CURRICULUM FOR DIPLOMA IN INSTRUCTOR TECHNICAL TEACHER

EDUCATION (DITTE). SEMESTER ONE. YEAR TWO CIVIL (CONTINUING AND

DIPLOMA ENTRANTS.)
Course code and name: ECBD 2101 Carpentry and joinery industrial skills
Course credit: 3 CU
Brief course description:
The course introduces to the fundamental aspects of carpentry and joinery industry; the
production and other work related activities.
Learning outcomes:
The student demonstrates skills in the main industrial activities of carpentry and joinery.
Competences:
By the end of this course students should be able to;
Demonstrate carpentry and joinery industrial skills.
Detailed course description duration
Course: carpentry and joinery:
 Carpentry and joinery tools and equipment. Care, safety and
maintenance of tools. wood working machines, operation and safety.
 Timbers for carpentry and joinery work.
 Preparation of timber joints.
 Carcass work to floors and roofs. Joints to hollow floors.
 Preparation of rafters, cuttings bevels and birds mouth, fixing to plates
and ridge.
 Construction of windows and doors using various joints.
 Fixing windows and door frames.
 Hanging doors and windows.
 Preparation of formwork for concrete. Mouldings, chamfers and
rebates. Fixing of architraves, skirting, picture rails, dado rails,
cornices and cover moldings.
 Preparation of wood work for polishing and painting.
 Construction of stairs.
 Fabrication of timber connected.
 Temporary support.
 Setting up of a production unit for joinery work.
Layout of a simple carpentry workshop.
Mode of delivery: guided discussion, group work, demonstration and practice, coaching,
project work, experimentation, field study and report writing, tasks.
Assessment:
Assignments.
 Practical/project work. 35%
 Final examination 60%
 Total: 100%
Reference:
1. Walton, J.A.1970. wood work in theory and practice. Australasian publishing company,

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 Kuala Lumpur.
2. Allen, E and J.Iano (2008). Fundamentals of building construction: materials and
methods. Wiley.
3. Breyer, D. Fridley, K, Pollock, D and K. Cobeen (2006). Design of wood structures-
ASD/LRFD. Prentice Hall.

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CHAPTER ONE: CARPENTRY AND JOINERY TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT. CARE,
SAFETY AND MAINTENANCE OF TOOLS. WOOD WORKING MACHINES,
OPERATION AND SAFETY.

TOOLS TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING OUTPUT:
1. Description of tools according to their categories and sub classes.
2. Demonstrate the use of major/common carpentry and joinery tools
Categories of tools:

Tools in carpentry and joinery are categorized as;

a. Basic Hand tools

b. Electric Power hand tools
c. Electric wood working Machines.

Basic Hand tools

Hand tools are the immediate tools and equipment used in the workshop to produce a job without
use of electricity/power.

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Categories/classes of hand tools:

a. Holding and supporting tools

b. Cutting tools
c. Geometrical tools
d. Percussion and impelling tools
e. Boring tools
f. Abrading and scraping tools.

HOLDING AND SUPPORTING TOOLS

COMPETENCES TO BE ACHIEVED:
 Listing/naming of the holding and supporting tools
 Description of holding and supporting tools
 Sketching of holding and supporting tools
 Demonstrating the use of holding and supporting tools.

DEFINITION OF HOLDING AND SUPPORTING TOOLS

These are devices that hold the work piece tightly to ensure safety during work

Examples:
1. Work Bench. Supports the work from the setting out to the end of all necessary bench
work operations. Consists of well for accommodating tools during work and cupboards
for storage purposes.

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2. Bench vice
• Fitted on the side of the work bench so that the top of the jaw is level with the top of the
bench. The jaws provide instantaneous grip of job while planing surfaces and edges, saw
trenches, cut mortises and holds glued pieces during setting.

3. The bench stop

• Is a device fitted with a hole, usually at the end of the work bench.
• It supports work piece while planing the surfaces.

4. Bench hook/shooting board

• Is a piece of board with a strip of wood screwed across the ends of the opposite faces.
• It supports the job while saving or chiseling

5. Bench hold fast

• Is a metal device fitted into a hole on the top of a work bench.

6. Mitre block: it comprises of two pieces of wrot wood usually of different thickness butted
on edge and end face respectively. A kerf of 45ᴼ is sawn on one member.
It supports the moulded job while sawing at an angle of 45ᴼ usually for small works such
as moulded picture frames.

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7. Mitre box: consist of three wrot members of which two are of the same thickness and less
thick whose end faces are butted to the edges of the third member. A mitre or a bevel kerf
is sawn through the two opposite members. The job is inserted in the middle and the kerf
guides the sawing of the required mitre or bevel. Used for large moulded pieces where
repetitive mitre are required such as in architraves, skirtings, cornices etc. are required.

8. Dowel cradle: consist of a vee groove on wrot piece used to support a squared piece of
job when shaping a dowel.

9. Trestle/saw stool: are lower benches used in pairs to support the job while sawing.

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BENCH PEGS: are small pieces inserted at different positions of the bench to support long
boards.

WINDING STICKS: Are long straight pieces used to check straightness of timber and framed
joints.

SHOOTING BOARD: this aid planing end grains of boards.

F/SCREW CRAMP

Resembles Letter “F” with a threaded handle that firmly secures job on the work bench
during sawing.

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 Bench hold fast

• Is a metal device fitted into a hole on the top of a work bench. For holding wide pieces
while rebating, shooting edge, end grains etc.

G cramps are in the shape of the letter G and are used for holding the job firmly while sawing
(crosscutting, Deeping, ripping, mitring etc.)

SASH CRAMP

Sash cramp holds job firmly during assembly and gluing. Its length varies from 1M to
2M.

CLASS ASSIGNMENT

DATE: 25/9/2015

In the groups discuss the following categories of carpentry hand tools. Write notes and make
sketches to clarify types and basic uses of the hand tools in the workshop.

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 S/NO GROUP TASK
1 A a. Geometrical/Measuring tool

2 B b. Percussion and impelling

3 C c. Boring

4 D d. Abrading and scraping

5 Presentation and
hand over

Name six items of importance made by a carpenter or joiner to facilitate his work on site or in
the workshop. State particular use of each of the itms mentioned above.

SHAVING TOOLS AND CUTTING TOOLS.

Introduction:
Shaving tools refer to those that are used to reduce the wood to required size or shape by the
action of shaving off of the waste.
All types of planes are shaving tools.

PLANES:

Consist of a wooden or a metallic body known as stock, cutting iron of steel and a cap iron that
breaks the shavings to prevent the wooden fibres from tearing up. The blade and the cap iron are
kept together by a screw and held in the stock by either a wedge (for wooden) or a metal cap (for
metallic planes).

 The main function of a plane is to produce a smooth surface or edge, plain or shape by
taking off thin shavings.
 The size of a plane is determined by the length of the stock.
 Classes of planes are; bench planes for flat or plain surfaces, curve cutting planes for
curved surfaces and edges and special purpose planes for rebates, tongues and grooves,
Moulding etc.

BENCH PLANES.

Include;
1. Roughing plane
2. Jack plane
3. Trying plane

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ROUGHING PLANES:

Comprises of a handle (toat) fitted in the front of the stock and the blade has no cap iron attached
as shown below. The planing action produces furrows.
FUNCTION: for reducing rough pieces quickly to nearest size and is the first to be used on wood
unwrot to quickly reduce it to the approximate size.

JACK PLANES:

The handle is fixed from behind has longer cutting iron and stock approximately 350mm. The
cutting iron is fitted with a back (cap) iron which breaks shavings and sets tension to the cutting
edge to prevent vibration (chattering). The cutting edge is slightly curved to allow taking off of
the thick shavings.

PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS.

For names of the above parts; read the manuals of planes.

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PROCEDURES FOR SETTING THE WOODEN JACK PLANES:

1 Set the cap iron about 1.5 mm away from the cutting edge of cutting iron. When
tightening the cap iron (by the screw driver), hold the iron over the edge of the bench.
Never hold them in your hand to avoid injury.
2 Place the stock in your left hand (if you are right handed) and put your thumb in the
throat and the fingers under the sole of the stock.

3 Insert the cutting iron in the escapement and hold it down with your thumb. Then insert
the wedge.

4 Place the stock in your left hand (if you are right handed) and put your thumb in the
throat and the fingers under the sole of the stock.

5 Insert the cutting iron in the escapement and hold it down with your thumb. Then insert
the wedge.

TRYING PLANE (JOINTER):

• Similar to the jack plane except that the handle is closed to the stock is longer i.e.,
500-750mm in length.
• The stock is either a wood or metallic. The width of the cutting iron ranges from 56-
60mm and it has an almost straight cutting edge. The cap iron is set about 3-4mm
from the cutting edge.
• USE:
• It is used for producing flat surface or perfect straight edge on long boards.
• NB: always keep the entire length of the sole in contact with the edge you are
planing.

BENCH REBATE PLANE (BADGER PLANE)

•It’s similar to jack planes except that it’s narrower usually about 54mm in width. The
blade extends the full width of the sole enabling it into the corner of a rebate.
• NB: the cutting edge must be dead straight and square to allow cutting efficiently on
both sides without constant adjustments.
TYPES OF BENCH PLANES:

a) Trying plane.
b) Jack plane
c) Smoothing plane
d) Badger plane

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CUTTING ACTION OF A PLANE:

• The thickness of the shaving is controlled by the amount of projections of the cutting iron
below the sole.

PURPOSE OF THE CAP IRON.

• Breaks and curls the shavings.

• Stiffens the cutting iron.
 

