Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
c
Copyright
2004 - 2014 Eugene V. Stefanovich
1
e-mail: eugene stef [email protected]
web address: http : //www.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0504062
iv
v
To Regina
vi
Abstract
PREFACE xix
INTRODUCTION xxix
I QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS 1
1 QUANTUM MECHANICS 3
1.1 Why do we need quantum mechanics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.1 Corpuscular theory of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Wave theory of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Low intensity light and other experiments . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Physical foundations of quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Single-hole experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Ensembles and measurements in quantum mechanics . 13
1.3 Lattice of propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.1 Propositions and states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.2 Partial ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.3 Meet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.4 Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.5 Orthocomplement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.6 Atomic propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4 Classical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.1 Truth tables and distributive law . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.2 Atomic propositions in classical logic . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4.3 Atoms and pure classical states . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4.4 Phase space of classical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.5 Classical probability measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
vii
viii CONTENTS
2 POINCARÉ GROUP 61
2.1 Inertial observers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.1.1 Principle of relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.1.2 Inertial transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2 Galilei group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.1 Multiplication law of the Galilei group . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.2 Lie algebra of the Galilei group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.2.3 Transformations of generators under rotations . . . . . 70
2.2.4 Space inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3 Poincaré group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3.1 Lie algebra of the Poincaré group . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.3.2 Transformations of translation generators under boosts 80
6 INTERACTION 169
6.1 Hilbert space of a many-particle system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.1.1 Tensor product theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.1.2 Particle observables in a multiparticle system . . . . . 172
6.1.3 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.2 Relativistic Hamiltonian dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.2.1 Non-interacting representation of the Poincaré group . 176
6.2.2 Dirac’s forms of dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.2.3 Total observables in a multiparticle system . . . . . . . 179
6.3 Instant form of dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.3.1 General instant form interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.3.2 Bakamjian-Thomas construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.3.3 Non-Bakamjian-Thomas instant forms of dynamics . . 183
6.3.4 Cluster separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.3.5 Non-separability of the Bakamjian-Thomas dynamics . 189
6.3.6 Cluster separable 3-particle interaction . . . . . . . . . 190
6.4 Bound states and time evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.4.1 Mass and energy spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.4.2 Doppler effect revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4.3 Time evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.5 Classical Hamiltonian dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.5.1 Quasiclassical states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.5.2 Heisenberg uncertainty relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.5.3 Spreading of quasiclassical wave packets . . . . . . . . 205
6.5.4 Phase space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.5.5 Poisson brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.6 Time evolution of wave packets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7 SCATTERING 217
7.1 Scattering operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.1.1 S-operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.1.2 S-operator in perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.1.3 Adiabatic switching of interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.1.4 T -matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.1.5 S-matrix and bound states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.2 Scattering equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.2.1 Scattering equivalence of Hamiltonians . . . . . . . . . 230
7.2.2 Bakamjian’s construction of the point form dynamics . 232
CONTENTS xi
10 RENORMALIZATION 325
10.1 Renormalization conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10.1.1 Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10.1.2 No-self-scattering renormalization condition . . . . . . 328
10.1.3 Charge renormalization condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.1.4 Renormalization in Feynman-Dyson theory . . . . . . . 332
10.2 Counterterms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.2.1 Electron self-scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.2.2 Electron self-energy counterterm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.2.3 Photon self-scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
10.2.4 Photon self-energy counterterm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
10.2.5 Charge renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
10.2.6 Vertex renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
10.3 Renormalized S-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
10.3.1 Vacuum polarization diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10.3.2 Vertex diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10.3.3 Ladder diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.3.4 Cross-ladder diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
10.3.5 Renormalizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
10.4 Troubles with renormalized QED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
10.4.1 Renormalization in QED revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
10.4.2 Time evolution in QED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
10.4.3 Unphys and renorm operators in QED . . . . . . . . . 364
13 DECAYS 413
13.1 Unstable system at rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
13.1.1 Quantum mechanics of particle decays . . . . . . . . . 414
13.1.2 Non-interacting representation of the Poincaré group . 418
13.1.3 Normalized eigenvectors of momentum . . . . . . . . . 419
13.1.4 Interacting representation of the Poincaré group . . . . 420
13.1.5 Decay law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
13.2 Breit-Wigner formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
13.2.1 Schrödinger equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
13.2.2 Finding function µ(m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
13.2.3 Exponential decay law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
13.2.4 Wave function of decay products . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
13.3 Decay law for moving particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
13.3.1 General formula for the decay law . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
13.3.2 Decays of states with definite momentum . . . . . . . . 443
13.3.3 Decay law in the moving reference frame . . . . . . . . 445
xiv CONTENTS
18 CONCLUSIONS 595
Looking back at theoretical physics of the 20th century, we see two monu-
mental achievements that radically changed the way we understand space,
time, and matter – the special theory of relativity and quantum mechanics.
These theories extended our comprehension to those parts of the natural
world that are not normally accessible to human senses and experience. Spe-
cial relativistic descriptions encompassed observers and objects moving with
extremely high speeds and high energies. Quantum mechanics was essen-
tial for understanding properties of matter at the microscopic scale: nuclei,
atoms, molecules, etc. In the 21st century the challenge remains in the uni-
fication of these two theories, i.e., in the theoretical description of energetic
elementary particles and their interactions.
It is commonly accepted that the most promising candidate for such
an unification is the local quantum field theory (QFT). Indeed, this theory
achieved astonishing accuracy in calculations of certain physical observables,
such as scattering cross-sections and energy spectra. In some instances, the
discrepancies between experiments and predictions of quantum electrody-
namics (QED) are less than 0.000000001%. It is difficult to find such accu-
racy anywhere else in science! However, in spite of its success, quantum field
theory cannot be regarded as the ultimate unification of relativity and quan-
tum mechanics. Just too many fundamental questions remain unanswered
and too many serious problems are left unsolved.
It is fair to say that everyone trying to learn QFT was struck by its
detachment from physically intuitive ideas and enormous complexity. A suc-
cessful physical theory is expected to have, as much as possible, real-life
counterparts for its mathematical constructs. This is often not the case in
QFT, where such physically transparent concepts of quantum mechanics as
the Hilbert space, wave functions, particle observables, and Hamiltonian were
substituted (though not completely discarded) by more formal and obscure
xix
xx PREFACE
In its mature form, the idea of quantum field theory is that quan-
tum fields are the basic ingredients of the universe and particles
are just bundles of energy and momentum of the fields. S. Wein-
berg [Wei97]
relativity, position and time are treated on an equal footing, both of them
being coordinates in the 4-dimensional Minkowski space-time. However in
quantum mechanics position and time play very different roles. Position (as
any other physical observable) is an observable described by an Hermitian
operator, whereas time is a numerical parameter, which cannot be cast into
the operator form without contradictions.
In our book we would like to take a fresh look at these issues. Two basic
postulates of our approach are completely non-controversial. They are the
principle of relativity (= the equivalence of all inertial frames of reference)
and the laws of quantum mechanics. From the mathematical perspective,
the former postulate is embodied in the notion of the Poincaré group and
the latter postulate leads to the algebra of operators in the Hilbert space.
When combined, these two statements inevitably imply the idea of unitary
representations of the Poincaré group in the Hilbert space as the major math-
ematical tool for the description of any isolated physical system. One of our
goals is to demonstrate that observable physics fits nicely into this math-
ematical framework. We will also see that traditional theories sometimes
deviate from these postulates, which often leads to unphysical conclusions
and paradoxes. Our goal is to find, analyze, and correct these deviations.
Although the ideas presented here have rather general nature, most cal-
culations will be performed for systems of charged particles and photons and
electromagnetic forces acting between them. Traditionally, these systems
were described by quantum electrodynamics (QED). However, our approach
will lead us to a different theory, which we call relativistic quantum dynamics
or RQD. Our approach is exactly equivalent to the renormalized QED as
long as properties related to the S-matrix (scattering cross-sections, lifetimes,
energies of bound states, etc.) are concerned. However, different results are
expected for the time evolution and boost transformations in interacting sys-
tems.
RQD differs from the traditional approach in two important aspects: the
recognition of the dynamical character of boosts and the primary role of
particles rather than fields.
xxix
xxx INTRODUCTION
t clock
preparation measurement
measuring
preparation
physical apparatus
device
system
state f(t)
value of
observable F
systems and different states of the same system is sometimes far from ob-
vious. For example, a separated pair of particles (electron + proton) does
not look like the hydrogen atom. So, one may conclude that these are two
different systems. However, in reality these are two different states of the
same compound system.
Some observables can take a value anywhere on the real axis R. The
Cartesian components of position Rx , Ry , and Rz are good examples of such
(unlimited range, continuous) observables. However there are also observ-
ables for which this is not true and the allowed values form only a subset
of the real axis. Such a subset is called the spectrum of the observable.
For example, it is known (see Chapter 5) that each component of particle’s
velocity cannot exceed the speed of light c, so the spectrum of the veloc-
ity components Vx , Vy , and Vz is [−c, c]. Both position and velocity have
continuous spectra. However, there are many observables having a discrete
spectrum. For example, the number of particles in the system (which is also
a valid observable) can only take integer values 0, 1, 2, ... Later we will also
meet observables whose spectrum is a combination of discrete and continuous
parts, e.g., the energy spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
Clearly the measured values of observables must depend on the kind of
the system being measured and on its state. The measurement of any true
observable must involve some kind of interaction or contact between the ob-
served system and the measuring apparatus. We emphasize this fact because
there are numerical quantities in physics which are not associated with any
physical system and therefore they are not called observables. For example,
the number of space dimensions (3) is not an observable, because we do not
regard space as an example of a physical system.
Time and clocks. Another important physical quantity, that does not
belong to the class of observables, is time. We cannot say that time is a
property of a physical system, because a “measurement” of time (looking
at positions of the clock’s arms) does not involve any interaction with the
physical system. One can “measure” time even in the absence of any physical
system in our laboratory. To do that, one just needs to have a clock, which
is a necessary part of any experimental setup and not a physical system
by itself.7 The clock assigns a time label (a numerical parameter) to each
measurement of true observables, and this label does not depend on the
theory. Then each individual measurement of the electron’s position would yield a certain
result r. However, as will be discussed in chapter 1, results of repetitive measurements in
the ensemble are generally non-reproducible and random. So, in quantum mechanics the
electron’s state should be describable by a probability distribution |ψ(r)|2 .
7
Of course, one can decide to consider the laboratory clock as a physical system and
perform physical measurements on it. For example, one can investigate the quantum
uncertainty in the clock’s arm position. However, then this particular clock is no longer
suitable for “measuring” time. Some other device must be used for time-keeping purposes.
xxxiii
state of the observed system. The unique place of the clock and time in the
measurement process is indicated in Fig. 1.
• rotations,
• space translations,
• time translations,
There are three independent rotations (around x, y, and z axes), three inde-
pendent translations and three independent boosts. So, along with the time
translations that makes 10 basic types of inertial transformations. More gen-
eral inertial transformations can be made by performing two (or more) basic
8
The vector parameterization of rotations is discussed in Appendix D.5.
xxxiv INTRODUCTION
• for each physical system give a list of observables and their spectra;
• given one observer’s description of the system’s state find out how other
observers see the same state.
xxxvi INTRODUCTION
Part I
QUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
1
Chapter 1
QUANTUM MECHANICS
3
4 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
A
aperture
A’
photographic plate
Figure 1.1: The image in the camera obscura with a pinhole aperture is
created by straight light rays: the image at the point A′ on the photographic
plate is created only by light rays emitted from the point A and passed
straight through the hole.
(a) (b)
A B
A B
Figure 1.2: (a) Image in the pinhole camera with a very small aperture; (b)
the density of the image along the line AB
Let us continue our experiment with the pinhole camera and decrease the
size of the hole even further. The corpuscular theory would insist that the
smaller size of the hole must result in a sharper image. However this is not
what experiment shows! For a very small hole the image on the photographic
plate will be blurred. If we further decrease the size of the hole, the detailed
picture will completely disappear and the image will look like one large diffuse
spot (see Fig. 1.2), independent on the form and shape of the light source
outside the camera. It appears as if light rays scatter in all directions when
they pass through a small aperture or near a small object. This effect of the
light spreading is called diffraction, and it was discovered by Grimaldi in the
middle of the 17th century.
Diffraction is rather difficult to reconcile with the corpuscular theory. For
example, we can try to save this theory by assuming that light rays deviate
from their straight paths due to some interaction with the box material sur-
1.1. WHY DO WE NEED QUANTUM MECHANICS? 7
L+R
(a) (b)
L R
Figure 1.3: (a) The density of the image in a two-hole camera according
to naı̈ve corpuscular theory is a superposition of images created by the left
(L) and right (R) holes; (b) Actual interference picture: In some places the
density of the image is higher than L+R (constructive interference); in other
places the density is lower than L+R (destructive interference).
with experiment. The actual image has new features (brighter and darker
regions) called the interference picture (full line in Fig. 1.3(b)).
Can the corpuscular theory explain this strange interference pattern? We
could assume, for example, that some kind of interaction between light cor-
puscles is responsible for the interference, so that passages of different parti-
cles through left and right holes are not independent events, and the law of
addition of probabilities does not hold for them. However, this idea must be
rejected because, as we will see later, the interference picture persists even
if photons are released one-by-one, so that they cannot interact with each
other.
go around corners, just like sound waves do.1 To explain the interference, we
just need to note that when two portions of the wave pass through different
holes and meet on the photographic plate, their electric vectors add up.
