CH 16

16.
Waveguides
(by Milton L. Kult)
16.1. Introduction
The electromagnetic waves of Chapter 14 can be guided in a given direction of propagation using several different methods.
For instance, the two-conductor transmission line, supporting what are essentially plane waves at megahertz frequencies, was
considered in Chapter 15. The present chapter is restricted to single-conductor (hollow-pipe) waveguides, of rectangular or
circular cross section, which operate in the gigahertz (microwave) range. These devices too support "plane waves"—in the
sense that the wavefronts are planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation. However, the boundary conditions at the
inner surface of the pipe force the fields to vary over a wavefront.
16.2. Transverse and Axial Fields

The waveguide is positioned with the longitudinal direction along thez axis. In general, the guide walls have σc = ∞ (perfect
conductor) and the dielectric-filled hollow has σ = 0 (perfect dielectric), μ = μ0 μr, and ϵ = ϵ0 ϵr. It is further supposed that ρ = 0
(no free charge) in the dielectric. The dimensions for the cross section are inside dimensions. In Fig. 16-1(a) the a × b
rectangular waveguide is shown in a Cartesian coordinate system, Fig. 16-1(b) shows the circular or cylindrical waveguide of
radius a in a cylindrical coordinate system.
Figure 16-1
As in Chapter 14 the time dependence ejωt will be assumed for the electromagnetic field in the dielectric core; this time factor
will be suppressed everywhere in the analysis (as in phasor notation). Thus we have the following expressions for the field
vector F (which stands for either E or H), assuming wave propagation in the +z direction.
Rectangular coordinates. F = F(x,y)e−j kz where

F(x,y) = Fx(x,y)ax + Fy(x,y)ay + Fz(x,y)az
≡ FT (x,y) + Fz(x,y)az
Cylindrical coordinates. F = F(r,ϕ)e−j kz where
F(r,ϕ) = Fr(r,ϕ)ar + Fϕ (r,ϕ)aϕ + Fz(r,ϕ)az
≡ FT (r,ϕ) + Fz(r,ϕ)az
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Because the dielectric is lossless (σ = 0), the wave propagates without attenuation; hence, thewave number k = 2π/λ (in rad/m)
is constrained to be real and positive.
Note: In the other chapters of this book, unbounded dielectric media are considered, for which the wave number, notatedβ,
depends on frequency and dielectric properties only. However, as will soon appear, the wave number in a bounded dielectric
depends additionally on the geometry of the boundary. This important distinction is emphasized by the employment of a new
symbol, k, in the present chapter.
The reason for decomposing the field vector into a transverse vector component FT and an axial vector component Fzaz is two-
fold. On the one hand, the boundary conditions apply to ET and HT alone (see Problems 16.1 and 16.2). On the other hand, as
will now be shown, the complete E and H fields in the waveguide are known once either Cartesian component Dz or Hz is known.
16.2.1. Transverse Components from Axial Components.

Assume a rectangular coordinate system. Maxwell's equation (2) of Section 14.2 yields the three scalar equations
∂Ez
−jωμHx = jkEy +
∂y
(1a)
∂Ez
−jωμHy = −jkEx −
∂x
(1b)
∂Ey ∂Ex
−jωμHz = −
∂x ∂y
(1c)
Maxwell's equation (1) of Section 14.2, with σ = 0, gives three additional scalar equations:
∂Hz
jωϵEx = jkHy +
∂y
(2a)
∂Hz
jωϵEy = − jkHx −
∂x
(2b)
∂Hy ∂Hx
jωϵEz = −
∂x ∂y
(2c)
Now eliminate Hx between (1a) and (2b), and Hy between (1b) and (2a), to obtain
jk ∂Ez jωμ ∂Hz

Ey = − +
k2c ∂y k2c ∂x
(3a)
jk ∂Ez jωμ ∂Hz

Ex = − −
k2c ∂x k2c ∂y
(3b)
in which k2 c ≡ ω2 μϵ − k2 . The parameter kc (also in rad/m) functions as a critical wave number; see Problem 16.3. Finally, slide
(3b) and (3a) back into (2a) and (2b), to find
jk ∂Hz jωϵ ∂Ez

Hy = − −
k2c ∂y k2c ∂x
(3c)
jk ∂Hz jωϵ ∂Ez

Hx = − +
k2c ∂x k2c ∂y
(3d)
By exciting the waveguide in suitable fashion it is possible to force either Ez or Hz (but not both) to vanish identically. The
nonvanishing axial component will then determine all other components via Equations (3).
See Problems 16.4 and 16.5 for the analogous results in cylindrical coordinates.
16.3. TE and TM Modes; Wave Impedances

The two types of waves found in Section 16.2 are referred to as transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic (TM) waves,
according as Ez ≡ 0 or Hz ≡ 0. When carrying such waves, the guide is said to operate in a TE or TMmode.
For any transverse electromagnetic wave, the wave impedance (in ohms) is defined as
|ET |
η≡
|HT |
(4)
(compare Chapter 14). For a waveguide in a TE mode, (1a) and (1b) imply
ωμ 2 ωμ 2
|ET |2 = |Ex|2 + ∣Ey∣2 = ( ) ( ∣Hy∣2 + |Hx|2) = ( ) |HT |2
kTE kTE
or
ωμ
ηTE =
kTE
(5)
Because (4) only involves lengths of two-dimensional vectors, η must be independent of the coordinate system.Problem 16.6
confirms the value of ηTE by recalculating it in cylindrical coordinates. In Problem 16.7 it is shown (using rectangular
coordinates) that
kTM
ηTM =
ωϵ
(6)
16.4. Determination of the Axial Fields

All that remains for a complete description of the TE and TM modes is the determination of the respective axial fields:Fz = Hz
for TE; Fz = Ez for TM. The good word is that Fze−jkz, being a Cartesian component of F (in either rectangular or cylindrical
coordinates), must satisfy the scalar wave equation found in Section 14.2,
∇2(Fze−j kz) = −ω2μϵ(Fze−j kz)
(7)
together with appropriate boundary conditions which are inferred from the boundary conditions on the components ofFT.
[Warning: Transverse components such as Hϕ e−jkz are not Cartesian components and do not obey a scalar wave equation.]
16.4.1. Explicit Solutions for TE Modes of a Rectangular Guide.