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CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH BENCH PLANES DURING USE:

• Poorly broken shavings

• Wedging of shavings
• Choking of planes.
• Lines on the work pieces.
SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES POSED BY BENCH PLANES DURING USE:

 Set the edge of a jack cutter with a slight curvature

 Set the edges of try and smoothing planes straight and parallel with the sole.
 Use the lateral adjustment lever to set the cutting edge of the sole parallel to the sole.
 Ensure that the cap iron edge sits flat to side of the cutting iron.
 The gap between the cap iron edge and the cutting iron should be; 2mm for coarse work,
1.5mm general use and 0.5-1.0mm for fine works and hard works.

 Avoid irregular cutting edges due to bad honing process.

 Use grinding angle of about 20 degrees and sharpening angle of 30 degrees for soft
woods while grinding angle of 30 degrees and sharpening angle of 35 degrees.

 Sole of the plane flush to work surface. Shapes of cutting edges for planes.

CURVE CUTTING PLANES:

These planes shave the surfaces to form concave or convex shapes. They include;

1. Compass plane
2. Spoke shave.

COMPASS PLANE:

Consist of a stock and a cutting iron. It has a flexible sole of about 250mm length. The sole can
be required to a required shape or arc by the adjusting screw.

It is used for smoothing curved surface and edges that are true arcs of a circle.

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SPOKE SHAVE:

Are of two types; the flat sole/faced and the round face/sole.

The cutting iron I of 34-53mm length held in the stock by two tangs

The flat flat sole is used for convex edges of narrow surfaces while the round sole is for concave
edges

SPECIAL PURPOSE PLANES

These are planes used for special purposes such as rebating, grooving, trenching, moulding etc.

They include;

The rebate plane, side fillister planes, plough plane, router plane and multipurpose plane.

REBATE PLANE:

Rebate plane cuts/shaves recess along and sometimes across the grain of wood to form a rebate.
It consists of an adjustable depth stop to determine the depth of the rebate and an adjustable
fence that determines the width of rebate. It has a spur ahead of the cutter and when in operation,
this cuts the wood fibres before the cutter.

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BADGER PLANES:

Resembles the ordinary jack planes however the mouth at the sole is not enclosed by the sole.
This allows rebate for longer pieces to be planed perfectly straight.

PLOUGH PLANE

It’s made of narrow sole of steel 3mm thick; it is filled with set of cutlers ranging from 3mm to
15mm wide. It has a fence and a depth gauge similar to those of side fillisters.

USE: - For producing a rectangular recess or channel called a groove (along the grain) some
distant away from the edge.

ROUTER PLANE: Sometimes called old woman’s tooth. It is used for leveling bottoms of
trenches and making designs on the edges of frames.

1. State the categories into which planes belong and give two examples in each case.

By means of sketches,

a. illustrate, cutting edge for trying, jack and smoothing planes.

b. Method of fitting the cap iron of a jack plane.

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 c. How do you bring the cutting edge parallel to the sole of the plane?

State the purpose of the following tools.

a) Trying plane
b) side fillister
c) Bench rebate plane spoke shave
d) scraper
e) Router
f) Sketch the profile shapes of a smoothing jack and a trying plane.
2.By means of sketches, illustrate grinding and honing angles of a cutting iron of planes.

PARING TOOLS: -

The term paring refers to a process of removing waste wood from a piece of timber using a chisel
without a mallet. All chisels are paring tools. On the other hand, they are also the cutting tools.

Classes of Chisels; -

1. PARING CHISEL
2. FIRMER CHISELS.

FIRMER CHISELS: -

These are of three kinds.

i) Firmer chisel

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 ii) Beveled edge firmer.
iii) Mortise chisel.

i. FIRMER CHISELS: -
Have rectangular blade with a tang fitted into the handle, the shoulder at the base of fang
stops it being driven into the handle. The ferrule prevents the splitting of the handle. The
width of the cutting edge range from 3mm to 50mm.

USE: - For general chiseling purpose.

ii. BEVELLED EDGED FIRMER CHISEL.

Has two of its edges of blade beveled. The width of the blade ranges 3mm

50mm.

USE: - For general paring and lighter chiseling and also suitable for cleaning up corners of
joints.

iii. PARING CHISEL.

iv. Similar to the beveled edged varies from 3mm -50mm wide.
USE: - For all forms of paring, particularly for cleaning out corners and finishing off joints.

NB: - paring chisels are always used without mallets as it would break them. When paring be
careful to handle the chisel carefully, with the hands and fingers kept always behind the
cutting edges.

Iii.MORTISE CHISEL

Has thicker blade to withstand the leverage when cutting mortises. A leather washer between
the shoulder and the handle helps to absorb the blows from the mallet. The handle is fitted
with ferrules at both ends to prevent splitting.

USE: - For heavy chiseling of deep work and cutting mortises.

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 GOUGES: -

They are similar to chisels except the blades are curved or fluted along the length.

TYPES OF GOUGES: -

1) SCRIBING GOUGE OR PARING GOUGE.

Are ground and sharpened on the inside.
USE: -For producing concave cuts.
2) FIRMER GOUGE OR CAVING GOUGE:
Are ground and sharpened on the outside.

USE: - For grooving, flatting and for general curving purposes.

AN EXPLODED VIEW OF A FIRMER CHISEL AND LABEL ALL THE PARTS.

EXERCISE
1. Name six items of equipment made by the carpenter or joined to facilitate his work on
site or in the workshop. State particular use of each of the.
2. Sketch state the typical uses for the following,

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 i) Firmer chisel (ii) Beveled edged chisel (iii) swan neck chisel (iv) paring chisel (v)
inside ground chisels.

PERCUSSION TOOLS.
The word percussion means striking two objects together and therefore tools are those used for
striking other tools. Those used in wood work are hammer and mallets.

Hammers used are claw hammer and Warrington hammer. Both have two main parts the head of
forged tool steel and the handle made of wood (hickory) and wedged into the head.

Warrington hammer are used for light work such as cabinet works while the claw hammers are
used in heavy and nailing in carpentry and joinery.

Mallets are either wooden or plastic. The head can be rectangular or round.

Warrington hammer

mallets

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REVISION:

1) a. Define the term seasoning of timber?

b. By means of sketches, describe,

i. Artificial seasoning.
ii. Kiln seasoning

d. what are the disadvantages of kiln seasoning?

2) a. State the categories into which planes belong and give two examples in each case.

b. By means of sketches, illustrate,

i. Cutting edge for trying, jack and smoothing planes.
ii. Method of fitting the cap iron of a jack plane.
iii. How do you bring the cutting edge parallel to the sole of the plane?

3) By means of sketches, differentiate between a groove and a trench.

4) what are the functions of;

a. compass plane
b. Grooving plane
c. Rebate plane
d. Trying plane
e. smoothing plane
4. Sketch the following abrading tools and state the function of each.

a) Bowsaw
b) Pad saws
c) Tenon saw
d) Rip saw
b. State the four safety precautions to take when using saws in the work shop.

a) By means of sketches, illustrate the three main parts of a tree and give the
functions in each Case.
b) Draw a cross section of a free log and label all the parts.
c) What are the functions of the parts you have labelled?

6. a. sketch the following types of joint and give an instance where each might be used.

i. Tree halving joint.

ii. Dovetail halving joint.
b. Sketch a typical through mortice and Tenon joint and explain briefly;

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 i. How the joint may be normally made.
ii. The proportions to be borne in mind when setting out the joint.

SOLUTIONS.

1. Seasoning refers to the method of removing excess moisture in timber cells to enable
timber to be worked upon easily.

DISADVANTAGES OF KILN SEASONNG

i. Expensive
ii. Required hurry in skills and knowledge.
iii. In towns only.
2. a. categories of planes.

i. Bench planes e.g. try, roughing, smoothing blades.

ii. Concave cutting planes e.g. spoke shaves and compass planes.
iii. Special purpose planes e.g. Rebate, grooving, router planes.
FUNCTIONS.

a. Compass plane, for smoothing curved surfaces and edges that are true areas of a
circle.
b. grooving plane: for ploughing or grooving along the grain and wood.
ii. Rebate plane for rebates/Removing/cutting recesses along the edges of wood.
iii. Trying plane producing the or perfectly straight edges on long boards.
iv. Smoothing plane for cleaning or dressing up surface or edges of work pieces ready for
assembling, level up assembled joints.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING HAND SAWS:

1. Use right saw for right job.

2. Hold a saw in one hand with your index finger against the side of the handle for a firm of
your other hand.
3. Begin sawing when few touch the work piece at the first few strokes.
4. Do not force a saw to cut.

 Back protects from external hazards.

 Bast/phloem tissue contains food on which the cells feed.
 Annual rings show the rate of growth.
 Medullary rays transport sap from outside to the inside cells.
 Sap wood shows the young part of the tree.
 Heart wood shows, the mature part of the tree.
5. Proportions of sermons.
i. Tenon = one third thickness of piece.
ii. Tenon width should not exceed five times the thickness.

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IMPELLING TOOLS.
To impel is to force: - Impelling tools are those that are used for forcing other materials such as
screws into a piece of work.

These include: -

Screw of driver: - Consist of alloy steel in the form of square, round or flat. One end is ground
into a tip to fit into the slot of the screw while the other end is shaped into a tang and fitted with a
handle. Common types used in wood work are London pattern cabinet pattern and Philips
pattern.

London pattern type is flat: - section and cabinet is round: -section while Philips has a cross
shaped slot.

NAIL PUNCH: - Is piece of steel rod having one end turned to a taper and the striking end
turned parallel and chamfered, it is used in contraction with a hammer for driving the heads of
nails below the surface of a job. There are different sizes to fit different sizes of nail.

