A

Practical Field Handbook

In

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY &

RADIOGRAPH INTERPRETATION

Authors:
George W. Jaques
Dr. Aziz U. Rehman

Jaques Engineering
Enterprise Quality &
Inspection Inspection
Inc. Professionals+

George’s River, Nova Scotia, Canada Brandon, Manitoba, Canada

Copyright © 2019
Jaques Enterprise Inspection Inc. and EQIP Plus
All rights reserved

No part of this handbook may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means –
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior written permission of the publishers.
Information contained in this handbook is purely for educational purposes, and nothing contained herein can be construed
as an application in all inspection situations and configurations. Publishers and authors of this handbook assume no
responsibility for the safety of persons using information published in this handbook.
The authors have put in a concentrated effort in compiling, writing and publishing this book, and to the best of their
knowledge, the information in this handbook is accurate and aligned with the applicable industry codes and standards. It is
also acknowledged that industry codes and standards are periodically updated and it is the responsibility of the user to follow
through with the latest editions or any code or standard that have been references. However, the authors do not assume any
responsibility or liability for the accuracy, completeness or consequences arising from, such information. Final determination
of the suitability of information and the manner of that use is the sole responsibility of the user and falls entirely on the user
of this handbook. The publisher recommends that anyone intending to rely on any recommendation on materials or
procedures mentioned in this publication should satisfy himself or herself as to such suitability, and that he or she can meet
all applicable safety and health standards.

Innovation Science and Economic Development Canada

Canadian Intellectual Property Office
Registration No. 1161043, dated: July 15, 2019

A Practical Field Handbook in Industrial Radiography and Radiograph Interpretation / Authors: Jaques, George W;
Rehman, Aziz U.

ISBN: ͻ͹ͺǦͳǦͻͻͻͳͻͷ͹ǦͲǦͲȋƒ”†…‘˜‡”Ȍ

First printing edition 11/2019

Published By
Jaques Enterprise Inspection Inc., George’s River NS, Canada
EQIP Plus, Brandon MB, Canada
PRINTED IN CANADA
 Preface

Industrial radiography is one of the oldest methods in nondestructive testing which has evolved
rapidly with the introduction of Cobalt and Iridium after the 2nd World War. The field of industrial
radiography covers a broad spectrum of applications with different levels of technician
competencies. Though matured, industrial radiography still suffers from inspector subjectivity,
interpretation discrepancies and code application variances. Numerous texts, formal trainings, and
multitude of specifications are available to cover the training and application aspects of industrial
radiography, but still there is a gap, a missing link and a disconnect between the training and the
field application of industrial radiography. To increase compliance, improve conformity, decrease
subjectivity and reduce interpretation variance, the authors of this handbook with over 40 years
of combined industrial radiography field experience, have felt the need to develop a
comprehensive text which can serve as a connection between training and application, a bridge
between code requirements and correct interpretation, and also a ready reference to guide users
in their day-to-day field work when applying their skills in a manner that is safe, reliable, and most
importantly, correct.

The handbook is designed with a purposeful scope, covering all levels of inspector competencies,
and is configured by taking into consideration all aspects of field industrial radiography (i.e.
education & training, qualification & competency, techniques development & application, code
compliance & interpretation), and most importantly, will prove to be handy field guide for routine
reference.

The handbook contains more than 100 figures, sketches, graphs and illustrations, nearly 100 tables,
over 100 industrial radiography techniques with close to 200 radiographs fully interpreted in

Preface i
 compliance with industrial codes, and more than 400 certification questions with numerous
calculus examples. It covers in detail the subjects of radiographic film viewing coupled with
industrial radiography application techniques, radiograph evaluation and interpretation aligned
with prevalent industrial radiography codes and standards. The handbook also presents
advancements in industrial radiography.

The handbook not only provides readers with the learning opportunity for attaining industrial
radiography certification, but also serves as a field reference where all relevant data (i.e. sensitivity
charts, density tolerances, several inspection techniques & other relevant information), are
available in one treatise, for a code compliant radiographic inspection and evaluation with correct
interpretation.