The wave equation (7) becomes
∂2Hz ∂2Hz
+ + k2cTEHz = 0
∂x2 ∂y2
where, as previously defined, k2 cTE = ω2 μϵ − k2 TE . Solving by separation of variables (Section 9.7),
Hz(x,y) = (Ax cos kxx + Bx sin kxx)(Ay cos kyy + By sin kyy)
(8)
2 2 2
where k2 x + k2 y = k2 cTE . The separation constants kx and ky are determined by the boundary conditions (review Problem 9.19).
Consider first the x-conditions Ey (0, y) = Ey (a, y) = 0; in view of (3a) and Ez ≡ 0 these translate into
∂Hz ∣ ∂Hz ∣
∣ = ∣ =0
∂x ∣x= 0 ∂x ∣x=a
Applying these conditions to (8) gives Bx = 0 and
mπ
sin kxa = 0 or kx = (m = 0, 1, 2, …)
a
By symmetry, the boundary conditions in y force By = 0 and
nπ
ky = (n = 0, 1, 2,…)
b
Each pair of nonnegative integers (m, n)—with the exception of (0, 0) which gives a trivial solution—identifies a distinct TE mode,
indicated as TEmn. This mode has the axial field
mπx nπy
Hzmn(x, y) = Hmn cos cos
a b
(9)
from which the transverse field is obtained through (3). The critical wave number for TEmn is
kc TE mn = √(
mπ 2 nπ 2
) +( )
a b
in terms of which the wave number and wave impedance for TEmn are
kTE mn = √ω2μϵ − k2cTEmn
(11)
ωμ
ηTE mn =
√ω2μϵ − k2cTEmn
(12)
See Problem 16.9 for the TMmn modes of a rectangular waveguide; it is shown there that kcTMmn = kcTEmn. Consequently, the
subscripts TE and TM can be dropped from all modal parameters of rectangular guides save the wave impedance. This is not
the case with cylindrical guides; see Problem 16.12.
16.5. Mode Cutoff Frequencies

16.5. Mode Cutoff Frequencies
In practice one deals with frequencies, not wave numbers; it is then desirable to replace the concept of critical wave number
(kc) by one of cutoff frequency (fc). This is accomplished in the definition (see Problem 16.3)
u0 1
fc ≡ kc = k
2π 2π√μϵ c
(13)
In terms of the cutoff frequency fc and the operating frequency f = ω/2π > fc (10), (11), and (12) become
√( ) + ( ) (rectangular waveguide)
u0 m 2 n 2
fcmn =
2 a b
(10 bis)
2π λ0
kmn = √f 2 − fcmn
2 or λmn =
u0 √1 − (fcmn /f)2
(11 bis)
η0
ηTE mn =
√1 − (fcmn /f)2
(12 bis)
where λ0 = u0 /f is the wavelength of an imaginary uniform plane wave at the operating frequency and whereη0 =
√μ/ϵ is the plane-wave impedance of the lossless dielectric. The second form of (11 bis) exhibits the relation between the
operating wavelength λ0 and the actual guide wavelength λmn. For TMmn waves, (12 bis) is replaced by [see (6)]
ηTMmn = η0√1 − (
fcmn 2
)
f
(14)
The phase velocity of a TEmn or TMmn wave is given by
u0
umn = λmnf =
√1 − (
fcmn 2
)
f
(15)
If (10 bis) is replaced by a similar expression involving a Bessel function (see Problems 16.10 and 16.11), all formulas remain
valid for cylindrical guides.
The meaning of cutoff is made particularly clear in (15). As the operating frequency drops down to the cutoff frequency, the
velocity becomes infinite—which is characteristic, not of wave propagation, but of diffusion (instantaneous spread of
exponentially small disturbances).
16.6. Dominant Mode

The dominant mode of any waveguide is that of lowest cutoff frequency. Now, for a rectangular guide, the coordinate system
may always be oriented to make a ≥ b. Since (Problem 16.9)
√( ) + ( )
u0 m 2 n 2
fcmn =
2 a b
for either TE or TM, but neither m nor n can vanish in TM, the dominant mode of a rectangular guide is invariably TE10, with
u0 λ0 2π λ10
fc10 = λ10 = ≡ u10 = λ10f η10 = η0
2a √1 − (λ0 /2a)2 k10 λ0
From (9), Ez10 ≡ 0, and the equations of Section 16.2:
πx
Hz10 = H10 cos Ex10 = 0
a
2a 2a
Hx10 = j ( ) Ey10 = −η10Hx10 = −jη0 ( )
πx πx
H10 sin H10 sin
λ10 a λ0 a
Hy10 = 0
(16)
For H10 real, the three nonzero field components have the time-domain expressions
πx
Hz10 = H10 cos ( ) cos(ωt − k10z)
a
2a
Hx10 = − ( ) H10 sin ( ) sin (ωt − k10z)
πx
λ10 a
2a
Ey10 = η0 ( ) H10 sin ( ) sin (ωt − k10z)
πx
λ0 a
(17)
Plot of the dominant-mode fields (17) at t = 0 are given in Figs. 16-2 and 16-3. Both |Ey | and |Hx| vary as sin (πx/a). This is
indicated in Fig. 16-2 by drawing the lines of E close together near x = a/2 and far apart near x = 0 and x = a. The lines of H are
shown evenly spaced because there is no variation with y. This same line-density convention is used to indicate the local value
of |E| = |Ey | in Fig. 16-3(a) and of
|H | = √Hx2 + Hz2
Figure 16-2 Transverse cross section z = −λ10/4, (−k 10z = π/2).
Figure 16-3 Longitudinal cross sections.
in Fig. 16-3(b). Observe that the lines of H are closed curves (div H = 0); the H field may be considered as circulating about the
perpendicular displacement current density JD (Section 13.6).
Fig. 16-4 illustrates how the TE10 mode can be initiated in a rectangular waveguide by inserting a probe halfway across the top
wall (y = b, x = a/2), at a distance z = λ10/4 from the end of the guide. Higher-order modes are present in the vicinity of the probe,
but they will not propagate if the frequency-size condition is selected correctly.
Figure 16-4
See Problem 16.13 for the dominant mode of a cylindrical waveguide.
16.7. Power Transmitted in a Lossless Waveguide