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CARPENTER’S BRACE: - Its used to hold and force various bits into the bit. It consists of a
head, crank, chuck and ratchet. The head is a block of hard wood (beech or teak). Shaped so as to
suit to palm of the hand.

BORING TOOLS.
These are tools that are used for boring or drilling pieces of wood (producing holes). Generally,
between have main parts ie. The body forming the cutting edges and the shank having a squared,
tapered taring that fit into the jaws of a hand brace.

BITS. :-

AUGER BITS: - Are the twist bits e.g. Jennings pattern. They are used for boring deep straight
holes in thick wood.

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The twisted sides that allows the chips to flow out while the Centre point draws the bit into the
wood preventing the bit from wobbling off the Centre of the hole. In order to avoid splitting
when boring, all the way through it you must watch out for the point showing at the other side,
then reverse the work and bore from that side.

CENTRE BITS. Are used for making swallow holes in thin wood.

FORSTENER BITS: - Are used for making stopped or blind holes.

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COUNTER SINK BITS. Are used for enlarging the top of a hole to receive counter sink head
screws.

GIMLETS: - is a small hand boring tool normally used for starting a hole for nails and screws
particularly in a corner or any place where brace cannot be used. The handle is fitted cross ways
to provide a firm grip to exert.

Bradawl: - is a steel rod with one of its ends to serve as a cutting edge the other end is pointed
and fitted to a wooden handle.

USE: - Its used to create small holes to take nails and screws.

The holes are created by placing edge across grain and twisting it forth and back

THE COBRA BIT: -

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 EXERCISE.
1. Which tools can be classified as impelling tools and state their main applications.
2. Name bits suitable for boring.
(i) A12.5 mm hole right through a 75 mm thick board.
(ii) A swallow recesses half way through a piece of wood 9mm thick.
(iii) A 53mmm diameter hole through a 38mm thick board.
3. Name and sketch two types of screw drivers commonly used in the workshop.
4. Describe briefly the special precautions a carpenter takes to avoid damage to ,
a. Hand saws b. twist bits c. oil stones d. chisels e. screw beads when inserting or removing
screws.
Its end is inserted in the brace jaws and used during tape screws.

ELECTRIC POWER HAND TOOLS:

Learning outputs:

Types of power hand tools;

Basic safety requirements

Functions of power hand tools

Methods of operation.

TYPES OF POWER HAND TOOLS:

These are devices that aid hand tool operations where the use of permanent machines would be
impracticable. They use electricity from either portable generators, the mains and from the
compressed air

The types include;

1. Electric drill
2. Electric screw driver
3. Electric sanders
4. Dimension sawing and cross cut saw.
5. Circular saws
6. Jig saw
7. Electric planer
8. Electric router
9. Pneumatic tools
10. Rotary tools
11. Air tacker or stapler
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 GENERAL SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR POWER HAND TOOLS:

1. Use tool on permission

2. Read the operation manual. Do not use unless you have understood it.
3. Make sure that the power voltage matches with that of the tool. Check the tools
voltage specifications on the plate usually at one of its sides.
4. Always ensure there is no defective part on any tool before use. Hence check for
condition of the tool, its attachments, blade, cable, plug, socket, extension lead etc. to
ensure no visible defect.
5. Make sure that the work piece is securely held before starting work.
6. Maintain a good balanced footing throughout the whole work process
7. Always use correctly adjustable safety guards where applicable.
8. Keep work areas clear. Operative and tool must not be obstructed.
9. Never use clothing that can be caught up in the moving parts of the machine e.g. ties,
loose aprons, jewellery etc.
10. Long hairs should be trimmed to avoid obstruction.
11. Always allow for a maximum revolution before making a cut.
12. Tools must not be laid down until the moving parts have stopped.
13. Never use tool near source of inflammation/explosive atmosphere
14. Keep cables and hoses clear of cutting edges and abrasive or corrosive materials.
15. Maintain sharp cutters/blades.
16. Always remove adjustable keys, spanners etc. from the tool and place them in their
holders before charging or connecting the tool to its power supply.
17. Never use electric tools in damp conditions
18. Always use personal protective equipment (PPE) suitable for the job condition.
19. Hands must never be in the cutting area.
20. Before any adjustments such as cutters, bits etc., disconnect the tool from the power
supply.
21. Before using, never handle a charged or plugged in tool with a finger on the
trigger/switch.
22. Routine maintenance must be ensured by a specialized worker. Those repairs that
requires the attention of the manufacturer should always be referred to them.

Circular saw
These saw wood with a circular blade moving/revolving upwards and the directions are always
shown.

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The main parts to be noted carefully are;

Riving knife, adjustable extension piece, crown guard, cutter, sole, fence.

The tool is generally used for sawing (ripping) all kinds of wood in straight line.

Other operations are rebating, cross cutting, and cutting bevels at any angle between 90ᴼ and 45ᴼ
METHOD/PROCEDURES OF OPERATION ELECTRICAL: CIRCULAR SAWS

ELECTRICAL HAND PLANERS:

have rotary cutter block that cuts by chipping as opposed to shavings.
It can cut up to 3mm deep and can be adjusted to lower depths for a smoother surface.

It planes end grains with ease.

The planer is mainly used for surfacing and rebating. On rare cases cut bevels and chamfers.

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METHOD/PROCEDURES OF OPERATION ELECTRICAL POWER PLANERS:

1. The machine should be firmly held with two hands at their handles when operating
2. Work pieces/ job should be firmly held during operation
3. Hold the front handle and the trigger tightly to allow uniform motion
4. Before resting the machine, ensure moving parts have stopped after switching off.

Machine utilization and workshop organization

Expected outputs

1. List of general and specific safety precaution to be observed while using woodworking
machines and portable power tools.
2. Description of common wood working machines.
3. State the requirements of wood working machines and abrasive wheels’ regulations 1974.
4. Explain the sequence the machines use to produce a typical item of joinery
5. Explain the cutting principles of wood working machines.

SAFETY REGULATIONS/REQUIREMENTS OF WOOD WORKING MACHINES

Safety should be taken before use and during use of machines.

Before use

1. Do not use any machine unless you have been fully instructed in its operation and you are
capable of operating it.
2. Check that the machine is isolated from power supply before setting it up.
3. Ensure that the machine and the working area around it are clean and free from
obstruction, off cuts, shavings etc.
4. Check that the cutters are in good condition and suitable for the work in hand.
5. Ensure that all the guards, guides and fences are correctly held securely in place
6. Make sure that the push sticks and or a push block are close to hand.

During use

1. Never feed timber into a machine until the cutters have reached maximum speed.
2. Never make any adjustment to a machine while the cutter is moving. NB even after
switching off, many machine takes a considerable time to stop.
3. Never leave a machine until its cutters have stopped moving
4. Never allow yourself to be distracted while operating a machine.
5. Never pass your hand over the cutters even on the top of the timber being machined.
6. Always isolate the machine and clean down after use.

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General safety requirements (1974)

1. Cutters of every machine must be enclosed by a substantial guard to a maximum possible

extent
2. No adjustments must be made on any machine when the cutters are in motion.
3. Every machine must have an efficient starting and stopping devices located in such a way
that it is easily accessible by the operator in case of an emergency
4. The working area around the machines must be kept free from obstructions, off cuts,
shavings etc.
5. The floor surface of the work area must be level, non-slip and maintained in a good
condition.
6. A reasonable temperature must be maintained in the work area. Heaters or fans may be
used to ensure this.
7. No person must use any wood working machine unless he/she has been properly trained
for the work being carried out or he/she is under close supervision as part of the training.
8. Machine operators must;
a. Use correctly the guards and safety devices required by the regulations
b. Report to the supervisor or employer any faults or contraventions of the
regulations
9. Any person who sells or hires a wood working machine must ensure it complies with the
regulations
CIRCULAR SAWING MACHINES

30
Specific safety requirements

1. The part of the saw blade which is below the saw table must be enclosed to the maximum
extent
2. A strong, adjustable riving knife must be fitted directly behind the saw blade to prevent
jamming and throwing job back towards the operator.
3. The upper part of the saw blade must be fitted with a strong adjustable crown guard
which has the flanges that cover the full width of the saw teeth. The adjustable extension
piece should be positioned to within 12mm of the surface of the material being cut.
4. The diameter of the saw blade must never be less than 60% of the largest saw blade for
which the machine is designed.
5. Circular saws must not;
a) Be used for cutting tenons, grooves, rebates or moulding unless effectively
guarded
b) Be used for ripping unless the saw teeth project above the timber. Deeping large
sectioned material in two is not permissible.
6. A suitable push stick must be provided and kept readily available at all times. They must
be used for:
a) Feeding material where the cut is 300mm of the cut.
b) Feeding the material over the last 300mm of the cut
c) Removing cut pieces from between the saw blade and fence.
7. Any one working at the machine except the operator must stand at the delivery end. A
full width table extension must be fitted so that the distance between the nearest part of
the blade and the end of the table is at least 1200mm (except in the case of a portable saw
bench having a saw blade of 450mm or less in diameter).

BAND SAWS
1. All moving parts must be totally enclosed, with the exception of the cutting section.
2. The part of the blade between the top wheel and thrust wheel and the thrust wheel must
be guarded at the front and one side. The front must be as close as practicable to the blade
and the side extending beyond the back of the saw blade.
3. In use the thrust wheel and therefore the guard must be kept adjusted as close as possible
to the machine blade.

31
PLANING MACHINES
SURFACING

1. The cutter block must be cylindrical.

2. The gap between the cutting circle and the outfeed table must not exceed 6mm measured
radially from the block’s Centre. The gap between the two tables must be kept to a
minimum.
3.

surfacing and thickening machine

32
 TIMBERS FOR CARPENTRY AND JOINERY WORK:

INTRODUCTION:

Before we begin talking about building houses, we think that students should know about where
the timber comes from; the environment in which the tree has grown and the functions of a tree
while it is still alive.

