Hubregt Et Al, RF Energy Harvesting and Transport For Wireless Sensor Network Applications, Principles and Requirements, Proc. IEEE, 2013
Hubregt Et Al, RF Energy Harvesting and Transport For Wireless Sensor Network Applications, Principles and Requirements, Proc. IEEE, 2013
Hubregt Et Al, RF Energy Harvesting and Transport For Wireless Sensor Network Applications, Principles and Requirements, Proc. IEEE, 2013
INVITED
PAPER
By Hubregt J. Visser, Senior Member IEEE , and Ruud J. M. Vullers, Senior Member IEEE
ABSTRACT | This paper presents an overview of principles and KEYWORDS | Antenna; energy harvesting; rectenna
requirements for powering wireless sensors by radio-frequency
(RF) energy harvesting or transport. The feasibility of harvest-
ing is discussed, leading to the conclusion that RF energy
I. INTRODUCTION
transport is preferred for powering small sized sensors. These Wireless radio-frequency (RF) energy transmission dates
sensors are foreseen in future Smart Buildings. Transmitting in back to the experiments of Heinrich Hertz, in the 1880s,
the ISM frequency bands, respecting the transmit power limits proving Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetics. The modern
ensures that the International Commission on Non-Ionizing history of RF free-space power transmission may be
Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) exposure limits are not exceeded. considered to find its origin in the late 1950s [2] with
With the transmit side limitations being explored, the propa- applications in microwave powered aircraft [3] and the
gation channel is next discussed, leading to the observation that Solar Power Satellite Concept [4]. After a quiet period in
a better than free-space attenuation may be achieved in indoors the 1980s and 1990s, we may observe a regained interest in
line-of-sight environments. Then, the components of the the field. This interest seems to be initiated by short-range
rectifying antenna (rectenna) are being discussed: rectifier, (G 2 m [5]) radio-frequency identification (RFID) applica-
dc–dc boost converter, and antenna. The power efficiencies of tions, focusing on the available industry–science–medical
all these rectenna subcomponents are being analyzed and (ISM) frequency bands around 0.9, 2.4, 5.8 GHz, and
finally some examples are shown. To make RF energy transport higher. Especially for the higher frequencies, the wave-
a feasible powering technology for low-power sensors, a lengths become small enough for the realization of minia-
number of precautions need to be taken. The propagation ture wireless autonomous transducer systems (WATSs).
channel characteristics need to be taken into account by These systems could be powered by incident RF radiation.
creating an appropriate transmit antenna radiation pattern. Thereto, an antenna is connected to a rectifier to form a
All subcomponents of the rectenna need to be impedance so-called rectenna that converts the incident RF power
matched, and the power transfer efficiencies of the rectifier and into usable direct current (dc) power. This dc power will,
the boost converter need to be optimized. in general, pass through an energy storage system (ESS)
before being delivered to the load. The schematic of a
general wireless RF power transmission system is shown
in Fig. 1.
Manuscript received February 6, 2012; revised January 29, 2013; accepted It should be noted that we are talking about far-field RF
February 10, 2013.
The authors are with the IMEC/Holst Centre, Eindhoven 5605 KN, The Netherlands
energy transmission, which is different from (close con-
(e-mail: huib.visser@ imec-nl.nl; [email protected]). tact) inductive RF energy transmission [6] or nonradiative
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2013.2250891 RF energy transmission [1].
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Fig. 1. Wireless RF power system, with the rectenna in the dashed box. Pinc is the incident power upon the receive antenna; Pacc is the
accepted power after impedance matching; z , z1 , and z2 are the impedance matching efficiencies; con is the rectifier power conversion
efficiency; and dcdc is the boost converter power efficiency.
Wireless power transport (WPT) is actively researched ical Effects of Electromagnetic Fields’’ [15], [16] has been
by groups in Finland [7], United States [8]–[10], Korea used. Fig. 2 shows single-frequency GSM900 peak power
[11], Japan [12], Belgium [13], Germany [14], and at many density levels as a function of distance to the nearest base
other places. station. These data have been gathered in Austria,
Considering the source in Fig. 1, we may ask if we may Germany, and Hungary between November 1996 and
use ambient RF energy as a source or if we have to employ November 2000 in the downlink frequency range 935–
a dedicated RF source. Using the first source variant, we 960 MHz. The transmitting power densities and traffic
will refer to it as ‘‘RF energy harvesting’’; using the second densities are unknown [16]. Data gathered outdoors on
variant, we will refer to it as ‘‘RF energy transport.’’