The time-average power transmitted in the +z direction is calculated by integration of the z component of the complex Poynting
vector over a transverse cross section of the guide (cf. Section 14.13):
∫ ∫
cross
¯¯¯z = 1 Re section ET × H∗T ⋅ az dS
P
2
(18)
Substituting the field components from (16) and writing Ag = ab, we obtain for the dominant mode of a lossless rectangular
waveguide:
) √1 − (
2a 2a f 2 fc10 2
|H10 | ( ) ( ) Ag = |H10 | Ag( )
¯¯¯ η0 2 η0 2
P z10 =
4 λ0 λ10 4 fc10 f
(19)
As expected for a lossless system,

¯¯¯z10 is independent of z; moreover, the power is proportional to the square of the field amplitude and to the cross-sectional
P
area of the guide. Since the excitation of a guide is commonly specified through the electric field amplitude,
2a
|E10 | = η0 ( ) |H10 |
λ0
it is useful to rewrite (19) as
|E10 | 2Ag |E10 | 2Ag

√1 − (
fc10 2
¯¯¯z10 =
P ) = (W)
4η0 f 4ηTE10
(19 bis)
Relations similar to (19) and (19 bis) exist for the higher-order modes.
For the lossless cylindrical guide, seeProblem 16.15.
16.8. Power Dissipation in a Lossy Waveguide

When the conductivity of the guide dielectric is nonzero (but small) and/or the conductivity of the guide walls is noninfinite, the
wave in any propagating mode will be attenuated and transmitted power will decrease exponentially with z. An approximate
treatment of these dielectric and wall losses is possible on the assumptions that the two types may be analyzed separately and
that the fields which interact with the walls are those which would be present if the dielectric were lossless. To keep the
mathematics as simple as possible, only the TE10 mode of a rectangular waveguide will be treated.
16.8.1. Dielectric Loss.

Maxwell's equations (1)−(4) of Section 14.2 are unchanged if σ = σd , the dielectric conductivity, is replaced by zero and ϵ = ϵd ,
the dielectric permittivity, is replaced by its complex permittivity
jσd
ϵ̂ ≡ ϵd −
ω
Therefore, the field equations for the lossy dielectric may be obtained from those for the lossless dielectric by formal
substitution of
ϵ̂ for ϵd . In particular, the z dependence of the field vectors in the lossy TE10 mode is exp (−γ10z), where, by (11),
γ10 = jk10(ϵ̂) = j√ω2μdϵ̂ − k2c10 = j√(ω2μdϵd − k2c10) − jωμdσd

1/2
≡ jβ10(1 − )
jωμdσd
≈( ) + jβ10
ωμdσd
β210 2β10
(20)
In (20),
2π
β10 ≡ √ω2μdϵd − k2c10 = k10(ϵd) = √1 − (fc10 /f)2
λ0
(21)
and the binomial approximation presumes that σd and ω are small enough to make ωμ d σd << β 2 10. To this order of
approximation, then, the wave number—the imaginary part of γ10—in the lossy dielectric equals the wave number in the perfect
dielectric; while the attenuation factor, αd = Re γ10, which governs the power loss in the dielectric, is given by
ωμdσd (√μd /ϵd) σd 1

αd ≈ = = ηTE10σd (Np/m)
2β10 2√1 − (fc10 /f)2 2
(22)
16.8.2. Wall Loss.

The attenuation factor αw governing the wall loss may be determined indirectly, as follows. Because power varies as the square
of the field strength, the time-average transmitted power in the TE10 mode must obey
¯¯¯z10e− 2αwz
Pav(z) = P
where the entrance power

¯¯¯z10 is as given in (19). The power dissipated in the walls per unit z-length is thus
P
Ploss(z) = −Pav
′ (z) = 2α P (z)
w av
whence
( ) (0)
Ploss(z) Ploss(0)
αw = =
2Pav(z) 2P¯¯¯z10
(23)
All that remains is to calculate Ploss(0), the power flowing into the first 1 m of wall inner surface. Now, it is not hard to show that,
at a wall surface, tangential H—which by hypothesis can be obtained from (16)—sets up a Poynting vector, of time-average
magnitude
¯¯¯loss = 1 Rs∣ Htang ∣2

S
2
(24)
and directed into the wall. Here, Rs = Re ηw =

√πfμw/σw (Section 14.7) is the surface resistance (Ω) of the wall material at the given frequencyf. Integrating the
appropriate expression (24) over the first 1 m of each wall surface and adding the results yields finally
a
Ploss(0) = Rs|H10 |2 [b + (f/fc10)2] (W/m)
2
(25)
From (23), (19), and (25),
a + 2b(fc10 /f)2
(√ )
Rsc10 f
αw = (Np/m)
η0 fc10 ab√1 − (fc10 /f)2
(26)
in which Rsc10 is the surface resistance at the cutoff frequency of TE10 and η0 =
√μd/ϵd is the plane-wave impedance of the (lossless) dielectric.
16.8.3. Combined Losses.

The total attenuation factor is αtot = αw + αd . To convert from Np/m to the more usual dB/m, seeProblem 14.7.
16.9. SOLVED PROBLEMS

16.1. Give the boundary conditions on E and H at each perfectly conducting wall of the waveguide ofFig. 16-1(a).
At a perfect conductor tangential E and normal H must vanish. Therefore:
Top wall Ez(x, b) = Ex(x, b) = 0 and H y(x, b) = 0
Left wall Ez(0, y) = Ey(0, y) = 0 and H x(0, y) = 0
Right wall Ez(a, y) = Ey(a, y) = 0 and H x(a, y) = 0
Bottom wall Ez(x, 0) = Ex(x, 0) = 0 and H y(x, 0) = 0
16.2. Repeat Problem 16.1 for the guide of Fig. 16-1(b).
At the single cylindrical wall,
Ez(a,ϕ) = Eϕ (a,ϕ) = 0 and Hr(a,ϕ) = 0
16.3. What is "critical" about the number kc?
For propagation through a lossless dielectric, the wave number k must be real. But
k = √ω2μϵ − k2c = √k20 − k2c
where k0 is the wave number of a uniform plane wave in the unbounded dielectric at the given ω. Thus, kc is a critical wave
number in the sense that a guided wave's same-frequency "twin" must have a wave number exceeding kc. Stated otherwise,
the frequency f of the guided wave must exceed the quantity (u0 /2π)kc, where u0 =
1/√μϵ is the wave velocity in the unbounded dielectric.
16.4. Express Maxwell's equations (1) and (2) of Section 14.2 in scalar form in a cylindrical coordinate system.
For the curl in cylindrical coordinates, see the Appendix. Equation 1