This topic teaches students how a tree grows, the parts of a tree, how a tree is converted into
timber, the seasoning and shrinkage of timber, timber defects, common timber sizes and the
names of timber used in the construction of a house.

OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to;

1.1. state the names of the parts of a tree and their functions.

1.2. describe how a tree can be converted into timber.

1.3. define "seasoning of timber" and know why it is necessary.

1.4. explain the process of seasoning.

1.5. identify the different defects and their causes.

1.6. state the commercial names and sizes of the timber used for buildings.

1.7. name some common timber from their area and its characteristics.

1.8. name all the technical names of the timber used in a house construction.

1.1. Growth of a tree

The Leaves contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. It utilises the energy of sunlight to
combine carbon dioxide with mineral salts into food called carbohydrate.

The food (carbohydrate) is carried by the inner bark (sap-wood) to all parts of the tree. Trees
grow each season by adding a new layer each time onto the old layer. The lines left behind
during the seasons growth are called annual or growth rings.

33
 Figure

The tree consists of three main parts: crown, trunk and roots.

a) Crown

- holds leaves together

- adds height and spreads new growth of twigs
- manufactures food for trees

b) Trunk

- supports crown
- produces timber
- helps to transport water to leaves
- stores food for trees

c) Roots

- anchor
- collect water and mineral salt
- prevent soil erosion

Figure

34
The wood is made up of countless tube-like cells packed closely together and joined end to end.

The parts of a tree, as seen from a cross section.

a) Pith - the original tree sapling

b) Heartwood - inactive part which gives strength to the tree

c) Summer growth - tree stop, growing in dry season

d) Spring growth - tree grows in wet season

e) Sapwood - it is less valuable than heartwood, it offers less resistance to decay and attack by
fungi and insects.

f) Cambium - thin layer of cells which forms new cells towards wood and bark.

g) Bark - protects and covers inner layer called Bast. Bast carries food from leaves to cambium.

h) Medullar rays - store and pass food horizontally

Cross section

Longitudinal section

35
 1.2. Timber conversion

Back sawing (Tangential cut) Quarter sawing (Radial cut)

36
1.3. The air-seasoning of timber

The sawn timber has to be stacked for drying until its moisture content goes down to 15 percent.

Drying is by evaporation: the air is able to absorb moisture, and moving air dries more
effectively.

An open, well-drained site should be selected, the foundations solidly laid with provision for
cross and end ventilation, and at least 450 mm above the ground.

The boards should be stacked 25 or 50 mm apart to form vertical flues.

Each layer of boards is separated by spacing strips set from 600 to 1200 mm apart to enable fresh
air to enter from the side. The spacing strips have to be set in a vertical row.

The quality of the lumber depends a lot on how it was stacked for seasoning.

A waterproof covering should be placed over the stack to protect it from sun and weather.

The time taken for air seasoning depends upon several factors, such as type of timber, size of
boards, time of the year, site on which the stack is built, and the method of stacking. Roughly it
takes about twelve months for each 20 mm timber-thickness.

Figure

1.4. Shrinkage of timber

Shrinkage takes place during the process of drying or seasoning of the timber. All timber will
shrink, regardless of the type or the method by which it is seasoned. Some timber shrinks more
than others.

37
There are two stages in the drying process of green timber. Firstly, the removal of the "free
water" from the cell cavities and secondly, the drying of the "combined moisture" from the cell
walls. It is during this second stage that timber shrinks; no shrinkage occurs during the removal
of the free water.

When the moisture is drawn from the cell walls, the cell walls themselves become smaller,
consequently the board becomes smaller.

cell filled cell cavity dry cell dry - shrinkage

The cells do not shrink to any extend in their length, hence there is very little shrinkage in the
length of a board when it is dried. Similarly, the medullary rays do not shrink very much in their
length, and as they run across the timber (in a quarter sawn board) they tend to prevent the layers
of growth rings from shrinking towards the Centre of the pith. Most shrinkage, therefore takes
place in the direction of the growth rings, at right angles to the medullary rays. This is called
tangential shrinkage. Tangential shrinkage is about double radial shrinkage and about hundred
times as great as longitudinal shrinkage.

The sapwood, containing more moisture, will shrink more than the heartwood.

38
 Figure

Owing to the fact that the outer surface of a log is in contact with the air they dry more quickly,
and therefore shrink before the inner layers of the wood. This cause splitting or surface cracks. It
is therefore advisable to "break down" the log into commercial sizes as soon as possible after
felling.

1.5. Defects in timber

Since timber is a natural product, developed through many years of growth in the open air,
exposed to continual and varying climate conditions, it is prone to many defects.

Defects cannot be corrected and therefore each individual piece must be inspected before use and
judged on its own merits. Defects can be caused during growth, during drying, through insects,
through fungi or during subsequent handling or machining, and each should be known, so that
imperfect pieces can be detected and rejected.

a) During growth

- Shake is called a partial or complete separation between adjoining layers of wood, due initially
to causes other than drying. The three types are Heart shake, Cup shake and Star shake.

39
Star shake Heart shake Cup shake
- Knots can be caused by a branch or limb being cut through the process of sawing up the log.
Knots are classified in two groups: live knot and dead knot. Live knot is left by a branch when
the tree is felled.

Live knot

- Dead knot is left by branches that have been cut off or broken before felling, and which cannot
be relied on to remain in position in the piece.

Dead knot Gum pocket

- Gum pocket is a cavity which has contained or contains gum.

b) During or after drying process

- Bow is a deviation from the flat, the piece being arched.

Bow

- Twist is a spiral distortion along the length of a piece of timber.

40
 Twist

- Cup is a curvature across the width of a piece of timber.

Cup

c) Defects through insects

- Termites or white ants attack timber structures and are a serious problem in Papua New Guinea.
The species that causes the damage live in the ground. Precautions involve treating timber with a
preservative or avoiding direct timber contact with the ground.

EXERCISE:
Make short notes with sketches on the following timber defects
• End checks
• Collapse
• Case hardening
• Springing
• Surface checks
• Waney edge

• Upset/compression failure

• Short grain

41
 Types of termite damage

Left unchecked termites eat the wood, leaving the outer shell intact. Often their presence is not
evident until serious damage has occurred

1.6. Commercial size of timber

Common trade names:

a) Log - A trunk with branches cut off.

b) Plank - Pieces 38 mm to 100 mm (1½" to 4") thick and 150 mm (6") or over wide.

c) Boards - Pieces 10 mm to 38 mm (3/8" to 1½") thick and 75 mm (3") and over wide.

d) Battens - Pieces 19 mm to 38 mm (¾" to 1½") thick and from 25 mm to 75 mm (1" to 3")

wide.

e) Strips - Under 19 mm (¾") thick and up to 75 mm (3") wide.

f) Moulding - Shaped timber, can be plank, boards, strips etc...

Plank Battens and Stripes Boards

42
 Mouldings

Manufacturing terms:

a) Rough Timber - Timber with sawn surface.

b) Dressed Timber - Machine planed timber.

E.g. DIS - Dressed one side

DD (or D2S) - Double dressed or dressed two sides.

DAR (or D4S or PAR) - Dressed all round, dressed four sides or planned all round.

c) Milled Timber - A machine shaped or moulded timber. E.g. tongue and groove, rebated
dowels etc.

Timber defects and decay

 
1. Classify timber defects
2. Present defects
3. Differentiate Timber decay
4. Establish areas of attacks on structure
5. Describe ways of avoiding fungal attacks on timber
6. Apply preventive measures on timber attacks.
Brainstorm

Timber decay

• Are fungal attacks on timber. They include;

• Wet rot
• Dry rot
Brainstorm

43
 • Discuss signs and symptoms wet rot and dry rot
• Remedial measures dry rot and wet rot

Typical indications of dry rot include:

 Wood shrinks, darkens and cracks in a ‘cuboidal’ manner (see picture)

 A silky grey to mushroom coloured skin frequently tinged with patches of lilac and
yellow often develops under less humid conditions. This ‘skin’ can be peeled like a
mushroom.
 White, fluffy ‘cotton wool’ mycelium develops under humid conditions. ‘Teardrops’ may
develop on the growth.
 Strands develop in the mycelium; these are brittle and when dry and crack when bent.
 Fruiting bodies are a soft, fleshy pancake or bracket with an orange-ochre surface. The
surface has wide pores.
 Rust red coloured spore dust frequently seen around fruiting bodies.
 Active decay produces a musty, damp odour.

Dry rot can cause widespread structural damage. We recommend that a professional timber
treatment company is called in to carry out a survey if dry rot is suspected. If you suspect dry rot,
please contact our technical department or submit an enquiry and we will be happy to arrange for
an experienced timber treatment company to contact you.

DRY ROT CONTROL AND TREATMENT

Dry rot will only affect timber that is damp, typically affecting timber with a moisture content in
excess of 20%. For this reason, removing the source of moisture should form the core of any dry
rot eradication strategy.

Timber can become damp for a number of reasons. Among the most common causes are leaking
washing machines, shower trays, baths, condensation etc... The dampness can also come from
outside the building, for example, leaking roofs, rising dampness, or dampness penetrating
through walls. Whatever, the source of the dampness, if it is rectified and the timber allowed to
properly dry out, the dry rot will eventually be controlled.

