PHYS362

Advanced Observational
Astrophysics

— 2020 —
Ricardo Schiavon

[email protected]
[email protected] 1
 Contents
1. Basic properties of Electromagnetic radiation
2. Measurements & errors
3. Telescopes
4. Detectors
5. Imaging
6. Photometry
7. Adaptive Optics
8. Spectroscopy

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 Bibliography
• George H. Rieke: Measuring the Universe, CUP, 2012
• C.R. Kitchin: Astrophysical techniques, 4th edition, IoP 2003
• David F. Gray: The Observation and Analysis of Stellar
Photospheres, 3rd Edition, CUP, 2005
• Edmund Sutton: Observational Astronomy, Techniques and
Instrumentation, CUP, 2012
• Jon Holtzman: Lecture notes on Observational techniques - ASTRO
535, New Mexico State University, http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/
holtz/a535/index.html
• Steven Majewski Lectures notes on Astronomy 5110, University of
Virginia: http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/ASTR5110/
lectureindex.html
• J.J. Condon & S.M. Ransom: Essential Radio Astronomy, NRAO,
http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~sransom/web/Ch2.html
• And additional topic-specific sources referred to in the lecture
slides. 3
 Time Table

Ricardo Schiavon

Ricardo Schiavon Ricardo Schiavon

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 1. Basic Properties of EM
Radiation

1. Radiometry, definitions
2. Absorption and emission by Earth’s atmosphere
I. Appendix 1: The electromagnetic spectrum
II. Appendix 2: Radiative transfer
III. Appendix 3: Magnitudes and solid angle
IV. Appendix 4: Blackbody radiation

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 Reading Assignment

• Sections 1.1-1.3 of Rieke’s textbook

• Chapter 5 of Gray’s textbook
• The difference between brightness
(intensity) and flux: http://
www.cv.nrao.edu/course/astr534/
Brightness.html

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 Carriers of astrophysical
information
• Electromagnetic spectrum: light
• Neutrinos
• Cosmic rays (protons, α particles, electrons, etc.)
• In situ analysis, collection (solar system only)
• Gravitational waves (detected for the first time in 2015)

Most of the information we have on the universe

comes from EM waves

We can measure intensity, flux, polarisation and

frequency. 7
 Radiometry
As far as detection is concerned, we will generally
treat light as particles; wave description useful for
heterodyne detectors and when talking about optics.

Energy of a photon: E = hν = hc/λ

h = 6.62 10−34 J s = Planck constant

c = 2.998 1010 cm s-1 = Speed of light
ν is the frequency
λ is wavelength.
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 Specific Intensity or Brightness
Figure credit: http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~sransom/web/Ch2.html

Energy radiated per unit time, per unit area, per unit
frequency (or wavelength), and per unit solid angle
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 Properties of Iν

• In the absence of absorption or scattering, Iν is constant

along any given ray

• Therefore, Iν is distance independent

• It is the same at the detector and at the source
• By definition, it can only be measured from resolved
sources
Converting between Iν and Iλ
From conservation of radiated power (dE/dt) and the
definitions of Iν and Iλ we have:

Where the module accounts for the fact that ν and λ are
inversely proportional to each other. Therefore:

So you will have to resist the temptation of, e.g, simply

replacing λ=c/ν into Iλ in order to obtain Iν. That would be
very wrong!
 Flux density

• Energy flow per unit area, per unit time, per unit frequency
(or wavelength)

• Integral of specific frequency over the solid angle

subtended by the source

• Distance dependent: Fν r -2

• It can be measured from both resolved and unresolved

sources
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 Luminosity
Total energy radiated per unit time and per unit frequency. It
is the energy radiated by the source per unit time. Can only
be measured for sources for which the distance r is known.
For a source emitting isotropically, we have:

Finally, the bolometric luminosity is defined by:

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 Units
• We will use a mixture of SI and cgs units
• Energy
– The erg (1 erg = 10-7 J)
– The electron Volt (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J)
• Wavelength
– The Angstrom (1 Å = 10-10 m = 0.1 nm)
– The micron (1 μ = 10-6 m)
• Flux Density
– The Jansky (1 Jy = 10-26 W/m2/Hz)
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Summary Table of Key Physical Quantities
Definition units Symbol used in
astronomy
Specific Intensity: Iν, Iλ
Power leaving unit (W m−2 sr−1 Hz−1)
projected surface
area into unit solid (W m−2 sr−1 Å−1)
angle per unit
frequency or
wavelength
Intensity: specific (W m−2 sr−1) I
intensity integrated
over ν or λ
Luminosity: power (W) L
emitted by source
of area A
Flux density: power (W m−2 Hz−1) Sν, Sλ or Fν, Fλ
received at unit (W m−2 Å−1)
surface element per
unit frequency or
unit wavelength
Flux: power received at W m−2 F
unit surface element
(integrated flux
density)
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THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

