The principles of Learning

Unit 112 (City and guilds 7407 2003 /2004)

Simon Smith

Introduction

“The history of education is littered with failed theories, even those that were the
result of years and years of research.”
Page 213, David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

The “Principles of Learning” are a broad collection of learning theories that have been
and developed over time. This essay aims to show how these different theories
underpin current educational policy in the United Kingdom. None of the theories
singularly explain how we learn fully but most have some relevance and are useful
when trying to understand the learning process. I aim to cover briefly the main
theories involved, pointing out their dominant strengths and weaknesses and relating
them to my own experience as a tutor.

Student Group

The student group that I will relate to from my own teaching practice is an ECDL
(European Computer Driving License) class. This course covers three terms and
meets for 4 hours per week. The group consists of 15 students and it is diverse in
economic, social, ability, religious and ethnic terms.

Old for New

It is easy to think of educational theory as a new thing however people have been
pondering this subject for millennia.

"Tell me and I'll forget. Show me and I'll remember. Involve me and I'll understand."
Confucius (551 BC-479 BC) Chinese Philosopher

"There are two modes of acquiring knowledge, namely by reasoning and experience.
Reasoning draws a conclusion and makes us grant the conclusion, but does not make
the conclusion certain, nor does it remove doubt so that the mind may rest on the
intuition of truth, unless the mind discovers it by the path of experience." Roger
Bacon (1561-1626) English Philosopher

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A Theory About Learning Theory

In “Teaching Training and Learning” by Ian Reece and Stephen Walker the writers
state that educational theorists tend to separate learning in to three main groups or
“domains”. These are psychomotor, cognitive and affective domains.” In layman’s
terms this could be transposed to mean the “physical, mental, and emotional” areas.

Most teaching tends to follow the rule of starting with the basics first and then work
upwards from there. These different levels of difficulty are known as “taxonomy”.
Within the domains mentioned above there are recognised strata of taxonomies.

Having some understanding, whether consciously or not of these concepts means that
an educator can plan with a strategy of progression that is appropriate for their
students.

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The Pedagogical V’s Andragogical

Andragogy has been defined by Malcolm Knowles as “the art and science of helping
adults learn” (Knowles 1970). Though many attribute the word to Knowles, it was
first used by the German Alexander Kapps in 1833 to describe Plato’s educational
theory (Davenport and Davenport 1985). Kapps’ use of andragogy met opposition in
Germany and soon fell from favour and was unused for nearly a century before
Eduard Lindeman introduced the term in America in the 1920's (Beder and Carrea
1988). “It was little used until Knowles was introduced to it the 60's and elaborated on
the word in his work, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy versus
Pedagogy.”
(“Andragogy or Pedagogy” Bob Monts, Illinois State University, April 2000)

Assumptions of Andragogy and Pedagogy

Andragogy differs from pedagogy based upon four assumptions:

1 Pedagogy views the learner as dependent.

2 Pedagogy sees little validity in the learner’s previous experience,
andragogy, on the other hand, views the experience of the learner as a deep
reservoir that serves as a resource for learning.
3 Pedagogy assumes that everyone is ready to learn what society says that
they ought to learn.
4 The final pedagogical assumption is that learning is subject centered and it
moves from mastery of the simple to the more complex. Andragogy
differs, in that it understands education as a process of developing
increased competencies. “Therefore the structure of learning is
performance-centred rather than subject-centred” (Knowles 1980 pp.43-
44).

In my own teaching I use facets of both practices, for instance I use the transmission
method both in using a lecturing technique and referring to text and exercise books,
however I also use negotiation, question and answer sessions, buzz groups, problem
solving and often use the knowledge of my students to help all of us develop within
the class.

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Motivation

Maslow

For most people it’s hard to learn if certain needs are not met beforehand. Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Basic Human Needs is a good example of this. In it Maslow identified 5
essential needs. These are physical, safety and shelter, love and belonging, self esteem
and self-actualisation. When these needs are not met there will most likely be a
disturbance to the learning process.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Often described as “Intrinsic and Extrinsic”, but more easily understood as doing
something for an internal reward or doing something because of an external reward.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivations are not simple categories either as within each
group are subgroups where different weights and values exist.