However, it is not always possible or practical to be sure that the timbers will remain dry in the
long term. Therefore, it is important that secondary measures are taken to defend against re-
infection. Any affected timbers should be removed and replaced with pre-treated timber. Any
remaining timbers at risk of being affected by the dry rot should be treated with an effective
fungicide. Where the dry rot has passed through the masonry, it should be isolated using physical
containment and / or masonry sterilization.

Safeguard’s ProBor range of wood preservatives are particularly suitable fungicides for the
treatment of dry rot, as they are able to spread much more deeply into the timber than
conventional preservatives. This gives them an extensive performance advantage, as no wood
preservative can start working until it comes into contact with the fungi that it is designed to
defend against.

44
CHAPTER: PREPARATION OF TIMBER JOINTS.

Timber joints are classified as;

 Widening
 Lengthening
 Framing.

Widening joints/edge joints:

Are joints suitable for joining boards. They enable increase in the width of the boards. These
include;

 Butt/rubbed
 Dowelled
 Tongued and grooved
 Loose tongue
 Slot screwed
 Rebated

Butt/rubbed joint

45
Two edges of the boards are either perfectly shot squared and butted/rubbed together using
glue/adhesive or splayed and matched together as shown below. Used for sides of boxes, floor
boards, platforms, table tops etc.

Dowelled joint

It is an improvement of the butt joint by addition of dowels/timber pins inserted on the gluing
edges at approximately 300mm intervals as shown below.

Tongued and grooved joint

Comprise of a tongue on one piece and a groove on the matching piece. It has improved strength
as the gluing surface is increased as shown below. When not glued, it is used for floor boards

Loose tongue joint

Both members are grooved and a shaped feather/tongue/ridge is inserted to fit the grooves as
shown below

46
Slot screwed joint

One member/edge is screwed leaving the shanks of the screw projecting outside and the next
member/edge is slotted some distance/with offset to accommodate the screw head. when the
screw heads are inserted in the offset slots, it is driven by mallet in opposite directions to match
the required positions as shown below.

Rebated joints

Both members are rebated on opposite sides and matched together using glue. It also provides
more gluing surface area.

slot screwed

LENGTHENING JOINTS
These are joint joints that increase the length of the timber pieces. The choice and suitability
depends on the use/ area of application. They are usually strengthened using hoop iron/riggers,
screws, bolts, wire nails and timber connectors. They include;

 Lap
 Butt
 Scarf

47
  Laminated
 Finger/fished
 Half lap and sloping
 Splay

Lap joint

Two members are lapped. They are used for lengthening tie beams

Butt joint

The edges of the members are cut/sawn square and butted/edges brought together. The joint is
secured using cleats as shown above. Best for simple and temporal structures. Used for
lengthening tie beams.

Scarf joint

The ends to be jointed are sawn at a slope/bevel of 1 in 12 or less for structural purposes or a
hook may be incorporated to tighten the joint using a folding wedge as shown below. Suitable
for joining members for tie beams and rafters of the roof

Laminated joint

Best method of producing long pieces from thin and short members/pieces. Here glue/adhesive is
applied on the sides to be jointed and secured with nails as shown below. Used for tie beams,
rafters, struts, studs etc. it is the strongest form of the lengthening joint

Finger joint/fished joint

These are produced by use of machine and glued under a controlled end pressure.

Half lapped and sloping joint

Edges of the members are halved on opposite side and matched together using nails. Sometimes
the halving is slopped as shown below. They Used for lengthening wall plates during roof
construction.

48
Splay joint

Here, both members are slayed and matched. They are used in lengthening purlins/battens.

splay joint

FRAMING JOINTS:

These form/make frame like structures. They are classified as;

 Mortise and tenon

49
50
`

51
52
 Bridle

53
 Housing
 Halving
 Dowelled
 Notched and cogged
 Dovetail

54
 Mitre and scribe

DOVETAIL TEMPLATES:

55
56
57
FORMWORK:
Refers to moulds that are used for casting concrete. Concretes may be precast or cast insitu.
Precast concretes include; block lintel, copping, capping, sill, Kerb concrete tub, concrete cubes.
insitu concretes include; solid ground floors, suspended slabs, independent beams, beam and
slab, edge beam, columns, kickers, walls etc.

DESIGN AND FUCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF FORM WORKS:

1. Strength: must be strong enough to with stand the weight and pressure of the wet
concrete.
2. Rigidity: must be strong and rigid enough to withstand the imposed live loads of workers
and the materials involved.
3. Joints: joints must be tight to prevent loss of fine aggregate and grout.
4. Release agent: release agents (shuttering oil) must be used so that it comes out clean
without sticking.
5. Striking: it must be designed such that it can be easily be struck and in the correct
sequence.
6. Form face: the face of the form must be in keeping with the required finish of the
concrete.
7. Standard: as far as possible form works must be robust enough to with stand rough and
repeated handling.

BRAINSTORMING EXERCISE:

 In groups, differentiate using sketches precast concretes insitu concretes.

 Deign form works for the concretes above. In groups, differentiate using sketches
precast concretes insitu concretes.
 Design at least three form works for the concretes above.

Sample question:

58
1 (a) (i) what is formwork?

(ii) Outline five requirements of good formwork.

(iii) Sketch a typical formwork for a beam slab floor

(c) (i) our advantages of steel formwork over timber form work

(ii) How would you prevent formwork from sticking to concrete during removal?

(iii) Give three materials that would be employed in part (c) (ii) above.

Explain the term scaffolding.

Give explanation of three common materials used for scaffolding.

Outline the uses of any four scaffolding fittings.

Sketch the elevation of a patent scaffolding used in modern construction.

59
TIMBER FLOORS
Are basically of three types;

1. Single (up to 4M span)

2. Double (spans 3.5 – 7.5M)
3. Triple/framed (spans over 7.5M)
Single timber floors

Consist of bridging joists running parallel to each other and spaced 30 – 40 mm c/c over which
floor boards are secured. Depth of joists (cm) = (4 x span in metres) + 5cm.

Joists are stiffened using solid strutting and herring bone strutting methods as shown below.

60
Ends of joists are supported using the following methods;

1. Wall plate
2. Joist hangers
3. Honey combed sleeper walls
4. Brick corbels
Floor boards are laid using the following joints;

1. Butt
2. Rebated
3. Tongued and grooved
4. Splayed
5. Loose tongue
For suspended ground floors, joists are suspended using honey combed sleeper walls to allow
free air circulation as shown below;

This type of floor is commonly in residential buildings.

61
Double (spans 3.5 – 7.5M)

In this type of flooring, the bridging joists are supported by intermediate members called binders
spaced 2 – 3.5m on to which the bridging joists are cogged to reduce the depth of the floor as
shown below;

TRIPPLE/FRAMED TIMBER FLOORS

This type of floor has intermediate supports known as girders. Here, floor boards are supported
by the girders as shown below.

Treatment around a fire place ( hearth)

62
The framing around a fire place consist of trimmed, trimmer and a trimming joist. These are
arranged according to the building regulation as shown below; on the other hand, all framing
around openings have similar arrangement of members.

REVISION QUESTIONS: -

 What are the different types of timber floors?

 Draw typical sketches of single and double joists timber floor.
 Explain with the help of sketches, triple joists framed timber flooring.
 Describe how joists are supported at their ends.

63
  Using sketches, illustrate four common types of joints used in timber floor boarding.
 Where are timber flooring suitably applied to give a relevant finish’’?

TIMBER STAIRS:
Learning outputs:

1. Define and explain terms associated with stairs.

2. Methods of step construction.
3. Joints used to connect the strings and handrails to newel posts.
4. Procedure of setting out and housing stair strings.
5. Building regulations regarding stairs.

• Brainstorm
• Differentiate the types of timber stairs that are commonly used in constructions.
(10 minutes exercise

Types of stairs:
• Straight flight stairs
• Dogleg or half turn.
• Open well stair
• Geometrical stair.

Terms and definitions of stairs:

Staircase: Refers to the complete stair structure. Include; flight, landings, balusters etc.

Stair: refers to the series of steps that makes a flight or flights.

Flight: series of steps from one landing to another. May be straight flight or with intermediate
landings.

Flier: an ordinary parallel step.

Strings/stringers: inclined members that carry the steps. consist of wall string and an outer string.

Tread: horizontal step.

Riser: vertical portion of the step.

Step: A unit comprising of a tread and a riser.

64
Balustrade: A barrier comprising of newels, handrail and infill which protects the open side of a
stair or landing.

Balusters: vertical members between strings and the handrails.

Capping: are planted on the top of strings to increase their thickness to allow planting of
balustrade.

Cap: the shaped part of a newel post.

Drop: projected shaped part of a newel post below a ceiling.

Landing: boarded platforms between flights to allow rest or change direction of the stair. It can
be either quarter space landing (90degrees), half space landing (180 degrees) or an associated
landing is the portion of the floor adjacent to the top or bottom of a stair.

65
Stair well: the hole formed in a floor (by trimming the joists) which accommodates a stair

Open riser stair: stairs without risers.

Bull nosed step: A step with a quadrant shaped end which projects beyond the face of the bottom
newel.

Carriage: inclined bearer parallel to the strings fixed below the stair as an intermediate support to
the steps of a wide flight.

Brackets: pieces fixed to the sides of a carriage to support the underside of the treads.

Nosing: the shaped front edge of a tread:

Line of nosing/pitch line: an imaginary line that touches all the nosing of a flight.

Rise: the vertical distance between the surfaces of two consecutive treads. Total rise = vertical
distance between floors.

66
Going: is the horizontal distance between two consecutive risers or nosings.

Headroom: The minimum distance, measured vertically from the line of nosing (or landing) to
the ceiling (or obstruction above).

Pitch: the slope or angle formed between the line of nosing and the horizontal.

