Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

Construction Resources and Technologies

Welding & NDE Services

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

Forward

This handbook is not under controlled distribution. It is intended to provide information to those
individuals who wish to obtain general information regarding the subject matter herein. This
handbook has been developed to assist in the training and development of Bechtel personnel and
is intended to be part of Bechtels overall technical training program. The handbook is also
intended to provide useful guidelines, information, and data to assist personnel in making effective
decisions. The appropriate Bechtel technical specialist(s) should be consulted whenever
questions or concerns arise regarding the subject matter herein. All materials included in this
handbook are for reference purposes only and shall not be used for work execution. The
handbook is not intended to replace or supercede codes, standards, procedures, or engineering
specifications.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

Table of Contents

Section 1.0

Introduction

Section 2.0

Uses of Radiography

Section 3.0

Applicability

Section 4.0

Principles of Radiography

Section 5.0

Sources of Radiation

Section 6.0

Geometry of Exposure

Section 7.0

Principles of Shadow Formation

Section 8.0

Essential Variables of Exposure

Section 9.0

Radiographic Film Characteristics

Section 10.0

Scattered Radiation

Section 11.0

Radiographic Definition and Sensitivity

Section 12.0

Radiographic Techniques

Section 13.0

Elements of Radiographic Interpretation

Section 14.0

Viewing of Radiographs

Section 15.0

Penetrameters (Image Quality Indicators)

Section 16.0

Codes and Specifications

Section 17.0

Manufacturing Processes

Section 18.0

Welding Defects and Conditions

Section 19.0

Conclusion

Section 20.0

Glossary

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1.0

1-1

INTRODUCTION

Radiography is a nondestructive examination method used for inspection of components and

assemblies that is based on differential absorption of penetrating radiation into the part or test
piece being examined. Radiographic testing usually requires exposing film to X or gamma rays
that have penetrated a specimen, processing the exposed film, and interpreting the resultant
radiographic. There are many variables in these procedures and successful completion of any test
is dependent upon understanding and control of variables.

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2.0

2-1

USES OF RADIOGRAPHY

Radiography is used to detect areas of a component or assembly that exhibit a difference in

thickness or physical density, (such as internal flaws) as compared to the surrounding material.
Most metals are produced as a casting at some point in their processing. Other metals are worked
and or shaped into desirable forms by some type of forging, usually at high temperatures. During
this heating and shaping process, stresses are often set-up by the contraction and expansion of
the metal. This expansion and contraction of metal can result in cracks or tears at various points in
the metal. During the early stages of metal fabrication, radiography can be used to help locate and
resolve these problems.
In the modern world of welding, radiography is a common nondestructive examination method for
weld inspection. Radiography can be used to supplement other nondestructive examination
methods, aiding in the detection and confirmation of internal and external discontinuities.

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3.0

3-1

APPLICABILITY

Radiography is a critical tool used to assure the integrity of many products and structural forms we
encounter every day. Radiographic examinations can be applied to organic materials, inorganic
materials, solids, liquids, and even gases.
Radiographic examination serves industry through its ability to detect flaws prior to expensive
machining or fabrication operations, as a check on manufacturing techniques, and as a means of
verifying quality.
3.1

Limitations of Radiography

Sensitivity of radiography to various types of flaws depends on many factors including type of flaw,
orientation, material, thickness, and product form. Items to be radiographed must allow access to
both sides. Geometric exposure requirements make it impracticable to use radiography on
specimens of complex geometry.
Compared to other nondestructive methods, radiography is more costly. This is primarily due to
the radiation safety regulations and processing of the film prior to interpretation of the results. It is
most economical when it is used to inspect easily handled material of simple geometry with high
rates of production testing. It becomes expensive when it is used to examine thick specimens that
require radiation sources of high energy potential.
Certain types of indications are difficult to detect by radiography. Relatively tight cracks are difficult
to detect unless its major axis is essentially parallel to the radiation beam. Shallow tight cracks in
thick sections seldom can be detected, even when properly oriented. Laminations are nearly
impossible to detect with radiography due to their unfavorable orientation and because they do not
yield sufficient differences in radiation absorption as compared to surrounding material. The
greatest dimension of the discontinuity must be parallel to the radiation beam.
Personnel protection is of major importance. Safety requirements impose both economic and
operational restrictions on the use of radiography. Radiography sub-contractors are required to
have a radiation safety program in place to perform this type of examination.

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4.0

PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY

4.1

Three Basic Elements of Radiography

4.1.1

Radiation or Electron Source

4-1

X-Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation that is electronically produced in a vacuum tube. By

placing a positive charge on the anode of a x-ray tube and a negative charge on the cathode, free
electrons are transferred from the cathode to the anode.
Gamma Rays: Short wave electromagnetic radiation emitted during the decay of unstable nuclei in
atoms of certain elements. Gamma rays are produced by the nuclei of isotopes that are
undergoing disintegration because of their instability. Because of this, the specific source activity
must be considered prior to performing radiography. As an isotope decays, the same exposure
will take increasingly longer. Isotopes are variations of the same element having different atomic
weights. A parent element and its isotopes all have an identical number of protons in their nuclei
but a different number of neutrons. Among the known elements there are more than 800 isotopes;
of which more than 500 are radioactive.
Throughout the electromagnetic spectrum, X and gamma radiation has the same characteristics.
X and Gamma radiation of the same wave length has identical properties.
Particulate Emission: Particle emission such as alpha, beta, electron and neutron.
Note: The penetrating power of alpha and beta particles is relatively negligible, it is gamma rays
that are of use to the radiographer.
4.1.2

The object being evaluated

X-rays are generated whenever high velocity electrons collide with any form of matter, whether
solid, liquid, or gas. Since the atomic number of an element indicates its density, the higher the
atomic number of the chosen target material, the greater the efficiency of X-ray generation.
Hence, the greater the density of the material, the greater the number of X-ray generating
collisions.
4.1.3

Recording medium

Radiographic Film: Transparent or tinted base coated on both sides with an emulsion
containing silver crystals.

Photographic Paper: Paper base coated on one side with an emulsion containing silver
crystals.

Digital imaging: Digital imaging equipment continues to have widespread industrial

application, although not widely used on piping applications due to access and cost
limitations. In this type of radiography, photo-stimulable phosphor plates are used in place
of industrial radiographic film. This type of imaging is currently the subject of many studies
and promises to play a significant role in the future of industrial radiography.

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4.2

4-2

Other Radiographic Principles

Enhancement of Medium: In other methods of NDE, electronic amplification or

enhancement may be used. For radiography, the amplification occurs in the film
development and also in the use of lead intensifying screens.

Interpretation: Ability to interpret radiographs to various codes and customer

specifications or reference radiographs, if applicable.

Disposition: After completion of an examination, a decision must be made as to

acceptability or other disposition; i.e., reject, repair or scrap.

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5.0

5-1

SOURCES OF RADIATION

X and gamma radiation energies used in radiographic examination are a small portion of the
Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum. X and gamma energies are contained within the ultra high
frequency and extremely short wavelength end of the spectrum. It is this high frequency and short
wavelength that allows radiation to penetrate matter, even that which is opaque to visible light.
Although it can penetrate opaque matter, electromagnetic radiation still follows most of the laws
applied to visible light. The radiographic non-destructive examination method is based on the
following characteristics of X and gamma rays:

They are electromagnetic with energy indirectly proportional to their wavelength.

They have no electrical charge and no mass.

They travel in straight lines at the velocity of light.

They can penetrate matter, the depth of penetration being dependent upon the energy of
the rays.

They are absorbed and scattered by matter.