The handbook, a one of its kind, is aimed at both the practical and field aspects of industrial
radiography. It is an effort focused on reducing inspector subjectivity and interpretation variances.
The main goal is to give readers, novice or experienced, a structured approach in developing
radiographic inspection techniques with a focused understanding on application of different
industrial codes with correct interpretation. The handbook also provides readers with a side by
side comparison of the use and application of different industrial codes, and will educate users in
applying sound judgement while using the acceptance criteria.

This handbook provides readers with some basic understanding in radiation safety, however the
main emphasis is to guide the users in correct application of industrial radiography.

George W. Jaques
Dr. Aziz U. Rehman

ii Preface
 Table of Contents

SECTION
P rinciples & T heory of 1
I ndustrial R adiography 1

UNIT Activity 11
Industrial Becquerel & Curie 11
1 Radiography Electron Volt 11
3 Inverse Square Law 11
Linear Attenuation Coefficient (P) 12
What is Industrial Radiography 3
Limitations of Industrial Radiography 3 Half Value Layer 13
Alpha and Beta Particles 3 Half Life 13
Gamma Rays 3 Geometric Unsharpness (Penumbra) 13
Radiation Decay 5 Factor of Radiographic Equivalency 14
X – Radiation 5 Units of Industrial Radiography 14
X – Ray Tube 7
High Energy X – Ray Units 9 UNIT Mathematical Applications
Ionization 10
Radiation Energy Hardness 10 3 in Industrial Radiography
17
UNIT Mathematical Equations 17
Radiography Definitions,
Application of Mathematics in Industrial 19
2 Terminologies & Equations Radiography
11 Advanced Mathematics in Industrial 23
Radiography

Table of Contents v
 SECTION
2 R adiation Safety
27

UNIT Radiation Monitoring Equipment 32

Radiation Safety Emergency & Other Safety Equipment 34
4 & Regulations
29 UNIT Industrial
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 29
(CNSC) & US Nuclear Regulatory 5 Field Radiography
Commission (NRC) 35
As Low As Reasonably Achievable 30
Planning for Industrial Field Radiography 35
(ALARA)
Preliminary Radiation Safety Performance 35
Work Area is an Exclusion Zone for 30
Checks
Non-Radiation Workers
Setting Up Controlled Area 36
Radiation Protection Regulations of 30
Canada Radiographer Dose Monitoring 36
Radiation Protection Regulations of USA 31 Investigation of Dose Incidence 37
Radiation Emergency 38
Radiation and Human Cell Interaction 31
Minimizing Radiation Emergencies 38
Effects of Radiation 31
Requirements for Radiation Source 38
Acute and Chronic Exposure 32 Storage Facility

SECTION
3 R adiographic V iewing
41

UNIT AGFA Film Types and Comparison with 54

Radiographic Film other Brands
6 Properties Pipe-Film Class Comparison & 54
43 Recommendations
Signal-to-Noise Ratio of Films 54
Film Packaging Types 55
Radiographic Films 43 Intensifying Screens 56
Characteristics & Properties of Films 44 Storage of Unexposed Films 57
Film Characteristic Curves 48
Radiographic Film Density 48
UNIT Radiographic
Film Latitude 51
Film Speed 52
7 Image Quality
Film Characteristics Table 53 59

vi Table of Contents
Image Quality Indicators 59 Common Development Failures 83
Controlling Radiographic Image Quality 59
Controlling Scattered Radiation 60 UNIT
Selection of IQIs 61 Radiographic
Placement of IQIs 66 9 Film Quality
Other Quality Indicators 68 85
Sensitivity Improvement 69
Importance of Quality 85
Example Calculus for Equivalent 71
Sensitivity Quality Versus Production 85
Quality Control 86
Quality Audits 87
UNIT Radiographic Suggested Corrections 87