( ) yields (σ = 0):
1 ∂Hz
jωϵEr = + jkHϕ
r ∂ϕ
(i)
∂Hz
jωϵEϕ = −jkHr −
∂r
(ii)
1 ∂ 1 ∂Hr
jωϵEz = (rHϕ ) −
r ∂r r ∂ϕ
(iii)
Equation (2) yields:
1 ∂Ez
−jωμHr = + jkEϕ
r ∂ϕ
(iv)
∂Ez
−jωμHϕ = − jkEr −
∂r
(v)
1 ∂ 1 ∂Er
−jωμHz = (rEϕ ) −
r ∂r r ∂ϕ
(vi)
16.5. Using the equations of Problem 16.4, find all cylindrical field components in terms of Ez and Hz. From (i) and (v), with
kc as previously defined,
jωμ 1 ∂Hz jk ∂Ez

Er = − −
k2c r ∂ϕ k2c ∂r
(1)
From (ii) and (iv),
jωϵ 1 ∂Ez jk ∂Hz

Hr = −
(2)
From (1) and (i),
jωϵ ∂Ez jk 1 ∂Hz

Hϕ = − −
k2c ∂r k2c r ∂ϕ
(3)
From (2) and (ii),
jk 1 ∂Ez jωμ ∂Hz

Eϕ = − +
(4)
16.6. Calculate ηTE from the field components in cylindrical coordinates.
With Ez ≡ 0, (iv) and (v) of Problem 16.4 yield
|HT | = √ |Hr |2 + ∣ Hϕ ∣2 = √ (
kTE 2 2
) ∣ Eϕ ∣2 + ( TE ) |Er |2 = TE |ET |
k k
ωμ ωμ ωμ
whence
|ET | ωμ
ηTE ≡ =
|HT | kTE
16.7. Calculate ηTM from the field components in rectangular coordinates.
With Hz ≡ 0, (2a) and (2b) give
kTM 2
|Ez |2 + ∣ Ey ∣2 = ( ) ( ∣ Hy ∣2 + |Hx |2)
kTM
or |ET | = |HT |
ωϵ ωϵ
whence
|ET | k
ηTM ≡ = TM
|HT | ωϵ
16.8. Show that E and H are mutually perpendicular in any TE or TM wave (as with ordinary plane waves).
For either type of wave Ex = ηHy and Ey = −ηHx; therefore, since η is real,
ET ⋅ HT = Re (ExHx∗ + EyHy∗) = Re (ηHyHx∗ − ηHxHy∗)

= η Re (HyHx∗ − HxHy∗) = 0
Because EzH* z also vanishes, E · H = 0.
16.9. Obtain the analogues of (9)−(12) for TMmn.
Analogous to (8),
Ez(x,y) = (Cx cos kxx + Dx sin kxx)(Cy cos kyy + Dy sin kyy)
where
k2x + k2y = k2cTM ≡ ω2μϵ − k2TM
But now the boundary conditions,
Ez(0,y) = Ez(a,y) = 0 and Ez(x,0) = Ez(x,b) = 0
require that
mπ nπ
mπ nπ
Cx = 0 kx = Cy = 0 ky =
a b
where m, n = 1, 2, 3, …. Note that neither m nor n is zero in a TM mode.
The required formulas are
mπx nπy
Ezmn(x, y) = Emn sin sin
a b
(1)
kcTMmn = √(
mπ 2 nπ 2
) + ( ) = kcTEmn
a b
(2)
kTMmn = kTEmn
(3)
kTM
ηTMmn =
ωϵ
(4)
16.10. Determine the TM modes of a lossless cylindrical waveguide.
The Laplacian in cylindrical coordinates is given in the Appendix; the wave equation (7) for Ez(r, ϕ) becomes
∂2Ez 1 ∂Ez 1 ∂2Ez

+ + + k2cTMEz = 0 (k2cTM = ω2μϵ − k2TM)
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂ϕ 2
subject to the boundary conditions (i) Ez(r, ϕ + 2π) = Ez(r, ϕ); (ii) Ez(0, ϕ) bounded; (iii) Ez(a, ϕ) = 0.
Following Section 9.8, one solves by separation of variables to find
Eznp (r,ϕ) = Enp Jn(kcTMnp r) cos n ϕ
(1)
where n = 0, 1, 2, … and where xnp ≡ kcTMnpa is the pth positive root (p = 1, 2, …) of Jn(x) = 0. (The first few such roots are
listed in Table 16-1.)
Table 16-1 Roots xnp of Jn(x) = 0
n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3
p=1 2.405 3.832 5.136 6.380
p=2 5.520 7.016 8.417 9.761
p=3 8.645 10.173 11.620 12.015
The expression (1), together with Hz ≡ 0, determines all transverse field components in TM via Problem 16.5. The cutoff
frequency of TM np is given by
u0
fcTMnp = x p
2πa n
(2)
When (2) is used, all rectangular-guide formulas also apply to cylindrical guides; for example,
ηTMnp = η0√ 1 − (
λ0xnp 2
)
2πa
(3)
16.11. Determine the TE modes of a lossless cylindrical waveguide.
In a TE mode the axial field Hz(r, ϕ) obeys the wave equation and the conditions (i) and (ii) of Problem 16.10. As a
consequence of (2) of Problem 16.5, condition (iii) must be replaced by
∂Hz ∣
(iii)′ ∣ =0
∂r ∣r=a
The solution by separation is therefore:
Hznp (r,ϕ) = Hnp Jn(kcTEnp r) cos n ϕ
(1)
where n = 0, 1, 2, … and where x′np ≡ kcTEnp is the pth positive root (p = 1, 2, …) of J′n(x) = 0. See Table 16-2.
Table 16-2 Roots x′np of J′n(x) = 0
n=0 n=1 n=2 n=3
p=1 3.832 1.841 3.054 4.201
p=2 7.016 5.331 6.706 8.015
p=3 10.173 8.536 9.969 11.346
The analogues of (2) and (3) of Problem 16.10 are
u0 ′
fcTEnp = x p
2πa n
(2)
η0
ηTEnp =
√1 − (
λ0x′np 2
)
2πa
16.12. Discuss the relative magnitudes of fcTEnp and fcTMnp.
For each fixed n, the zeros xnp of Jn(x) and the stationary points x′np—where Jn(x) is a maximum or a minimum—alternate
along the x axis; this sine-wave-like behavior is clear in Fig. 9-3(a). For n > 0, the function starts at 0, and the first stationary
point precedes the first positive zero; thus, x′np < xnp, whence
kcTEnp < kcTMnp and fcTEnp < fcTMnp
For n = 0, the function starts at a maximum, and the ordering is reversed:
kcTE0p > kcTM0p and fcTE0p > fcTM0p
16.13.
a. What is the dominant mode of a lossless cylindrical waveguide? (b) List the first five modes in order of increasing cutoff
frequency.
b. By Problem 16.12, the dominant mode is either TM01 or the TEn1 with the lowest cutoff. Tables 16-1 and 16-2 indicate
(and analysis establishes) that the winner is TE11.
c. TE11, TM01, TE21, TE01, and TM 11 (a tie). [The first column of Table 16-2 is identical to the second column of Table 16-1
because J′0 (x) = −J1 (x).]
16.14. Obtain the transverse fields for the TE11 (dominant) mode of a cylindrical waveguide.
For m = p = 1, Equation (1) of Problem 16.11, Ez ≡ 0, and (1)−(4) of Problem 16.5 yield
jωμH11
Er11 = J1(kcTE11r) sin ϕ
k2cTE11r
(1)
−jkTE11H11 ′
Hr11 = J1(kcTE11r) cos ϕ
kcTE11
(2)
jkTE11H11
Hϕ 11 = J1(kcTE11r) sin ϕ
k2cTE11r
(3)
jωμH11 ′
Eϕ 11 = J (k r) cos ϕ
kcTE11 1 cTE11
(4)
in which kcTE11 = x′11/a and kTE11 =