They can ionize matter.

They can expose film by ionization.

They can produce fluorescence in certain materials.

They are invisible and incapable of detection by any of the senses.

Particle emission is not electromagnetic radiation, but emission of particles such as alpha, beta,
electron or neutrons. Alpha and beta particles are of concern to the radiation health physics, but
are not useful for radiographic examination. Electron and neutron emissions are utilized in
industrial radiography in the following ways:

Electrons provide intensification action when using lead screens in contact with the film,
thus decreasing exposure time and improving radiographic definition.

Neutrons are used in Neutron Radiography of explosives, nuclear fuel, and nuclear
components. Gamma rays are similar in characteristic to x-rays, but are distinguished from
x-rays by their origin rather than by their nature. The operator cannot control the quality of
gamma radiation in terms of wavelength and penetrating capabilities. Some gamma ray
isotopes are natural sources, such as radium, whereas Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192 are
artificially produced. Artificial isotopes are used almost exclusively as sources of gamma
radiation for industrial radiography.

It is important to consider the source of radiation in radiography. Energy levels of gamma sources
make them more or less suitable for certain materials and thickness. X-ray energy levels must be
selected such that the proper technique parameters are adhered to. Typically, a density range of
2.0 to 4.0 at the penetrameter and area of interest is allowed for gamma sources and 1.8 to 4.0 for
radiographs made with X-ray sources.

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6.0

6-1

GEOMETRY OF EXPOSURE

To produce a radiograph there must be a source of radiation, a specimen to be examined and

radiographic film. "Geometric relationships" is a diagram of a radiographic exposure showing
basic geometric relationships between the radiation source, the object under examination
(specimen), and the film upon which the specimen image is recorded. The cause of enlargement
of the image is the film not being in contact with the specimen. The ratio of the specimen diameter
(Do) to the image diameter (Df) is equal to the ratio of the source-to-specimen distance (do) to the
source-to-film distance (df). For the radiographic image to be the same size as the specimen, the
film is placed close to the specimen and the radiation source is placed as far from the film as
practical.

Geometric Relationships

The radiographer must be able to evaluate these geometrical relationships and apply a
radiographic technique capable of achieving the necessary results. The interpreter must have a
full understanding of these relationships in order to properly evaluate the application of the
radiographic technique.

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6-2

The following figures illustrate three important geometric relationships which must be understood
and considered by the radiographic interpreter. A thorough understanding of these principles will
provide for a better understanding of the resulting radiographic image thus an interpretation based
on all necessary considerations.

Geometry of Exposure

"a" illustrates that portion (Ug) of a radiograph which exhibits a lack of definition, or "geometric
unsharpness"

"b" illustrates the principle by which an object appears larger than actual; commonly known as
out of proportion, or "blown".

"c" illustrates the importance of maintaining the greater axis of the component undergoing
examination and the film placement normal (perpendicular) to the radiation beam. As the
illustration points out, distortion can lead to erroneous assumptions as to discontinuity size and
position.

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7.0

7-1

PRINCIPLES OF SHADOW FORMATION

The image formed on a radiograph is similar to a shadow cast on a screen by an opaque object
placed in a beam of light. Although radiation used in radiography penetrates opaque objects,
shadow formation remains basically the same. X, gamma, and light radiation all travel in straight
lines. Propagation in a straight line is the primary characteristic of radiation that enables the
formation of sharply discernible shadows. The geometric relationships of source, object, and
screen to each other control the three main characteristics of the shadow imaged on the film.
7.1

Subject Enlargement

The amount of subject enlargement depends upon the distance of the object from the source as
well as the distance from the film to the object.
7.2

Distortion

When the true shape of an object is altered in the radiographic image, it is known as radiographic
distortion. If the plane of the object and the plane of the film are not parallel, image distortion will
result, as it will if the radiation beam is not directed perpendicular to the plane of the film.
Whenever distortion of the film image is unavoidable, as a result of physical limitation, it should be
remembered that all parts of the image are distorted; otherwise, an incorrect interpretation of the
radiograph may be made.
7.3

Geometric Unsharpness

Fuzzy boundaries or lack of definition around the edges of an object or a specific feature of an
object on a radiograph are known as penumbral effects. When this effect is caused by the
configuration of focal spot/specimen/film relationship it is called geometric unsharpness (Ug).
Limits as to the degree of geometric unsharpness are important as the radiographic definition is
greatly affected by these factors.

Factors Affecting Geometric Unsharpness

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7-2

The following is an example of Ug limits: You must not exceed a geometric unsharpness of .020"
for material up to 2" in thickness and a geometric unsharpness of .070" for material thickness over
4". Various fabrication codes impose different requirements on geometric unsharpness factors. In
no case is a geometric unsharpness greater than .070" acceptable. The formula for calculating
geometric unsharpness is:
Ug = (Fd) / D
F = Effective source size, inches; the maximum projected dimension (diagonal) of the
radiating source (or focal point). The effective size of the source is determined by the
formula (square root of a2 + b2); where a = source diameter, and b = source length.
d = Thickness (inches) of the area of interest of the object being radiographed assuming
the film is against the object; otherwise, it is the thickness of the object plus the space
between the film and the object.
D = Distance (inches) from the source of radiation to the area of interest of object being
radiographed.

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8.0

8-1

ESSENTIAL VARIABLES OF EXPOSURE

The radiographic image is dependent upon the amount of radiation absorbed by the emulsion of
the film. The amount of radiation absorbed by the emulsion of the film determines the degree of
blackening of the film after processing or the density of the radiograph. The amount of radiation
available for absorption by the film is dependent on the total amount of radiation emitted by the
source of radiation during exposure and the amount of radiation reaching the specimen and
passing through it.
8.1

Generation of X-Rays

Three factors determine the amount of radiation emitted by an x-ray tube are milliamperes (Ma),
Kilovoltage (Kv), and Time (t).
The intensity of an x-ray beam is proportional to the milliamperage. Changes in Ma are reflected in
proportionate changes in intensity. Intensity when used in reference to Ma defines the quantity of
x-rays produced. Higher Ma increases the quantity of x-rays than can be generated by a given xray unit in a given amount of time.
Kilovoltage controls the penetrating power of an x-ray unit. The higher the Kv, the shorter the
wavelength of the x-rays generated, thus greater penetration is permitted.
The total amount of radiation produced by an x-ray tube operating at a given kilovoltage and
milliamperage is directly proportional to the time the x-ray tube is energized. The application of
Ma, Kv, and time is referred to as exposure.
8.2

Gamma Rays

For a specific radioactive isotope, the intensity of the radiation is proportional to the curie strength
of the source. In comparison to x-ray tubes, source activity is not adjustable nor is it a constant.
The total amount of radiation generated from a gamma source depends upon its intensity and the
duration of the exposure. As in x-ray, the gamma ray output varies directly with both source
activity (intensity) and time. Gamma ray exposures may be specified in curie-minutes or curiehours.
If a 50 curie source of Ir 192 produces an acceptable radiograph with an exposure time of two
minutes, a 25 curie Ir 192 source will produce an acceptable radiograph with an exposure time of
four minutes, when all other variables remain the same.
There is no variable in gamma radiography to correspond to the kilovoltage of an x-ray tube.
Radiation energy, a factor in determining penetration, is determined by the nature of a given
isotope. A given isotope will have its own unique energy levels. For thicker specimens or
specimens which are radiographically more dense, isotopes with more penetrating power may be
necessary.
Radiography performed with isotopes has the advantage of simplicity of equipment, portability,
and no need for outside power. These advantages allow for the examination of pipe, pressure
vessels, and other assemblies with access restrictions.