Instinctive

In “When teaching becomes learning” (pg 24) Sotto writes that babies show pleasure
in being able to make certain things happen This indicates that we innately want to
learn to master things and feel we have control over our surroundings. In other words
much of our motivation to learn is instinctive.

My task as a tutor is not so much to create motivation but to ensure that it isn’t
blocked.

Level of motivation

A consequence of how motivated a student may be is whether they engage in

“surface” or “deep learning” ( Reece, Walker, “Teacher Training and Learning” 2003,
pg. 80 & 81).

“Information theory is a quantative theory whereas most things that are

important to humans are qualative” Cohen and Stuart The Collapse of Chaos”

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Learning Theories

In “Minds, Brains and Science” John Searle refers to some of the theories we will be
covering as “materialist conceptions of the mind” that end up denying “that there are
such things as minds”

There are many teaching and learning models in existence, some seem to define what
has probably been understood for centuries (De Cecco’s Model of Concept Teaching),
while others attempt different approaches (Synetics or the Jurisprudential model). All
have relative value even if only to put in to perspective other theories.

There are several relatively contemporary models of the teaching – learning

relationship. These are Constructivism, Socioculturalism, Transmission, and
Metacognition. These have had a profound effect on teaching practise today but can
only be mentioned in passing here due to space limitations. Even so their significance
lies in their help in defining what teaching and learning is about.

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Behaviourism

In the early twentieth century, John B. Watson, declared that human beings “should
be studied like any other animal. “Behaviour” should be observed like the
phenomena in all other natural sciences.”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

He also declared, that a behaviourist could not observe “anything that can be called
consciousness sensation, perception, imagery or will. Experiments were to be
confined to objective observations of the results of stimulus and response.”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

Decision making was effectively ignored, as was thinking it through, which for the
sake of objectivity must be ignored. While some behaviourists, such as Tolman,
accepted that ‘goal seeking’, ‘the will’ and other attitudinal terms were important. The
majority thought that they could not be part of the examination/criterion-referencing
system. Later other Behaviourists fine tuned the theories, most notably Skinner who
argued that “a learning process is accelerated by reinforcement”, via conditioning
“Skinner believed that you could predict behaviour- you could control the
process of learning and shape the behaviour as you wished”…. He also believed
that a technology of learning could be devised. So teachers should not be
learning by experience but ‘Teachers need the kind of help offered by scientific
analysis of behaviour.’
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

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Neo Behaviourist

A later off shoot of the Behaviourists were the Neo Behaviourist psychologists who
since the mid-1960 were particularly influenced by R. Gagne. He was involved in the
structural analysis of the learning processes and the design of teaching. By devising a
systematic approach to instruction his theories strongly influence the design of many
teaching programmes today. For Gagne it was important to recognise the importance
of “process” in learning, and outcomes were seen as the main criteria of successful
instruction.

Gagne proposed the use of “instructional sequences” related to a hierarchy of learning

These included:
1 Informing the learner as to what form of performance is expected
after completion of learning
2 Questioning the learner to illicit recall of previously learned concepts
3 Using cues to elicit the information of chains of concepts or rules
4 Requiring the learner to make a verbal statement of the rule
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

In keeping with the ethos of the behaviourists this is an attempt to structuralise the
learning process and by doing so starts to narrow the possibilities, especially for the
student. There is little room for “dynamic organic change within such a
programme,” …. “nor does it acknowledge that humans are exploratory
animals. Decision making is for the instructor. How can this produce
independent learners, let alone independent thinkers?” …. “Where is the ‘trust
in the students’?
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

The case for the behaviourists is one that there is no denying that we partly learn due
to negative and positive reinforcement. Their thoughts on the subject have focused
our thoughts and in turn this has influenced the way we teach today to a large degree.

The case against the Behaviourists consists includes the criticisms that by trying to
“exclude the mind from Psychology” (David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult
Education), they acted as if the mind was working on one level only, denying such
things as a sub-conscious, the importance of motivation, and attitudinal change. It was
also found that “Humans developed resistance to conditioning” (David Minton
Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

‘Any reference to consciousness was carefully excluded from fear it would

introduce the scientifically’ immeasurable.
George Miller state of mind: conversations with psychological investigators.