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 Atmospheric transparency

H2O, CO2, O2

O2, O, N2,O3

Radio and optical windows, plus narrow IR windows are the

only ones suitable for observing from the ground. 17
Atmospheric absorption

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 Components of atmospheric
absorption
• Radio astronomy is ground-based. Atmosphere transparent between
~10 MHz and 100 GHz. Below 10 MHz, ionosphere (100+ km) is
opaque; AM radio waves reflect off it.
• Infrared: water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone (O3). Only few
relatively narrow windows.
• Optical: little absorption, thus can be done from the ground.
• Ultraviolet: ozone, Rayleigh scattering by molecules
• X-rays: Bound-free transitions knock off electrons from N2, O2.
• Gamma-rays: photons interact with electron, atomic nuclei. At TeV
energies, interactions produce Čerenkov radiation.

Two “broad” windows: radio, optical. Narrow windows in

the IR.
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Absorption in the near and
mid-IR
Molecular
absorption is very
complex.
Narrow windows
define specific
passbands/filters.

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 Components of atmospheric
emission

• Optical: Mostly scattered moonlight (solar spectrum).

Continuum. Worse at lower wavelengths. Some airglow
emission lines (OH). Scattered moonlight varies by a factor of
~5 between New and Full Moon. Increase is worse in blue and
ultraviolet wavelengths.

• Infrared: Airglow lines, mostly due to OH, but some due to O2

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Sky line emission - Optical and far red

Figure 1.7 from Rieke’s text book, based on Rousselot et

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al. (2000, A&A, 354, 1134)
Sky line emission - Near infrared

Figure 1.7 from Rieke’s text book, based on Rousselot et

al. (2000, A&A, 354, 1134). Note different vertical 23
scale!
 Near-IR sky emission

Plotted in a bit more detail. Again, note very different

vertical scales, indicating that emission is much stronger at
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λ > 2.5 μm
 Backgrounds
• In most situations, we wish to observe signal from an object
against signal from the background
• An accurate assessment of background radiation is needed
for accurate measurement of signal from object
• Both the object and the background signal will have a
statistical uncertainty associated with its measurement.
• Background can be “instrumental” or “external”
• Treatment of background radiation is going to be discussed
in more detail later in the module

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 Concepts to keep in mind

1. Solid Angle
2. Intensity
3. Flux
4. Luminosity
5. Emission and absorption of radiation by Earth’s
atmosphere

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 Detectors

1. Types of detectors
2. Quantum efficiency
3. Charge coupled device
4. The array equation
5. Digitisation

Reading assignments: Chapter 3 of Rieke’s textbook; Page 1-29 of 4th edition of Kitchin’s
textbook (slightly different in other editions. Consult with me in case you do not have
access to the 4th edition.)
 Types of Detectors
Nearly all detectors transform light into an electrical signal
that can be amplified.

There are three type of detectors:

1. Direct photon detection: photon release a charge
carrier which 1) modulate an electrical current or 2)
move directly to an amplifier or 3) lead to a chemical
transformation.
2. Thermal detectors: transform photon energy into heat.
Most often involves a change in the electrical
properties of the material.
3. Coherent receivers: the incident electric field is mixed
with a local oscillator. Preserve the phase information.
 Types of Detectors
Nearly all detectors transform light into an electrical signal
that can be amplified.

There are three type of detectors:

1. Direct photon detection: Examples: CCDs (λ ≲ 1 #m)
photodiodes (1 ≲ λ ≲ 6 $m), BIB detectors (λ ≳ 5 $m)
photomultipliers and image intensifiers (λ ≲ 1 $m)
2. Thermal detectors: Example: bolometers (radio and
submm)
3. Coherent receivers: Example: superheterodyne
receivers (radio and submm).

In bold face are the detectors we will discuss during this module
 Quantum Efficiency

Definition: the ratio between number of detected and incident photons

Recall that the equation of radiative transfer in the pure absorption case has the
following solution of the equation of transfer:

If absorption doesn’t vary along the detector (constant αλ), and the detector has
thickness d, the flux emerging from the bottom of the detector is given by:

Where S0 is the incident flux and α is the absorption coefficient.

 Quantum Efficiency
The quantum efficiency is therefore given by:

Where R is the loss due to reflection off of the surface of the detector. This is of
course an ideal situation. There are other factors affecting quantum efficiency, such
as:

• Absorption Losses in non-sensitive regions (e.g., surface electrodes) — addressed

by making electrodes thinner and with low absorption coefficient. Also back
illumination. See discussion of CCDs, further down the line.