Pitch board: a template used for setting out purpose, which contains the rise and going of one
step.

It also has margin template.

Margin: the portion of a closed string parallel to its top edge into which the nosing project.

Tread and riser templates: boards cut to the shape of the treads and risers plus their wedges. They
are used for setting out purposes.

Storey rod: a timber length = total rise of a stair. Measurements are taken from site and the
storey rod is subsequently divided into the number of steps in the stair.

Procedures of Setting out and construction of a stair:

Visit the site and determine the following;

1. the type of stair required.

2. Total rise and going
3. The number of the steps in the flight.
4. The position of any landing.
5. The position of any obstructions – doors, windows etc.
6. The position of the trimmers.

67
Construction:
a) Prepare a cutting list for the materials.
b) Machine timber to required sizes and sections.
c) Prepare a pitch board and a tread and riser templates.
d) Mark out the two strings. These involve; making with a pencil one rise and going to give
positions of the floor line and the face of the first riser.
e) Prepare a cutting list for the materials.
f) Machine timber to required sizes and sections.
g) Prepare a pitch board and a tread and riser templates.
h) Mark out the two strings. These involve; marking with a pencil one rise and going to give
positions of the floor line and the face of the first riser.
i) Cut the tenons on the strings.
j) Mark housings on the strings to accommodate the treads and the risers
k) Clean up the faces of treads and the risers and assemble them into steps
l) Fit the newels and the hand rails
m) Make housing on the newel posts to accommodate the nose of the nosing of the lower
riser and tread
n) Assemble the stairs
o) Finish the stair by nailing to the string
p) Check that the newels, handrails, bull nosed steps are in order before delivery to the site.

Building regulations of stairs:

• There should be a minimum of 2m headroom measured vertically above the pitch

line
• Minimum with of stair is 800mm for private stairs and a pitch not exceeding 42
degrees
• Number of risers shall not be more than 16 risers per flight.
• Height of risers shall not exceed 220mm and going not less than mm, a going plus
twice the rise = 500mm – 700mm
• Risers must be of the same height and goings of uniform widths.
• stairs must be well lighted

Group work exercise

• Describe the process of;
• setting out of a stair
• Construction process of a stair case

68
FORMWORK:
Refers to moulds that are used for casting concrete. Concretes may be precast or cast insitu .
Precast concretes include; block lintel, copping, capping, sill, Kerb concrete tub, concrete cubes.
insitu concretes include; solid ground floors, suspended slabs, independent beams, beam and
slab, edge beam, columns, kickers, walls etc.

DESIGN AND FUCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF FORM WORKS:

1. Strength: must be strong enough to with stand the weight and pressure of the wet
concrete.
2. Rigidity: must be strong and rigid enough to withstand the imposed live loads of workers
and the materials involved.
3. Joints: joints must be tight to prevent loss of fine aggregate and grout.
4. Release agent: release agents (shuttering oil) must be used so that it comes out clean
without sticking.
5. Striking: it must be designed such that it can be easily be struck and in the correct
sequence.
6. Form face: the face of the form must be in keeping with the required finish of the
concrete.
7. Standard: as far as possible form works must be robust enough to with stand rough and
repeated handling.

BRAINSTORMING EXERCISE:

 In groups, differentiate using sketches precast concretes insitu concretes.

 Deign form works for the concretes above. In groups, differentiate using sketches
precast concretes insitu concretes.
 Design at least three form works for the concretes above.

69
DOORS
A door is movable structure used to open and close off an entrance, typically consisting of a
panel that swings on hinges or that slides inside space.

A door is made of a door frame and a door shutter.

DOOR FRAMES:
are made out of jamb and a head piece. Sometimes transom becomes necessary if light would
be required in the opening/rooms.

Sketch of a door frame:

What are the functions of the following members in the construction of door frames?

1. Braces
2. Stiffener/straining piece.
How do you test for the squareness of a door frame?

Describe the procedures of fixing a door frame in position;

1. During construction of wall

2. After construction of wall.

TYPES OF DOOR FRAMES.

Door frames can be classified as;

1. External frames/solid wood frames.

70
 2. internal frames/Door linings
3. Storey height frames

EXTERNALFRAMES/SOLID WOOD FRAMES:

These are wood frames employed for external openings. They are stout and of smaller cross
section width compared to the wall thickness. They are resistant to the external weather effects

STOREY HEIGHT FRAMES;

These are external frames that takes the height from the floor to the first floors. They are mainly
employed in commercial structures where there is more need of light and air.

DOOR LININGS:

Are frames employed for internal openings only. The members are thin compared to the solid
frames. Their widths are equal to the wall thickness. This allows architraves to be fixed as a last
finish to the frame. They are generally more attractive than solid frames.

Using sketches, differentiate between the solid wood frames, door linings and Storey height
frames as used in structures.

What is the purpose of the architrave on the frames?

A door is held in position by the frame which in turn is fixed in the opening of the wall by means
of holdfasts.

FUNCTIONS OF A DOOR
The main functions of a door are;

 It serves as a connecting link between the various internal portions of a building.

 It provide to access to the inside of the building.

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A DOOR:

This can be explained under the following;

1. Strength
2. Shape and stability
3. Privacy
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 4. Security
5. Thermal insulation.
6. Fire resistance
7. Sound insulation
8. Exclusion of wind and rain as part of the external wall

STRENGTH: a door must have adequate strength to support its own weight (dead load) and
minor abuses like knocks and slamming by wind or children.

SHAPE AND STABILITY: doors must be of good shape and stability to enable ease of opening
and accuracy of closing to the frame or lining. This depends on the materials used and the
workmanship in the construction.

PRIVACY: doors in closed positions give privacy for the indwellers. It can also be used for
visual privacy if it is obscure as the wall or the partition wall.

SECURITY: all doors provide security if in locked position. Improved security depends on the
construction of the door, the type of materials used and the type of iron mongeries involved.

THERMAL INSULATION: doors should be able to provide an insulation to transfer of heat

from surrounding environment to the inside of the rooms.

SOUND INSULATION: doors should avoid excessive transmission of sound/noise into the
rooms. These depend on the weight and massiveness of the door/the inner core being solid.

Inner core of some doors can be filled with air seals and sound insulating materials to reduce the
level of sound into the rooms.

FIRE RESISTANCE: doors in general can resist spread of fire for a given period of time
depending on the method of the construction. Special fire check doors are made to resist fire in
fire sensitive areas. This can be half hour fire check, one hour fire check, two hour check etc. this
allows escape of the occupants and removal of pieces of property from inside rooms.

EXCLUSION OF WIND AND RAIN: All types of external doors provide the function of
excluding weather (rain, dust, wind etc.) From direct entry into the rooms of the building.

LOCATION CONSIDERATIONS OF DOORS

1. It should meet the functional requirements
2. It should not be located at the centre of the wall. Preferably 200mm away from a corner.
3. It two doors are required in a room; they should be located in the opposite walls facing
each other to provide for a better ventilation.
4. Number of doors must be kept minimum not to cause obstruction.

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CLASSIFICATION OF DOORS:
Doors can be classified according to the following;

1. Type of materials used

2. Arrangement of the different components of the door.
3. Method of construction.
4. Nature of working.

NO DOOR TYPE CLASSIFICATION USE

01 Ledged and battened External
02 Ledged, braced and battened Classification the basis doors/external
03 Framed, ledged and battened of the arrangements of use
the components.
05 Framed and panelled Internal doors/
06 Glazed or sash internal use
07 Flush doors Classification on the
08 Louvered basis of the method or
19 Wire gauged manner of the
construction.
10 Revolving External
11 Sliding Metal doors doors/external
12 Swinging use
13 Collapsible External
doors/external
Metal doors
14 Rolling steel shutter use
15 Mild steel sheet
16 Corrugated steel sheet
17 Hollow metal
18 Metal covered plywood

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:
BATTENED DOORS;

Are named according to the number of members involved in the construction as shown below.

LEDGED AND BATTENED

Are made of the ledges and the battens secured by screws/wire nails

LEDGED, BRACED AND BATTENED DOORS

Here additional member called braces are added to improve the strength properties.

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FRAMED, LEDGED AND BATTENED DOORS:
Here the battens are fitted into the grooves of the stiles, the top and bottom ledges (top and
bottom rails.) The battens are secured to the middle ledged using appropriate iron mongeries.

FRAMED, LEDGED, BRACED AND BATTENED DOORS:

This is the strongest wooden external door in design. The battens are tongued, grooved and V
jointed. The stiles and the top ledge are grooved to fit the battens. The battens are secured to the
braces, middle ledge/rail and the bottom ledge/rail.

PANNELLED DOORS:
Consist of panels, stiles and rails. The panels can be moulded to give different designs as flush,
raised, raised and fielded, raised sunk and fielded etc. Some metallic types also have similar
appearances. They are named according to the number of panels they contain e.g. Two paneled
door, three panelled door etc

For the wooden type, the stiles and the rails are jointed using mortise and tenon joints or
dowelled joints.

PART MOULDINGS ON PANELS.

DETAILS OF JOINTS USED IN WOODEN PANELLED DOORS:

FLUSH DOORS:
Are generally internal doors with flush/flat faces that makes it pleasing in appearance. Basically
flush doors comprise of two main parts i.e. a core and a skin or facing on each side. The edges
are finished with lipping. They are used in residential, public and commercial houses. They are
classified or named according to the materials used in their construction. These include; Skeleton
core, semi skeleton core, solid core, cellular core with plywood faces laid on both sides. The
general overall dimensions are 2000mm x 815mm.

HOLLOW CORE/SKELETON CORE.

SKETCH OF A PANELLED DOOR.