However intensities of the waves are not additive: I ∝ (E1 +E2 )2 = E21 +2E1 ·
E2 + E22 6= E21 + E22 ∝ I1 + I2 . It follows from simple geometric considerations
that in the two-hole configuration there are places on the photographic plate
where the two waves always come in phase (E1 (t) ↑↑ E2 (t) and E1 · E2 > 0,
which means constructive interference) and there are other places where the
two waves always come with opposite phases (E1 (t) ↑↓ E2 (t) and E1 · E2 < 0,
i.e., destructive interference).
capable of knocking out electrons from the metal. Radiation with frequency
below ω0 could not produce the electron emission even if the light intensity
was high. According to the wave theory, one could assume that the electrons
are knocked out of the metal due to some kind of force exerted on them by
electromagnetic vectors E, B in the wave. A larger light intensity (= larger
wave amplitude = higher values of E and B) naturally means a larger force
and a larger chance of the electron emission. Then why the low frequency
but high intensity light could not do the job?
In 1905 Einstein explained the photo-electric effect by bringing back New-
tonian corpuscles in the form of “light quanta” later called photons. He
described the light as “consisting of finite number of energy quanta which
are localized at points in space, which move without dividing and which can
only be produced and absorbed as complete units” [AP65]. According to the
Einstein’s explanation, each photon carries the energy of ~ω, where ω is the
frequency2 of the light wave, and ~ is the Planck constant. Each photon has
a chance to collide with and pass its energy to just one electron in the metal.
Only high energy photons (those corresponding to high frequency light) are
capable of passing enough energy to the electron to overcome certain energy
barrier3 Eb between the metal and the vacuum. Low-frequency light has
photons with low energy ~ω < Eb . Then, no matter what is the amplitude
(= the number of photons) of such light, its photons are just too “weak”
to kick the electrons with sufficient energy.4 In the Compton’s experiment
(1923) the interaction of light with electrons could be studied with much
greater detail. And indeed, this interaction more resembled a collision of two
particles rather than shaking of the electron by a periodic electromagnetic
wave.
These observations clearly lead us to the conclusion that light is a flow of
particles after all. But what about the interference? We already agreed that
the corpuscular theory had no logical explanation of this effect.
For example, in an interference experiment conducted by Taylor in 1909
[Tay09], the intensity of light was so low that no more than one photon was
present at any time instant, thus eliminating any possibility of the photon-
2
ω is the so-called circular frequency (measured in radians per second) which is related
to the usual frequency ν (measured in oscillations per second) by the formula ω = 2πν.
3
The barrier’s energy is roughly proportional to the threshold frequency Eb ≈ ~ω0 .
4
Actually, the low-frequency light may lead to the electron emission when two or more
low-energy photons collide simultaneously with the same electron, but such events have
very low probability and become observable only at very high light intensities.
1.2. PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 11
photon interaction and its effect on the interference picture. Another “ex-
planation” that the photon somehow splits, passes through both holes, and
then rejoins again at the point of collision with the photographic plate does
not stand criticism as well: One photon never creates two dots on the photo-
graphic plate, so it is unlikely that the photon can split during propagation.
Finally, can we assume that the particle passing through the right hole some-
how “knows” whether the left hole is open or closed and adjusts its trajectory
accordingly? Of course, there is some effect on the photon near the left hole
depending on whether the right hole is open or not. However by all estimates
this effect is negligibly small.
So, young quantum theory had an almost impossible task to reconcile two
apparently contradicting classes of experiments with light: Some experiments
(diffraction, interference) were easily explained with the wave theory, while
the corpuscular theory had serious difficulties. Other experiments (photo-
electric effect, Compton scattering) could not be explained from the wave
properties and clearly showed that light consists of particles. Just adding to
the confusion, de Broglie in 1924 advanced a hypothesis that such particle-
wave duality is not specific to photons. He proposed that all particles of
matter – like electrons – have wave-like properties. This “crazy” idea was
soon confirmed by Davisson and Germer who observed the diffraction and
interference of electron beams in 1927.
Certainly, in the first quarter of the 20th century, physics faced the great-
est challenge in its history. This is how Heisenberg described the situation:
insists that matter and light are made of point-like particles (like photons
and electrons) whose propagation is governed by non-classical rules of quan-
tum mechanics. In particular, these rules are responsible for the wave-like
behavior of quantum particles, such as in the double-hole experiment. We
will explain this experiment from the quantum-mechanical point of view in
subsection 6.5.6.
In this section we will try to explain the main difference between classical
and quantum views of the world. To understand quantum mechanics, we
must accept that certain concepts, which were taken for granted in classical
physics, cannot be applied to micro-objects like photons and electrons. To
see what is different, we should revisit basic ideas about what is physical
system, how its states are prepared, and how its observables are measured.
are prepared in (almost) the same state, as required by the Assertion 1.1.
We can make this state to be defined even better by reducing the size of the
aperture. Then according to the Assertion, each photon should produce the
same measurement result, i.e., each photon should land at exactly the same
point on the photographic plate. However, this is not what happens in reality!
The dots made by photons are scattered all over the photographic plate.
Moreover, the smaller is the aperture the wider is the distribution of the
dots. Results of measurements are not reproducible even though preparation
conditions are tightly controlled!
Remarkably, it is not possible to find an “ordinary” explanation of this
extraordinary fact. For example, one can assume that different photons pass-
ing through the hole are not exactly in the same conditions. What if they
interact with atoms surrounding the hole and for each passing photon the
configuration of the nearby atoms is different? This explanation does not
seem plausible, because one can repeat the single-hole experiment with dif-
ferent materials (paper, steel, etc.) without any visible difference. Moreover,
the same diffraction picture is observed if other particles (electrons, neutrons,
C60 molecules, etc) are used instead of photons. It appears that there are
only two parameters, which determine the shape of the diffraction spot – the
size of the aperture and the particle’s momentum. So, the explanation of
this shape must be rather general and should not depend on the nature of
particles and on the material surrounding the hole. Then we must accept a
rather striking conclusion: all these carefully prepared particles behave ran-
domly. It is impossible to predict which point on the screen will be hit by
the next released particle.
The main lesson of the single-hole experiment is that classical Assertion 1.1
is not true. Even if the system is prepared each time in the same state, we are
not going to get reproducible results in repeated measurements. Why does
this happen? The honest answer is that nobody knows. This is one of great-
est mysteries of nature. Quantum theory does not even attempt to explain
the physical origin of randomness in microsystems. This theory assumes the
14 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) with propositions. Quite similarly,
quantum probability theory is based on logic, but this time the logic is not
Boolean. In quantum mechanics we are dealing with quantum logic whose
postulates differ slightly from the Boolean ones. So, at the most fundamen-
tal level, quantum mechanics is built on two simple ideas: the prevalence
of randomness in nature and the non-classical logical relationships between
experimental propositions.
The initial idea that the fundamental difference between classical and
quantum mechanics lies in their different logical structures belongs to Birkhoff
and von Neumann. They suggested to substitute classical logic of Aristotle
and Boole by the quantum logic. The formalism presented in this section
summarizes their seminal work [BvN36] as well as further research most no-
tably by Mackey [Mac63] and Piron [Pir64, Pir76]. Even for those who do not
accept the necessity of such radical change in our views on logic, the study
of quantum logic may provide a desirable bridge between intuitive concepts
of classical mechanics and abstract formalism of quantum theory.
The main purpose of our sections 1.3 - 1.5 is to demonstrate that pos-
tulates of quantum mechanics are robust and inevitable consequences of the
laws of probability and simple properties of measurements. Basic axioms of
quantum logic which are common for both classical and quantum mechanics
1.3. LATTICE OF PROPOSITIONS 17
are presented in section 1.3. The close connection between the classical logic
and the phase space formalism of classical mechanics is discussed in section
1.4. In section 1.5 we will note a remarkable fact that the only difference be-
tween classical and quantum logics (and, thus, between classical and quantum
physics in general) is in a single obscure distributivity postulate. This classi-
cal postulate must be replaced by the orthomodularity postulate of quantum
theory. In section 1.6 we will demonstrate how postulates of quantum logic
lead us (via Piron’s theorem) to the standard formalism of quantum mechan-
ics with Hilbert spaces, Hermitian operators, wave functions, etc. In section
1.7 we will briefly mention some interpretations of quantum mechanics and
related philosophical issues.
M
(φ|x) = lim
N →∞ N
11
L also called the propositional system.
1.3. LATTICE OF PROPOSITIONS 19
(φ|x) = (ψ|x)
Indeed, there is no physical difference between these two states as all exper-
iments yield the same results (=probabilities). For the same reason we will
say that two propositions x and y are identical (x = y) if for all states φ of
the system
It follows from the above discussion that the probability measure (φ|x) con-
sidered as a function on the set of all states Φ is a unique representative of
proposition x (i.e., different propositions have different probability measures
on Φ). So, we can gain some insight into the properties of different proposi-
tions by studying properties of the corresponding probability measures.
There are propositions which are always true independent on the state
of the system. For example, the proposition “the value of the observable F1
is somewhere on the real line” is always true.12 For any other observable
F2 , the proposition “the value of the observable F2 is somewhere on the real
line” is also true for all states. Therefore, according to (1.1), we will say that
these two propositions are identical. So, we can define a unique maximal
proposition I ∈ L which is always true. Inversely, the proposition “the value
of observable is not on the real line” is always false and will be called the
minimal proposition. There is just one minimal proposition ∅ in the set L,
and for each state φ we can write
(φ|I) = 1 (1.2)
(φ|∅) = 0 (1.3)
12
Measurements of observables always yield some value, since we agreed in Introduction
that an ideal measuring apparatus never misfires.
20 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Proof. This follows from the fact that for any φ it is true that (φ|x) ≤ (φ|x).
Lemma 1.4 (symmetry) If two propositions imply each other, then they
are equal: If x ≤ y and y ≤ x then x = y.
Proof. If two propositions x and y are less than or equal to each other, then
(φ|x) ≤ (φ|y) and (φ|y) ≤ (φ|x) for each state φ, which implies (φ|x) = (φ|y)
and, according to (1.1), x = y.
Properties 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 tell us that ≤ is a partial ordering relation.
It is ordering because it tells which proposition is “smaller” and which is
“larger.” The ordering is partial, because it doesn’t apply to all pairs of
propositions.13 Thus, the set L of all propositions is a partially ordered set.
From equations (1.2) and (1.3) we also conclude that
1.3.3 Meet
For two propositions x and y, suppose that we found a third proposition z
such that
z ≤ x (1.4)
z ≤ y (1.5)
It seems reasonable to assume that the order in which meet operations are
performed is not relevant
1.3.4 Join
Similar to our discussion of meet, we can assume that for any two propositions
x and y there always exists a unique join x ∨ y, such that both x and y are
less or equal than x ∨ y, and x ∨ y is the minimal proposition with such a
property.
In the case of propositions about the same observable, the join of x and
y is a proposition z = x ∨ y whose associated subset Z of the real line is a
union of the subsets corresponding to x and y: Z = X ∪ Y . The proposition
z is true when either x OR y is true. So, the join can be identified with the
logical operation OR.15
The formal version of the above definition of join is
Similar to Postulates 1.10 and 1.11 we insist that the order of join oper-
ations is irrelevant
1.3.5 Orthocomplement
There is one more operation on the set of propositions that we need to con-
sider. This operation is called orthocomplement. It has the meaning of the
logical negation (operation NOT). For any proposition x its orthocomple-
ment is denoted by x⊥ . In the case of a single observable, if proposition x
corresponds to the subset X of the real line, then its orthocomplement x⊥
corresponds to the relative complement of X with respect to R (denoted by
R \ X). When the value of observable F is found inside X, i.e., the value of
15
It is important to note that from x ∨ y being true it does not necessarily follow that
either x or y are definitely true, as we had it in classical logic.
1.3. LATTICE OF PROPOSITIONS 23
Proof. Let us prove this Lemma in the case when x is a proposition about
one observable F . Suppose that x ∧ x⊥ = y 6= ∅, then, according to Postulate
1.2, there exists a state φ such that (φ|y) = 1 and, from Postulate 1.8 we
obtain
y ≤ x
y ≤ x⊥
1 = (φ|y) ≤ (φ|x)
1 = (φ|y) ≤ (φ|x⊥ )
It then follows that (φ|x) = 1 and (φ|x⊥ ) = 1, which means that any mea-
surement of the observable F in the state φ will result in a value inside both
X and R \ X simultaneously, which is impossible. This contradiction should
convince us that x ∧ x⊥ = ∅.
The following Lemma establishes that the join of any proposition x with its
orthocomplement x⊥ is always the trivial proposition.
Proof. From Lemmas 1.3 and 1.17 it follows that x ≤ x = (x⊥ )⊥ , so that
propositions x and x⊥ are disjoint. Then, by Postulate 1.19, for any state φ
we obtain
1) x < y
2) If x ≤ z ≤ y, then either z = x or z = y
In simple words, this definition means that x implies y and there are no
propositions “intermediate” between x and y.
If x is a proposition about a single observable corresponding to the interval
X ⊆ R, then the interval corresponding to the covering proposition y can be
obtained by adding just one extra point to the interval X.
A proposition covering ∅ is called an atomic proposition or simply an
atom. So, atoms are smallest non-vanishing propositions. They unambigu-
ously specify properties of the system in the most exact way.
We will say that the atom p is contained in the proposition x if p ≤ x.
The existence of atoms is not a necessary property of mathematical lattices.
Both atomic and non-atomic lattices can be studied. However, on physical
grounds we will postulate that the lattice of propositions is atomic
x = ∨p≤x p
There are three simple Lemmas that follow directly from this Postulate.
Lemma 1.24 The meet x∧y of two propositions x and y is a union of atoms
contained in both x and y.
Lemma 1.16 tells that a proposition and its negation cannot be true at the
same time. Lemma 1.20 is the famous tertium non datur law of logic: either
a proposition or its negation is true with no third possibility.