A. RF Energy Harvesting
For employing ambient RF energy, i.e., RF energy
harvesting, the most interesting systems to be explored are
GSM900 in Europe (downlink: 935–960 MHz) and
GSM1800 (downlink: 1805.2–1879.8 MHz) and WiFi
(2.4 GHz). These systems are omnipresent in an urban en-
vironment and use frequencies that allow resonant antennas
of sizes in the order of 10–50 cm2 . Broadcasting systems Fig. 2. Measured GSM900 peak power density levels as a function of
operate at (much) lower frequencies and would require distance to the nearest base station. Data are taken from [15]. Code
‘‘XY-a’’ indicates area and measurement site characteristics.
(very) large antennas for an efficient rectenna operation.
XY: IC ¼ inner city; OC ¼ outer country; IR ¼ industrial area; ST ¼ small
For assessing the power density levels supplied by GSM town; R ¼ rural or countryside area; 1 ¼ outdoors on roof, terrace,
base stations, the data gathered within Cooperation in or balcony; 2 ¼ indoors, close to windows, 1.5 m or less; 3 ¼ indoors,
Science and Technology (COST) Action 244 bis ‘‘Biomed- not close to windows.
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Table 1 Frequency Band Allocations and Transmit Power Restrictions for RFID Applications
ground level are not included in Fig. 2. The large variation conversion, and the rectifier to load impedance mismatch;
in power densities for this measurement subset would see Fig. 1. Thus, RF energy harvesting is not feasible for
obscure the figure [16]. powering applications a few square centimeters in size,
From Fig. 2, we may conclude that in between 25 and requiring about 100 W.1 For those, we have to employ a
100 m from a GSM900 base station, we may expect, dedicated RF source in the vicinity of the devices to be
indoors everywhere or outdoors on an elevated level, a powered wirelessly, i.e., we have to employ RF energy
power density between 0.01 and 1.0 mW/m2 (103 – transport.
101 W/cm2 ).
The power density integrated over the downlink B. RF Energy Transport
frequency band (935–960 MHz), i.e., the summed power Since no special regulations do exist for rectenna
density, leads to the conclusion that [16] in between 25 systems, it makes sense to operate these systems in the
and 100 m from a base station, we may expect, indoors license-free ISM frequency bands. They should be classi-
everywhere or outdoors on an elevated level, a summed fied then as either nonspecific short-range devices, or,
power density between 0.1 and 3.0 mW/m2 (102 –3 especially when used in combination with sensing func-
101 W/cm2 ). tions, as wideband data transmission systems or RFID
The power density levels received from GSM1800 devices.
base stations are, up to 100 m, in the same order of Taking antenna size in consideration as well as allowed
magnitude as those received from GSM900 base stations transmit power levels, the frequency bands of interest
at a single frequency or summed for low traffic density within the allocations and regulatory parameters, includ-
situations [16]. Measurements performed in a wireless ing allowed transmit power levels, for RFID are shown in
local area network (WLAN) environment indicate power Table 1 [17]–[19].
density values that are at least one order of magnitude For Table 1, national restrictions do apply. Frequency
lower [16]. band a is in France restricted to a maximum EIRP of
The measurements show that for obtaining an incident 500 mW and in Sweden to a maximum of 25 mW. Fre-
RF power of, for example, 100 W, an area is required of quency band b2 is in France restricted to a maximum ERP
about 330–1000 cm2 , which is equivalent to an area of of 500 mW within defined zones around military camps
about half to one and half A4 (letter) pages. Of this 1
For applications requiring substantially less power, recent work by
incident, 100-W RF power, parts will be lost in the Imperial College London (London, U.K.) has shown the feasibility of RF
antenna to rectifier impedance mismatch, the RF to dc energy harvesting at London underground stations [53].
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
and in the Russian Federation the ERP is restricted to will be applied remotely while the rechargeable batteries
100 mW within the frequency band 866.6–867.4 MHz. are placed in the wireless sensors.
With the restricted transmission power levels as stated Transmit power restrictions, for preventing inter-
in Table 1, we may now proceed with designing small-size ference problems, are set by the U.S. Federal Com-
rectennas for powering small-size applications. Those munications Commission (FCC) and the European
small-size applications may be nodes in a wireless sensor Radiocommunications Commission (ERC). An abstract
network. Wireless sensor networks are the key compo- for frequencies of interest is stated in Table 1. Next to
nents for the success of smart building integration (SBI) these legal transmit power restrictions, also potential
initiatives. health issues should be considered.
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
recognizing that the power density S, at a distance r from of the International Space Station (ISS) [34] to 1.8 in a
the transmitter, is given by [29] common office building [32]–[35]. For non-LOS environ-
ments, n may get as high as 8.6 [35]. Also, the transmit
antenna plays a role in establishing a value for n in (3).