√ω2μϵ − (x′11/a2).
16.15. Calculate the time-average power transmission in the TE11 mode of a lossless cylindrical guide.
Follow Section 16.7, with the transverse fields as given by Problem 16.14.
1 1
ET × H∗T ⋅ az = (E H ∗ − Eϕ 11Hr11
∗ )
2 2 r11 ϕ 11
ωμkTE11|H11 |2
{[
J1(v) 2 2
= ] sin ϕ + [J1′(v)]2cos2ϕ}
2k2cTE11 v
(1)
which the integration variable ν = kcTE11r has been introduced. In the integration of (1) over the cross section 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π and
0 ≤ ν ≤ x′11, the sin2 and cos2 both integrate to π; therefore,
πωμkTE11|H11 | 2
{[J1′(v)]2 + [ ] } v dv
x′11 J1(v) 2
¯¯¯z11 =
P ∫
2k4cTE11 0 v
(2)
There is a general rule for evaluating an integral like the one in (2): Go back to the ordinary differential equation arising from
the separation of variables. In this case that equation is (see Section 9.8)
1 1
J1′′ + J1′ + (1 − ) J1 = 0
v v2
(3)
Thus, using integration by parts, (3), and the end conditions J1 (0) = J′1 (x′11) = 0, we have
x′11 x′11
J1 2 x11 ′
∫ [(J1′)2 + (J1/v)2] v dv = ∫ [J1′ + ( )] v dv − ∫ d (J12)