8 Film Development
73 UNIT Field Equipment
Radiographic Film Handling 73 10 & Accessories
Darkroom Organization 74 89
Radiographic Film Loading 74
Film Flashing 75 Industrial Radiography: Application & 89
Applicator
Chemical Processing 76
Number Belt (Clock Tape or Location 89
Manual Development Process 77 Markers)
Film Drying 78 Cassette & Lead Sizes 90
Measuring Film Density 80 Dark Rooms 90
Automatic Processing 80 Safety Equipment 91
Recommended Film Processing 83
Emergency Equipment 91
Conditions

SECTION
I ndustrial R adiography 4
Application Techniques 93

UNIT Weld Root Exposure 111

Industrial Radiography
Heavy Castings 111
11 Exposure Techniques
On Stream Pipe Wall Magnification 111
95
In Service Inspection (Product 113
Double Wall Exposure Single Wall 95 Equivalent of Steel)
Viewing Determining Defect Depth 114
Single Wall Exposure Single Wall Viewing 95
Radiograph and Radiation Source 115
Single Wall Exposure Single Wall 95 Placement Relationship
(Panoramic) Viewing
Additional Industrial Radiography 115
Double Wall Exposure Double Wall 97
Techniques
Viewing
Double Wall Exposure Double Wall 98
(Ellipse) Viewing UNIT Film Setup
Miscellaneous Exposure Techniques 99 & Applications
Weld Density and Thickness Relationship 109
12
117

Table of Contents vii

 Film Exposure Setup 117 UNIT
Weld Increments 119 Scattered Radiation
Radiographic Identification 122 14 & Detection
Exposure Time Calculations 123 137
Development of an Exposure Chart 124
Scattered Radiation 137
Exposure Factors 125
Lead Screens 138
Exposure Corrections 126
Detection & Analysis of Backscatter 138
Exposure Setup Application 127

2 UNIT Failed
3 15 Film Exposures
4 141
5
Common Causes for Failed Exposures 141
Geometric Unsharpness (Ug) 133
Limiting Darkroom Reshots 142
Improving Geometric Unsharpness 133
Limiting Reshots for Exposure Device 143
Geometric Principles 133 Operators
Geometric Magnification 135 X-Ray Operating Window 143
Light, X- and Gamma Ray Characteristics 136
Geometric Unsharpness – ASME Limits 136

SECTION
5 R adiographic E valuation,
145 I nterpretation & R eporting

UNIT Radiographic Film Artifacts 159

General Film Artifacts – Example Radiographs 162
16 Automatic Processing Film Artifacts 162
147
Radiographic Indications 147 UNIT Welding
Codes and Standards 147 Radiography
Radiograph Interpretation and Reporting 148 18
General Reporting 149
167
Evaluation and Interpretation 149 Common Welding Discontinuities 167
Radiographic Viewing 150 Welding Discontinuity Illustrations 168
Radiographic Technique Evaluation 151
Marking Repairs 152 UNIT Forging & Casting
Reporting False Indications 153
Reporting Calculations for OFD and 154 19 Radiography
SOD 187
Forging 187
UNIT Radiographic Forging Discontinuities 188
Casting 188
17 Film Artifacts
Casting Discontinuities 191
159 Casting Interpretations 196

