2Hlog2V)
 bit rate=baud rate * the number of bits per symbol
 the number of signal levels does not need to be a power of
two
 clock recovery
 Manchester / NRZI
 4B/5B never be a run of more than three consecutive 0s

50
 balanced signals
 Use two voltage levels to represent a
logical 1
 8B/10B
The 8 bits are split into a group of 5 bits,
which is mapped to 6 bits, and a group of
3 bits, which is mapped to 4 bits.

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 Passband Transmission

(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation

(b) Amplitude modulation (d) Phase modulation

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 QPSK & QAM

(a) QPSK.
(b) QAM-16.
(c) QAM-64.

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

(a) The original bandwidths.

(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
(b) The multiplexed channel.
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Time Division Multiplexing

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CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access

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 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing).

DWDM (Dense WDM).
the bandwidth of a single fiber band is about 25,000 GHz
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2.6 The Public Switched Telephone Network

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 Public Switched Telephone System
(PSTN)
 The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and
Wireless
 Trunks and Multiplexing
 Switching

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Structure of the Telephone System

(a) Fully-interconnected network.

(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.
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Structure of the Telephone System (2)

A typical circuit route for a medium-distance

call

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 Components of Telephone System
 Local loops
 Analog twisted pairs going to houses and
businesses
 Trunks
 Digital fiber optics connecting the switching
offices
 Switching offices
 Where calls are moved from one trunk to
another

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 The Local Loop
Modems, ADSL, and Fiber

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 Problems
 Transmission lines suffer from three major
problems
 Attenuation（衰减）
 delay distortion（延迟畸变）
 Noise
(前两项的变化程度与频率相关）
 Modem & ADSL

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 Modems
The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a
computer to computer call. Conversion is done by
the modems and codecs.

CODEC:
• 8000 samples per second
• 1 sample = 8 bits (⾮线性编码)
65
 Modems
 Modems use a combination of modulation
techniques to transmit multiple bits per baud
（multiple amplitudes and multiple phase
shifts）
 QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying-相移键控
 QAM : Quadrature Amplitude Modulation-正交
幅度调制
 Modems sample 2400 times/sec and focus
on getting more bits per sample
 V.32: 2400 baud * (5-1) bits = 9.6Kbps
 V.32bis: 2400 baud * (7-1) bits = 14.4Kbps
 V.34: 2400 baud * 12 bits = 28.8Kbps
 V.34bis: 2400 baud * 14 bits = 33.6Kbps
 V.90(56kbps)
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 V.32 & V.32bis

(a) (b)
(a) V.32 for 9600 bps.
(b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.

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 DSL: Digital Subscriber Lines
Bandwidth versus distanced over category 3
UTP for DSL.

68
 ADSL: Discrete Multitone Modulation

 Divide 1.1 MHz into 256 channels of 4312.5 Hz

 Channel 0 for POTS
 1–5 not used, to keep voice signal and data signals
from interfering with each other
 250 channels
 Upstream control (1)
 Downstream control (1)
 User data (248)
69
 ADSL Modulation Scheme
 Within each channel, a modulation scheme
similar to V.34 is used
 Sampling rate is 4000 baud
 The line quality in each channel is monitored and
data rate adjusted continuously
 The actual data are sent with QAM modulation,
with up to 15 bits/baud
 G.dmt
 8Mbps, 1Mbps
 12Mbps, 1Mbps ADSL2；24Mbps ADSL2+
 Standard service: 1 Mbps, 256 kbps
 Improved service: 4 Mbps, 1 Mbps
 Premium service: 8 Mbps, 2 Mbps
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A typical ADSL equipment configuration

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FttH

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Trunks and Multiplexing

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Time Division Multiplexing

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

E1 2.048Mbps（8*32*8000）

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 Time Division Multiplexing (2)
Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

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Switching

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Circuit Switching

(a) Circuit switching.

(b) Packet switching.
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 Packet switching
 A node in a packet switching network
incoming links Node outgoing links

Memory

78
 Message Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c)

Packet switching 79
Circuit switched and packet-switched networks

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2.7 Physical Interface

81
 物理层接⼝特性
 机械特性 指明接⼝所⽤接线器的形状和尺
⼨、引线数⽬和排列、固定和锁定装置等等
 电⽓特性 指明在接⼝电缆的各条线上出现
的电压的范围
 功能特性 指明某条线上出现的某⼀电平的
电压表示何种意义
 过程特性 指明对于不同功能的各种可能事
件的出现顺序

82
 Physical Interface
 EIA RS-232 （ITU-T V.24）
 First issued by EIA in 1969
 EIA-232-C EIA-232-D EIA-232-E

 Interface standard between DTE and DCE

 DTE Data Terminal Equipment
 DCE Data Circuit Equipment

83
RS-232
 Mechanical ：25-pin
 Electrical：<-3V “1”， >3“0”
data rate 20Kbps
cable <15 m
 Functional：pin definition
 Procedure： protocol

84
RS-232 ：signal
DTE: data terminal
equipment
DCE: data communications
equipment
TD: Transmitted data
RD: Received data
RTS: Request to send
CTS: Clear to send
DSR: data set ready
CD: Data Carrier detection
DTR: Data Terminal Ready

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Virtual MOEM

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Virtual MOEM(2)

2 TD 2

3 RD 3

DTE DTE

7 GND 7

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