28 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Table 1.2: Four operations and two special elements of lattice theory and
logic
Name Name Meaning Symbol
in lattice theory in logic in classical logic
less or equal implication IF x THEN y x≤y
meet injunction x AND y x∧y
join disjunction x OR y x∨y
orthocomplement negation NOT x x⊥
maximal element tautology always true I
minimal element absurdity always false ∅
Note, however, that properties 1.3 - 1.24 are not sufficient to build a
complete theory of mathematical logic: Boolean logic has two additional
axioms, which have not been mentioned yet. They are called distributive
laws
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z)
16
Here we assumed that all these propositions are non-empty.
30 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
and that the classical distributive law (Assertion 1.25) is valid. Assertion
1.26 can be derived in a similar manner.
Thus we have shown that in the deterministic world of classical mechanics
governed by the Assertion 1.1, the set of propositions L is an orthocomple-
mented atomic lattice where the distributive laws 1.25 and 1.26 hold true.
Such a lattice will be called a classical propositional system or, shortly, classi-
cal logic. A study of classical logics and its relationship to classical mechanics
is the topic of the present section.
Lemma 1.27 In classical logic, if x < y, then there exists an atom p such
that p ∧ x = ∅ and p ≤ y.
y = y ∧ I = y ∧ (x ∨ x⊥ ) = (y ∧ x) ∨ (y ∧ x⊥ ) = (y ∧ x) ∨ ∅ = y ∧ x ≤ x
Proof. First, it is clear that there should exist al least one atom p that
is not contained in x. If it were not true, then we would have x = I in
contradiction to the condition of the Lemma. Let us now prove that the
17
An example of the phase space for a single classical particle will be presented in
subsection 6.5.4.
1.4. CLASSICAL LOGIC 31
p = p ∧ I = p ∧ (x ∨ x⊥ ) = (p ∧ x) ∨ (p ∧ x⊥ )
According to Lemma 1.22 we now have four possibilities:
1. p ∧ x = ∅ and p ∧ x⊥ = ∅; then p ≤ x ∧ x⊥ = ∅, which is impossible;
2. p ∧ x = p and p ∧ x⊥ = p; then p = p ∧ p = (p ∧ x) ∧ (p ∧ x⊥ ) =
p ∧ (x ∧ x⊥ ) = p ∧ ∅ = ∅, which is impossible;
3. p ∧ x = p and p ∧ x⊥ = ∅; from Postulate 1.8 it follows that p ≤ x,
which contradicts our assumption and should be dismissed;
4. p ∧ x = ∅ and p ∧ x⊥ = p; from this we have p ≤ x⊥ , i.e., p is contained
in x⊥ .
This shows that all atoms not contained in x are contained in x⊥ . Further,
Lemmas 1.16 and 1.24 imply that all atoms contained in x⊥ are not contained
in x. The statement of the Lemma then follows from Postulate 1.21(2).
Lemma 1.29 In classical logic, two different atoms p and q are always dis-
joint: q ≤ p⊥ .
Proof. By Lemma 1.28, p⊥ is a join of all atoms different from p, including
q, thus q ≤ p⊥ .
p = p ∧ (x ∨ y) = (p ∧ x) ∨ (p ∧ y) = ∅ ∨ ∅ = ∅
which is absurd.
Now we are ready to prove the important fact that in classical mechanics
(or in classical logic) propositions can be interpreted as subsets of a set S,
which is called the phase space.
32 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Theorem 1.31 For any classical logic L, there exists a set S and an iso-
morphism f (x) between elements x of L and subsets of the set S such that
Lemma 1.33 In classical logic, if p is an atom and φ and ψ are two pure
states such that (φ|p) = (ψ|p) = 1, then φ = ψ.
Proof. There are propositions of two kinds: those containing the atom p
and those not containing the atom p. For any proposition x containing the
atom p we denote by q the atoms contained in x and obtain using Postulate
1.21(2), Lemma 1.29, Postulate 1.19 and Lemma 1.32
18
such a state always exists due to Postulate 1.2.
1.4. CLASSICAL LOGIC 33
X
(φ|x) = (φ| ∨q≤x q) = (φ|q) = (φ|p) = 1
q≤x
The same equation holds for the state ψ. Similarly we can show that for any
proposition y not containing the atom p
(φ|y) = (ψ|y) = 0
Since probability measures of φ and ψ are the same for all propositions, these
two states are equal.
Proof. From Postulate 1.2 we know that for each atom p there is a state φp
in which equation (1.11) is valid. From Lemma 1.32 this state is unique. To
prove the reverse statement we just need to show that for each pure state φp
there is a unique atom p such that (φp |p) = 1. Suppose that for each atom p
we have (φp |p) = 0. Then, taking into account that I is a join of all atoms,
that all atoms are mutually disjoint and using (1.2) and Postulate 1.19, we
obtain
X
1 = (φp |I) = (φp | ∨p≤I p) = (φp |p) = 0
p≤I
which is absurd. Therefore, for each state φp one can always find at least
one atom p such that equation (1.11) is valid. Finally, we need to show that
if p and q are two such atoms, then p = q. This follows from the fact that
for each pure classical state the probability measures (or the truth functions)
corresponding to propositions p and q are exactly the same. For the state φp
the truth function is equal to 1, for all other pure states the truth function
is equal to 0.
34 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
x = ∨q≤x q
Then, by Postulate 1.21, Lemma 1.29, and Postulate 1.19 the probability of
the proposition x being true in the state φ is
X
(φ|x) = (φ| ∨q≤x q) = (φ|q) (1.13)
q≤x
So, the value of the probability measure for all propositions x is uniquely
determined by its values on atoms. In many important cases, the phase
space is continuous, and instead of considering probabilities (φ|q) at points
in the phase space (= atoms) it is convenient to consider probability densities
which are functions Φ(s) on the phase space such that
1) Φ(s) ≥ 0;
R
2) Φ(s)ds = 1.
S
Then the value of the probability measure (φ|x) is obtained by the integral
Z
(φ|x) = Φ(s)ds
X
Z
1, if s0 ∈ X
(φ|x) = δ(s − s0 )ds =
0, if s0 ∈
/X
X
This shows that for pure classical states the probability measure degenerates
into a two-valued truth function. This is in agreement with our discussion in
subsection 1.4.1.
As we discussed earlier, in classical pure states all observables have well
defined values. So, classical mechanics is a fully deterministic theory in which
one can, in principle, obtain a full information about the system at any given
time and, knowing the rules of dynamics, predict exactly its development in
the future. This belief was best expressed by P.–S. Laplace:
An intelligence that would know at a certain moment all the forces
existing in nature and the situations of the bodies that compose
nature and if it would be powerful enough to analyze all these
data, would be able to grasp in one formula the movements of the
biggest bodies of the Universe as well as of the lightest atom.
x = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ y ⊥ ) (1.14)
y = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x⊥ ∧ y) (1.15)
1.5. QUANTUM LOGIC 37
Proof. If the lattice is distributive then for any two propositions x and y
(x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ y ⊥ ) = x ∧ (y ∨ y ⊥ ) = x ∧ I = x
and, changing places of x and y
(x ∧ y) ∨ (x⊥ ∧ y) = y
These formulas coincide with our definitions of compatibility (1.14) and
(1.15), which proves the direct statement of the theorem.
The proof of the inverse statement (compatibility → distributivity) is
more lengthy. We assume that all propositions in our lattice are compatible
with each other and choose three arbitrary propositions x, y, and z. Now we
are going to prove that the distributive laws22
(x ∧ z) ∨ (y ∧ z) = (x ∨ y) ∧ z (1.16)
(x ∨ z) ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ z (1.17)
are valid. First we prove that the following 7 propositions (some of them
may be empty) are mutually disjoint (see Fig. 1.4)
q1 = x∧y∧z
q2 = x⊥ ∧ y ∧ z
q3 = x ∧ y⊥ ∧ z
q4 = x ∧ y ∧ z⊥
q5 = x ∧ y⊥ ∧ z⊥
q6 = x⊥ ∧ y ∧ z ⊥
q7 = x⊥ ∧ y ⊥ ∧ z
38 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
x q55 q4 q6
y
q1
q3 q2
q7
z
Figure 1.4: To the proof of Theorem 1.35.
For example, to show that propositions q3 and q5 are disjoint we notice that
q3 ≤ z and q5 ≤ z ⊥ (by Postulate 1.8). Then by Lemma 1.18 z ≤ q5⊥ and
q3 ≤ z ≤ q5⊥ . Therefore by Lemma 1.5 q3 ≤ q5⊥ .
Since by our assumption both x ∧ z and x ∧ z ⊥ are compatible with y, we
obtain
x ∧ z = (x ∧ z ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z ∧ y ⊥ ) = q1 ∨ q3
x ∧ z ⊥ = (x ∧ z ⊥ ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z ⊥ ∧ y ⊥ ) = q4 ∨ q5
x = (x ∧ z) ∨ (x ∧ z ⊥ ) = q1 ∨ q3 ∨ q4 ∨ q5
Similarly we show
y ∧ z = q1 ∨ q2
y = q1 ∨ q2 ∨ q4 ∨ q6
z = q1 ∨ q2 ∨ q3 ∨ q7
Q ≤ (Q ∨ q7 ) ∧ (Q ∨ q4 ∨ q5 ∨ q6 ) = (x ∨ y) ∧ z (1.19)
On the other hand, from q4 ∨ q5 ∨ q6 ≤ q7⊥ , Lemma C.3 and the definition of
compatibility it follows that
(x ∨ y) ∧ z = (Q ∨ q4 ∨ q5 ∨ q6 ) ∧ (Q ∨ q7 ) ≤ (Q ∨ q7⊥ ) ∧ (Q ∨ q7 ) = Q(1.20)
Therefore, applying the symmetry Lemma 1.4 to equations (1.19) and (1.20),
we obtain
(x ∨ y) ∧ z = Q (1.21)
Comparing equations (1.18) and (1.21) we see that the distributive law (1.16)
is valid. The other distributive law (1.17) is obtained from equation (1.16)
by duality (see Appendix C).
This theorem tells us that in classical mechanics all propositions are compat-
ible. The presence of incompatible propositions is a characteristic feature of
quantum theories.
a ≤ b ⇒ a ↔ b. (1.22)
Table 1.5: Translation of terms, symbols, and operations used for subspaces
in the Hilbert space, projections on these subspaces, and propositions in
quantum logic.
Subspaces Projections Propositions
X⊆Y PX PY = PY PX = PX x≤y
X ∩Y PX∩Y x∧y
Sp(X, Y ) PSp(X,Y ) x∨y
X′ 1 − PX x⊥
X and Y are compatible [PX , PY ] = 0 x↔y
X⊥Y PX PY = PY PX = 0 x ≤ y⊥
0 0 ∅
H 1 I
ray x |xihx| x is an atom
Y3 X3 Y2
H
a3
b3
b2
0 a2 X2
a1 Z1
Z
X1
The proof of this theorem is beyond the scope of our book. Two further
remarks can be made regarding this theorem’s statement. First, all proposi-
tional systems of interest to physics have infinite (even uncountable) rank, so
the condition “rank ≥ 4” is not a significant restriction. Second, the original
Piron’s theorem does not specify the nature of scalars in the Hilbert space.
This theorem leaves the freedom of choosing any division ring with involutive
antiautomorphism as the set of scalars in H. We can greatly reduce this free-
dom if we remember the important role played by real numbers in physics.24
Therefore, it makes physical sense to consider only those rings which in-
clude R as a subring. In 1877 Frobenius proved that there are only three
24
e.g., values of observables are always in R
44 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
such rings. They are real numbers R, complex numbers C, and quaternions
H. Although there is vast literature on real and, especially, quaternionic
quantum mechanics [Stu60, Jau71], the relevance of these theories to physics
remains uncertain. Therefore, we will stick with complex numbers from now
on.
Piron’s theorem forms the foundation of the mathematical formalism of
quantum physics. In particular, it allows us to express the important notions
of observables and states in the new language of Hilbert spaces. In this lan-
guage pure quantum states are described by unit vectors in the Hilbert space.
Observables are described by Hermitian operators in the same Hilbert space.
These correspondences will be explained in the next section. Orthomodular
lattices of quantum logic, phase spaces of classical mechanics, and Hilbert
spaces of quantum mechanics are just different languages for describing rela-
tionships between states, observables, and their measured values. Table 1.6
can be helpful for translation between these three languages.
Table 1.6: Glossary of terms used in general quantum logic, in classical phase
space, and in the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics.
nature Quantum logic Phase space Hilbert space
Statement proposition subset closed subspace
Unambiguous Atom Point Ray
statement
AND meet intersection intersection
OR join union linear span
NOT orthocomplement relative orthogonal
complement complement
IF...THEN implication inclusion inclusion
of subsets of subspaces
Observable proposition-valued real function Hermitian
measure on R operator
jointly compatible all observables commuting
measurable propositions are compatible operators
observables
mutually exclusive disjoint non-intersecting orthogonal
statements propositions subsets subspaces
Pure state Probability delta function Ray
measure
Mixed state Probability Probability Density
measure function operator
as follows:
F∅ = ∅ (1.26)
FR = I (1.27)
Intervals E of the real line form a Boolean (distributive) lattice with re-
spect to set theoretical operations ⊆, ∩, ∪, and \. Due to the isomorphism
(1.23) - (1.27), the corresponding one-observable propositions FE also form a
Boolean lattice, which is a sublattice of our full propositional system. There-
fore, according to Theorem 1.35, all propositions about the same observable
are compatible. Due to the isomorphism “propositions”↔“subspaces,” we
can use the same notation FE for subspaces (projections) in H corresponding
to intervals E. Then, according to Lemma G.5, all projections FE , referring
to one observable F , commute with each other.
Each point f in the spectrum of observable F is called an eigenvalue of
this observable. The subspace Ff ⊂ H corresponding to the eigenvalue f is
1.6. QUANTUM OBSERVABLES AND STATES 47
X
F = f Pf (1.28)
f
with each observable F . In what follows we will often use terms “observable”
and “Hermitian operator” as synonyms.