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8.3

8-2

Inverse Square Law

Gamma rays and x-rays have identical propagation characteristics because they both conform to
the laws of light. When the output of radiation emanating from a small area is constant, the
intensity of the radiation varies inversely to the square of the distance from the radiation source at
any point along the beam of radiation. The reason for this is divergence as the distance from the
source of radiation is increased. The Inverse Square Law can be expressed mathematically by the
following equation:

I1 = Radiation Intensity at distance D1 (away from radiation source)

I2 = Radiation Intensity at distance D2 (away from radiation source)
The Inverse Square Law is of critical importance when used to establish radiation safety barriers
at levels considered acceptable by Federal and State regulations.
8.4

RADIOGRAPHIC SCREENS

The film, in producing an image through ionization, absorbs less than one percent of the radiation.
To convert the unused energy into a form that can be absorbed, radiographic screens are used.
Types of screens that can be used are:

Lead Screens (Most Commonly Used)

Fluorescent Screens (Seldom used)

It is important to remember that code requirements may specify the types of screens that may be
used.
Lead and lead oxide screens are usually constructed of an antimony and lead alloy that is stiffer,
harder, and more wear resistant than pure lead. The screens are used in pairs, on each side of,
and in close contact with the film. Depending upon the specimen and the energy of radiation, the
screens may be of varying thickness. The front screen in most application is thinner than the back
screen. Front screens 0.005 inch thick and back screens 0.010 inch thick are commonly used.
Most fabrication codes reference ASME section V Article 2 for performance of radiography which
specifies lead screen thickness to be used. Lead screens are particularly efficient because of their
ability to absorb scattered radiation (soft radiation) in addition to increasing the ionizing effect on
the film. The increased ionizing effect is a result of the release of electrons from the lead atoms
when irradiated. Energy from the released electrons is readily absorbed by the film emulsion, and
enhances film exposure. It is important to inspect the screens prior to film loading as damaged
screens can result in film anomalies, and re-performance of the exposure can result. Wrinkled,
torn, or damaged screens can result in localized areas of reduced radiographic quality, thus poor
definition and sensitivity.

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8-3

The intensification factor of lead screens is much lower than that of fluorescent screens. During
exposure using low energy radiation it is possible for the front screen absorption effect to be of
such magnitude that required exposure is greater than that without screens. However, due to their
capability for reducing the effects of scattered radiation and the resultant better contrast and
definition of the radiographic image, lead screens are used whenever practicable. They are used
in almost all gamma ray applications. When using fluorescent screens, X or gamma radiation
causes the screens to emit visible light, which assists in exposing the film. Fluorescent screens
are rarely used since they tend to decrease the sensitivity of the radiographic technique.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

9.0

9-1

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM CHARACTERISTICS

Radiographic density is defined as the degree of darkening of the film. Film density is measured
by the amount of visible light transmitted through the film and is measured as a logarithm (10x),
where x equals the amount of transmitted light. The instrument used to measure density is the
densitometer. Two types are available, analog and electronic. Accuracy is a desirable
characteristic, but more important is consistency. A good densitometer will give consistent
readings each time used.
Photographic density is expressed by the equation

D = Density
Io = incident light intensity
It = transmitted light intensity

Density vs Percent of Light that is Transmitted

9.1

Density

Percent of Light Transmitted

100%

.3

50%

.6

25%

1.0

10%

2.0

1%

3.0

0.1%

4.0

0.01%

Radiographic Contrast

Radiographic contrast is defined as the difference of the various densities apparent on developed
film. It is a combination of subject contrast and film contrast and, for any particular specimen,
dependant upon radiation energy applied (penetrating quality), film contrast characteristics,
exposure (the product of radiation intensity and time), use of screens, film processing, and
scattered radiation.

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9-2

Factors of Radiographic Contrast

9.2

Subject Contrast

Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted through any two selected areas of
the object under examination. Subject contrast is dependent on thickness variations in the object,
the radiation quality (lower Kv = higher contrast/ higher Kv = lower contrast), and scattered
radiation. As scattered radiation increases, radiographic contrast decreases.
9.3

Film Contrast

Film contrast refers to the slope of the characteristic curve of the film. Film contrast depends on
the type of film, the processing it receives (manual/automatic) and the density. The film contrast
values of any particular film are usually expressed as a relationship between film exposure and
the resulting film density.

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9.4

9-3

Speed of Radiographic Film

Industrial radiographic film is commercially available from various manufactures. Each type and
brand of film has its own exposure factor which, in general terms, indicates the exposure required
to produce a given density. High speed films need only low exposure while slow speed film
requires more exposure to attain the same film density. Radiographic film is divided into the
following four classifications:
9.4.1

9.5

Radiographic Film Classifications

Type I - Extra fine grain, slow speed and very high contrast.

Type II - Fine grain, medium speed and high contrast.

Type III - Coarse grain, fast speed, medium contrast.

Type IV - Very Coarse grain, very fast, low contrast.

Latitude

Latitude is the overall range of thickness (densities) that can be recorded on a radiograph within
the useful density viewing range. A high contrast film is considered to have less latitude than a low
contrast film.

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10.0

10-1

SCATTERED RADIATION

Scattered radiation is a factor that must be considered in most radiography. When a beam of xrays or gamma rays strikes any object, some of the radiation is absorbed, some is scattered, and
some passes through the object. The wavelengths of the scattered radiation are lengthened and
therefore "softer" or less penetrating than the primary radiation. Any material, whether specimen,
cassette, walls, or floor that is struck by the primary radiation is a source of scattered radiation.
As a rule, the largest portion of the scattered radiation affecting the film is generated from the
object being examined. The most common methods for reducing scatter are:

Lead screens

Masks and diaphragms

Filters

Failure to reduce scattered radiation to acceptable levels can result in localized areas of overexposure, lack of definition, and insufficient radiographic quality. The radiographic interpreter must
be able to recognize this condition and be knowledgeable of control measures which can be
taken.

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11.0

11-1

RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION AND SENSITIVITY

Radiographic definition can be defined as the sharpness of the image outlined. If the change in
densities between two areas on the film is gradual, with no sharp lines, low definition is evident.
Sharp, well-defined images on a radiograph result in higher definition.
Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the capability to detect a small discontinuity, or the
percent ratio of the thickness of the smallest detectable defect to the thickness of the specimen
being examined.
Definition is affected by various factors that determine the ease with which the images can be
viewed on a radiograph. Improved definition will also indicate an increased degree of sensitivity.
11.1

Geometric Factors

Focal spot size for x-ray or physical size of the gamma ray source. Focal spot size should
be as small as possible for better definition.

Source Film Distance (SFD) should be as far as practical.

Object to film distance should be as close as possible.

Beam of radiation perpendicular to the film.

11.2

Film Graininess and Screen Mottle

Graininess is the visible evidence of the grouping into clumps of silver particles (grains) that form
the image on the radiographic film. It affects film contrast and image definition, and all film is
subject to it. The degree of graininess of any film is dependent upon:

The fine or coarse grain structure of the film emulsion.

The quality of the radiation to which the film is exposed, since an increase in the
penetrating quality of the radiation will cause an increase in graininess.

Film processing, because graininess is directly related to the development process. Under
normal conditions of development, any increase in development time is accompanied by an
increase in film graininess.

The use of fluorescent screens which causes increased graininess when increasing
radiation energy.

Certain types of intensifying screens can produce mottle on the film. Lead screens do not produce
mottle whereas fluorescent screens may. Mottle is characteristic in appearance, being larger in
scale and softer in outline than film graininess.