The behaviourists’ programme of research was based on the assumption that

behaviour of all kinds can be explained in terms of stimuli and response. While this is
true to a certain extent the fact that the Behaviourists excluded such large aspects of
our mind’s working meant that they were limiting aspects of reality that ultimately
limited their field of vision too.
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“Powerful as it is, conditioning is not the only type of learning”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

Relevance to my own teaching

When working with my ECDL class there are facets of behaviourism that come in to
play. Outside of the traditional positive and negative feedback I tend to use a text
book that is structured in to lessons that comprise several sections, each one orientates
the student to taking in information and working with it then testing the student. The
process of having mini (generally easy) tests helps to build confidence.

A positive aspect of this system in this context is that a lot of information can be
covered in a short time, but the drawback is that students tend to become very
dependent on being spoon-fed information.

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Gestalt

One of my ECDL students told me how frustrated she felt when she couldn’t
understand an aspect what I was trying to teach the class. She felt I wasn’t teaching
well and under attack I had to apologise. Later I took the student aside and explained
that from times of impasse we often come to moments of understanding, I like to call
them “Eureka” moments. Accepting this as a major part of the learning process helps
students to be less anxious when faced with a deadlock. Letting our minds find a
solution over time is part of the process identified and focused on by the Gestalt
school of psychology.

The theories of Gestalt are more than just the identification of “Eureka moments”,
however it is this principle that I tend to use mostly in my own classes. For the
Gestaltists, “the whole is greater than sum of the past” this means that “a topic
does not just consist of ‘bricks’ but also of the way they fit together. In other
words in order to understand a topic, one must understand the way its facts fit
together to make a certain pattern”
“When Teaching Becomes Learning” Sotto 1994

In practice giving learners a rough outline of how the facts that are to be covered
during a lesson / course relate to each other will help the students make the
appropriate connections.

“What distinguishes insight learning for all these theories is that:

1 the solution is solved suddenly, as if pieces were fitting together

2 once it has been accomplished, it is easy to solve similar problems
3 it leads to permanence in learning – it appears to become part of our
way of dealing with the world - and we can transfer that learning to
unfamiliar situations in different contexts”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

Much of what the Gestaltists saw as an essential learning process revolved around
“problem solving”, through which students become more adept at further problem
solving and in time become independent learners. For the Gestaltists the acquisition
and retention of insight formed the core of the learning process. This led to a process
of learning that required questions rather than answers.

“Capacity for creative thinking will be present in most learners. This capacity is
in the student, and is to be bought out, it is not in the teacher to be transferred to
the learner by some techniques of knowledge transfer.”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

This was a revolution in terms of teacher centred learning, from this point onwards
the factor of student centred learning became a major concern for educationalists.

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Criticisms of Gestalt

As with most theories this one wasn’t without criticism. The main concerns were of a
practical nature. For instance students may feel overwhelmed by the problems, they
may become very impatient, and they may not have enough information in the first
place for them to gain a view of the whole. They may also draw the wrong
conclusions which can be very hard to rectify. If a teacher is watching to see if the
students are heading in the wrong direction, at what point should they jump in to
rescue the situation? Another major problem is that of time, often courses have far
more “subject matter” to be covered than would be possible using this technique, and
even where there is time the results are often difficult to measure or even see if the
“gaps” or “building blocks” have really been understood without returning to a more
intense “test” based system.

In reality a “pick and mix” approach probably serves most people well. Interjecting
problem solving sections within a course can be stimulating and encourage the
“Gestalt” learning process to take place.

“Indoctrination approaches to teaching clearly suppress creativity-are in fact

intended to do so. Memory rote -learning has an important place in the laying
foundations, let’s say in number work, but used as a major means of instruction
it stifles the very learning we are trying to assist.”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

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The Cognitivists

The Cognitivists were concerned that students should learn how to analyse problems
and learn how to think for them selves. By doing so they could become independent
learners. For a Cognitivist the role of the tutor is to aid a student to discover things for
themselves through “inquiry teaching”. It is the process that takes place in order to
understand something that is of importance. The setting of goals, the description
through “advance organisers” of what is to be learned, and an emphasis on feedback
that underpins this theory can be seen prominently in contemporary teaching practice.