1.6.2 States
As we discussed in subsection 1.3.1, each state φ of the system defines a
probability measure (φ|x) on propositions in quantum logic L. According
to the isomorphism “propositions ↔ subspaces”,28 the state φ also defines
a probability measure (φ|X) on subspaces X in the Hilbert space H. This
probability measure is a function from subspaces to the interval [0, 1] ⊆ R
whose properties follow directly from equations (1.2), (1.3), and Postulate
1.19
(φ|H) = 1 (1.29)
26
In the next subsection we will see that each vector in the Hilbert space defines a unique
pure quantum state. States defined by the above eigenvectors will be called eigenstates (of
the given observable F ). Apparently, the observable F has definite values (=eigenvalues)
in its eigenstates. This means that eigenstates are examples of states whose existence was
guaranteed by Postulate 1.2.
27
see Appendix G.1
28
See Table 1.6.
48 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
(φ|0) = 0 (1.30)
T r(ρ) = 1 (1.32)
and for any subspace X with projection PX the value of the probability mea-
sure is
Just a few comments about the terminology and notation used here: First,
a Hermitian operator is called non-negative if all its eigenvalues are greater
than or equal to zero. Second, the operator ρ is usually called the density
operator or the density matrix. Third, T r denotes trace 30 of the matrix of
the operator ρ.
The proof of Gleason’s theorem is far from trivial, and we refer interested
reader to original works [Gle57, RB99]. Here we will focus on the physical
interpretation of this result. First, we may notice that, according to the
spectral theorem F.8, the operator ρ can be always written as
29
Note that according to Table 1.6 orthogonal subspaces correspond to disjoint propo-
sitions. For definition of the direct sum of subspaces see Appendix G.1.
30
Trace is, basically, the sum of all diagonal elements of a matrix. See Appendix F.7.
1.6. QUANTUM OBSERVABLES AND STATES 49
X
ρ= ρi |ei ihei | (1.34)
i
ρi ≥ 0 (1.35)
X
ρi = 1 (1.36)
i
0 ≤ ρi ≤ 1 (1.37)
Among all states satisfying equation (1.35) - (1.37) there are simple states
for which just one coefficient ρi is non-zero. Then, from (1.36) it follows
that ρi = 1, ρj = 0 if j 6= i, and the density operator degenerates to a
projection onto the one-dimensional subspace |ei ihei |.31 Such states will be
called pure quantum states. It is also common to describe a pure state by a
unit vector from its ray. Any unit vector from this ray represents the same
state, i.e., in the vector representation of states there is a freedom of choosing
an unimodular phase factor of the state vector. In what follows we will often
use the terms “pure quantum state” and “state vector” as synonyms.
Mixed quantum states are expressed as weighed sums of pure states whose
coefficients ρi in equation (1.34) reflect the probabilities with which the pure
states enter in the mixture. Therefore, in quantum mechanics there are
uncertainties of two types. The first type is the uncertainty present in mixed
states. This uncertainty is already familiar to us from classical (statistical)
physics. This uncertainty results from our insufficient control of preparation
conditions (like when a bullet is fired from a shaky riffle). The second type
of uncertainty is present even in pure quantum states. It does not have a
counterpart in classical physics, and it cannot be avoided by tightening the
preparation conditions. This uncertainty is a reflection of the mysterious
unpredictability of microscopic phenomena.
We will not discuss mixed quantum states in this book. So, we will
deal only with uncertainties of the fundamental quantum type. Thus, when
speaking about a quantum state φ, we will always assume that there exists
31
One-dimensional subspaces are also called rays.
50 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
a corresponding state vector |φi. As discussed above, this vector is not the
unique representative of the state. Any vector eiα |φi that differs from |φi by
a unimodular phase factor eiα (where α ∈ R), is also a valid representative
of the state φ.
X
|φi = φi |ei i (1.38)
i
m
X
ρf = |hefi |φi|2 (1.40)
i=1
m
X
Pf ≡ |efi ihefi | (1.41)
i=1
X
hF i ≡ ρf f
f
34
Wave functions in the momentum and position representations for a single particle
will be discussed in section 5.2.
35
This is simply the value of the probability measure (φ|Pf ) (see subsection 1.3.1) cor-
responding to the spectral projection Pf . One can also see that this formula is equivalent
to the Gleason’s expression (1.33).
52 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
n
X n
X
2
hF i = |hej |φi| fj ≡ |φj |2 fj
j=1 j=1
where the summation is carried out over the entire basis |ej i of eigenvectors of
the operator F with eigenvalues fj . By using decompositions (1.38), (1.28),
and (1.41) we obtain a more compact formula for the expectation value hF i
! ! !
X X X
hφ|F |φi = φ∗i hei | |ej ifj hej | φk |ek i
i j k
X X X
= φ∗i fj φk hei |ej ihej |ek i = φ∗i fj φk δij δjk = |φj |2 fj
ijk ijk j
= hF i (1.42)
In classical mechanics:
In quantum mechanics:
This means that in any sample containing thorium, approximately half of all
232
T h nuclei will decay after 14 billion years. In principle, quantum mechan-
ics can calculate the probability of the nuclear decay as a function of time by
solving the corresponding Schrödinger equation.36 However, quantum me-
chanics cannot even approximately guess when any given nucleus will decay.
It could happen today, or it could happen 100 billion years from now.
So, our world (even at the macroscopic scale) is full of truly random events
whose exact description and prediction is beyond capabilities of modern sci-
ence. Nobody knows why physical systems have this random unpredictable
behavior. Quantum mechanics simply accepts this fact and does not attempt
to explain it. Quantum mechanics does not describe what actually happens;
it describes the full range of possibilities of what might have happened and
the probability of each possible outcome. Each time nature chooses just
one possibility from this range, while obeying the probabilities predicted by
quantum mechanics. QM cannot say anything about which particular choice
will be made by nature. These choices are completely random and beyond
explanation by modern science. This observation is a bit disturbing and em-
barrassing. Indeed, we have real physically measurable effects (the actual
choices made by nature) for which we have no control and no power to pre-
dict the outcome. These are facts without an explanation, effects without
a cause. It seems that microscopic particles obey some mysterious random
force. Then it is appropriate to ask what is the reason for such stochastic
behavior of micro-systems? Is it truly random or it just seems to be random?
If quantum mechanics cannot explain this random behavior, maybe there is
a deeper theory that can?
36
though our current knowledge of nuclear forces is insufficient to make a reliable cal-
culation of that sort for thorium.
1.7. INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 55
Actually, quantum mechanics does not make any claims about things that
are not measured. So, we will also prefer to remain agnostic about non-
observable features and refuse to use them as a basis for building our theory.
60 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Chapter 2
POINCARÉ GROUP
In the preceding chapter we have learned that each physical system can
be described mathematically by a Hilbert space. Rays in this space are in
one-to-one correspondence with (pure) states of the system. Observables are
described by Hermitian operators. This vague description is not sufficient for
a working theory. We are still lacking precise classification of possible physical
systems; we still do not know which operators correspond to usual observables
like position, momentum, mass, energy, spin, etc. and how these operators
are related to each other; we still cannot tell how states and observables
evolve in time. Our theory is not complete.
It appears that many missing pieces mentioned above are supplied by the
principle of relativity - which is one of the most powerful ideas in physics.
This principle has a very general character. It works independent on what
physical system, state or observable is considered. Basically, this principle
says that there is no preferred inertial reference frame (or observer or lab-
oratory). All frames are equivalent if they are at rest or move uniformly
without rotation or acceleration. Moreover, the principle of relativity rec-
ognizes certain (group) properties of inertial transformations between these
frames or observers. Our primary goal here is to establish that the group of
61
62 CHAPTER 2. POINCARÉ GROUP
when the ship is standing still everything must happen this way),
have the ship proceed with any speed you like, so long as the mo-
tion is uniform and not fluctuating this way and that. You will
discover not the least change in all the effects named, nor could
you tell from any of them whether the ship was moving or stand-
ing still. In jumping, you will pass on the floor the same spaces
as before, nor will you make larger jumps toward the stern than
towards the prow even though the ship is moving quite rapidly,
despite the fact that during the time that you are in the air the
floor under you will be going in a direction opposite to your jump.
In throwing something to your companion, you will need no more
force to get it to him whether he is in the direction of the bow or
the stern, with yourself situated opposite. The droplets will fall as
before into the vessel beneath without dropping towards the stern,
although while the drops are in the air the ship runs many spans.
The fish in the water will swim towards the front of their bowl
with no more effort than toward the back and will go with equal
ease to bait placed anywhere around the edges of the bowl. Finally
the butterflies and flies will continue their flights indifferently to-
ward every side, nor will it ever happen that they are concentrated
toward the stern, as if tired out from keeping up with the course
of the ship, from which they will have been separated during long
intervals by keeping themselves in the air.
These observations can be translated into a single statement that all inertial
laboratories cannot be distinguished from the laboratory at rest by perform-
ing experiments confined to those laboratories. Any experiment performed
in one laboratory, will yield exactly the same result as an identical experi-
ment in any other laboratory. The results will be the same, independent on
how far apart the laboratories are and what are their relative orientations
and velocities. Moreover, we may repeat the same experiment at any time,
tomorrow, or many years later, still results will be the same. This allows us
to formulate one of the most important and deep postulates in physics
Postulate 2.1 (the principle of relativity) In all inertial laboratories,
the laws of nature are the same: they do not change with time, they do not
depend on the position and orientation of the laboratory in space and on its
velocity. The laws of physics are invariant against inertial transformations
of laboratories.
64 CHAPTER 2. POINCARÉ GROUP
Suppose now that we have three different inertial observers O, O ′, and O ′′.
~ 1 ; v1 ; r1 ; t1 } which connects O and O ′
There is an inertial transformation {φ
~ 1 ; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }O
O ′ = {φ (2.1)
~ 2 ; v2 ; r2 ; t2 }O ′
O ′′ = {φ (2.2)
~ 3 ; v3 ; r3 ; t3 }O
O ′′ = {φ (2.3)
with all transformation parameters referring to O. We can represent the
transformation (2.3) as a composition or product of transformations (2.1)
and (2.2)
~ 3 ; v3 ; r3 ; t3 } = {φ
{φ ~ 2 ; v2 ; r2 ; t2 }{φ
~ 1 ; v1 ; r1 ; t1 } (2.4)
Apparently, this product has the property of associativity.3 Also, there ex-
ists a trivial (identity) transformation {~0; 0; 0; 0} that leaves all observers
unchanged, and for each inertial transformation {φ; ~ v; r; t} there is an inverse
transformation {φ;~ v; r; t} such that their product is the identity transfor-
−1
mation
~ v; r; t}{φ;
{φ; ~ v; r; t}−1 = {φ;
~ v; r; t}−1{φ;
~ v; r; t} = {~0; 0; 0; 0} (2.5)
In other words, the set of inertial transformations forms a group (see Ap-
pendix A.1). Moreover, since these transformations smoothly depend on
their parameters, this is a Lie group (see Appendix E.1). The main goal of
the present chapter is to study the properties of this group in some detail. In
particular, we will need explicit formulas for the composition and inversion
laws.
First we notice that a general inertial transformation {φ; ~ v; r; t} can be
represented as a product of basic transformations (i) - (iv). As these basic
transformations generally do not commute, we must agree on the canonical
order in this product. For our purposes the following choice is convenient
~ v; r; t}O = {φ;
{φ; ~ 0; 0; 0}{~0; v; 0; 0}{~0; 0; r; 0}{0; 0; ~0; t}O (2.6)
This means that in order to obtain observer O ′ = {φ;~ v; r; t}O we first shift
observer O in time by the amount t,4 then shift the time-translated observer
by the vector r, then give it velocity v, and finally rotate the obtained ob-
~
server by the angle φ.
3
see equation (A.1)
4
Recall that observers considered in this book are instantaneous, so the time flow is
regarded as time translation of observers.
66 CHAPTER 2. POINCARÉ GROUP
~ 1; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }O = {φ
{~0; 0; 0; t2 }{φ ~ 1 ; v1 ; r1 + v1 t2 ; t1 + t2 }O (2.7)
Space translations affect the position
~ 1; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }O = {φ
{~0; 0; r2; 0}{φ ~ 1 ; v1 ; r1 + r2 ; t1 }O (2.8)
Boosts change the velocity
~ 1; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }O = {φ
{~0; v2 ; 0; 0}{φ ~ 1 ; v1 + v2 ; r1 ; t1 }O (2.9)
Rotations affect all vector parameters5
~ 2 ; 0; 0; 0}{φ
{φ ~ 1; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }O = {Φ(R
~ ~ R ~ ); R ~ v1 ; R ~ r1 ; t1 }O (2.10)
φ2 φ1 φ2 φ2
~ 2 ; v2 ; r2 ; t2 }{φ
{φ ~ 1; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }
~ 2 ; 0; 0; 0}{~0; v2 ; 0; 0}{~0; 0; r2 ; 0}{~0; 0; 0; t2 }{φ
= {φ ~ 1 ; v1 ; r1 ; t1 }
~ 2 ; 0; 0; 0}{~0; v2 ; 0; 0}{~0; 0; r2 ; 0}{φ
= {φ ~ 1; v1 ; r1 + v1 t2 ; t1 + t2 }
~ 2 ; 0; 0; 0}{~0; v2 ; 0; 0}{φ
= {φ ~ 1; v1 ; r1 + v1 t2 + r2 ; t1 + t2 }
~ 2 ; 0; 0; 0}{φ
= {φ ~ 1; v1 + v2 ; r1 + v1 t2 + r2 ; t1 + t2 }
~ ~ R ~ ); R ~ (v1 + v2 ); R ~ (r1 + v1 t2 + r2 ); t1 + t2 }
= {Φ(R (2.11)
φ2 φ1 φ2 φ2
~ v; r; t}−1 = {−φ;
{φ; ~ −v; −r + vt; −t} (2.12)
Equations (2.11) and (2.12) are multiplication and inversion laws which fully
determine the structure of the Lie group of inertial transformations in non-
relativistic physics. This group is called the Galilei group.
d ~
H = lim {0; 0; 0; t}
t→0 dt
For generators of space translations and boosts along the x-axis we obtain
d ~
Px = lim {0; 0; x, 0, 0; 0}
x→0 dx
d
Kx = lim {~0; v, 0, 0; 0; 0}
v→0 dv
68 CHAPTER 2. POINCARÉ GROUP
d
Jx = lim {φ, 0, 0; 0; 0; 0}
φ→0 dφ
Then each group element can be represented in its canonical form (2.6) as
the following function of parameters
~ v; r; t} ≡ {φ;
{φ; ~ 0; 0; 0}{~0; v; 0; 0}{~0; 0; r; 0}{0; 0; ~0; t}
~~ ~ ~
= eJ φ eKv ePr eHt (2.16)
Let us now find the commutation relations between generators, i.e., the
structure constants of the Galilei Lie algebra. Consider, for example, trans-
lations in time and space. From equation (2.11) we have
This implies
Using equations (2.13) and (2.14) for the exponents we can write to the first
order in x and to the first order in t
2.2. GALILEI GROUP 69
hence
[Px , H] ≡ Px H − HPx = 0
So, generators of space and time translations have vanishing Lie bracket.