0 0 v 0
x′11
J1 2 v2
= ∫ [J1′ + ( )] d ( ) − J12 (x′11)
0 v 2
1 x′ x′11
2∣ 11
(vJ1 + J1) ∣ − ∫ v2 [J1′ + 1 ]
J
= ′
2 ∣0 0 v
1 1
× (J1′′ + J1′ − J1) dv − J12 (x′11)
v v2
1 x′11
= − J12 (x′11) − ∫ v2 [J1′ + 1 ] (−J1) dv
J
2 0 v
v d( ) + ∫
1 2 ′ x′11 J12 x′11
= − J1 (x11) + ∫ 2 vJ12dv
2 0 2 0
1 2 ′ 1 2 2∣x′11 (x′11)2 − 1
= − J1 (x11) + v J1 ∣ = J12 (x′11)
2 2 ∣0 2
Substituting this result in (2), and replacing kTE11 and kcTE11 by their respective expressions in x′11 = (2πa/u0 )fcTE11, one finds
after some algebra:
(x′11)2 − 1
) √1 − ( ) [
2 2
¯¯¯z11 = |H11 | Ag(
P
η 0 2 f f cTE11
J12(x′11)]
4 fcTE11 f (x′ )2 11
(4)
in which Ag = πa2 is the cross-sectional area.
16.16. Compare the rectangular and cylindrical waveguides as power transmitters when each operates in its dominant
mode.
The two power formulas, (19) of Section 16.7 and (4) of Problem 16.15, show identical dependence on H-amplitude, cross-
sectional area, and normalized frequency. The only difference lies in a geometrical factor, which has the value 1.0 for the
rectangular guide and the value
(1.841)2 − 1
(0.5814)2 = 0.239
2
(1.841)
for the cylindrical guide.
16.17.
a. Define the notion of cutoff wavelength. (b) Is the cutoff wavelength an upper limit on the guide wavelength, just as the
cutoff frequency is a lower limit on the guide frequency?
a. The cutoff wavelength λc is the wavelength of an unguided plane wave whose frequency is the cutoff frequency; i.e.,λcfc
= u0 .
b. No; in fact, the formula
u0
λmn =
√f 2 − fcmn
2
shows that an (m, n) mode can propagate with any guide wavelength greater than λ.
16.18. A lossless air-dielectric waveguide for an S-band radar has inside dimensionsa = 7.214 cm and b = 3.404 cm. For
the TM 11 mode propagating at an operating frequency that is 1.1 times the cutoff frequency of the mode, calculate (a)
critical wave number, (b) cutoff frequency, (c) operating frequency, (d) propagation constant, (e) cutoff wavelength, (f)
operating wavelength, (g) guide wavelength, (h) phase velocity, (i) wave impedance.
a. By (10), kc11 =
√(π/0.07214)2 + (π/0.03404)2 = 102.05 rad/m.
b. By (13), fc11 = [(3 × 108 )/2π)] (102.05) = 4.87 GHz.
c. f = 1.1fc11 = 5.36 GHz.
d. By (11 bis),
2π
γ11 = jk11 = j 8
√(5.36)2 − (4.87)2 (109) = j46.8 m− 1
3 × 10
e. λc11 = u0 /fc11 = (3 × 108 )/(4.87 × 10 9 ) = 6.16 cm.
f. λ0 = u0 /f = (3 × 108 )/(5.36 × 10 9 ) = 5.60 cm.
g. λ11 = 2π/k11 = 2π/46.8 = 13.4 cm.
h. By (15), u11 = (0.134)(5.36 × 109 ) = 7.18 × 108 m/s.
i. For air, η0 = 120π Ω and (14) gives
1 2
ηTM11 = 120π√1 − ( ) = 157.5 Ω
1.1
16.19. A lossless, air-dielectric cylindrical waveguide, of inside diameter 3 cm, is operated at 14 GHz. For the TM11 mode
propagating in the +z direction, find the cutoff frequency, guide wavelength, and wave impedance.
By (2) of Problem 16.10, along with Table 16-1,
u0 3 × 108
fcTM11 = x11 = (3.832) = 12.2 GHz
2πa π(3 × 10− 2)
Then, by (11 bis) and (14),
u0 3 × 108
λ11 = = = 4.36 cm
√f 2 − fcTM11
2
√(14)2 − (12.2)2(109)
= η0√1 − ( ) = 120π√1 − (
fcTM11 2 12.2 2
ηTM11 ) = 185 Ω
f 14
16.20. Find the inside diameter of a lossless air-dielectric cylindrical waveguide so that a TE11 mode propagates at a
frequency of 10 GHz, with the cutoff wavelength of the mode being 1.3 times the operating wavelength.
The condition is λc11 = 1.3λ0 , or
u0 u0 f
= 1.3 or fcTE11 = = 7.692 GHz
fcTE11 f 1.3
But, by Problem 16.11,
u0 ′ 0.3
fcTE11 = x11 = (1.841) (GHz)
2πa πd
Equating the two expressions yields d = 2.28 cm.
16.21. Represent the E field of Problem 16.14 in the time domain, using as space variables ρ ≡ r/a, ϕ, and ζ ≡ kTE11z.
In terms of the lumped constants
ωμH11 ωμH11
Kρ ≡ Kϕ ≡
k2cTE11a kcTE11
which are presumed real, we have (x′11 = 1.841):
Kρ
Eρ(ρ, ϕ, ζ, t) = Re [Er11ej(ωt−ζ)] = − J (1.841ρ) sin ϕ sin (ωt − ζ)
ρ 1
Eϕ (ρ, ϕ, ζ, t) = Re [Eϕ 11ej(ωt−ζ)] = −K ϕ J1′(1.841ρ) cos ϕ sin (ωt − ζ)
16.22. For the E field obtained in Problem 16.21, calculate and plot the field lines. Also plot (without calculation) the lines
of the transverse H field.
The lines of any vector field are a family of space curves such that, at each point of space, the vector is tangent to the curve
through that point. Thus the differential equation of the lines of E in a cross-sectional plane is dy/dx = Ey /Ex, in Cartesian
coordinates (x, y), or
1
1 dρ Eρ
=
ρ dϕ Eϕ
(1)
in polar coordinates (ρ, ϕ). Substitution in (1) of the components of E from Problem 16.21 gives
dρ J1(1.841ρ)
= K1 tan ϕ
dϕ J1′(1.841ρ)
(2)
It is seen that the TE11 mode of a cylindrical waveguide has the special property that the field pattern does not change with
time or with distance ζ along the guide.
Normally, the field lines are found by a numerical integration of the differential equation; but in this case an analytic solution
is simply obtained:
J1(1.841ρ)
ln = K 2 ln | sec ϕ| (K 2 > 0)
J1(1.841ρ0)
(3)
This is a one-parameter family of curves, where the parameter ρ0 gives the radius at which a curve cuts the horizontal axis
sin ϕ = 0. Note that the right side of (3) does not change when ϕ is replaced by −ϕ or by ϕ + π; hence the field pattern is
symmetric about both the horizontal and vertical axes, and only the quadrant 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π/2 need be considered. As one moves
along a field line through increasingly positive ϕ-values, the right side of (3) increases through positive values. Consequently
[see Fig. 9-3(a)], ρ/ρ0 increases through values greater than 1. This, together with the constraint that the field line hit the
boundary ρ = 1 orthogonally, shows that the field line must bend away from the origin, as shown inFig. 16-5. The line ρ0 = 1
degenerates into a single point.
Figure 16-5
The lines of H are plotted as the orthogonal trajectories of the E lines; see Problem 16.8. By Problem 16.14 both Hρ and Hϕ
vanish at the points ρ = 1, ϕ = 0, π; hence the direction of H is indeterminate there.
16.23. A lossless air-dielectric waveguide for an S-band radar system has the dimensionsa = 7.214 cm and b = 3.404 cm.
The dominant mode propagates in the +z direction at 3 GHz. Find the average power transmitted if the excitation level of the
E field is 10 kV/m.
The cutoff frequency for TE10 is
u0 3 × 108
fc10 = = = 2.08 GHz
2a 2(0.07214)
and (19 bis) yields
2
√1 − (
(104) (7.214)(3.404)10− 4 2.08 2
¯¯¯z10 =
P ) = 117.4 W
4(377) 3
16.24. In a lossless air-dielectric cylindrical waveguide with a 1 cm radius the transmitted power in the dominant mode at
15 GHz is 2 W. Find the level of excitation for the magnetic field.
The cutoff frequency for TE11 is (see Table 16-2):
u0 ′ 3 × 108
fcTE11 = x11 = (1.841) = 8.79 GHz
2πa 2π(1 × 10− 2)
so that (4) of Problem 16.15 becomes (see also Problem 16.16):
377
2= |H11 |2(π10− 4)(15/8.79)2√1 − (8.79/15)2 [0.239]
4
Solving, |H11| = 0.11 A/cm.
16.25. A section of X-band waveguide with dimensions a = 2.286 cm and b = 1.016 cm has perfectly conducting walls and
is filled with a lossy dielectric (σd = 367.5 μS/m, ϵr = 2.1, μr = 1). Find the attenuation factor, in dB/m, for the dominant mode
of propagation at a frequency of 9 GHz.
The cutoff frequency of TE10 is
u0 (3 × 108)/√2.1
fc10 = = = 4.53 GHz
2a 2(0.02286)
and (22) gives (second form):
(377/√2.1)(367.5 × 10− 6)
αd(dB/m) ≈ × 8.69 = 0.48
2
2√1 − (4.53/9)
The reader should verify that the underlying approximation, ωμ d σd << β 2 10, holds for the data.
16.26. An X-band air-dielectric rectangular waveguide has brass walls (μw = μ0 , σw = 16 MS/m) with a = 2.286 cm and b =
1.016 cm. Find the dB/m of attenuation due to wall loss when the dominant mode is propagating at 9.6 GHz.
At the cutoff frequency of the dominant mode,
u0 3 × 108
fc10 = = = 6.56 GHz
2a 4.572 × 10− 2
the surface resistance of the brass is
Rsc10 = √
π(6.56 × 109)(4π × 10− 7)
= 40.24 mΩ
16 × 106
and, by (26),
0.04024 9.6 0.02286 + 2(0.01016)(6.56/9.6)2