viii Table of Contents

 SECTION
I ndustrial R adiography Codes, 6
St andards & Procedures 199

UNIT CSA Z662 Practical Code Questions 252

American Society of CSA Z662 Field Work Practical 253
20 Mechanical Engineers Questions
201 CSA W59 Welded Steel Construction 254
CSA W59 Density Requirements 254
Various ASME Codes Acceptance 201
CSA W59 Image Quality Indicators 254
Criteria
(IQIs)
Rounded and Linear Indications 207
CSA W59 Image Quality Indicators 254
ASME Rounded Indication Criteria 207 (IQIs) Placement
Density Requirements 211 CSA W59 Code Evaluation & Tolerances 255
ASME B31.3 Normal Fluid Service 211
Welds > ¼ in. (6 mm)
ASME Unit Discrepancies 212 UNIT CSA Z662
Field Work Practical Questions (General) 213 Placement of IQIs
ASME B31.3N Interpretation and 216 23
Evaluation Practices 263
ASME B31.3 Severe Cyclic Interpretation 224 CSA Z662 Code Selection and Placement 263
and Evaluation Practices of IQIs
ASME Code Inquiries & Interpretations 229 CSA Z662 IQI Placement for a 4 in. OD 263
Pipe
UNIT CSA Z662 IQI Placement for a 6 in. OD 263
ASME Placement of IQIs Pipe
21 & Location Markers CSA Z662 IQI Placement for a 24 in. 270
OD Pipe (Two Films Exposure)
235
CSA Z662 IQI Selection 271
ASME Code Selection & Placement of 235
IQIs
ASME IQI Placement for a 4 in. OD 235
UNIT American Petroleum
Pipe Institute (API) 1104
ASME IQI Placement for a 6 in. OD 235 24
Pipe 273
ASME IQI Placement for a 24 in. OD 235 API 1104 Selection of IQIs 273
Pipe (Two Films Exposure) API 1104 Placement of IQIs 274
ASME Placement of Location Markers 245 API 1104 Film Density 274
Location Markers Mapping 245 API 1104 Discontinuities & Acceptance 274
Criteria
UNIT Canadian Standards
Association (CSA) UNIT
22 Additional Standards
& Norms
249 25
CSA Z662 Code Evaluation & 249 279
Acceptance Criteria ASTM International 279
CSA Z662 Density Requirements 252 European Norms (EN) 280

Table of Contents ix
 SECTION
7 I ndustrial R adiography &
281 Professional Certifications

UNIT Professional Certification UNIT Development of an

26 in Industrial Radiography 30 Inspection Procedure
283 351
Industrial Radiography Certification 283 Industrial Radiography Procedure 351
The Certification Process 284 Development
The Recertification Process 287 Industrial Radiography Procedure 352
Level III Certification in Industrial 288 Example
Radiography Example Procedure 353
Suggestions for Competency & Skills 288 Table of Contents 354
Improvements 1. Introduction 355
Recertification through 288 2. Scope 355
Re – Examination 3. References 356
4. Personnel Qualification 356
UNIT 5. Safety 356
Sample Certification
6. Radiation Safety and Monitoring 357
27 Questions – Level I & II Equipment
289 7. Surface Preparation 357
8. Equipment & Materials 357
Sample Theoretical Questions – 289
Level I & II 9. Equipment Calibration 359
10. Radiographic Testing 360
Examination Technique
UNIT Sample Certification 11. Essential Parameters 362
Questions – Level III 12. Acceptance Criteria 363
28 13. Disposition 363
305 14. Documentation and Reporting 363
Sample Theoretical Questions – Level III 305 15. Appendix 364
Sample Certification Code Questions 313 Inspection Report Template 365

UNIT Industrial Radiography

29 Examples
315
Film Artifacts 315
Casting Radiographs 318
Welding Radiographs 321
Uncommon Concepts in Industrial 348
Radiography

x Table of Contents
 SECTION
A dvancements i n 8
I ndustrial R adiography 367

UNIT Digital & Computed UNIT Field Radiography

31 Radiography 35 Pipeline Crawlers
369 387
Digital Radiography 369 Principle of X-Ray Field Radiography 387
Pros & Cons of Digital Radiography 370 Pipeline Crawler
Computed Radiography 370 X- Ray Position (Control) Devices 387
Advantages of Computed Radiography 371 Pipeline X-Ray Crawlers, Advantages & 388
Digital & Computed Radiography 371 Disadvantages
Comparison
Conventional Radiography Compared 371
with Digital and Computed Radiography
Field Applications 371
Digital Information Radiography 372
Computed Radiography Applications 375

UNIT Industrial Radiography

32 with Selenium 75 (75Se)
377
Properties of Selenium 75 377
75Se Energy Information 378

UNIT Small Controlled Area

33 Radiography (SCAR)
379
SCAR 959M 379
Baby SCAR 989 380
SCAR Pro 382
Summary 382

UNIT Real Time

34 Radiography (RTR)
383
Applications of RTR 383
Advantages of Real Time Radiography 383
Disadvantages of Real Time Radiography 385