• Penetration losses through device — addressed through adoption of thick detectors

 QE: Reflection Losses
• Reflection loss at a surface for light traveling
from refractive index n0 to nS, for normal
incidence:

Example: for air (n=1) into glass (n=1.5),

R=0.04 so (since T=1-R) only 96% of photons Light reflected by lens with
enter glass. Another reflection between glass (bottom) and without (top) anti-
reflective coating
and air, so that total transmittance around
0.96x0.96=0.92, or 92%.
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 Anti-reflection Coatings
• Losses can be reduced by coating the surface with material with
intermediate refractive index.
• E.g. if coating has index of refraction n=2, transmission from n=1 to n=2
will be 89% and n=2 to n=3.5 will be another 93%, so total
transmission into device = 83%
• Optimum value:
• A bit more complicated since n typically varies with wavelength.

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 An Example:
A given detector is 20 $m thick and has n=3.5. It detects photons at
λ=0.83 $m, where a(0.83 $m) = 1,000 cm-1. What is its reflectivity and
quantum efficiency?

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Appendix 1: The electromagnetic
spectrum

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Appendix 1

Multi-Wavelength
Observations

• Different processes (thermal, synchrotron,

cyclotron, Compton, bremsstrahlung etc.)
dominate at different wavelengths
• To understand the physics of a source you
often need to observe it at a variety of
wavelengths

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Appendix 1

The Andromeda Galaxy

X-rays
UV

Optical Mid-IR 37
 Appendix 2: Radiative transfer
When light goes through matter, energy may be added or
subtracted by emission or absorption processes and the specific
intensity will not in general remain constant. Scattering of
photons into and out of the beam may also occur.

This is relevant both to the physical conditions in astrophysical

sources and the detection of radiation from them.

The change in intensity over a distance ds is the sum of the

energy emitted and the energy absorbed:

The complex physics of absorption and emission is encapsulated

by the macroscopic coefficients αν and jν respectively.
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Appendix 2

Simple cases
Emission only: αν = 0. Then dIν/ds = jν, which has the solution

The increase in brightness is equal to the integral of the emission

coefficient along the line of sight.

Absorption only: jν = 0. Then we have dIν/ds = − ανIν , with the

following solution:

The brightness decreases along the ray by a factor equal to the

exponential of the absorption coefficient integrated along the line of
sight.
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 Appendix 3: Magnitudes and Distance Modulus

Two hypothetical objects with flux densities F1 and F2 differ in

magnitude according to:

The absolute magnitude of an object at distance d is the magnitude it

would have at a distance of 10 pc:

The distance modulus is a measure of the distance of an object. It is

the difference between its apparent (m) and absolute (M) magnitudes:

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Appendix 3

Solid Angle The solid angle is an angular

area on the sky. Units are
square degrees or square
radians = steradians.
At a position θ, φ on the sky,
the solid angle is given by
dΩ = dA/r2 = sinθ dθ dφ

Integration over the entire

sphere (over θ, φ) gives an area
of 4π steradians.

As 1 rad = 180/π degrees

Then 1 ster = (180/π)2 deg2

Ωsphere = 4π sr = 41253 deg2

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 Appendix 4. Blackbody Radiation
A black body absorbs all radiation
incident upon it. The intensity radiated
by a black body depends only on its
temperature (T).

Specific intensity:

Bν(T) = (2hν3/c2)/[exp(hν/kT)-1]
A thermally insulated box in
thermodynamic equilibrium emits Bλ(T) = (2hc2/λ5)/[exp(hc/λkT)-1]
through a hole on its wall like a BB 42
Appendix 4

Cosmic Microwave Background

The most precisely measured black body spectrum in nature

The data points are measurements performed by the FIRAS (Far InfraRed
Absolute Spectrometer) on board the COBE (COsmic Background
Explorer) satellite. The curve is a black body function with T~2.7 K
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Appendix 4

Wien’s displacement law

The peak wavelength at which
a black body radiates depends
very simply on T:
hνmax = 2.82 kT

λmaxT = 0.29 cm deg

Radiation from cooler black

bodies peaks at longer
wavelengths
B(T+ΔT) > B(T) at all ν for
positive ΔT.
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Appendix 4

The Centre of the Globular Cluster

ω Centauri

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Appendix 4

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The bolometric flux from a black body integrated over all
directions is also a function of temperature only.

F(T) = (2h/c2)(kT/h)4 π ∫ x3 dx/(ex –1) = (2π5k4/15c2h3)T4 = σ T4

i.e. F = σ T4 (σ = 5.67 10-8 W m-2 K-4)

Hence the luminosity of a star is given by:

Where Teff is called the Effective Temperature of the star 46

Appendix 4

Rayleigh-Jeans and Wien

approximations
Rayleigh-Jeans approximation: when hν/kT << 1
IRJν(T) = (2 ν2 k T/c2)

It is used at low frequency, particularly in radio

astronomy.

If hν/kT >> 1 the Planck function becomes:

Bν(T) = (2 h ν3/c2) e -hν/kT

This is Wien’s approximation which is useful at optical,

UV and X-ray wavelengths (very rapid decrease of
brightness – “the Wien tail”). 47