αw(dB/m) = (√ ) × 8.69 = 0.214
377 6.56 (0.02286)(0.01016)√1 − (6.56/9.6)2
16.27. An air-dielectric cylindrical waveguide (a = 5 mm) operates in the TM01 mode at frequency f = 1.3 fcTM01. Find the
dB/m of attenuation due to wall loss in a short section of copper (σw = 58 MS/m).
First derive an expression for Ploss(0), following Section 16.8. By (1) of Problem 16.10, Ez01(r, ϕ) = E01J0 (x01r/a). Then (3) of
Problem 16.5 gives the tangential magnetic field at the wall as J [ ′0 (v) = −J1 (v)]:
jωϵ0x01E01J1(x01) jE01J1(x01)
( )
f
Hϕ01(a, ϕ) = =
k2cTM01a η0 fcTM01
and, since Hϕ01 is constant, (24) gives
|E01 |2J12(x01)
Ploss(0) = Rs [ ) ] (2πa)
2
1
(
f
2 η20 fcTM01
(1)
Next find PzTM01 by the method of Problem 16.15. By Problem 16.15,
⎛ f TM01 2⎞
) = jE01 ( ) √1 − ( c )
jkTM01E01 x01r f x01r
J1 ( J1 ( )
fcTM01 ⎝ ⎠
Er01 =
kcTM01 a f a
jE01(f/fcTM01) x01r
Hϕ01 = J1 ( )
η0 a
while Hr01 = Eϕ01 = 0. Thus the time-average Poynting vector is
1 |E01 |2(f/fcTM01)2√1 − (fcTM01 /f)2 x01r
¯¯¯ = Er01Hϕ01 =
S ∗ J12 ( )
2 2η0 a
Integrating over a cross section,
a 2π
x01r 2Ag x01
∫ ∫ J12 ( ) r dr dϕ = ∫ J12(v)v dv = AgJ12(x01)
0 0 a x201 0
Combining these results,
Ploss(0) Rs
αw = =
¯¯¯zTM01
2P η0a√1 − (fcTM01 /f)2
(2)
For the data,
u0 3 × 108
fcTM01 = x01 = (2.405) = 22.99 GHz
2πa 2π(5 × 10− 3)
f = (1.3)(22.99) = 29.89 GHz
πfμw √ π(29.89 × 109)(4π × 10− 7)
Rs = √ = = 0.0451 Ω
σw 58 × 106
0.0451
αw = = 0.0374 Np/m = 0.325 dB/m
−3 2
(377)(5 × 10 )√1 − (1/1.3)
16.10. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

16.28. Determine the condition(s) under which a magnetic field with
Hz(x,y,z,t) = K cos 87.3x cos 92.4y cos (2πft − 109.1 z)
can exist in free space.
16.29. Obtain the critical wave number for a 4-GHz wave propagating in a medium withμr = 1 and ϵr = 2.2, if the phase
shift constant (wave number) is 54° per cm.
16.30. If Hz(x, y, z, t) in Problem 16.28 represents the axial field of a TE21 wave in a rectangular waveguide, find (a) the
guide size, (b) the critical wave number, (c) the guide wavelength.
16.31. The S-band waveguide of Problem 16.18 is used in the X-band at 9 GHz. Identify the modes that could propagate in
the guide.
16.32. In Problem 16.19, what other modes could propagate at the given frequency?
16.33. A C-band waveguide for use between 3.95 and 5.85 GHz measures 4.755 cm by 2.215 cm. For air dielectric,
calculate the dominant mode cutoff frequency and the guide wavelength when the operating frequency is 4.2 GHz.
16.34. The WC-50 cylindrical waveguide with air dielectric is used in the frequency range 15.9–21.8 GHz for dominant-
mode propagation. Calculate the cutoff frequency for an inside diameter of 1.270 cm. Also obtain the cutoff frequency for
the TM 01 mode.
16.35. An air-dielectric L-band rectangular waveguide has a/b = 2 and a dominant-mode cutoff frequency of 0.908 GHz. If
the measured guide wavelength is 40 cm, find the operating frequency, the guide dimensions, and the wave number.
16.36. For the waveguide in Problem 16.35 find the lowest frequency at which a TE21 mode would propagate.
16.37. A V-band waveguide for use between 26.5 and 40 GHz has inside dimensions 0.711 cm by 0.356 cm. (a) Calculate
the dominant-mode critical wave number for air dielectric. (b) If the measured guide wavelength is 1.41 cm, what is the
operating frequency?
16.38. The WC-19 air-dielectric cylindrical waveguide is used for dominant-mode operation in the 42.4–58.10 GHz range.
Find the inside diameter for the specified cutoff frequency of 36.776 GHz.
16.39. A Ku-band air-dielectric guide with a/b = 2 is used in the 12.4–18.8 GHz range for dominant-mode operation with a
cutoff frequency of 9.49 GHz. What are the inside dimensions?
16.40. Find the radius and guide wavelength in an air-dielectric cylindrical waveguide for the dominant mode atf = 30 GHz
= 1.5fcTE11. Will the TM11 mode propagate under these conditions?
16.41. Solve Problem 16.40 for the guide with a lossless dielectric of ϵr = 2.2.
16.42. A K-band rectangular waveguide with dimensions 1.067 cm and 0.432 cm operates in the dominant mode at 18
GHz. Find the cutoff frequency, guide wavelength, phase velocity, and wave impedance, if the dielectric is air.
Schaum's Electromagnetics Supplementary Problem 16-42: Rectangular