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12.0

12-1

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

Source

Source

IQI

IQI
Film

Film
(A)

(B)

Source

(C)

Source

IQI
Film

Source
IQI

(D)

Source

IQI

Film

Film

(E)

IQI

Film

(F)

Single-Wall Exposure, Single-Wall Viewing Techniques

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Source

12-2

Source

IQI
Film

IQI

Film

(A)

Alternate Source
Locations

Alternate Source
Locations

IQI

Film

(B)

(C)

(D)

Source

Source

IQI

(E)

Film

IQI

Film

IQI

(F)

Film

Double-Wall Exposure, Single or Double-Wall Viewing

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12.1

12-3

Exposure / Viewing Techniques

12.1.1 Single wall exposure / single wall view (SWE/SWV); Figures a-f on Single-Wall Exposure,
Single-Wall Viewing
12.1.2 Double wall exposure / single wall view (DWE/SWV); Figures a-d on Double-Wall
Exposure, Single or Double-Wall Viewing
12.1.3 Double wall exposure / double wall view (DWE/DWV); Figures e-f on Double-Wall
Exposure, Single or Double-Wall Viewing
12.2

Special Techniques

12.2.1 Multiple film radiography

Multiple film radiography is the use of more than one film loaded in the same cassette for the
same exposure. The films may be of the same speed or of different speeds. Films may be viewed
singly or superimposed as a composite radiograph. Each radiograph shall exhibit the required
radiographic density and quality level. In the context of multiple film radiography, each exposure
may consist of more than one radiograph.
12.2.2 Duplicate Film Radiography
Duplicate film radiography or the use of two films of the same speed in one cassette is done for
the following reasons:

To determine if an indication in a radiograph is a real defect or a film artifact.

To permit the use of the second film as the acceptance radiograph if the first film has a
rejectable artifact.

Each film may be used as a separate radiographic record so that the manufacturer retains
a film and the customer retains a film.

The two films may be superimposed and read as a composite radiograph.

NOTE: The radiographs (single or superimposed) shall exhibit the required radiographic quality
level and be within the specified density range as well as meeting any other requirements of the
procedure, specification, or governing code.
12.2.3 Double loading cassettes
Double loading of film cassettes of different speeds can also be done. This technique is commonly
used when performing radiography of objects with major differences in thickness. The faster
speed film will result in acceptable densities for the thicker areas of the object, and the slower
speed film will result in acceptable densities for thinner sections.

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12-4

12.2.4 Depth Localization of Defects

Two general methods are used to determine the depth of a defect from the surface of a specimen
being radiographed.

Stereo-radiography is a method requiring two separate exposures on two separate films

and a stereo viewer. This method is not normally used in industrial radiography.

Double Exposure/Triangulation (parallax) Method: This technique requires two exposures

on the same film. The first exposure is taken with the source centered over the area of the
specimen containing the defect. The second exposure is made with the source shifted
laterally or at a right angle to the length of the defect. The shift should be offset enough to
separate the two defect images. Component thickness must be considered when
determining this offset.

The following data should be recorded for use in making calculations:

Source shift distance

Source to film distance

Specimen thickness

The following formula will give the distance of the defect from the film plane:

a = Source shift in inches

b = Change in position of defect image
d = Distance of defect above film plane
T = Source to film distance
The total exposure of the specimen should be as follows:

1st exposure is 3/5ths of the total exposure time.

Move (offset) source.

2nd exposure is 2/5ths of the total exposure time.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

13.0

13-1

ELEMENTS OF RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION

The technical controls applied in radiography determine the amount and quality of information that
can be obtained from a radiograph. Most specimens contain discontinuities of some degree. The
judgement as to whether a discontinuity meets pre-determined acceptance criteria is called
radiographic interpretation. Judgement varies from person to person and is based upon the
knowledge, experience, and visual acuity of the interpreter.
Radiographic interpretation is comprised of many variables such as type, degree, severity, and
location of discontinuities. All of these factors can vary due to differences in materials. Other
variables include the manufacturing process of the material form such as cast, wrought, or forged;
and the method of joining such as welding, soldering, or brazing. Applicable codes, specifications,
and standards must also be considered.
Generally, the reason for performing radiographic examination of a weld joint is to verify the
integrity and quality of the work and material. Other methods of quality control used prior to
nondestructive examination in assisting the film interpreter are:

Qualification of welding procedures

Qualification & certification of welders

Visual Weld Inspection

With these quality control measures preceding the radiographic examination, the film interpreter is
provided with reassurance that surface irregularities have been corrected and will not interfere
with interpretation of radiographic images.
In general, the following table illustrates the essential film viewing variables and their relationships
to each other.
Film Viewing Factors and Related Effects

Kv,
Mev

Film
Contrast

Latitude

Quality Graininess Sensitivity

= increase = decrease
Film Viewing Factors and Related Effects

Kv,
Mev

Film
Contrast

Latitude

Quality

Graininess Sensitivity

= increase = decrease

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

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14-1

VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS

The evaluation of finished radiographs should be made under controlled darkroom conditions that
will provide optimum viewing conditions for the interpreter.
To be satisfactory for use in viewing radiographs, a film viewer (illuminator) must meet two basic
requirements; it must provide light of an intensity that will illuminate the areas of interest in the
radiograph, and it must diffuse the light evenly over the entire viewing area. It is imperative that
the film interpreter know the examination area and that he does not let his focus be drawn to
areas of lesser density in highly contrasting areas. A viewer which is capable of illuminating
densities of 4.0 and which contains a rheostat is especially useful for the examination of
radiographs having a wide range of densities (wide latitude).
Adequately equipped film-viewing facilities must have a means of verifying density. A calibrated
densitometer capable of consistent reproducibility of readings should be part of every viewing
facility. As a minimum, a calibrated density strip must be used to ensure viewing of radiographs is
performed within an acceptable density range.
The contrast sensitivity of the human eye, which is the ability to distinguish small brightness
differences, is greatest when surroundings are of about the same brightness as the area of
interest. Thus, to see the finest detail in a radiograph, the illuminator must be masked to avoid
glare from the bright light at the edges of the radiograph or by the light transmitted from lower
density areas of the radiograph. Subdued lighting rather than total darkness is preferred in the
viewing room. Room illumination should be arranged so that there are no interfering reflections
from the surface of the radiograph.
Cleanliness is of great importance during the entire radiographic process. Film should be handled
with care. Cotton gloves should be used during loading and unloading of film holders as well as
mounting of the film in processing hangers. Film holders, film, and screens should be handled only
in clean surroundings. Images of dirt, lead chips, scratched or nicked screens, handling crimps,
scratches, and nicks on the film result in an unacceptable radiograph. Similarly, chemical stains
and streaks can ruin a radiograph. The film processing area must be kept immaculately clean, and
access limited to those who work in the area. It is critical to accurately maintain the temperature of
the film loading darkroom and processing chemicals. A deviation in temperature of the developer
can greatly affect processing results and result in a poor quality radiograph. Warmer developer
than recommended can overdevelop (increased density) a radiograph due to increased molecular
activity. Chemical contamination of the area can result in the loss of film, so it is advisable to store
chemicals in a separate area until they are used. Floors must be kept clean and preferably damp
to hold down dust. High humidity assists in preventing static electricity and static marks (sharp,
bird-foot shaped marks) on film. Fabrics which encourage static electricity should be avoided by
the radiographer.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

15.0

15-1

PENETRAMETERS (IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS)