Table of Contents xi
 SECTION
9 A ppendices
389

APP Sensitivity & Reinforcement APP Answers to Questions

A Charts for Field Use C from Different Sections
391 459
ASME B31.3 Sensitivity Tables 391 Section 6, Unit 20 459
ASME B31.1 Sensitivity Tables 394 Section 6, Unit 22 463
ASME Sec. I Sensitivity Tables 400 Section 7, Unit 27 464
ASME Sec. III Sensitivity Tables 406 Section 7, Unit 28 465
ASME Sec. VIII Sensitivity Tables 418
CSA Z662 Sensitivity Tables 424 APP
ASME Sec. V, Density Tolerance 430
Glossary of
IQI Reinforcement Reference 432 D Terminologies
IQI References from ASME Sec. III 439 467
Tables From Different Sections for 441
Ready Reference Definition & Terminologies 467

APP Industrial Radiography

B Additional Techniques
447
Inspection Technique for Nozzle Welds 447
Inspection of Backing Plate or Annular 447
Ring
Radiographic Inspection of Valve Bevel 449
Ends
Radiographic Inspection of Valve Body 449
Inspection of Valve Bonnet 451
Inspection of Production Casting 451
Radiographic Inspection of Concrete 451
Radiographic Inspection of Light Casting 452
Radiographic Inspection of T – Weld 453
Joints
Radiographic Inspection of Y – Lateral 453
Weld Joints
Radiographic Inspection of 3 – Way 454
Lateral Weld Joints
Radiographic Inspection of K – Weld 454
Joints
Fillet Weld Inspection with No Internal 454
Source Placement Access
Radiography of Spheres 456

xii Table of Contents

 SECTION

Principles & Theory of

Industrial Radiography

Units
1 Industrial Radiography 3
Radiography Definitions, Terminologies
2 11
& Equations
Mathematical Applications in Industrial
3 17
Radiography

1 1
 SECTION

Radiation Safety

Units
4 Radiation Safety & Regulations 29
5 Industrial Field Radiography 35

2 27
 SECTION

Radiographic Viewing

Units
6 Radiographic Film Properties 43
7 Radiographic Image Quality 59
8 Radiographic Film Development 73
9 Radiographic Film Quality 85

3
10 Field Equipment & Accessories 89

41
 SECTION

Industrial Radiography
Application Techniques

Units
Industrial Radiography Exposure
11 95
Techniques
12 Film Setup & Applications 117
13 Geometric Unsharpness & Magnification 133

4
14 Scattered Radiation & Detection 137
15 Failed Film Exposures 141

93
 SECTION

Industrial Radiography
Codes, Standards
& Procedures

Units
20 America Society of Mechanical Engineers 201
ASME Placement of IQIs & Location
21 235
Markers
22 Canadian Standards Association (CSA) 249

6
23 CSA Z662 Placement of IQIs 263
24 American Petroleum Institute (API) 1104 273
25 Additional Standards & Norms 279

199
 SECTION

Industrial Radiography &

Professional Certifications

Units
Professional Certification in Industrial
26 283
Radiography
Sample Certification Questions –
27 289
Level I & II
Sample Certification Questions –

7
28 305
Level III
29 Industrial Radiograph Examples 315
30 Development of an Inspection Procedure 351

281
 SECTION

Advancements in
Industrial Radiography

Units
31 Digital & Computed Radiography 369
Industrial Radiography with Selenium 75
32 377
(Se75)
Small Controlled Area Radiography
33 379
(SCAR)

8
34 Real Time Radiography (RTR) 383
35 Field Radiography Pipeline Crawlers 387

367
 SECTION

Appendices

App.
Sensitivity & Reinforcement Charts for
A 391
Field Use
Industrial Radiography Additional
B 447
Techniques
Answers to Questions from Different

9
C 459
Sections
D Glossary of Terminologies 467

389