Similarly we obtain Lie brackets
Ht + [Kx , H]vt = Ht − Px vt
[Kx , H] = −Px
3
X
[Ji , Pj ] = ǫijk Pk (2.17)
k=1
X3
[Ji , Jj ] = ǫijk Jk (2.18)
k=1
X3
[Ji , Kj ] = ǫijk Kk (2.19)
k=1
[Ji , H] = 0 (2.20)
[Pi , Pj ] = [Pi , H] = 0 (2.21)
[Ki , Kj ] = 0 (2.22)
[Ki , Pj ] = 0 (2.23)
[Ki , H] = −Pi (2.24)
From these Lie brackets one can identify several important sub-algebras of
the Galilei Lie algebra and, therefore, subgroups of the Galilei group. In
particular, there is an Abelian subgroup of space and time translations (with
generators P~ and H, respectively), a subgroup of rotations (with generators
J~ ), and an Abelian subgroup of boosts (with generators K).
~
O ′ = gO
y
O y’
gg O’
h x
gg1
A g
h’ x’
h′ = ghg −1
A′ = gAg −1 (2.25)
∂
Ax (φ) = eJz φ (Jz Ax − Ax Jz )e−Jz φ = eJz φ Ay e−Jz φ = Ay (φ) (2.26)
∂φ
∂
Ay (φ) = eJz φ (Jz Ay − Ay Jz )e−Jz φ = −eJz φ Ax e−Jz φ = −Ax (φ)
∂φ
∂
Az (φ) = eJz φ (Jz Az − Az Jz )e−Jz φ = 0 (2.27)
∂φ
Taking a derivative of equation (2.26) by φ we obtain a second order differ-
ential equation
∂2 ∂
2
Ax (φ) = Ay (φ) = −Ax (φ)
∂ φ ∂φ
with the general solution
where B and D are arbitrary functions of generators. From the initial con-
ditions we obtain
B = Ax (0) = Ax
d
D = Ax (φ) = Ay
dφ φ=0
so that finally
φ
v
φ x
0 S
x
S’
v
3
X
A′i =eJz φ −Jz φ
Ai e = (Rz )ij Aj (2.31)
j=1
~ ′ = eJ~ φ~ Ae
A ~ −J~ φ~
! # "
~ ~ ~
= A~ cos φ + φ ~·φ
A ~×
(1 − cos φ) − A
φ
sin φ
φ φ φ
~
= Rφ~ A
~ J~ , and K
This means that P, ~ are 3-vectors.7 The Lie bracket (2.20) obviously
means that H is a 3-scalar.
has been proven by experiment that these discrete symmetries are not ex-
act. Nevertheless, we will find it useful to know how generators behave with
respect to space inversions. Suppose we have a classical system S and its in-
version image S ′ (see Fig. 2.2) with respect to the origin 0. The question is:
how the image S ′ will transform if we apply a certain inertial transformation
to S?
Apparently, if we shift S by vector x, then S ′ will be shifted by −x.
This can be interpreted as the change of sign of the generator of translation
~ under inversion. The same with boost: the inverted image S ′ acquires
P
velocity −v if the original was boosted by v. So, inversion changes the sign
of the boost generator as well
~ → −K
K ~ (2.32)
~ and K,
Vectors, such as P ~ changing their sign after inversion are called true
vectors. However, the generator of rotation J~ is not a true vector. In-
deed, if we rotate S by angle φ,~ then the image S ′ is also rotated by the
same angle (see Fig. 2.2). So, J~ does not change the sign after inver-
sion. Such vectors are called pseudovectors. Similarly we can introduce the
notions of true scalars/pseudoscalars and true tensors/pseudotensors. It is
conventional to define their properties in a way opposite to those of true
vectors/pseudovectors. In particular, true scalars and true tensors (of rank
2) do not change their signs after inversion. For example, H is a true scalar.
Pseudoscalars and rank-2 pseudotensors do change their signs after inversion.
instead. In this section we will find that there is almost a unique way to
obtain the Lie algebra of the Poincaré group by generalizing the commuta-
tion relations of the Galilei Lie algebra (2.17) - (2.24), so that they remain
compatible with some simple physical requirements.
(II) The Galilei group does a good job in describing the low-speed trans-
formations, and the speed of light c is a natural measure of speed.
Therefore we may guess that the correct Lie brackets should include c
as a parameter, and they must tend to the Galilei Lie brackets in the
limit c → ∞.8
(III) We will assume that only Lie brackets involving boosts may be subject
to revision.
where Tij , Uij , and Vij are some yet unknown linear combinations of genera-
tors. The coefficients of these linear combinations must be selected in such a
way that all Lie algebra properties9 are preserved. Let us try to satisfy these
conditions step by step.
First note that the Lie bracket [Ki , Pj ] is a 3-tensor. Indeed, using equa-
tion (2.31) we obtain the tensor transformation law (D.15)
" 3 3
#
~ ~
X X
J~ φ −J~ φ ~ k, ~ l
e [Ki , Pj ]e = Rik (φ)K Rjl (φ)P
k=1 k=1
3
X
= ~ jl (φ)[K
Rik (φ)R ~ k , Pl ]
kl=1
Since both K ~ and P~ change their signs upon inversion, this a true tensor.
Therefore Uij must be a true tensor as well. This tensor should be constructed
as a linear function of generators among which we have a true scalar H, a
pseudovector J~ , and two true vectors P~ and K.
~ According to our discussion
in Appendix D.4, the only way to make a true tensor from these ingredients
is by using formulas in the first and third rows in table D.1. Therefore, the
most general expression for the Lie bracket (2.33) is
3
X
[Ki , Pj ] = −βHδij + γ ǫijk Jk
k=1
[Ki , Kj ] = −[Kj , Ki ]
3
X
[Ki , Kj ] = α ǫijk Jk ,
k=1
which implies
βκ = 0 (2.35)
Similarly,
implies
α = −β(1 + σ) (2.36)
γ = 0 (2.37)
The system of equations (2.35) - (2.36) has two possible solutions (in both
cases σ remains undefined)
< K >2
<α> = =< speed >−2
<J >
< K >< P >
<β> = =< speed >−2
<H>
< κ > = < H >=< time >−1
< σ > = dimensionless
2.3. POINCARÉ GROUP 79
1
β = −α =
c2
Then the resulting Lie brackets are
3
X
[Ji , Pj ] = ǫijk Pk (2.39)
k=1
3
X
[Ji , Jj ] = ǫijk Jk (2.40)
k=1
X3
[Ji , Kj ] = ǫijk Kk (2.41)
k=1
[Ji , H] = 0 (2.42)
[Pi , Pj ] = [Pi , H] = 0 (2.43)
3
1 X
[Ki , Kj ] = − 2 ǫijk Jk (2.44)
c k=1
1
[Ki , Pj ] = − Hδij (2.45)
c2
[Ki , H] = −Pi (2.46)
This set of Lie brackets is called the Poincaré Lie algebra and it differs from
the Galilei algebra (2.17) - (2.24) only by small terms on the right hand sides
of Lie brackets (2.44) and (2.45). The general element of the corresponding
Poincaré group has the form10
~~ ~ ~ ~
eJ φ eKcθ ePx eHt (2.47)
10
Note that here we adhere to the conventional order of basic transformations adopted
in (2.6); from right to left: time translation → space translation → boost → rotation.
80 CHAPTER 2. POINCARÉ GROUP
~θ
v(~θ) = c tanh θ
θ
cosh θ = (1 − v 2 /c2 )−1/2
The reason for introducing this new quantity is that rapidities of successive
boosts in the same direction are additive, while velocities are not.11
In spite of their simplicity, equations (2.39) - (2.46) are among the most
important equations in physics, and they have such an abundance of exper-
imental confirmations that one cannot doubt their validity. We therefore
accept that the Poincaré group is the true mathematical expression of rela-
tionships between different inertial laboratories.
Even a brief comparison of the Poincaré (2.39) - (2.46) and Galilei (2.17)
- (2.24) Lie brackets reveals a number of important new features in the
relativistic theory. For example, due to the Lie bracket (2.44), boosts no
longer form a subgroup. However, boosts together with rotations do form
a 6-dimensional subgroup of the Poincaré group which is called the Lorentz
group.
∂
H(θ) = ceKx cθ (Kx H − HKx )e−Kx cθ
∂θ
= −ceKx cθ Px e−Kx cθ = −cPx (θ)
∂
Px (θ) = ceKx cθ (Kx Px − Px Kx )e−Kx cθ
∂θ
1 1
= − eKx cθ He−Kx cθ = − H(θ) (2.48)
c c
and taking a derivative of equation (2.48) again, we obtain a differential
equation
∂2 1 ∂
2
Px (θ) = − H(θ) = Px (θ)
∂ θ c ∂θ
with the general solution
A = Px (0) = Px
∂ 1
B = Px (θ) = − H
∂θ θ=0 c
and finally
H
Px (θ) = Px cosh θ − sinh θ
c
Similar calculation shows that
82 CHAPTER 2. POINCARÉ GROUP
" ! #
~ ~
~′ = e
P
~ θ~ ~ −Kc
Kc ~ θ~
Pe ~+θ
= P ~·θ
P
1
(cosh θ − 1) − H sinh θ (2.50)
θ θ c
!
~
~ ~
H′ = eKcθ He−Kcθ
~ ~ ~ · θ sinh θ
= H cosh θ − c P (2.51)
θ
It is clear from (2.50) and (2.51) that boosts perform linear transformations
of components cP ~ and H. These transformations can be represented in a
matrix form if four generators (H, cP)~ are arranged in a column 4-vector
H′ H
cPx′ cPx
′
= B(~θ) .
cPy cPy
′
cPz cPz
QUANTUM MECHANICS
AND RELATIVITY
Two preceding chapters discussed the ideas of quantum mechanics and rel-
ativity separately. Now is the time to unify them in one theory. The major
contribution to such an unification was made by Wigner who formulated and
proved the famous Wigner’s theorem and developed the theory of unitary
representations of the Poincaré group in Hilbert spaces. This theory is the
mathematical foundation of the entire relativistic quantum approach pre-
sented in this book. Its discusion will occupy the present chapter as well as
the two following chapters 4 and 5.
83
84 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
(φ|X) are the same. As shown in Fig. 1, laboratories are composed of two
major parts: the preparation device P and the observer O. The inertial
transformation g of the laboratory results in changes of both these part. The
change of the preparation device can be interpreted as a change of the state
of the system. We can formally denote this change by φ → gφ. The change
of the observer (or measuring apparatus) can be viewed as a change of the
experimental proposition X → gX. Then, the mathematical expression of
the relativity principle is that for any g, φ, and X
Kg : L(H) → L(H)
Kg (I) = I (3.2)
Kg (∅) = ∅ (3.3)
Kg (X ∨ Y ) = Kg (X) ∨ Kg (Y ) (3.4)
Kg (X ∧ Y ) = Kg (X) ∧ Kg (Y ) (3.5)
Kg (X ⊥ ) = Kg (X)⊥ (3.6)
In this formulation, Wigner’s theorem has been proven in ref. [Uhl63] (see
also [AD78a]). The significance of this theorem comes from the fact that
there is a powerful mathematical apparatus for working with unitary and
antiunitary transformations, so that their properties (and, thus, properties
of subspace transformations Kg ) can be studied in great detail by familiar
techniques of linear algebra in Hilbert spaces.
From our study of inertial transformations in chapter 2, we know that
there is always a continuous path from the identity transformation e =
{~0, 0, 0, 0} to any other element g = {φ, ~ v, r, t} in the Poincaré group. It
is convenient to represent the identity transformation e by the identity oper-
ator which is, of course, unitary. It also seems reasonable to demand that the
mappings g → Kg and g → kg are continuous, so, the representative kg can-
not suddenly switch from unitary to antiunitary along the path connecting
e with g. Then we can reject antiunitary transformations as representatives
of Kg .3
Although Wigner’s theorem reduces the freedom of choosing generators,
it does not eliminate this freedom completely: Two unitary transformations
kg and βkg (where β is any unimodular constant) generate the same subspace
mapping. Therefore, for each Kg there is a set of generating unitary trans-
formations Ug differing from each other by a multiplicative constant. Such a
set is called a ray of transformations [Ug ].