Radiographs must contain the image of a penetrameter, or image quality indicator, as a

verification of the adequacy of the radiographic technique.
The penetrameter image on a radiograph is permanent evidence of the adequacy of the
radiographic technique. This is a feature unique to radiography in comparison to other
nondestructive examination methods. The radiographic interpreter must ensure that source
placement is over the area of interest and not the penetrameter. Generally, the penetrameter is
placed on the source side of the specimen. In some cases, placement of the penetrameter on the
source side is not possible, such as when radiographing a circumferential weld in a long tubular
structure. Under circumstances such as this, the penetrameter may be placed on the film side of
the object being radiographed. Film side IQI shall not be used on welders qualification coupons as
source side placement is easily performed. Placement of the penetrameter on the film side shall
be allowed only when access to the source side is not possible and must be indicated by the
presence of a lead letter "F" on the penetrameter.
In some instances, the geometry of the test specimen precludes placing the penetrameter directly
on it. When this occurs, the penetrameter may be placed on a block of radiographically similar
material. The block and the penetrameter should be placed as close as possible to the specimen
with the penetrameter to film distance equal to the source side of the object to film distance. The
interpreter must ensure density requirements for viewing the area of interest fall within the limits
allowed based on the penetrameter density. For most codes this is -15% to +30% of the
penetrameter density. The weld reinforcement must be considered to permit viewing weld
densities within the limits of penetrameter density. To ensure this, shims are used beneath the
penetrameter to compensate for the weld reinforcement and provide for acceptable radiographic
density throughout the area of interest. The radiographic examination procedure should be
consulted to determine the acceptable range of viewing density when shims are used.
The ability to see a specified penetrameter hole on a radiograph does not indicate that a
discontinuity of equivalent diameter and thickness will also be discernible. Penetrameter holes
having sharp boundaries result in abrupt changes in metal thickness and consequently film
density whereas a discontinuity can have more or less rounded sides causing a more gradual
change in film density. As a result, the image of the penetrameter hole is generally sharper and
more easily seen in the radiograph than is the image of a discontinuity. Similarly, a fine crack may
be of considerable extent, but if the x or gamma rays pass from the source to the film along the
thickness of the crack, the image on the film may not be visible due to very gradual transitions of
density. Thus, a penetrameter is used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and not
to measure the size of discontinuities.
Penetrameter sensitivity is usually expressed in terms of penetrameter thickness as a percentage
of test piece thickness that must be discernible on the radiograph. Quality or resolution is
determined by the smallest hole size visible in the radiograph. Backing rings or strips are not used
in the selection of penetrameters. For example, an image quality level of 2-2T indicates that the
thickness of the penetrameter equals 2% of the material thickness and the 2T is the penetrameter
hole having a diameter twice the penetrameter thickness. The quality level of 2-2T is the most
common level generally specified in industrial radiography. Other radiographic quality levels are 12T, 1-1T, 2-4T and 4-4T.
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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

15-2

4 T dia (Minimum Size 0.040)

T dia (Minimum Size 0.010)
2 T dia (Minimum Size 0.020)

Place Identification
Numbers Here

C
B
Design for IQIs to but not
including 180.

Hole-Type IQI (See SE-1025 For Dimensions)

ENCAPSULATED BETWEED
TWO SHEETS OF .030 IN.
CLEAR VINYL PLASTIC

FOR SETS A & B, THE

MINIMUM DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE AXIS
OF WIRES IS NOT LESS
THAN 3 TIMES THE
WIRE DIAMETER AND
NOT MORE THAN 0.2 IN.

$670
LENGTH

FOR SETS C & D, THE

MINIMUM DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE AXIS
OF WIRES IS NOT LESS
THAN 3 TIMES THE
WIRE DIAMETER AND
NOT MORE THAN 0.75 IN.

MATERIAL
GRADE NUMBER

MINIMUM 1 INCH
FOR SETS A & B,
MINIMUM 2 INCHES
FOR SETS C & D.

$
SET IDENTIFICATION LETTERS

Wire-Type IQI (SE-747)

15.1

Identification and Location / Orientation Markers

15.2

To permit correct interpretation of the finished radiograph, the specimen and the
radiograph must be so marked that the specimen and its location/orientation can be
identified from the radiograph. This is accomplished by affixing lead numbers or letters
adjacent to the specimen during exposure and marking the specimen in identical fashion
with a marking pen or by scribing. When performing radiography of welds, the location
markers shall not appear in the area of interest (weld). The lead numbers or letters, which
are attached with tape, appear as a radiographic image. Comparison of the radiograph
with the marked specimen reduces the possibility of improperly establishing locations of
indications. Also, proper film identification should include component identification, name
of radiographic laboratory, etc., and date.
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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

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16-1

CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS

Most radiography is performed in accordance with the provisions of specifications and codes.
These may be in-house documents, purchase specifications set by the customer, or codes such
as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes.
Codes and specifications can establish certain factors for the radiographic technique such as the
Kv range or the use of a particular isotope, allowable geometric unsharpness, type of film,
minimum/maximum densities, 100% or partial examination, and if partial examination, the extent
or limits. Codes and specifications place requirements on the type, number, and placement of
penetrameters in addition to the radiographic quality level. Codes and specifications establish the
acceptance criteria for discontinuities that are revealed through radiography. Many
codes/specifications refer to reference radiographs produced by the American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM).
The ASTM reference radiographs do not in themselves set acceptable levels for discontinuities
but they do provide a comparison by which the severity of a discontinuity can be judged or
classified. It is up to the purchaser and the seller to agree to acceptance levels for radiographic
examination as evaluated by comparison to the reference radiographs.
It is essential that the requirements of specifications and codes be followed closely. Production
radiographs can be rejected regardless of quality if they do not carry the proper identification or if
the proper penetrameters are not used. Such rejections cause lost time and additional expenses.
Fabrication codes contain or reference the applicable acceptance criteria. The radiographic
interpreter must be completely familiar with and understand the acceptance criteria in order to
properly interpret the radiographic image and determine disposition.

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17-1

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

It is of particular value to the radiographic interpreter to have knowledge of the manufacturing

processes for the materials being radiographed. Discontinuities can be inherent to a
manufacturing process or to a specific material type. Therefore, knowledge of the material and
manufacturing process is of great importance to the radiographic interpreter.
When performing radiographic interpretation of weldments, different welding processes such as
MIG, TIG, and SMAW lend themselves to "typical" indications on weld radiographs. For this
reason, knowledge of welding processes is of significant benefit when viewing radiographs. The
Visual Examination Section contains further information relating to this topic.

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18-1

WELDING DEFECTS AND CONDITIONS

Some of the discontinuities that can be present in welds are cracks, voids in the weld metal, and
inclusions which can be more or less dense than the surrounding weld metal. Radiographs may
show both external and internal discontinuities in welds. It is important to note that not all
discontinuities that appear on a radiograph are cause for rejection of the weld.
Welding processes require that heat be carefully controlled to produce fusion to the parent metal
and provide adequate penetration. Too much heat can cause porosity, cracks, and undercutting;
too little heat can cause incomplete penetration and incomplete fusion. Stresses that are
introduced in the metal by welding but are not accompanied by a physical separation of material
will not be detected by radiography. The Visual Examination Section contains further information
relating to this topic.
18.1