Consist of light frame work of stiles, rails (top, middle, bottom and intermediate core rails), lock
block, narrow/core rails are jointed to the stiles with tongue and groove joints. The frame work is
glued and pinned at the joints using pins or staples. The core rails are spaced at 100 to 120mm
apart. The lock block is to allow fixing for the mortice lock. Ventilation holes are drilled through
each rail to avoid rippling effect during the laying of the skin/facing. This type of door is the
lightest due to the more air spaces contained hence little sound insulation capacity

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF SKELETON CORE FLUSH DOORS:

74
LIPPINGS: are finishes given to the edges of the flush doors. These can be plain lipping or
tongued lipping as shown below.
VISION PANELS:
These are provisions to allow more light and vision in and out of the room. Where these occur,
special provision should be made to the core construction as shown below:

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF VISION PANELS:

These include; plain bead and bolection type bead. As shown.

HALF SOLID CORE FLUSH DOOR:

Quite the same in construction of the members to the skeleton type except the rails are spaced
closer (the core occupies one half of the available space) hence the door is heavier and more
robust as a result it is a better quality

SOLID CORE FLUSH DOOR:

Consist of vertical strips glued edge to edge and a plywood skin is glued on each side lipping
strips glued to mask the facings down the door edges shown below:

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CELLULAR/LATTICE CORE FLUSH DOOR:

The cores consist of cellular honey comb infill, to which a hard board or plywood faces are
bonded as shown below:

SOLID FLAX BOARD CORE FLUSH DOOR:

The core consists of solid flax board or straw board infill, on which the facings are bonded and
lipping done to mask the facings a shown below;

GLAZED SASH DOORS (WOODEN):

Are constructed in the same way as the paneled doors. They may be fully glazed (glass in every
portion of panel) or partly glazed/half glazed (gunstock doors) (Glass panes secured on the upper
portions) the glazing rebates requires panes of glasses being secured by beads rather than putty
(for windows). The rebates are 20mm x 10mm. in partly glazed doors, normally the stiles and
rails/glazing bars are diminished to allow increased light into the room.

Describe the procedures of fitting a door shutter into a frame.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS:

LOUVRED DOORS:

These are doors designed to provide permanent ventilation like in boiler houses, drying rooms
etc.

The construction is similar t the panel doors except it contains louvres 12 to 15mm thickness in
place of the panels. The louvres are normally pitched at an angle of 45degrees and the slope in

76
the direction which will reject weather into the rooms. Louvres are housed into the stiles and
secured with glue and nails in which case they may be fitted after the door has been glued up
and cleaned off.

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF LOUVRED DOORS:

Are doors that provide entrance for one and exit to the other at the same time. Found in public
buildings e.g. banks, museums, libraries etc. it is wind drought proof. The door consists of a
centrally placed mullion or a vertical member supported on a ball bearings at the bottom that
allows free rotation of the four shutters are attached to it as shown.

SLIDING DOORS:

These are doors that slide to the sides by the help of the runners and the guide rails. It may be
one or more shutters sliding as shown below:

COLLAPSIBLE STEEL DOOR:

Are doors made from vertical double chain (20x20x2mm) joined together with hollows on the
inside so that a vertical gap is created. They do not require hinges or frames to hang on. they
open or close by the movements of the diagonals braced on the vertical channels that are
mounted with rollers that are fixed on lintels and floors . They are used in go downs, workshops,
sheds, public buildings for increased safety and protection of property.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF THE COLLAPSIBLE DOORS:

ROLLING STEEL SHUTTER DOORS:

Are doors that consist of frames, drums and a shutter of thin steel plates (laths/slates) 1 to
1.25mm thickness and interlocked together. The frame has steel guides on the sides in which the
shutter moves and then coils in the drum. The diameter of the drum varies from 200 to 300mm.
they are used for garages, godowns, shops, front show windows etc. They offer a better security
to property.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF RLLING STEEL SHUTTER DOORS:

Fixing of hinged doors

• Saw off projections and plane excess width and lengths.

• Fit the shutter into the frame rebate allowing 2-3mm opening from the rebate all
round.(rebate clearance)
• Chisel recess for the hinges for framed type and screw tee hinges on the face of the
shutter of the batten doors.

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 • Position the door in its place using wedges allowing 2-3mm rebate clearance and 4-
6mm floor clearance.
• Fix the top hinge on to the frame with only one screw and test the fitting, check
clearance and make necessary adjustments.
• Replace the door, unscrew from the frame and remove hinges and paint it to prevent
rust after final hinging.
• Rehang the door and fix all the remaining screws.

DOOR FRAMES

Consist of the jambs, head piece and in some cases the transom piece they are either wooden or
metallic. Door frames are classified as;

• Solid frames
• Linings.
• Storey frames

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOLID AND LININGS

S/NO SOLID FRAME LINING/CASING
1 Normally for external use Normally for internal use only.
2 Normally of much stouter/rigid Normally of light/small thickness material
construction in order to withstand the that would not withstand external weather
rigorous conditions in service conditions for long.
3 Does not cover the whole surface on Covers/encases the whole thickness of the
the masonry/brickwork thickness at masonry /brickwork wall at the openings
the openings where they are fixed. where they are fixed
4 Normally allows architrave on one Allows architrave to be secured on both sides
side of the wall hence giving it utmost beauty in
the finish.
5 Takes limited forms in the design in Takes many forms as the plain, skeleton,
order to make it stout rebated, framed etc.
6 Less costly due to less materials used. More costly due to more materials used and
method of construction.
6 Less beautiful Quite impressing/beautiful outlook

SKETCH OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SOLID AND DOOR LININGS:

This type of frame is designed for relatively thin non load bearing walls for the purpose of giving
stability to the walls. Their height is from floor to floor (storey Frame) the frame work are
recessed at the back to receive the block work and must be fixed securely top and bottom using
pads or cramps inbuilt in the block work.

There are two types of storey frame; i.e. plain storey frame and fanlight storey frame. They are
constructed with mortice and tenon joints.

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CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF STOREY FRAMES:

STEEL DOOR SECTIONS:

These are made of the following sections:
i. Single angle iron.
ii. Double angle iron.
iii. T section.
iv. Channel sections formed from pressing steel plates.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMES:

Iron mongeries refer to the metal fastenings used to provide either security e.g. locks and bolts or
those that allow movement e.g. hinges and handles.

HINGES:
Common types include;
a) Back flap hinge: Are used for thin shutters such that they are fixed to the back side of the
shutter.
b) Butt hinge: the flanges (leaves) are having staggered countersunk screw holes. One
flange is screwed to the edge of the shutter and the other to the rebate of the frame.
c) Counter flap hinge: the hinge is formed in three parts and has two centres. Hence the two
leaves can be folded back to back.
d) Garnet hinge/T-shutter: has a long arm that is screwed to the shutter and a short arm or
plate which is screwed to the shutter. It’s mainly used for battened doors.
e) Nar-madi hinge/hooks and bands: the flange or strap is fixed on the door shutter while the
pin on which the strap rotates is fixed to the frame. It’s used for heavy doors.
f) Parliamentary hinge:are hinges that permit shutters to rest parallel to the wall when
opened. Best used where there is need to keep a narrow space free from obstructions.
g) Pin hinge: they are used foe heavy doors. The two leaves can be separated by the centre
pin such that it can be fixed separately.

79
 h) Rising butt hinge: are hinges that allow doors to be raised by 10mm on being opened and
allows the doors to open automatically.
i) Strap hinge: are substitutes of garnet/T hinges usually used for heavy garage doors.
j) Spring hinge: are single or double acting spring hinges. They are used for swinging
doors. Double acting spring allows swinging in both direction while single acting allows
swinging in one direction only. The door closes automatically due to the springs

BOLTS:
Bolts provide security. The various forms are as below;
a) Aldrop: are fixed to external doors where pad locks are to be used.

b) Barrel bolt/: it is fixed on the back faces of doors. The socket is fixed to the door
frame while the plate is screwed to the inside of the shutter.
c) Tower bolt: similar to the barrel bolt except it is of less elegance (beauty) but heavy
and of higher strength. It’s used in garage doors, shops, ware houses etc.
d) Espagnolette bolt/monkey tail bolt: for securing high doors and windows which
cannot be easily reached.
e) Flush bolt: used when it is desired that the face of the door should be flush to the bolt.
f)Hasp and staple bolt: used for external doors where pad locks are to be used.
g) Security chain: are used on domestic entrance doors for added security on external
doors.
h) Latch: consists of lever pivoted at one end and can be actuated by a trigger passing
through the shutter; the lever is secured in a hasp and staple. It is fixed to the inside of
the door.
i) Door handles: are of various forms e.g. bow type, lever handle etc.

DOOR LOCKS AND LATCHES:

These include;
a) Tubular mortice latch: are used in conjunction with lever latch handles for internal doors
that requires minimum security.
b) Mortice latch: it is also used for internal doors but is more robust than the tubular type
and requires sizeable mortice to be cut into the door edge.
c) Upright mortice lock: incorporates a lock and a latch. They vary in weight, size and
quality (security and design). It’s used on external and internal doors where there is need
for privacy/security.
Horizontal mortice lock: used only on panelled and glazed doors the lock is inserted in a deep
mortice cut through the stile into the end grain of the lock rail. Its key hole is finished using
escutcheon plate (small plate covering the mouth of the key holes) fixed on

a) the door by escutcheon pins/screws. It’s mainly used for external doors. Has a knob type
furniture
b) Rim lock: a face type of lock used in conjunction with a pair of door knobs and a
captive spindle. A rose and a keyhole escutcheon are required on the plain side of the
door. Used on battened doors.