PT G T EIRP
S¼ ¼ (1) Fig. 3 shows two examples of measured dc power as a
4 r 2 4 r2 function of distance from a transmitter in a LOS
situation. The measurements are performed in an office
where PT is the transmitted power and GT is the transmit corridor having a width varying between 1.2 and 2.3 m.
antenna gain. The ceiling height is 3 m. The ceiling is covered with
So, respecting (inter)national legal power restrictions metal plates. The frequency used is 2.45 GHz. A 4-W
will, in general, prevent adverse heating effects of human transmitter is being employed that is connected to a
tissue by RF and microwave radiation. Furthermore, RF vertically polarized fan-beam array antenna (GT ¼ 9 dB)
and microwave radiation is nonionizing and, thus, cannot and to a vertically polarized broad-beam horn antenna
directly cause cancer. Long-term effects are still a subject [GT ¼ 9 dB, matching efficiency, see (4), z ¼ 0:32];
of research [30], [31]. see Fig. 4.
Both transmit and receive antennas were at a height of
50 cm from the ground. The RF power is rectified by a
V. PROPAGATION CHANNEL Schottky diode voltage doubling circuit. The dc voltage is
For a transmitter–receiver pair in free space, the pro- boost converted to 3 V for charging a lithium–ion battery.
pagation is described by the Friis transmission equa- The specifics of the circuit, that is optimized for a 0-dBm
tion [29] RF input power, will be discussed further in Section VI-B.
In Fig. 3, we show the curve-fitted lines which are ob-
tained through a least squares fit through the measure-
GT GR 2 ment points. Although these trend lines are not directly
P R ¼ PT (2)
ð4rÞ2
4r0 r
PL ðdBÞ ¼ 20 log þ 10n log (3)
r0
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Fig. 4. Transmit antennas. (a) Four-element linear microstrip patch diodes. The equivalent circuit of a single, packaged
array antenna: DT ¼ 11.6 dBi; radiation efficiency r ¼ 2.6 dB. (b) Horn Schottky diode is shown in Fig. 5.
antenna: DT ¼ 9 dBi; r 0 dB; matching efficiency z ¼ 0:32. In this figure, d denotes an ideal diode, Cj is the (diode
voltage dependent) junction capacitance, Rs is the bulk
series resistance, and Lp and Cp are the packaging parasitic
representing the path loss,5 they do indicate that in an inductance and capacitance, respectively. The values may
office environment n G 2 in (3). be found in the diode’s datasheet.
Furthermore, from Fig. 4, we may conclude that To determine the input impedance of this packaged
through a stronger illumination of the walls (incorporating diode, we connect a voltage source Vg with internal resis-
metal door posts) we may obtain the same dc power level tance Rg and terminate the packaged diode with the
at a certain distance from the transmitter while transmit- parallel circuit of a capacitor CL and load resistor RL . For
ting a lower EIRP. Finding the optimum illumination of CL 0.1 F, the load may be considered being a short
the environment is part of an ongoing research at IMEC/ circuit for most commercially available Schottky diodes in
Holst Centre (Eindhoven, The Netherlands). the range from 0.1 to 2.5 GHz [37]. Then, the input im-
With the propagation channel being discussed, we now pedance is obtained in a very time-efficient way, applying
have reached the core of the wireless RF power system of a Runge–Kutta (RK) analysis [37]. Fig. 6 shows the
Fig. 1, i.e., the rectenna. calculated real and imaginary values of the input impe-
dance as a function of available input power at 2.45 GHz
for a number of commercially available Schottky diodes.
VI . RECTENNA Measurements have proven the correctness of the model
When an impedance and filtering network is being applied [37], [38].
between the antenna and the rectifying circuit, as depicted Fig. 6 shows that for very low power levels the input
in Fig. 1, a standard (50 ) antenna may be applied. The impedance remains constant as a function of available
filtering function is for preventing higher harmonic fre-
quency components being reradiated by the antenna.
These frequency components are generated by the nonlin-
ear rectifier circuit.
As demonstrated in [36], designing an antenna
having an input impedance that is the complex conjugate
of the input impedance value of the rectifier circuit,
leads to an overall efficiency improvement of the rec-
tenna. Moreover, it leads to a compact design [36]. Har-
monic frequency rejection is automatically ensured
through the antenna impedance mismatch at these higher
harmonic frequencies.
By thus designing a rectenna, the dominant compo-
nent, determining the impedance level, is the diode used.