Cracks; Star (Crater), Longitudinal, Transverse

A crack is defined as a fracture-type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and a high ratio of
area-to-opening displacement. Cracks are linear ruptures of metal under stress. They are often
very narrow separations in the weld or adjacent base metal, and usually little deformation is
apparent.
Weld metal cracks are the result of many factors. For example, cracking occurs when a joint is
highly restrained. Also, welds which are too small in size for the parts that are joined may crack
when the shrinkage strains during cooling fracture at the least ductile location. Cracking also
results from poor welding practices, improper preparation of joints, or improper electrodes for
matching base material. Inadequate preheat during welding of low-alloy carbon steel materials
promotes cracking of the weld metal or heat-affected zone (HAZ). Cracks in the HAZ are
promoted by high restraint of the joints and improper electrode control. Low-hydrogen procedures
are necessary for most low-alloy steels. High-alloy, austenitic materials such as stainless steel are
more crack resistant than low-alloy carbon steel. Contamination of the weldment with compounds
such as sulfur or the selection of the wrong filler material can produce micro fissuring and / or
centerline cracking.
It must be recognized that other types of cracks can form during the service life of a component or
weldment. Cracks can be generated by overloading, metal fatigue, intergranular and transgranular
stress corrosion, and stress rupture mechanisms, to mention only a few. The radiographic and
ultrasonic examination response of such flaws is dependent upon the size and orientation of the
flaw. Cracks in welds are usually produced by internal stresses caused by cooling of the weld
metal. Cracks may be oriented along the weld seam or they may be transverse to the weld seam.
Transverse cracks can extend into the parent metal. Cracks are generally characterized by jagged
lines and may have fine hairline facets branching off from them.
The radiographic image of a crack defect is a dark narrow line that is usually irregular. If the plane
of the crack is in line with the radiation beam, its image will be fairly defined. If the plane is not
exactly in line with the radiation beam, a faint dark linear shadow may result. In this case,
additional radiographs should be taken at other angles for accurate interpretation.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

18-2

Since cracks constitute a serious weld defect, additional radiographs and other NDE methods
should be utilized when there is question as to their identity. Finer grain films may be used, the
angle of the radiation beam should be changed, or other methods of nondestructive examination
used to supplement radiography.

Photomacrograph of Crack

18.2

Incomplete Penetration

Incomplete penetration occurs at the root of the weld groove (or at the center of the weld for
double-v-groove welds). Incomplete penetration is caused by failure of the root pass to fuse
properly with the base metal at the root. A root opening is used to permit penetration and fusion at
the land area of a weld. When the root opening is too small for the electrode and/or inadequate
welding variables are used, incomplete penetration may result.
The radiographic image of lack of penetration appears as a straight dark line in the center of the
weld. The width may vary from a thin sharp line to a broad line. Slag inclusions and gas holes may
be found in connection with a lack of penetration causing enlargement of the primary dark line
making it appear broad and irregular.
A dark narrow line depicting lack of penetration on a radiograph may be caused due to the shifting
of plates as they are welded together. This cause of lack of penetration appears very distinctly on
the radiograph.
18.3

Root Conditions

18.3.1 Root Convexity

Root Convexity is a root pass that has excessively penetrated the joint. When this occurs, the
welder is moving or manipulating the weld rod too slowly or the current is too high.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

18-3

18.3.2 Root Concavity

Root concavity is a defect caused by excessive shrinkage of the weld deposited root bead. A
concave root occurs when the molten weld solidifies without sufficient filler metal being added to
the molten zone to supply the volumetric shrinkage that takes place during solidification. Some
codes stipulate that the acceptability of concavity may be determined by comparing the
radiographic film density. If the density of the concave area is the same as or less than (lighter
than) the adjacent base metal, the concave area is acceptable.

Radiographic Image of Root Concavity

18.3.3 Burn-Through
Burn-through appears on the radiograph as a relatively large round or oblong area in the root of
the weld. When such an area appears as a circle with a light area at its center, the second pass
has filled the original defect. When a dark area appears, the interpreter can be sure that a void of
some magnitude exists. Frequently the area will appear only slightly darker than the weld density
but will contain a very black line in the center indicating that a second pass filled the original hole
in the root pass and a shrinkage crack has developed. Such a shrinkage crack can extend entirely
through the second pass of the weld.

Radiographic Image of Burn-Through

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

18.4

18-4

Porosity

Gas is sometimes formed during fusion welding due to improper control of arc current, technique,
electrodes, or as a result of the quality of the parent metal. Porosity is gas inclusions that occur as
spherical cavities in the weld metal. Gas inclusions may also occur as a tube-like cavity
sometimes referred to as worm hole porosity. Porosity may occur as single cavities in clusters or
as randomly scattered cavities. Linear porosity may be associated with incomplete penetration as
a series of cavities distributed along a line that runs lengthwise with the weld.
In a radiograph, porosity appears as round, dark spots with well defined contours and can be of
varying sizes and distribution. Worm holes may appear as dark rectangles if the axis of the
cylinder is perpendicular to the radiation beam and has two concentric circles; one darker than the
other (if the axis is parallel to the radiation beam). Aligned porosity is indicated on radiographs as
a series of round dark spots in line with the weld.

Radiographic Image of Scattered Porosity

Photomacrograph of Scattered Porosity

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

18.5

Lack of Fusion (Incomplete Fusion)

18.6

Weld Slag Inclusions

18-5

Slags contain oxides produced during arc welding. Slag can be trapped in the weld metal if it fails
to remain molten long enough for the slag to rise to the surface. In welds requiring multiple
passes, slag may be left in early passes unless properly cleaned. Slag inclusions can be located
along the edges of the weld deposits and run in a line the length of the weld.
Since the oxides making up slag are usually less dense than the actual weld metal, it appears as
dark irregular shapes on a radiograph. Slag inclusions can occur singly, in clusters, or scattered
randomly throughout the weld. In some cases, slag may also occur in an aligned pattern. Slag
inclusions generally have sharp pointed ends and can be of varying densities radiographically.
Slag lines may appear along the edge of a weld as an irregular or continuous dark line on the
radiograph, caused by insufficient cleaning between weld passes. Voids left between passes by
irregular deposits of metal can cause indications that have a similar radiographic appearance to
slag.

Radiographic Image of Slag

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

18.7

18-6

Tungsten Inclusions

When using a tungsten electrode for arc welding, tungsten can become trapped in the deposited
weld metal. Due to the high melting point of tungsten, fusion does not occur. Tungsten also has a
higher atomic weight than the weld metal resulting in higher radiation absorption. As a result of
having a higher density, tungsten inclusions appear as light spots on a radiograph. Tungsten
inclusions may appear as single light spots or in clusters of small spots, usually irregular in shape.

Radiographic Image of Tungsten Inclusion

18.8

External Discontinuities

Various types of surface irregularities can result in density variations on a radiograph. To ensure
proper interpretation, surface irregularities should be removed prior to radiography. When it is not
feasible to remove surface irregularities, they must be considered by the interpreter to ensure
indications are accurately identified and recorded. Surface irregularities must not preclude the
interpreter from making an accurate evaluation of the radiographic technique by obscuring
penetrameter images or indications of discontinuities. It is important to remember that all welds
should be visually examined and accepted prior to radiography. Types of external discontinuities
that can affect radiographic interpretation are:
18.8.1 Incompletely filled weld grooves
18.8.2 Excessive reinforcement
18.8.3 Overlap
18.8.4 Excessive penetration
18.8.5 Longitudinal grooves

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

18-7

18.8.6 Undercut
Undercutting appears in the radiograph as a dark line of some width at the junction of the weld
and the base material. A fine line in this darker area may indicate a crack at the fusion line and
should be further investigated.
18.8.7 Change of electrodes
18.8.8 Grinding marks
18.8.9 Spatter
Spatter on the weld bead or on the material next to it will appear on the radiograph as light spots.
Although not a defect in itself, spatter may mask other flaws.
18.8.10 Machine marks
18.8.11 Indents from Chipping Hammer
18.8.12 Arc Strikes
Arc strikes result from striking an arc outside of or on a completed weld. These may appear on the
radiograph and commonly contain a crater crack at the center.
18.8.13 Offset Cover Bead
When a cover bead is not placed directly over the remainder of the weld, the radiograph will show
the relative positions of the cover and the root beads. In severe cases, these two beads may be
side by side instead of superimposed. This offset may also appear on a radiograph due to
improper positioning of the source.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