Results of this subsection can be summarized as follows: each inertial
transformation g of the observer can be represented by a unitary opera-
tor Ug in H defined up to an arbitrary unimodular factor: ket vectors are
transformed according toP|xi → Ug |xi, and bra vectors are transformed as
hx| → hx|Ug−1 . If X = i |ei ihei |4 is a projection (proposition) associated
with the observer O, then observer O ′ = gO represents the same proposition
by the projection
X
X′ = Ug |ei ihei |Ug−1 = Ug XUg−1
i
P
Similarly, if F = i fi |ei ihei | is an operator of observable associated with
the observer O then
3
The antiunitary operators may still represent discrete transformations, e.g., time
inversion, but we agreed not to discuss such transformations in this book, because they
do not correspond to exact symmetries.
4
Here |ei i is an orthonormal basis in the subspace X.
3.1. INERTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN QUANTUM MECHANICS 87
X
F′ = fi Ug |ei ihei |Ug−1 = Ug F Ug−1 (3.7)
i
is operator of the same observable from the point of view of the observer
O ′ = gO.
This equation should be valid for any choice of observable F . Let us choose
F = |ΨihΨ|, i.e., the projection onto the ray containing vector |Ψi. Then
equation (3.8) takes the form
The left hand side of this equation is equal to 1. So, for each |Ψi, the
transformed vector |Ψ′ i is such that
|hΨ′|Ug |Ψi|2 = 1
Since both Ug |Ψi and |Ψ′ i are unit vectors, we must have
88 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
Then, taking into account the transformation law for observables (3.7) we can
check that, in agreement with the relativity principle (3.8), the expectation
values remain the same in all laboratories
K g 2 K g 1 = Kg 2 g 1 (3.13)
−1
Kg−1 = Kg (3.14)
Kg3 (Kg2 Kg1 ) = Kg3 Kg2 g1 = Kg3 (g2 g1 ) = K(g3 g2 )g1 = (Kg3 Kg2 )Kg1(3.15)
90 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
|α(g2, g1 )| = 1 (3.17)
Second, from the property (A.2) of the unit element we have for any g
10
!
X
ζ~
g = e = exp ζ a~ta
a=1
~ K,
where ta is the basis of the Poincaré Lie algebra (H, P, ~ J~ ) from subsection
2.3.1. Then we can write unitary representatives Ug of inertial transforma-
tions g in the form7
10
!
iX a
Uζ~ = exp − ζ Fa (3.22)
~ a=1
where ~ is a real constant which will be left unspecified at this point,8 and
Fa are ten Hermitian operators in the Hilbert space H called the generators
6
i.e., multiply our previously chosen unitary operators Ug by some unimodular factors
Ug → β(g)Ug
7
Here we have used Stone’s theorem H.2. The nature of one-parameter subgroups
featuring in the theorem is rather obvious. These are subgroups of similar transformations,
i.e., a subgroup of space translations, a subgroup of rotations about the z-axis, etc.
8
We will identify ~ with the Planck constant in subsection 4.1.1
92 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
~ ξ)U
Uζ~ Uξ~ = α(ζ, ~ ~~ (3.23)
ζξ
~ ξ)
Since α is unimodular we can set α(ζ, ~ = exp[iκ(ζ,
~ ξ)],
~ where κ(ζ, ~ ξ)
~ is a
real function. Conditions (3.20) and (3.21) then will be rewritten in terms
of κ
~ ~0) = κ(~0, ζ)
κ(ζ, ~ =0 (3.24)
~ ζ)
κ(ξ, ~ + κ(~
χ, ξ~ζ)
~ = κ(~ ~ ζ)
χξ, ~ + κ(~ ~
χ, ξ) (3.25)
Note that we can write the lowest order term in the Taylor series for κ near
the group identity element in the form9
10
X
~ ξ)
κ(ζ, ~ = hab ζ a ξ b (3.26)
ab=1
The constant term, the terms linear in ζ a and ξ b , as well as the terms propor-
tional to ζ a ζ b and ξ a ξ b are absent on the right hand of (3.26) as a consequence
of the condition (3.24).
Using the same arguments as during our derivation of equation (E.6), we
can expand all terms in (3.23) around ζ~ = ξ~ = ~0
10 10
! 10 10
!
iX a 1 X b c iX a 1 X b c
1− ξ Fa − 2 ξ ξ Fbc + . . . 1− ζ Fa − 2 ζ ζ Fbc + . . .
~ a=1 2~ bc=1 ~ a=1 2~ bc=1
10
! 10 10
!
X h i X X
= 1+i hab ζ a ξ b + . . . 1 − ζ a + ξa + fbca ξ b ζ c + . . . Fa
ab=1
~ a=1 bc=1
10 i
1 X a a b b
− (ζ + ξ + . . .)(ζ + ξ + . . .)Fab + . . .
2~2 ab=1
10
1 1 iX c
− (Fab + Fba ) = F F
a b − ihab + f Fc
2~2 ~2 ~ c=1 ab
The left hand side of this equation is symmetric with respect to interchange
of indices a ↔ b. The same should be true for the right hand side. From this
condition we obtain commutators of generators F
10
X
c
Fa Fb − Fb Fa = i~ Cab Fc + Eab (3.27)
c=1
c c c
where Cab ≡ fab − fba are familiar structure constants of the Poincaré Lie
algebra (2.39) - (2.46) and Eab = i~2 (hab − hba ) are imaginary constants,
which depend on our original choice of representatives Ug in rays [Ug ].10
These constants are called central charges. Our main task in this subsection
is to prove that representatives Ug can be chosen in such a way that Eab = 0,
i.e., the central charges get eliminated.
First we consider the original (arbitrary) set of representatives Ug . In
accordance with our notation in section 2.3 we will use symbols
3
X (1)
[J˜i , P̃j ] = i~ ǫijk P̃k + Eij (3.29)
k=1
10
To be exact, we must write Eab on the right hand side of equation (3.27) multiplied
by the identity operator I. However, we will omit the symbol I here for brevity.
11
Note that generators (H, P, ~ K,
~ J~ ) in subsection 2.3.1 were abstract quantities
that could be interpreted as “derivatives of group transformations”, while generators
(H̃, P̃, J̃, K̃) here are Hermitian operators in the Hilbert space of states of our physical
system.
94 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
3
X (2)
[J˜i , J˜j ] = i~ ǫijk (J˜k + iEk ) (3.30)
k=1
X3
(3)
[J˜i , K̃j ] = i~ ǫijk K̃k + Eij (3.31)
k=1
(4)
[P̃i , P̃j ] = Eij (3.32)
(5)
[J˜i , H̃] = Ei (3.33)
(6)
[P̃i , H̃] = Ei (3.34)
3
~ X (7)
[K̃i , K̃j ] = −i ǫijk (J˜k + iEk ) (3.35)
c2 k=1
~ (8)
[K̃i , P̃j ] = −i2
H̃δij + Eij , (3.36)
c
(9)
[K̃i , H̃] = −i~P̃i + Ei (3.37)
Here we arranged Eab into nine sets of central charges E (1) . . . E (9) . In equa-
tion (3.30) and (3.35) we took into account that their left hand sides are
antisymmetric tensors. So, the central charges must form antisymmetric
tensors
P3 as well, and, according
P3 to Table D.1, they can be represented as
(2) −2 (7) (2) (7)
−~ k=1 ǫijk Ek and ~c k=1 ǫijk Ek , respectively, where Ek and Ek
are 3-vectors.
Next we will use the requirement that commutators (3.29) - (3.37) must
satisfy the Jacobi identity.12 This will allow us to make some simplifications.
(1)
For example, using13 P̃3 = − ~i [J˜1 , P̃2 ] + ~i E12 and the fact that all constants
E commute with generators of the group, we obtain
i (1) i
[P̃3 , P̃1 ] = − [([J˜1 , P̃2 ] + E12 ), P̃1 ] = − [[J˜1 , P̃2 ], P̃1 ]
~ ~
i i i (4) i (1)
= − [[P̃1 , P̃2 ], J˜1 ] − [[J˜1 , P̃1 ], P̃2 ] = − [E12 , J˜1 ] − [E11 , P̃2 ]
~ ~ ~ ~
= 0
(4) (4) (5) (6)
so E31 = 0. Similarly, we can show that Eij = Ei = Ei = 0 for all values
of indices i, j = 1, 2, 3.
12
equation (E.10), which is equivalent to the associativity condition (3.15) or (3.25)
13
Here we used equation (3.29).
3.2. UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS OF THE POINCARÉ GROUP 95
i~[J˜3 , P̃3 ] = [[J˜1 , J˜2 ], P̃3 ] = [[P̃3 , J˜2 ], J˜1 ] + [[J˜1 , P̃3 ], J˜2 ]
= i~[J˜1 , P̃1 ] + i~[J˜2 , P̃2 ] (3.38)
and, similarly,
i~[J˜2 , P̃3 ] = [[J˜3 , J˜1 ], P̃3 ] = [[P̃3 , J˜1 ], J˜3 ] + [[J˜3 , P̃3 ], J˜1 ]
= −i~[J˜3 , P̃2 ]
This antisymmetry property is also true in the general case (for any i, j =
1, 2, 3; i 6= j)
3
X
(1) (1)
Eij = −~ ǫijk Ek
i=1
3
X (1)
[J˜i , P̃j ] = i~ ǫijk (P̃k + iEk ) (3.43)
i=1
(3)
Similarly, we can show that Eii = 0 and
96 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
3
X (3)
[J˜i , K̃j ] = i~ ǫijk (K̃k + iEk )
i=1
3
X (1)
[J˜i , P̃j ] = i~ ǫijk (P̃k + iEk ) (3.44)
k=1
X3
(2)
[J˜i , J˜j ] = i~ ǫijk (J˜k + iEk ) (3.45)
k=1
X3
(3)
[J˜i , K̃j ] = i~ ǫijk (K̃k + iEk ) (3.46)
k=1
10
X
~ = exp(iγ(ζ))
β(ζ) ~ ≈1+i Ra ζ a
a=1
~ results in adding
Therefore, in the first order, the presence of factors β(ζ)
some real constants Ra to generators Fa . We would like to show that by
adding such constants we can make all central charges equal to zero.
3.2. UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS OF THE POINCARÉ GROUP 97
Let us now add constants R to the generators P̃j , J˜j , and K̃j and denote
the redefined generators as
(1)
Pj = P̃j + Rj
(2)
Jj = J˜j + R j
(3)
Kj = K̃j + Rj
3
X
(2) (2) (2)
[Ji , Jj ] = [J˜i + Ri , J˜j + Rj ] = [J˜i , J˜j ] = i~ ǫijk (J˜k + iEk )
k=1
(2) (2)
So, if we choose Rk = iEk , then
3
X
[Ji , Jj ] = i~ ǫijk Jk
k=1
3
X
[Ji , Pj ] = i~ ǫijk Pk
k=1
X3
[Ji , Kj ] = i~ ǫijk Kk (3.51)
k=1
i i i
[K1 , K2 ] = − [[J2 , K3 ], K2 ] = − [[J2 , K2 ], K3 ] − [[K2 , K3 ], J2 ]
~ ~ ~
i i~ (7) i~
= − [− 2 (J1 + iE1 ), J2 ] = − 2 J3
~ c c
98 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
i i i
[K3 , H̃] = − [[J1 , K2 ], H̃] = − [[H̃, K2 ], J1 ] − [[J1 , H̃], K2 ]
~ ~ ~
= −[J1 , P2 ] = −i~P3
which implies that the central charge E (9) is canceled as well. Finally
i i i
[K1 , P2 ] = − [[J2 , K3 ], P2 ] = − [[J2 , P2 ], K3 ] + [[K3 , P2 ], J3 ] = 0
~ ~ ~
i i i
[K1 , P1 ] = − [[J2 , K3 ], P1 ] = − [[J2 , P1 ], K3 ] + [[K3 , P1 ], J3 ]
~ ~ ~
= [K3 , P3 ]
(8)
It then follows that Eij = 0 if i 6= j and we can introduce a real scalar E (8)
such that
3
X
[Ji , Pj ] = i~ ǫijk Pk (3.52)
k=1
X3
[Ji , Jj ] = i~ ǫijk Jk (3.53)
k=1
X3
[Ji , Kj ] = i~ ǫijk Kk (3.54)
k=1
3.2. UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS OF THE POINCARÉ GROUP 99
i ~ ic ~ i i
Ug = e− ~ Jφ e− ~ Kθ e− ~ Pr e ~ Ht (3.59)
We will frequently use notation
~ ~θ; r, t) ≡ U(Λ; r, t)
Ug ≡ U(φ, (3.60)
where Λ is a Lorentz transformation of inertial frames that combines boost
~θ and rotation φ.
~ Then, in the Schrödinger picture17 state vectors transform
between different inertial reference frames according to18
15
The exponential form of the unitary group representatives follows from equation (3.22).
16
compare with equation (2.16)
17
see subsection 3.1.3
18
We will see in subsection 5.2.4 that this is active transformation of states. In most
physical applications one is interested in passive transformations of states (i.e., how the
3.2. UNITARY REPRESENTATIONS OF THE POINCARÉ GROUP 101
F ′ = Ug F Ug−1 (3.62)
For example, the equation describing the time evolution of the observable F
in the Heisenberg picture19
i i
F (t) = e ~ Ht F e− ~ Ht (3.63)
i 1
= F + [H, F ]t − 2 [H, [H, F ]]t2 + . . . (3.64)
~ 2~
can be also written in a differential form
dF (t) i
= [H, F ]
dt ~
which is the familiar Heisenberg equation.
Note also that analogous “Heisenberg equations” can be written for trans-
formations of observables with respect to space translations, rotations, and
boosts
dF (r) i
= − [P, F ]
dr ~
~
dF (φ) i
= − [J, F ]
dφ~ ~
~
dF (θ) ic
= − [K, F ] (3.65)
d~θ ~
same state is seen by two different observers), which are given by the inverse operator
Ug−1 .
19
see equation (E.13)
102 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RELATIVITY
OPERATORS OF
OBSERVABLES
Throwing pebbles into the water, look at the ripples they form on
the surface, otherwise, such occupation becomes an idle pastime.