Waveguide
This video illustrates different parameter values of a rectangular waveguide.
Sudipa Mitra-Kirtley, Ph.D, Professor, Physics and Optical Engineering, Rose-Hulman

Institute of Technology
2013
16.43. Solve Problem 16.42 if the guide is filled with a lossless dielectric of ϵr = 2.0.
16.44. Calculate the radius and guide wavelength for a TM11 mode at f = 30 GHz = 1.5fcTM11 in an air-dielectric cylindrical
waveguide. [Compare Problem 16.40.]
16.45. For an (m, n) mode operated below its cutoff frequency, the cutoff attenuation factor is defined as αcmn = −jk mn.
Calculate αcTE11, in dB/cm when a lossless air-dielectric guide, 2.286 cm by 1.016 cm is operated at 9.4 GHz.
16.46. In a certain cross section of a rectangular waveguide the instantaneous components of E are
πx πy πx πy
Ey = −A sin ( ) cos ( ) Ex = B cos ( ) sin ( ) Ez = 0
a b a b
Sketch this E field and identify the mode of operation.
16.47. The air-dielectric waveguide of Problem 16.23 transports 200 W of average power at 2.6 GHz. Find the excitation
level of the field.
16.48. If a lossless dielectric having ϵr = 1.8 is inserted in the waveguide of Problem 16.47, calculate the excitation level
for the transport of 200 W.
16.49. The air-dielectric waveguide of Problem 16.24 is filled with a lossless dielectric having ϵr = 2.1. Find the power
transported in the dominant mode, if the excitation level and frequency are unchanged.
16.50. Show that result (2) of Problem 16.27 can be rewritten as

1
αw = , where δw is the (frequency dependent) skin depth.
σwa δwηTM01
16.11. ANSWERS TO SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

16.28. f = 8.0 GHz
16.29. 81.1 rad/m
16.30. (a) 7.2 cm by 3.4 cm; (b) 127.1 rad/m; (c) 5.76 cm
16.31. TE01, TE02, TE10, TE11, TE20, TE21, TE30, TE31, TE40; TM11, TM21, TM31
16.32. TE01, TE11, TE21, TE31; TM01
16.33. 3.155 GHz, 10.82 cm
16.34. 13.84 GHz, 18.08 GHz
16.35. 1.18 GHz, 16.52 cm by 8.26 cm, 15.7 rad/m
16.36. f > 2.569 GHz
16.37. (a) 441.86 rad/m; (b) 29.98 GHz
16.38. 0.478 cm
16.39. 1.58 cm by 0.79 cm
16.40. 0.44 cm, 1.34 cm; No
16.41. 0.296 cm, 0.903 cm; No
16.42. 14.06 GHz, 2.67 cm, 4.81 × 108 m/s, 604.2 Ω
16.43. 9.93 GHz, 1.44 cm, 2.54 × 108 m/s, 319.6 Ω
16.44. 0.915 cm, 1.342 cm
16.45. 23.9
16.46. See Fig. 16-6; TE11
16.47. 143 V/cm
16.48. 106.8 V/cm
16.49. 0.09 A/cmm
Figure 16-6

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16.

16.2. Transverse and Axial Fields

Rectangular coordinates. F = F(x,y)e−j kz where

16.2.1. Transverse Components from Axial Components.

jk ∂Ez jωμ ∂Hz

jk ∂Ez jωμ ∂Hz

jk ∂Hz jωϵ ∂Ez

jk ∂Hz jωϵ ∂Ez

16.3. TE and TM Modes; Wave Impedances

16.4. Determination of the Axial Fields

∇2(Fze−j kz) = −ω2μϵ(Fze−j kz)

16.4.1. Explicit Solutions for TE Modes of a Rectangular Guide.

where, as previously defined, k2 cTE = ω2 μϵ − k2 TE . Solving by separation of variables (Section 9.7),

Applying these conditions to (8) gives Bx = 0 and

By symmetry, the boundary conditions in y force By = 0 and

kTE mn = √ω2μϵ − k2cTEmn

16.5. Mode Cutoff Frequencies

The phase velocity of a TEmn or TMmn wave is given by

16.6. Dominant Mode

From (9), Ez10 ≡ 0, and the equations of Section 16.2:

Figure 16-2 Transverse cross section z = −λ10/4, (−k 10z = π/2).

Figure 16-3 Longitudinal cross sections.

See Problem 16.13 for the dominant mode of a cylindrical waveguide.

16.7. Power Transmitted in a Lossless Waveguide

As expected for a lossless system,

it is useful to rewrite (19) as

|E10 | 2Ag |E10 | 2Ag

For the lossless cylindrical guide, seeProblem 16.15.

16.8. Power Dissipation in a Lossy Waveguide

16.8.1. Dielectric Loss.

γ10 = jk10(ϵ̂) = j√ω2μdϵ̂ − k2c10 = j√(ω2μdϵd − k2c10) − jωμdσd

ωμdσd (√μd /ϵd) σd 1

16.8.2. Wall Loss.

where the entrance power

¯¯¯loss = 1 Rs∣ Htang ∣2

and directed into the wall. Here, Rs = Re ηw =

From (23), (19), and (25),

16.8.3. Combined Losses.

16.9. SOLVED PROBLEMS

At a perfect conductor tangential E and normal H must vanish. Therefore:

Left wall Ez(0, y) = Ey(0, y) = 0 and H x(0, y) = 0

Right wall Ez(a, y) = Ey(a, y) = 0 and H x(a, y) = 0

Bottom wall Ez(x, 0) = Ex(x, 0) = 0 and H y(x, 0) = 0

16.2. Repeat Problem 16.1 for the guide of Fig. 16-1(b).

At the single cylindrical wall,

Ez(a,ϕ) = Eϕ (a,ϕ) = 0 and Hr(a,ϕ) = 0

16.3. What is "critical" about the number kc?

k = √ω2μϵ − k2c = √k20 − k2c

For the curl in cylindrical coordinates, see the Appendix. Equation 1

Equation (2) yields:

jωμ 1 ∂Hz jk ∂Ez

From (ii) and (iv),

jωϵ 1 ∂Ez jk ∂Hz

From (1) and (i),

jωϵ ∂Ez jk 1 ∂Hz

From (2) and (ii),

jk 1 ∂Ez jωμ ∂Hz

16.6. Calculate ηTE from the field components in cylindrical coordinates.

With Ez ≡ 0, (iv) and (v) of Problem 16.4 yield