In my own practice the use of advance organisers, problem solving and an aim of
helping people become independent learners are echoes of this theory.

The Humanists

With an emphasis on self motivation, and autonomy rather than control from a teacher
or organisation, the humanists, possibly as a reaction to theories such as those of the
Behaviourists developed a system which became quite popular in the 1960’s. Much of
the practical application of the theory took place in a school called “Summerhill”. The
School rules were made by the students and teachers via a democratic process,
students could choose whether to go to class or not and the main objective of the
school was to focus on the development of a student as a whole rather than their
knowledge of subjects. This system relies on students being self motivated.

Of particular relevance to adult education is the respect and dignity ascribed to

students by the humanists. Most students involved in adult education are generally
partly self motivated to be in the class. This and the aspect of negotiation within
courses that I teach are what I relate to with regards this theory.

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Transactional Analysis

Transactional Analysis became a nation-wide fad in the 1960's due to the best selling
success of Eric Berne's book, Games People Play. Transactional analysis is a social
psychology developed by Eric Berne, MD (d.1970). Over the past four decades Eric
Berne's theory has evolved to include applications to psychotherapy, counselling,
education, and organizational development.
http://www.itaa-net.org/ta/

Transactional Analysis is an easily grasped psychological theory that can be used to

attempt to “understand” the psychological dynamics of people working in groups.
The theory purports that when people interact they do so in one of three different ego
states. An ego state is a specific way of thinking feeling and behaving and each ego
state has its origin in specific regions of the brain. People can behave from their
Parent ego state, or from their Child ego state or from their Adult ego state. At any
one time our actions come from one of these three ego states.
http://www.claudesteiner.com/core.htm

In terms of my own teaching I spend quite a lot of effort trying to develop group
dynamics. What this actually entails is less a case of setting up of situations that will
actively develop group dynamics but more a case of dealing with situations that may
cause blockages. Generally this means dealing with aggression and rudeness
appropriately as well as students dominating the class, but most importantly creating a
positive atmosphere of acceptance, mutual respect and accessibility.

Generally the tutor / student relationship aspect of teaching is not delved in to in any
depth by educationalists but some are, namely the “Tavistock Institute of Human
Relations” which has spent many years researching this dynamic and offers courses
such as “Emotional Factors in Learning and Teaching” (details of which can be found
at:

http://www.tavi-port.org/departments/c_coursesandproftraining/tavicourses/D1.pdf )

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The Reflective Constructivist View

"(There is a) need of forming a theory of experience in order that

education may be intelligently conducted upon the basis of experience."
-- John Dewey

"There is nothing so practical as a good theory."

Kurt Lewin

http://www.learningfromexperience.com

David Kolb wrote a highly influential book entitled 'Experiential Learning (1984)
since when his ideas have had a dramatic impact on the design and development
of lifelong learning models, although it is used typically in a much simplified and
even stereotypical form that neglects the depth and variation to be found in Kolb
(1984). The concept of “experiential learning” explores the cyclical pattern of all
learning from Experience through Reflection and Conceptualising to Action and on
to further Experience. "The most direct application of the model is to use it to
ensure that teaching and tutoring activities give full value to each stage of the
process."
http://www.reviewing.co.uk/research/experiential.learning.htm

The Kolb Learning Cycle

Kolb (1984) provides a useful model of the adult learning process. The model starts
with Lewin's cycle of adult learning.

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David Kolb's model of the Learning Cycle (LC) refers to the process by which
“learners” deal with and come to terms with their experiences, and by doing so
change their behaviour. The LC is based on the idea that the more often we reflect on
a task, the greater the opportunity to modify and refine our efforts. The logic of the
learning cycle is to make many small and incremental improvements, which constitute
major improvements over time.

The LC contains the following four stages:

This suggests that there are four stages which follow from each other: Concrete
Experience is followed by Reflection on that experience on a personal basis. This
may then be followed by the derivation of general rules describing the experience, or
the application of known theories to it (Abstract Conceptualisation), and hence to
the construction of ways of modifying the next occurrence of the experience (Active
Experimentation), leading in turn to the next Concrete Experience. All this may
happen in a flash, or over days, weeks or months, depending on the topic, and there
may be a "wheels within wheels" process at the same time.

http://www.css.edu/users/dswenson/web/PAGEMILL/Kolb.htm

Honey and Mumford defined four styles, based loosely around the four stages of
Kolb's cycle: Activists, Reflectors, Theorists and Pragmatists.