Kozma Prutkov
103
104 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
significant requirement is that our system must be isolated, i.e., its interac-
tion with the rest of the universe can be neglected.
In this chapter we will focus on observables whose operators can be ex-
pressed as functions of generators (P, J, K, H) of the Poincaré group rep-
resentation Ug . In chapter 8, we will meet other observables, such as the
number of particles. They cannot be expressed through ten generators of the
Poincaré group.
kg · m2
~ = 6.626 · 10−34 (4.1)
s
whose dimension can be also expressed as < ~ >=< mass >< speed ><
distance >. Then the dimensions of generators can be found from the con-
dition that the arguments of exponents in (3.59) must be dimensionless
<~>
• < H >= <time>
=< mass >< speed >2 ;
<~>
• < P >= <distance>
=< mass >< speed >;
Based on these dimensions we can guess that we are dealing with observables
of energy (or Hamiltonian) H, momentum P, and angular momentum J
of the system.1 We will call them basic observables. Operators H, P, and J
1
There is no common observable directly associated with the boost generator K, but
we will see later that K is intimately related to system’s position and spin.
4.1. BASIC OBSERVABLES 105
! "
#
~ i ~
~
φ ~
φ ~
φ
~ = e − ~i Jφ Jφ
F(φ) Fe ~ = F cos φ + F· (1 − cos φ) − F × sin φ
φ φ φ
(4.2)
!
~θ ~θ θ~
− ic Kθ~ ic
Kθ~
P(θ) = e ~ Pe ~ =P+ P· (cosh θ − 1) − H sinh θ
θ θ cθ
(4.3)
!
ic ~ ic ~
~θ
H(θ) = e− ~ Kθ He ~ Kθ = H cosh θ − c P · sinh θ (4.4)
θ
2
i.e., they have a common basis of eigenvectors, as explained in subsection 1.6.2 and
Appendix G.2
3
see equation (D.21)
4
see equations (2.50) and (2.51)
106 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
It also follows from (3.55) that energy H, momentum P, and angular mo-
mentum J do not depend on time, i.e., they are conserved observables.
Pc2
V≡ (4.5)
H
Denoting V(θ) the velocity measured in the frame of reference moving with
the speed v = c tanh θ along the x-axis, we obtain
These formulas coincide with the usual relativistic law of addition of veloci-
ties. In the limit c → ∞ they reduce to the familiar non-relativistic form
Vx (v) = Vx − v
Vy (v) = Vy
Vz (v) = Vz
4.2.1 4-vectors
Before addressing Casimir operators, let us introduce some useful defini-
tions. We will call a quadruple of operators (A0 , Ax , Ay , Az ) a 4-vector 7 if
(Ax , Ay , Az ) is a 3-vector, A0 is a 3-scalar, and their commutators with the
boost generators are
i~
[Ki , Aj ] = − A0 δij (i, j = x, y, z) (4.9)
c
~ A0 ] = − i~ A
[K, ~ (4.10)
c
Then, it is easy to show that the 4-square Ã2 ≡ A2x + A2y + A2z − A20 of the
4-vector à is a 4-scalar, i.e., it commutes with both rotations and boosts.
For example
i~
= − (Ax A0 + A0 Ax − A0 Ax − Ax A0 ) = 0
c
1√ 2
M =+ H − P 2 c2 (4.11)
c2
The operator of mass must be Hermitian, therefore we demand that for any
physical system H 2 − P 2 c2 ≥ 0, i.e., that the spectrum of operator H 2 − P 2 c2
does not contain negative values. Honoring the fact that masses of all known
physical systems are non-negative we choose the positive value of the square
root in (4.11). Then the relationship between energy, momentum, and mass
takes the form
√
H = + P 2 c2 + M 2 c4 (4.12)
P2
H ≈ Mc2 +
2M
which is the sum of the famous Einstein’s rest mass energy E = Mc2 and
the usual kinetic energy term P 2 /(2M).
4.2. CASIMIR OPERATORS 109
W 0 = (P · J) (4.13)
1
W = HJ − c[P × K] (4.14)
c
Let us check that all required 4-vector properties are, indeed, satisfied for
(W 0 , W). We can immediately observe that
[J, W 0 ] = 0
so W 0 is a scalar. Moreover, W 0 changes its sign after changing the sign of
P so it is a pseudoscalar. W is a pseudovector, because it does not change
its sign after changing the signs of K and P and
3
X
[Ji , Wj ] = i~ ǫijk Wk
k=1
[Kx , W 0 ] = [Kx , Px Jx + Py Jy + Pz Jz ]
HJx i~
= −i~ 2
− Py Kz + Pz Ky = − Wx (4.15)
c c
HJx
[Kx , Wx ] = Kx , − cPy Kz + cPz Ky
c
i~ i~
= (−Px Jx − Py Jy − Pz Jz ) = − W 0 (4.16)
c c
HJy
[Kx , Wy ] = Kx , − cPz Kx + cPx Kz
c
i~
= (HKz − Px Jy − HKz + Px Jy ) = 0 (4.17)
c
[Kx , Wz ] = 0 (4.18)
8
These definitions involve products of Hermitian commuting operators, therefore oper-
ators W 0 and W are guaranteed to be Hermitian.
110 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
i~
[K, W 0 ] = − W (4.19)
c
i~
[Ki , Wj ] = − δij W 0 (4.20)
c
[W 0 , H] = [P · J, H] = 0
[W 0 , Px ] = [Jx Px + Jy Py + Jz Pz , Px ] = Py [Jy , Px ] + Pz [Jz , Px ]
= −i~Py Pz + i~Pz Py = 0
This completes the proof that the 4-square of the Pauli-Lubanski 4-vector
Σ2 = W2 − W02
HJy HWz 0
[Wx , Wy ] = Wx , + cPx Kz − cPz Kx = i~ − W Pz
c c
HJx
[W0 , Wx ] = W0 , − cPy Kz + cPz Ky = −i~Py Wz + i~Pz Wy
c
= −i~[P × W]x
3
i~ X
[Wi , Wj ] = ǫijk (HWk − cW 0 Pk ) (4.21)
c k=1
[W0 , Wj ] = −i~[P × W]j (4.22)
3
X
[Jj , Si ] = i~ ǫijk Sk
k=1
3
X
[Si , Sj ] = i~ ǫijk Sk (4.23)
k=1
(III) We also demand that spin can be measured simultaneously with mo-
mentum
[P, S] = 0
[R, S] = 0 (4.24)
i i
e− ~ Px a Rx e ~ Px a = Rx − a
i i
e− ~ Px a Ry e ~ Px a = Ry
i i
e− ~ Px a Rz e ~ Px a = Rz
3
X
[Ji , Rj ] = i~ ǫijk Rk (4.26)
k=1
W W0 P
S = − (4.27)
Mc M(Mc2 + H)
HJ [P × K] P(P · J)
= 2
− − (4.28)
Mc M (H + Mc2 )M
1
F ≡− (4.29)
M(Mc2 + H)
1 1
(P · W) = H(P · J) = HW0 (4.30)
c c
and equation (D.17). Then
Wx Wy
[Sx , Sy ] = F W0 Px + , F W0 Py +
Mc Mc
11
Note that operator S has the mass operator M in the denominator, so expressions
(4.27) and (4.28) have mathematical sense only for systems with a strictly positive mass
spectrum.
114 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
F Px [P × W]y F Py [P × W]x HWz − cW0 Pz
= i~ − + +
Mc Mc M 2 c3
F [P × [P × W]]z HWz − cW0 Pz
= i~ − +
Mc M 2 c3
F (Pz (P · W) − Wz P 2 ) HWz − cW0 Pz
= i~ − +
Mc M 2 c3
F (Pz HW 0c−1 − Wz P 2 ) HWz − cW0 Pz
= i~ − +
Mc M 2 c3
2
P F H 0 HF 1
= i~Wz + 2 3 + i~Pz W − −
Mc M c Mc2 M 2 c2
For the expressions in parentheses we obtain
P 2F H P2 H H(Mc2 + H) − P 2c2
+ 2 3 = − 2 + =
Mc M c M c(Mc2 + H) M 2 c3 M 2 c3 (Mc2 + H)
H(Mc2 + H) − (Mc2 + H)(H − Mc2 ) 1
= =
M 2 c3 (Mc2 + H) Mc
HF 1 H 1
− − = −
Mc2 M 2 c2 M 2 c2 (Mc2 + H) M 2 c2
H − (Mc2 + H) 1
= 2 2 2
=− =F
M c (Mc + H) M(Mc2 + H)
Thus, property (4.23) follows
Wz
[Sx , Sy ] = i~ + F W 0 Pz = i~Sz
Mc
Let us now prove that spin squared S2 is a function of M 2 and Σ2 , i.e., a
Casimir operator
2
2 W W2 2W0 F (P · W)
S = + W0 PF = 2 2+ + W02 P 2 F 2
Mc M c Mc
W2 2 2H 2 W2 2
2 2H(Mc + H) − P c
2 2
= + W0 F + P F = 2 2 + W0 F
M 2 c2 Mc2 M c Mc2 (Mc2 + H)
W2 2 2
2 H + 2HMc + M c
2 4
W 2 − W02
= − W0 =
M 2 c2 M 2 c2 (Mc2 + H)2 M 2 c2
4.3. OPERATORS OF SPIN AND POSITION 115
Σ2
=
M 2 c2
So far we guessed one particular form of the spin operator and verified that
the required properties are satisfied. In subsection 4.3.6 we will demonstrate
that this is the unique expression satisfying all conditions from subsection
4.3.1.
Sometimes it is convenient to use the operator of spin’s projection on
momentum (S · P)/P that is called helicity. This operator is related to the
0-th component of the Pauli-Lubanski 4-vector
c2 −1 c2 [P × S]
R = − (H K + KH −1) − (4.32)
2 H(Mc2 + H)
c2 i~c2 P c[P × W]
= − K− 2
− (4.33)
H 2H MH(Mc2 + H)
c2 i~
[Rx , Px ] = − [(H −1 Kx + Kx H −1 ), Px ] = (H −1 H + HH −1) = i~
2 2
2
c
[Rx , Py ] = − [(H −1 Kx + Kx H −1 ), Py ] = 0
2
12
Similarly to the operator of spin, the Newton-Wigner position operator is defined only
for systems whose mass spectrum is strictly positive.
116 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
c2 c2 [[P × S] × P]
J − [R × P] = J + [K × P] +
H H(Mc2 + H)
c2 c2 (P(P · S) − SP 2 )
= J+ [K × P] −
H H(Mc2 + H)
c2 (c2 P(P · S) − S(H − Mc2 )(H + Mc2 ))
= J+ [K × P] −
H H(Mc2 + H)
c2 c2 P(P · S) Mc2
= J+ [K × P] + S − − S
H H(Mc2 + H) H
c2 c2 P(P · S) c2 P(P · J) c2
= J+ [K × P] + S − − J + + [P × K]
H H(Mc2 + H) H(Mc2 + H) H
= S
J = [R × P] + S
Theorem 4.1 All components of the position operator commute with each
other: [Ri , Rj ] = 0.
[HRx , HRy ]
2 i~c2 Px 2 i~c2 Py
= −c Kx − + cF [P × W]x , −c Ky − + cF [P × W]y
2H 2H
Non-zero contributions to this commutator are
[−c2 Kx , cF [P × W]y ]
c3 Pz Wx − Px Wz
= Kx ,
M H + Mc2
c3 Pz Wx − Px Wz Pz [Kx , Wx ] [Kx , Px ]Wz
= − [Kx , H] + −
M (H + Mc2 )2 H + Mc2 H + Mc2
= i~c3 (MF 2 (Pz Wx − Px Wz )Px + F Pz W0 c−1 − F HWz c−2 )
i~cWz
[HRx , HRy ] = −i~c2 Jz + i~c3 Pz W0 (F − M 2 F 2 c) + + i~c4 M 2 F 2 W0 Pz
M
2 2 Pz W0 Wz
= −i~c Jz + i~c − + = −i~c2 Jz + i~c2 Sz
M(H + Mc2 ) Mc
H 2 [Rx , Ry ] = 0
4.3. OPERATORS OF SPIN AND POSITION 119
[Rx , Ry ] = 0
Summarizing our previous results, we can express operators in this set through
generators of the Poincaré group15
c2 −1 c[P × W]
R = − (H K + KH −1 ) − (4.42)
2 MH(Mc2 + H)
S = J − [R × P] (4.43)
1√
M = + 2 H 2 − P 2 c2 (4.44)
c
Conversely, we can express generators of the Poincaré group {P, K, J, H}
through operators {P, R, S, M}. For the energy and angular momentum we
obtain
15
Operator P is the same in both sets.
120 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
√
H = + M 2 c4 + P 2 c2 (4.45)
J = [R × P] + S (4.46)
1 [P × S]
− 2
(RH + HR) −
2c Mc2 + H
1 1 −1 [P × S]
= − − (H KH + K) −
2 2 Mc2 + H
1 1 −1 [P × S] [P × S]
− − (K + HKH ) − 2
−
2 2 Mc + H Mc2 + H
1 −1
= (H KH + K + K + HKH −1)
4
i~
= K − (H −1 P − PH −1)
4
= K (4.47)
i~
Ky Py Jx = Py Ky Jx + [Ky , Py ]Jx = Py Ky Jx − HJx
c2
The second term on the right hand side is already in the canonical form, but
the first term is not. We need to switch factors Jx and Ky there:
i~
Ky Py Jx = Py Jx Ky + Py [Ky , Jx ] − HJx
c2
i~
= Py Jx Ky − i~Py Kz − HJx (4.49)
c2
Now all terms in (4.49) are in the canonical form.