A. Schottky Diode
The rectifying circuits we have been using in our de-
monstrators thus far consist of single or cascaded Schottky
5
In fact, the shown results are worse since they do not only represent Fig. 6. Calculated real (top) and imaginary (bottom) values of the input
the decrease of RF power with distance but also the decrease of antenna impedance of a short-circuited diode as a function of available input
impedance match efficiency with distance and the decrease of RF-to-dc power at f ¼ 2.45 GHz. Diodes analyzed: Avago types HSMS-2850,
and dc-to-dc power conversion efficiency with distance; see Section VI. HSMS-2860, HSMS-2820, and HBAT-5400.
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
q pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi V0
R þR
g s q
I0 8Rg Pinc ¼ 1 þ e 1þ RL nkTV0 : (6)
nkT RL Is
Fig. 7. Calculated impedance matching efficiency for an Avago
HSMS-2850 Schottky diode. 0 dBm indicates an antenna input
impedance ZR ¼ ð71 þ j84ÞV. 15 dBm indicates ZR ¼ ð11 þ j109ÞV. In this equation, I0 is the zero-order modified Bessel
function of the first kind, q is the electron charge, n is the
diode’s ideality factor, k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the
input power. For our region of interest, i.e., 15 dBm temperature in Kelvin, and Is is the diode’s saturation
Pinc 0 dBm, the input impedance changes rapidly as a current. Pinc is the available power.
function of Pinc . The voltage doubling circuit is shown in Fig. 8(a). For
Choosing the ‘‘correct’’ antenna impedance will have a an RF signal applied to the doubler, the capacitors will
great impact on the rectenna efficiency. To demonstrate act as short circuits leading to the equivalent electrical
this, Fig. 7 shows the impedance matching efficiency as a circuit, as shown in Fig. 8(b). From this figure, it is clear
function of available input power for two chosen antenna that the (RF) input impedance will halve with respect to
impedances. The impedance matching efficiency Z is that of a single diode. For dc signals, the capacitors will
defined as act as open circuits, and the two diodes will behave as
two voltage sources connected in series, as shown in
Fig. 8(c).
Z ¼ 1 jj2 : (4) To apply (6) to the voltage doubling circuit, the
transformation from a voltage doubler to a single diode
equivalent circuit as outlined in [42] is followed. For
Herein, is the power wave reflection coefficient, the approximate analysis of the doubler, using (6), Rg is
defined by [39] doubled (to obtain the same current flowing into the cir-
cuit) and RL is halved (to obtain the same current flowing
out of the circuit). Results are shown in Fig. 9.
The calculated results appear to be adequate for design
ZL ZR
¼ (5) purposes in the range 15 dBm Pinc 0 dBm.
ZL þ ZR
The dc output voltage has been calculated for a
generator impedance of 50 . With the input impedance
of the parallel diodes of the doubler now known, we can
where ZL is the input impedance of the rectifying
calculate the accepted power Pacc ¼ z Pinc ; see also Fig. 1
circuit and where ZR is the input impedance of the
antenna.
For analyzing the dc behavior of the diode, the RK
method fails. When the RC time of the load, which consists
of a resistor (R) in parallel with a capacitor (C), becomes
orders of magnitudes larger than the period of the source,
the time-domain circuit equations tend to become stiff.
This phenomenon, a numerical instability, occurs most
likely when dealing with more than one differential equa-
tion. The stiffness is due to the existence of two or more
very different scales of the independent variable on which Fig. 8. Voltage doubler. (a) Electrical circuit. (b) RF equivalent circuit,
the dependant variables are changing [40]. Therefore, we Zin :¼ Zin =2. (c) DC equivalent circuit, Vout :¼ 2Vout .
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
and calculate the RF-to-dc power conversion efficiency results. This value must correspond to the equivalent dc
con as source resistance of the two diodes, acting as dc sources,
connected in series, as shown in Fig. 8(c).
V02
con ¼ : (7) B. DC-to-DC Converter
RL Pacc
The output voltage of the rectifying circuit will, in
general, be too low for directly driving an application.
Fig. 10 shows the RF-to-dc power conversion efficiency Furthermore, the output voltage will change with a chang-
of the voltage doubling circuit as a function of the accepted ing input power. Therefore, a dc-to-dc converter is used to
power for several values of the load resistor. For the adapt the rectified voltage to the voltage of a rechargeable
generator impedance, the value of the 0-dBm-matched battery. This converter should have an input impedance
antenna has been used. that is equal to the optimal load impedance of the rectify-
Fig. 10 shows that in our power region of interest, a ing circuit.
load resistance between 200 and 400 gives the best In [37], a discrete buck-boost converter is described;
see Fig. 11.