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Criticisms of Kolb Learning Cycle

Not all writers agree with Kolb's theory, here's a summary of the main criticisms:

1. The model has been criticised for being stronger conceptually than as an
accurate representation of the way people actually learn through
experience.
a. The idea of stages or steps does not sit well with the reality of
thinking (Dewey 1933);
b. ''In reality, these things may be happening all at once.'' (Jeffs and
Smith, 1999) at http://www.infed.org/foundations/f-explrn.htm “
c. Rogers, for example points out that "learning includes goals,
purposes, intentions, choice and decision-making, and it is not at
all clear where these elements fit into the learning cycle." (Rogers,
1996, p. 108)
d.
2. The circular model may also give the impression that the stages are equal in
time, emphasis etc..
3. It pays insufficient attention to the process of reflection (see Boud et al
1983);
4. The model takes very little account of different cultural experiences /
conditions; Tracey Dickson (Sept 2000) writes: “the research basis of the
model particularly with reference to lack of research with people from
different backgrounds (eg: cultures, gender, ages, socio-economic, education
etc..) …. the seemingly simplistic linear nature of the model (many people
I know do not learn in this nice linear way, they are much more random,
may "regress" through Kolb's stages, work in different orders) “
5. The empirical support for the model is weak (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997).
'' For more detail supporting these points see: Experiential Learning
Prepared by Mark K. Smith © the informal education homepage

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm

6. "As for the Inventory, Kolb, himself, points out its greatest limitation. The
results are based solely on the way learners rate themselves. It does not rate
learning style preferences through standards or behavior, as some other
personal style inventories do, and it only gives relative strengths within the
individual learner, not in relation to others.”

http://www.reviewing.co.uk/research/experiential.learning.htm

In relation to my own work this theory is useful in re-assessing my students and my

own practices and experiences. Whether it’s the assessment of a class, or the
identification of what has been learnt this system helps in its identification of a
process of development.

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Conclusion

Throughout this paper I have briefly covered many of the learning theories credited
with being highly influential with regards contemporary teaching practice in the UK. I
have identified where possible the influence and effects these theories have on my
teaching practice. I have also tried to show that while many of the theories have failed
to explain “how we learn” as fully as their creators may have wished their insights
have proved to be of importance for educators.

“the great optimism about being able to explain everything has largely died”
David Minton Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education

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Bibliography

Reece, Walker (2003)“Teaching Training and Learning”

Minton (2002) “Teaching Skills in Further & Adult Education”

Sotto, Eric (1994) “When Teaching Becomes Learning”

Searle, John R. (1984). “Minds, Brains and Science” Harvard University Press,

Web sites

http://www.css.edu/users/dswenson/web/PAGEMILL/Kolb.htm

http://www.learningfromexperience.com

http://www.peterhoney.co.uk

(“Andragogy or Pedagogy” Bob Monts, Illinois State University, April 2000)

“http://www.coe.ilstu.edu/scienceed/jinks/ci538/papers/monts.htm

Internet based sources

Andragogy or Pedagogy http://www.coe.ilstu.edu/scienceed/jinks/ci538/papers/monts.htm

Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc.

http://www.learningfromexperience.com/

GURTEEN - Quotation On the importance of involvement by Confucius

http://www.gurteen.com/gurteen/gurteen.nsf/0/E796D9F5EE2FCC6680256895007579A7/

Kolb
http://www.css.edu/users/dswenson/web/PAGEMILL/Kolb.htm

Learning from experience

http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/experien.htm

Peterhoney.com - Welcome to PeterHoney.com - the home of the Honey and Mumford

Learning Styles Questionnaire!
http://www.peterhoney.co.uk/main/

Robert F. Bruner -- Design for a Coffee Mug for Students in Case Method Classes
The ModelPrinciples of Learning Summary
http://faculty.darden.virginia.edu/brunerb/resources_mugstudent.htm

Transactional Analysis
http://www.claudesteiner.com/core.htm
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