19.0

19-1

CONCLUSION

The purpose of radiography is to provide visual information upon which judgements can be based
concerning the quality level of a specimen. Accurate radiographic interpretation cannot be made if
inadequate information is presented in the image of the radiograph. It is imperative that those
involved with or overseeing the performance of radiography are familiar with the applicable code
requirements and technique parameters.
The following list can be used as a guideline to ensure that significant attributes of the
interpretation have been evaluated:

Radiographic Review form annotated with applicable technique and acceptance criteria

Radiation source applicable to component (thickness vs source limitation)

Source physical size (mandatory to calculate Ug)

Source to film distance (remember-AWS requires a minimum of 7 times the part thickness)

Type of film (1 or 2)

Set-up number (if a standard technique is used)

Use of film side penetrameter justified

Material thickness; nominal, actual, total (with internal and external reinforcement)

Correct ID on radiograph, corresponds to review form and weld documentation

Shim thickness (not to exceed thickness of reinforcement)

Correct penetrameter selection and placement

Location marker placement

Any applicable notes concerning deviation from standard procedure

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

19-2

Effective performance of radiography and the knowledge of a thorough radiographic film

interpreter can reduce or eliminate differences of opinion with client interpreters or their
representatives. Typical sources of "difference of opinion" result from:

Slag inclusions vs incomplete fusion

Root concavity vs incomplete penetration

Abrupt changes in density vs concavity

Density readings (penetrameter vs area of interest)

Length or diameter of indications

Film artifacts vs discontinuities

As previously stated, fabrication codes contain or reference acceptance criteria. The radiographic
interpreter must be completely familiar with and understand the acceptance criteria in order to
properly interpret the radiographic image and determine disposition.
Since the radiographic interpreters decisions, directly or indirectly, determine the acceptance of
welds; he must be knowledgeable of many requirements. His ability to make decisions is an asset
to production and essential to assuring product quality levels. The interpreter has the overall
responsibility for the evaluation of radiographic quality as well as evaluating
discontinuities in welds!

Issued: 12/14/98

Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

20.0

20-1

GLOSSARY

absorption - The process whereby the particles or quanta (see photon) in a beam of
radiation are reduced in number or energy as they pass through some medium. The
particles lose energy by interaction with either the nucleus (core) or electrons (shell) of the
atoms of the medium.

activity - A measure of how radioactive a particular radioisotope is. Activity is calculated by

the number of atomic disintegrations per unit of time. The unit of measurement is the curie.

anode (target) - The positive terminal of an x-ray tube. It is a high melting point element
and receives the electron bombardment from the cathode or negative terminal.

artifact - A mechanically produced, indication, a scratch, smudge, etc., on a radiograph

that may be interpreted erroneously as a discontinuity.

attenuation (radiographic) - Decrease of radiation caused by passage through material.

back-scatter - Radiation scattered from the floor, walls, equipment and other items in the
area of a radiation source.

barium clay - A molding clay blocking material containing barium compounds placed round
a specimen to eliminate or reduce the amount of scattered or secondary radiation reaching
the film.

blowhole - A hole in a casting or a weld caused by gas entrapped during solidification.

calcium tungstate - A fluorescent chemical compound which emits visible blue violet light
when activated by either x- or gamma radiation.

cassette - A light-proof container used for holding the radiographic films in position during
the radiographic exposure. It may or may not contain intensifying screens.

casting shrinkage - (l) "liquid shrinkage" - the reduction in volume of liquid metal as it
cools to the liquids; (2) "solidification shrinkage" - the reduction in volume of metal from the
beginning to ending of solidification; (3) "solid shrinkage" - the reduction in volume of metal
from the solidus to room temperature; (4) "total shrinkage" - the sum of the shrinkage in (l),
(2) and (3).

cathode - A negative electrode, as in an x-ray machine.

cesium 137 - A radioactive isotope of the element cesium having a half-life of 30 years,
plus or minus three years.

cobalt 60 - A radioisotope of the element cobalt having a half life of approximately 5.3
years.

cold shut - (l) A discontinuity that appears on the surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite; (2) a portion of the surface of a forging that is
separated, in part, from the main body of metal by oxide.

collimator - A device, made of lead, tungsten or spent uranium, used to surround a

radiation source.

contrast (radiographic) - The measure of difference in the film blackening resulting from
various x-ray intensities transmitted by the object and recorded as density differences in the
image. Thus, difference in film blackening from one area to another is contrast.

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Fundamentals of NDE-Radiographic Interpretation

20-2

contrast (subject) - The ratio of radiation intensities passing through selected portions of a
specimen.

crack - A discontinuity which has a relatively large cross-section in one direction and a
small or negligible cross-section when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first.

crater - (l) in machining, a depression in a cutting tool face eroded by chip contact; (2) in
arc welding, a depression at the termination of a bead or in the weld pool beneath the
electrode.

decay - The spontaneous change of a nucleus and emission of a particle or a photon. For
the definite quantity of a nuclide, the rate of decay is usually expressed in terms of half-life.

defect - A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation or location of which makes it

detrimental to the useful service of the part in which it occurs.

definition - Sharpness of the outline of the image on a radiograph.

densitometer - Instrument utilizing the photoelectric principle to determine the degree of

darkening of developed photographic film.

density - The degree of blackening of a film is density. Film blackening or density is usually
expressed in terms of the H & D curve (Hurter & Driffield) which is defined as the logarithm
of the reciprocal of the transparency of the film. Blackening equals Log l/T. CT = Light
Transmission).
:

developer - A chemical solution which reduces exposed silver halide crystals to metallic
silver.

diffraction mottling - A diffuse diffraction pattern on a radiograph resulting from x-raying

thin sections of crystalline material.

discontinuity - Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part,

such as cracks, laps, seams, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect
the usefulness of a part.

electromagnetic radiation - Radiation consisting of electric and magnetic waves that

travel at the speed of light. Examples: light, radio waves, gamma rays, x-rays. All can be
transmitted through a vacuum.

emulsion - A gelatin and silver bromide crystal mixture coated onto a transparent film
base.

evaluation - The process of deciding as to the severity of the condition after the indication
has been interpreted. Evaluation leads to the decision as to whether the part must be
rejected, repaired or accepted for use.

false indication - In nondestructive examination, an indication that may be interpreted

erroneously as a discontinuity.

film holder (cassette) - A light sealed carrier for films and screens.

film speed - Relative exposure required to attain a specified density.

filter - A layer of absorptive material that is placed in the beam of radiation for the purpose
of absorbing rays of certain wavelengths and thus controlling the quality of the radiograph.

fixer - A chemical solution which dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from developed
film emulsions.