The unregulated buck-boost converter, operating in the
discontinuous conduction mode, is used to achieve a con-
stant input impedance Rdc equal to 300 . The reason for
this constant resistance is that the maximum power points
and related voltages of the rectenna result in a load resis-
tance of approximately this value for the incident power
range from 10 to 0 dBm [37]. The input impedance is
given by
2Lc
Rdc ¼ (8)
fs t2s
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Fig. 19. Measured supply current for a constant voltage of 3 V for the
COTS wireless temperature and humidity sensor.
boost circuit, powering an application, as shown in Fig. 18.
The figure shows a transmitting GSM900 cellphone (1).
A part of the transmitted power is intercepted by a propagation results shown in Fig. 3. The wireless RF bat-
rectenna array consisting of four Yagi–Uda rectennas (2) tery is next used to power a 3-V COTS wireless sensor
and is powering the wireless temperature sensor (3). The node, measuring temperature and humidity and transmit-
dc voltage delivered to the sensor is displayed on a volt ting the values every 45 s at a frequency of 433 MHz. The
meter (3a). The 2.45-GHz radio of the wireless temper- power needed by the COTS wireless sensor has been
ature sensor (3) transmits the measured temperature obtained by measuring the supply current as a function of
every 7 s to a remote wireless base station (4). This base time for a constant voltage of 3 V; see Fig. 19 [50].
station relays the received data to a computer (5) for Based on these measurements, the average power
storage and a convenient display [49]. The power con- supply level is found to be 55 W. The voltage boost
sumption of the sensor is 10 W on average. The maxi- converter uses 17.9 W [50].
mum distance between the phone and the RF collecting Fig. 20 shows the packaged RF battery in front of the
aperture in this feasibility demonstrator is about 1 m. The COTS wireless sensor. Laying in front of both is an opened
maximum distance between the wireless temperature RF battery showing the back (ground plane) of the micro-
sensor and the base station is about 30 m. strip patch antenna with attached to it the dc-to-dc voltage
The 0-dBm-matched microstrip patch rectenna [see boost converter PCB and the 3-V lithium–ion battery.
Fig. 16(a)] has been combined with the voltage boost By employing an EIRP of 10 W, it has been possible to
converter (see Fig. 11) of which the power efficiency power the wireless sensor indoors to a distance of 7 m from
curves are shown in Fig. 12. The output of this converter is the transmitter [50]. By carefully choosing the receiving
connected to a rechargeable 3-V lithium–ion battery. This
wireless RF battery charger has been used for obtaining the
Visser et al.: RF Energy Harvesting and Transport for Wireless Sensor Network Applications
VI II . CONCLUSION
Low-power wireless sensors in a smart building environ-
ment may use rechargeable batteries that are remotely
charged by means of RF energy transfer. The transmit
power levels are restricted by international rules for
avoiding interference and recommendations concerning
health. Obeying these power limitations means that we
need to fully exploit the characteristics of the propagation
channel and the components that make up a rectenna. By
carefully illuminating the environment, next to establish-
ing a LOS, a power decay better than predicted by the Friis
transmission equation may be obtained. Smart illumina-
tion is one of the research topics ongoing at IMEC/Holst
Centre in the field of wireless energy transfer. A Schottky
Fig. 21. Wireless energy transport measurement setup. By diode may be chosen based on the calculated RF-to-dc
optimizing the receiver location, a battery may be charged up
to 18 m from the source.
power conversion efficiency. Then, from the impedance
characteristics calculated for this Schottky diode, the
impedance matching efficiency of the antenna may be
optimized and an antenna may be designed accordingly.
location, battery charging appears to be possible up to a Finally, a dc-to-dc boost converter may be designed for the
distance of 18 m, employing a source transmitting an EIRP application at hand, also optimized for power conversion
of 10 W; see Fig. 21. The distance is a maximum distance, efficiency. The efficiency graphs (Figs. 7, 10, and 12)
yielding a dc of 18 W, which would result in a battery shown in this paper show that improvements in the order
charging time going to infinity. of tens of percent are feasible, for example, by replacing the
Although 10-W EIRP is far above (inter)national legal 0-dBm-matched antenna in the last shown example by a
restrictions, there is enough room to increase the overall 15-dBm-matched antenna.
power transfer efficiency, especially in the dc-to-dc voltage Thus, RF energy transfer is a powerful technology.
boost converter. Eventually, power transfer over a few However, an optimum design of all the constituent parts is
meters, delivering tens of microwatts dc will be feasible. essential. h
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