80
 c) Cylinder night latch: they are available in various patterns and two sizes to suit doors of
normal and thin stiles. It requires boring of 32mm through the stile to fit the lock
d) Security mortice dead lock: it is called a dead lock because it does not have a latch. It
serves the purpose of a lock only. It’s used where there is high degree of security is
required e.g. ware houses, shops, stores etc.
FIXING OF FRAMES.

Procedures:
A) Inbuilt frames:
• Provide for wrought iron dowel at foot and straps of 500mm intervals on the sides
of the jambs
• Cut splay horns to allow wall to overlap and totally enclose the frame end.
b). Fixing frames on openings:

• Employ plastic or wooden plugs at intervals of 500mm

• Other openings may have in built pallets
The frame may not have a horn.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

• A) Define flush doors as used in construction.

• B) Differentiate between a hollow core flush door and a laminated core flush door.
• C) a dormitory requires internal and external framed ledged braced and match
boarded doors after completion. With the aid of sketches, illustrate the front
elevation of each of the two doors required
• Differentiate between a door lining and a door frame as related to timber.

• State the three components of a door frame.

• With the aid of neat sketches; show how a door frame can be secured into the floor and
the wall indicating how it can be kept in square and maintains its measurements in width.

• Explain the procedures to be taken when hanging a door shutter into the door frame.

• Outline three tools that are used for fixing a door shutter into the door frame.

• Differentiate between a storey height frame and s door lining.

• A door frame may be fixed in position either after the wall is completed or as the wall is
being built. With the aid of sketches; describe the procedure of fixing a door frame as the
wall is being built

a) With the aid of neat sketches, explain the following types of iron mongeries
I. rising butt hinge
II. Single action spring hinge
III. Mortise latch
b).i. Define glazing.

81
 ii. Describe the places of glazing in relation to doors and windows.
c). Explain three methods of glazing.
Define a door
• State two functional requirements of a door
• A ledged and battened door is to be constructed for a toilet. With the aid of a well
labeled sketch, draw the back elevation of the door
• Draw the horizontal and vertical sections of the door above.
• With the aid of neat sketches, describe the two constructional details of a lipping on
flush doors and show the provision for the ventilation to prevent the plywood from
bulging while it is being fixed.
• State three groups under which wood working joints are classified.

• With the aid of neat sketches, describe each of the following joints and state where each
are used.

• Birds mouth

• Half lapped joint

• Scarf joint

• Splayed joint.

• A timber is to be constructed in a conference hall and a carpenter is not limited to the

joints to be used on the floor boarding. Sketch two suitable joints that a carpenter would
use to widen the floor boards.

• Explain the treatment that would be given on the above joints that would cater for
shrinkage and at the same time give beauty to the floor.

WINDOWS:

LEARNING OUTCOME:

The student should demonstrate skills of construction of window shutters.

Competence:

By the end of the course module, the student should be able to provide an over view on the
general properties of windows.

DETAILED MODULE DESCRIPTION:

 Definition, function and functional requirements.

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  Types of windows; materials that make them (timber, steel, aluminium,), method of
opening (case; vertical sliding, horizontally sliding sash, top hinged and side hinged)
 Iron mongeries
 Fixing windows to window frames and sub frames.
 Rust proofing metallic windows and window glazing
 Window schedules and their use.

WINDOWS:

Definition:

 it’s an opening found in a wall or roof that admits daylight into the room.
 A window consist of a sash and a frame( jambs, mullion, transome and head pieces)

Function:

Primary;
 light admission in to the building
Secondary;
 Ventilation of room by air circulation.
 To allow vision of the external environment by the occupants.

Functional requirements;

 Strength and stiffness; i.e. it must be able to resist the vertical and horizontal loads
without deformation
 Exclusion of wind and rain; it must be able to withstand bad weather of rain splash and
unfavourable winds when in locked position.
 Thermal insulation; it should be able to maintain the optimum temperature of the room by
preventing excessive loss of heat in the structure.
 Fire resistance; it should with stand fire for a given period of time so as to allow the
occupants to escape safely.

TYPES OF WINDOWS:

Windows are either wooden or metallic (steel and aluminium) and glazed or unglazed in some
cases.

Sashes are named according to the nature of the opening and the materials out of which they are
made; these include;

83
 1. Casement
2. Fixed
3. Sliding
4. Pivoted
5. Louvre
6. Dormer
7. Bay
8. Metal
9. Sky lights
10. Ventilators
11. Clerestory
12. Lantern
13. gable
14. corner

Casement windows:

Are windows whose sashes (shutters) open like the shutters of doors. Sashes are fitted in to the
rebates on the frame members. The sash members (component parts) are the stiles, top

rails, bottom rail and intermediate rails that divide the panels. The panels may be either glazed or
unglazed or partly glazed. They open outwards and can be single or double on a frame depending
on the size of the opening.

Construction details:

Fixed windows:

Are windows provided for the sole purpose of vision in to the rooms. The shutters( fully glazed)
are fixed to the frame(unrebated).

Constructional details:

84
Sliding windows:

They are similar to sliding doors. The sashes slide horizontally or vertically on small roller
bearings. They are used in banks, shops, counters, trains, buses etc.

Constructional details:

Pivoted windows:

In these windows, the shutters are allowed to swing/rotate horizontally or vertically round pivots
fixed to the window frame that do not have rebates.

Constructional details:

Louvered windows:

These are similar to the louvered doors for the sole purpose of providing ventilation. They do not
permit vision. The louvers are made of aluminium or slates of wood fixed to the grooves on the
stiles. Some louvers are pivoted to allow opening or closing (venetian shutters).

Constructional details.

85
Dormer windows:

A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the sloping roof for the sole purpose of
ventilation and lighting of inner rooms. It also improves on the beauty of the structure.

Constructional details:

Bay windows:

Bay windows are those that project the external wall of the room. It cab triangular, polygonal,
circular, and rectangular in plan. They provide an increased space of room, area of opening for
admitting greater light and air into the room.

Constructional details:

Sky lights:

The window projects above the top of the roof sloping surface for the purpose of admitting extra
light.

Construction details:

86
Ventilators:

Are small windows fixed at a height greater than that of windows. I.e. 300 to 500mm below roof
level. They are generally horizontally pivoted.:

Constructional details:

Clerestory

Are windows provided in a room which has greater ceiling height than the surrounding rooms
that are adjacent to it.

Constructional details:

Lantern windows:

These are windows provided over flat roofs for the sole purpose of admitting more light in to the
inner apartments.

Constructional details:

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Metal windows:

These are windows made of mild steel, aluminium, bronze, stainless steel etc. the commonest of
these is the mild steel windows because of their strength and less cost.

Construction details:

METHOD OF FOR FIXING.

 Prepare the opening in which the window frame should fit by marking the positions of
the horns, straps and the sills that are already on the frame using chalk.
 Chisel out holes into the brickwork at the marked positions of a size 5 to 10mm deep.
 Place the frame in position and align the frame work by wooden wedges in correct
positions. The alignment is tested for plumbness by spirit level or engineering bob.
 Cast/place concrete into the chiseled part and allow it to set for at least a day.
 Remove the wedges and replace it by mortar/give a finish.

NB: it is advisable for shutters in closed position (welded at locking position to keep it stable) to
be opened during the process of aligning the frame work to allow free and easy operation of the
shutter afterwards.

ADVANTAGES OF STEEL WINDOWS:

They:

 Are made with greater precision and a better quality.

 Exhibit elegant appearance and stream like finishing.
 Are stronger and more durable.
 Are rot and termite proof.
 Highly fire resistant.
 Provide more effective area as are made from thin sections
 Grant better facilities for providing different types of openable parts.
 Are to maintain and cost effective.
 Have contraction or expansion problems due to weather changes.

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RUST PROOFING AND WINDOW GLAZING:

Rust proofing of windows refers to the process of preventing direct effect of weather on the
window structures. This is done by either painting using paints or varnish.

Painting of new wood work:

Procedures;

 clean the surfaces to be painted.

 Kill /cover all knots (knotting) by applying the first coat of red lead(15g in litres of water,
adding 225g of glue and heating the solution.) the coat dries after 10mins and then the
second coat is applied (red lead in boiled linseed oil and thinned with turpentine oil)
while hot and left for 24 hours.
 After knotting, the surface is rubbed smooth with abrasive paper. Priming comprises of
3kgs of red lead, 3kgs of white lead and 3 litres of linseed oil. Priming should be done
before fixing the wood work in position
 Stopping is done after the priming i.e. sandpapering.
 Undercoating is given after stopping, second and successive coats.

 Prime with calcium hydroxide.

 Give the thin layer of first coat.
 Repeat second and third coats.

Painting metallic surfaces;

Procedures;

 Clean the surfaces off dust

 Treat the cleaned surface with thin film of phosphoric acid to prevent rust.
 Apply priming using a composition of 3kg of red lead in one litre of boiled linseed oil.
 Undercoats are of composition 3kg of red oxide dissolved in 5 litres of boiled linseed oil.
 A final coat of desired paint color is given as a finish.

NB: before applying a new layer ensure that the previous layers are dried.

Window glazing:

Metallic windows are glazed by means of putty.

Procedures;

 Clean the rebated area for the glass.

89
  Place the cut glass in position by glass silicon.
 Mix putty to make paste using thinner/paraffin/linseed oil and apply it to hold the glass
and the rebate.
 Give a leveled triangular finish to the surfaces as shown in the section below.

CURVE CUTTING SAWS

coping saw

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 Fret saw

Key hole saw.

bow saw.

tenon saw.

91
 chisels.

Rip saw

Dovetail tenon saw.

Figure 1STEEL FRAME BOW SAW/SITE BOW SAW

92
COMPASS SAW

93
94