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fluorescence (radiographic) - The emission of electromagnetic radiation by a substance

as the result of the absorption of electromagnetic radiation having greater unit energy than
that of the fluorescent radiation. Fluorescence is characterized by the fact that it occurs
only so long as the stimulus responsible for it is maintained. The characteristic x-radiation
emitted as a result of absorption of x-rays.

fog - A darkening of the film resulting from chemical action of the developer, aging,
scattered secondary radiation, pre-exposure to radiation or exposure to visible light.

forward scatter - Radiation scattered in approximately the same direction as the primary
beam.

fusion (incomplete, lack of) - Failure of deposited weld metal to fuse completely with the
base metal or preceding weld bead.

gamma rays - High-energy, short wavelength electromagnetic radiation emitted by a

nucleus. Energies of gamma rays are usually between 0.010 and 10 Mev. Gamma rays are
very penetrating and are best attenuated by dense materials like lead and depleted
uranium.

gas holes - Holes created by a gas escaping from molten metal. Appear as round or
elongated, smooth-edged dark spots, occurring individually, in clusters or distributed
throughout the casting.

geometric unsharpness - The fuzziness or lack of definition on a radiograph

graininess - A film characteristic resulting from the grouping or clumping together of the
countless small silver grains into relatively large masses visible to the naked eye or with
slight magnification.

grinding cracks - Shallow cracks formed in the surface of relatively hard materials
because of excessive grinding heat or the high sensitivity of the material.

half-life - The time in which half the atoms in a radioactive substance disintegrate. A halflife may vary from millionths of a second to billions of years.

half value layer - The thickness of a material which absorbs 50 percent of the radiation
which strikes it.

hot cracks - Appear as ragged dark lines of variable width any numerous branches. They
have no definite line of continuity and may exist in groups. They may originate internally or
at the surface.

hot tear - A fracture formed in a metal during solidification because of hindered contraction.

icicles (drop through) - Metal which protrudes beyond the root of the weld.

inclusion - Any foreign matter contained in welds or castings.

incomplete penetration - Root penetration which is less than complete or the failure of a
root pass and a backing pass to fuse with each other.

indication - In nondestructive examination, a response or evidence of a response, that

requires interpretation to determine its significance.

inherent defects - Discontinuities which are normal in the material at the time it originally
solidifies from the molten state.

intensity - The amount of rays or particles emitted per unit of time.

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inverse square law - At a distance from a point source of radiation, the intensity of energy
received varies as the inverse square of the distance from the source.

iridium 192 - A radioactive isotope of the element Iridium which has a half-life of 75 days. It
is used extensively as a source of gamma radiation in industrial radiography.

irradiation - Exposure to radiation.

isotope - Atoms with the same atomic number (same chemical element) but different
atomic weights. An equivalent statement is that the nuclei have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.

laminations - Metal defects with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the
worked surface of the metal. May be the result of pipe, blisters, seams, inclusion or
segregation elongated and made directional by working.

lap - A surface defect, appearing as a seam, caused by folding over hot metal or sharp
corners and then rolling or forging them into the surface, but not welding them.

latitude (radiographic) - The range of thickness of material that can be recorded with the
useful reading range of film density. A high contrast film has little latitude and conversely a
low contrast film has great latitude.

penetrameter - A strip of metal the same composition as that of the metal being tested,
representing a percentage of object thickness and provided with a combination of steps,
holes or slots. When placed in the path of the rays, its image provides a check on the
radiographic technique employed.

personnel monitoring equipment - Devices designed to be worn or carried by an

individual for the purpose of measuring the dose received (e.g., film badges, pocket
chambers, pocket dosimeters, film rings, etc.).

pig - A container usually made of lead or U 238 used to shield radioactive sources when
not in use.

pipe - (1) The central cavity formed by contraction in metal, especially ingots, during
solidification: (2) the defect in wrought or cast products resulting from such a cavity (3) an
extrusion defect due to the oxidized surface of the billet flowing toward the center of the rod
at the back end.

porosity - Holes or pores within a metal.

primary radiation - Radiation arising directly from the target of an x-ray tube or from a
radioactive source.

radiation - The propagation of energy through matter or space in the form of waves. In
atomic physics the term has been extended to include fast-moving particles (alpha and
beta rays, free neutrons, etc.) Gamma rays and x-rays, of particular interest in atomic
physics, are electromagnetic radiation in which energy is propagated in packets called
photons.

radiation safety officer - An individual engaged in the practices of providing radiation

protection. He is the representative appointed by the licensee for liaison with the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission.

radioactivity - Spontaneous nuclear disintegration with emission of electromagnetic

radiation.

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radiographer - Any individual who performs or who, in attendance at the site where the
sealed source or sources are being used, personally supervises radiographic operations
and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring compliance with the requirements of
these regulations and the conditions of the licenses.

radiographic exposure device - Any instrument containing a sealed source fastened or

contained therein, in which the sealed source or shielding thereof may be moved, or
otherwise changed, from a shielded to unshielded position for purposes of making a
radiographic exposure.

radiographic interpretation - The determination of the cause and significance of

discontinuities indicated on the radiograph. The evaluation as to the acceptance of the
material is based upon the application of the radiographic specifications and standards
governing the material.

radiography - The use of radiant energy in the form of x-rays or gamma rays for
nondestructive examination of opaque objects, in order to produce graphical records on
sensitized films which indicate the comparative soundness of the object being tested.

reference radiographs - A group of radiographs containing images of discontinuities.

These can be used as comparison "standards" for acceptability of materials.

reinforcement of weld - (1) In a butt Joint, weld metal on the face of the weld that extends
out beyond a surface plane common to the members being welded; (2) in a fillet weld, weld
metal that contributes to convexity; (3) in a flash, upset or gas- pressure weld, the original
diameter or thickness.

root crack - A crack in either the weld or heat-affected zone at the root of a weld.

root penetration - The depth to which weld metal extends into the root of a joint.

safelight - A special lamp used in the darkroom to provide working visibility without
affecting the photosensitive emulsion of the radiographic film.

screen (intensifying) - A layer of material placed in contact with the film to increase the
effect of the radiation, thus shortening the exposure.

sensitivity (radiographic) - The percent ratio of the thickness of the smallest detectable
defect to the thickness of the specimen being examined. It is a measure of the capability to
detect a small discontinuity.

shrinkage cavities - Cavities in castings caused by lack of sufficient molten metal as the
casting cools. A small bubble in metal that appears as a dendritic, filamentary, or jagged
darkened area on a radiograph film.

shrinkage cracks - Hot tears associated with shrinkage cavities.

slag inclusions - Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
metal and base metal.

source - The origin of radiation: an x-ray tube or a radioisotope.

source-film distance - The distance between the focal spot of an x-ray tube or radiation
source and the film; generally expressed in inches.

step wedge - A device which is used with appropriate penetrameters on each step, for the
inspection of parts having great variations in thickness or a complex geometry. The step
wedge must be made of material radiographically similar to that being radiographed.

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stress corrosion cracking - Failure by cracking under combined action of corrosion and
stress, either external (applied) or internal (residual). Cracking may be either intergranular
or transgranular, depending on the type of metal and corrosive medium it is exposed to.

target - A material bombarded by any radiation, as the target is bombarded by

toe crack -A base-metal crack at the toe of the weld

tungsten inclusions - Inclusions in welds resulting from particles or splinters of tungsten

welding electrodes.

underbead crack - A subsurface crack in the base metal near the weld.

undercut - A depression or groove adjoining the toe of a weld in a metal object. Appears
on a radiograph as a dark area.

undercut (radiographic) - Excess blackening of the film within the image of any unblocked
edge due to radiation scattered, or passing around, not through, the object.

weld bead - A deposit of filler metal from a single welding pass.

weld metal - That portion of a weld which has been in a molten state during welding.

worm holes (pipe) - Elongated or tubular cavities due to entrapped gas rising through
molten metal prior to solidification.

x-ray - Penetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an
atom are excited and release energy. Thus, the radiation is non-nuclear in origin and is
generated in practice by bombarding a metallic target with high-speed electrons.

Issued: 12/14/98