The procedure for bringing a general operator to the canonical form is
not more difficult than in the above example. If we call the original operator
the primary term, then this procedure can be formalized as the following
sequence of steps: First we transform the primary term itself to the canonical
form. We do that by switching the order of pairs of neighboring factors if
they occur in the “wrong” order. Let us call them the “left factor” L and
the “right factor” R. If R happens to commute with L, then such a change
has no other effect. If R does not commute with L, then the result of the
switch is LR → RL + [L, R]. This means that apart from switching L ↔ R
we must also add another secondary term to the original expression. The
secondary term is obtained from the primary term by replacing the product
LR with the commutator [L, R].17 At the end of the first step we have all
factors in the primary term in the canonical order. If during this process
all commutators [L, R] were zero, then we are done. If there were nonzero
commutators, then we have a number of additional secondary terms. In the
general case, these terms are not yet in the canonical form, and the above
procedure should be repeated for them resulting in tertiary, etc. terms until
all terms are in the canonical order.
17
The second and third terms on the right hand side of (4.49) are secondary.
122 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
3
X 3
X 3
X 3
X
00
F =C + Ci10 Ji + Ci01 Ki + Cij11 Ji Kj + Cij02 Ki Kj + . . .
i=1 i=1 i,j=1 i,j=1;i≤j
(4.50)
Lemma 4.2 If L and R are operators from the list (4.48) and [L, R] 6= 0,
then
One can easily see that (4.51) holds for more complex operators as well.
For example, if C and D are two functions of Px , Py , Pz , H, then using (E.11)
and [C, D] = 0 we obtain
[CJx , DJy ] = [CJx , D]Jy + D[CJx , Jy ] = C[Jx , D]Jy + DC[Jx , Jy ] + DJx [C, Jy ]
The power of the right hand side is 1, in agreement with (4.51). Similarly,
one can see that pow([CL, DR]) = 1 if L and R are any non-commuting
components of J or K. This proves formula (4.51) for all operators L and R
having power 0 or 1. Let us now try to extend this result to general operators.
The primary term for the product of two terms AB has exactly the same
number of Lorentz generators as the original operator, i.e., pow(A)+pow(B).
Lemma 4.3 For two terms A and B, either secondary term in the product
AB is zero or its power is equal to pow(A) + pow(B) -1.
Proof. Each secondary term results from replacing a product of two gener-
ators LR in the primary term with their commutator [L, R]. According to
Lemma 4.2, if [L, R] 6= 0 such a replacement decreases the power of the term
by one unit.
The powers of tertiary and higher order terms are less than the power of
secondary terms. Therefore, for any product AB its power is determined by
the primary term only
This implies
18
Theorem 4.4 For two non-commuting terms A and B
Therefore, the components of S′ must have power 1. The most general form
of a pseudovector operator having power 1 can be deduced from Table 4.1
b2 − ebP 2 = b
eb = e
whose non-trivial solution is b = 1 and e = 0. Therefore, the spin operator
is unique S′ = S.
and a(P 2 , M) = 1. Therefore the most general form of the position operator
is
In Theorem 17.1 we will consider boost transformations for times and posi-
tions of events in non-interacting systems of particles. If the term g(P 2, M)P
in (4.52) were non-zero, we would not get an agreement with Lorentz trans-
formations known from Einstein’s special relativity.21 Therefore, we will
assume that the factor g(P 2, M) vanishes and R′ = R. So, from now on, we
will use the Newton-Wigner operator R as the representative of the position
observable.
It follows from commutator (4.25) that
∂f (Px )
[Rx , f (Px )] = i~ (4.54)
∂Px
For example,
√
√ ∂ P 2 c2 + M 2 c4
[R, H] = [R, + P 2 c2 M 2 c4 ]
= i~
∂P
2 2
i~Pc Pc
= √ = i~ = i~V
2 2
P c +M c 2 4 H
where V is the velocity operator (4.5). Therefore, as expected, for an observer
shifted in time by the amount t, the position of the physical system appears
shifted by Vt:
21
see (17.5) - (17.8) and Appendix I.2
4.3. OPERATORS OF SPIN AND POSITION 127
i i
R(t) = exp Ht R exp − Ht (4.55)
~ ~
i
= R + [H, R]t = R + Vt (4.56)
~
Thus the center of mass R of any isolated physical system moves with con-
stant velocity V, as expected. This result is independent on the internal
composition of the systemand on interactions between its different parts.
c2
R = − (KH −1 + H −1 K) (4.57)
2
First, we need to determine boost transformations of the boost operator
itself. For example, the transformation of the component Ky with respect to
the boost along the x-axis is obtained by using equations (E.13), (3.54), and
(3.56)
Ky (θ)
ic ic
= e− ~ Kx θ Ky e ~ Kx θ
icθ c2 θ 2 ic3 θ3
= Ky − [K x , K y ] − [K x , [K x , K y ]] + [Kx , [Kx , [Kx , Ky ]]] + . . .
~ 2!~2 3!~3
θ θ2 θ3 1
= Ky − J z + Ky − Jz . . . = Ky cosh θ − Jz sinh θ
c 2! 3!c c
Then the y-component of position in the reference frame O ′ moving along
the x-axis is22
22
Here we used (4.4).
128 CHAPTER 4. OPERATORS OF OBSERVABLES
ic ic c2 − ic Kx θ ic
Ry (θ) = e− ~ Kx θ Ry e ~ Kx θ = − e ~ (Ky H −1 + H −1 Ky )e ~ Kx θ
2
c2 Jz
= − (Ky cosh θ − sinh θ)(H cosh θ − cPx sinh θ)−1
2 c
c2 Jz
− (H cosh θ − cPx sinh θ)−1 (Ky cosh θ − sinh θ) (4.58)
2 c
c2
Rx (θ) = − Kx (H cosh θ − cPx sinh θ)−1
2
c2
− (H cosh θ − cPx sinh θ)−1 Kx (4.59)
2
c2 Jy
Rz (θ) = − (Kz cosh θ + sinh θ)(H cosh θ − cPx sinh θ)−1
2 c
c2 Jy
− (H cosh θ − cPx sinh θ)−1 (Kz cosh θ + sinh θ) (4.60)
2 c
i i
H ′ = e− ~ Kx cθ He ~ Kx cθ (4.61)
Then we obtain
23
See also ref. [MM97] and equations (17.22) - (17.24), which are classical (~ → 0) limits
of (4.58) - (4.60).
24
In our formalism, there is no “time operator” which could serve as a 4th component
of such a 4-vector. The difference between special relativity and our approach to space
and time will be discussed in chapter 17.
4.3. OPERATORS OF SPIN AND POSITION 129
i ′ ′ i ′ ′ i ′ ′ ic ic i ′ ′
R(θ, t′ ) = e ~ H t R(θ)e− ~ H t = e ~ H t e− ~ Kx θ Re ~ Kx θ e− ~ H t
ic i ′ ic
ic ic
ic i ′ ic
= e− ~ Kx θ e ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ e− ~ Kx θ Re ~ Kx θ e− ~ Kx θ e− ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ
ic i ′ i ′ ic ic ic
= e− ~ Kx θ e ~ Ht Re− ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ = e− ~ Kx θ (R + Vt′ )e ~ Kx θ
= R(θ) + V(θ)t′ (4.62)
SINGLE PARTICLES
131
132 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
2
See Appendix H.1.
3
see subsection 8.2.1 for conservation laws associated with the charges
5.1. MASSIVE PARTICLES 133
representations with helicities +~ and −~. Fifth, neutrinos are not truly
stable elementary particles. According to recent experiments, three flavors
of neutrinos are oscillating between each other over time. Finally, it may
be true that protons are not elementary particles as well. They are usually
regarded as being composed of quarks. This leaves us with just two truly
stable, elementary, and directly observable particles, which are the electron
and the positron.
[Pi , Pj ] = [Ri , Rj ] = 0
4
Wigner’s classification also permits irreducible representations with negative and imag-
inary values of m, but there is no evidence that such particles exist in nature. We skip
their discussion in this book.
5
see equations (3.55), (4.25) and Theorem 4.1
134 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
[Ri , Pj ] = i~δij
H = ⊕p∈R3 Hp
i ~ i ~ i ~ i ~
Pe− ~ Jφ |0i = e− ~ Jφ e ~ Jφ Pe− ~ Jφ |0i
! " # !
i ~ φ~ φ ~ ~
φ
= e− ~ Jφ P· (1 − cos φ) + P cos φ − P × sin φ |0i
φ φ φ
= 0 (5.1)
This means that representation of the rotation subgroup defined in the full
Hilbert space H induces a unitary representation Vg of this subgroup in H0 .
The generators of rotations are, of course, represented by the angular
momentum vector J in H. However, in the subspace H0 , they can be equiv-
alently represented by the vector of spin S, because
We will show later that the representation of the full Poincaré group
is irreducible if and only if the representation Vg of the rotation group in
H0 is irreducible. So, we will be interested only in such irreducible rep-
resentations Vg . The classification of unitary irreducible representations of
the rotation group (single- and double-valued)8 depends on one integer or
half-integer parameter s that we will identify with particle’s spin. The triv-
ial one-dimensional representation is characterized by spin zero (s = 0) and
corresponds to a spinless particle. The two-dimensional representation corre-
sponds to particles with spin one-half (s = 1/2). The 3-dimensional represen-
tation corresponds to particles with spin one (s = 1), etc. Correspondingly,
the dimension of the zero-momentum subspace H0 will be 1,2,3, . . ..
It is customary to choose a basis of eigenvectors of Sz in H0 and denote
these vectors by |0, σi, i.e.,
P|0, σi = 0
H|0, σi = mc2 |0, σi
M|0, σi = m|0, σi
S 2 |0, σi = ~2 s(s + 1)|0, σi
Sz |0, σi = ~σ|0, σi
s
X
~
− ~i Jφ ~
− ~i Sφ ~
e |0, σi = e |0, σi = Dσs ′ σ (φ)|0, σ′i (5.2)
σ′ =−s
s
X
~1φ
Dσs ′ σ (φ ~ 2 )|0, σ ′i
σ′ =−s
8
see Appendix H.5
9
Here φ ~1 and
~2 denotes the composition of two rotations parameterized by vectors φ
~1 φ
~
φ2 , respectively.
136 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
s
X
i ~ i ~ i ~ ~ 2 )|0, σ ′′ i
= e− ~ Jφ1 e− ~ Jφ2 |0, σi = e− ~ Jφ1 Dσs ′′ σ (φ
σ′′ =−s
s s
!
X X
= ~ 1 )D s ′′ (φ
Dσs ′ σ′′ (φ ~ 2 ) |0, σ ′ i
σ σ
σ′ =−s σ′′ =−s
and
s
X
~1φ
Dσs ′ σ (φ ~2) = ~ 1 )D s ′′ (φ
Dσs ′ σ′′ (φ ~2)
σ σ
σ′′ =−s
ic ~
U(λp ; 0, 0) ≡ e− ~ Kθp (5.3)
where
σ= 1/2 σ=1/2
p’ L
σ= 1/2 σ=1/2
λp ’
p
σ= 1/2 σ=1/2 λp
0
Figure 5.1: Construction of the momentum-spin basis for a spin one-half par-
ticle. Spin eigenvectors (with eigenvalues σ = −1/2, 1/2) at zero momentum
are propagated to non-zero momenta p and p′ by using pure boosts λp and
λp′ , respectively. As discussed in subsection 5.1.3, there is a unique pure
boost L which connects momenta p and p′ .
ic ~
|p, σi = N(p)U(λp ; 0, 0)|0, σi = N(p)e− ~ Kθp |0, σi (5.5)
where N(p) is a normalization factor. The explicit expression for N(p) will
be given a bit later in equation (5.27).
To verify that vector (5.5) is indeed an eigenvector of the momentum
operator with eigenvalue p we use equation (4.3)
ic ~ ic ~ ic ~ ic ~
P|p, σi = N(p)Pe− ~ Kθp |0, σi = N(p)e− ~ Kθp e ~ Kθp Pe− ~ Kθp |0, σi
i
~
~ θp ic
~
~ θp
= N(p)e− ~ Kcθp H sinh θp |0, σi = N(p)e− ~ Kθp mc sinh θp |0, σi
cθp θp
ic ~
= N(p)pe− ~ Kθp |0, σi = p|p, σi (5.6)
Let us now find the action of the spin component Sz on the basis vectors
|p, σi13
13
Here we use (4.27) and take into account that W0 |0, σi = P|0, σi = 0 and H|0, σi =
M c2 |0, σi. We also use boost transformations (4.3) and (4.4) of the energy-momentum 4-
vector (H, cP) and similar formulas for the Pauli-Lubanski 4-vector (W0 , W). For brevity,
we denote θz the z-component of the vector ~θp and θ its absolute value.
138 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
ic ~
Sz |p, σi = N(p)Sz e− ~ Kθp |0, σi
− ic ~p ic Kθ~p Wz W0 Pz ic ~
= N(p)e ~ K θ
e~ − 2
e− ~ Kθp |0, σi
Mc M(Mc + H)
θz θ~
~p Wz + θ [(W · θ )(cosh θ − 1) − W0 sinh θ]
− ic K θ
= N(p)e ~
Mc
~
θ θz θ~ 1
W0 cosh θ − (W · θ ) sinh θ Pz + θ [(P · θ )(cosh θ − 1) − c H sinh θ]
− ~
|0, σi
M(Mc2 + H cosh θ − c(P · θθ ) sinh θ)
θz θ~ ~
− ic K ~p Wz + θ (W · θ )(cosh θ − 1)
θ
(W · θθ ) sinh θ( θθz Mc sinh θ)
= N(p)e ~ − |0, σi
Mc M(Mc2 + Mc2 cosh θ)
! !
ic ~ W z θ z
~
θ cosh θ − 1 sinh 2
θ
= N(p)e− ~ Kθp + W· − |0, σi
Mc θ θ Mc Mc(1 + cosh θ)
ic ~ Wz ic ~ ic ~
= N(p)e− ~ Kθp |0, σi = N(p)e− ~ Kθp Sz |0, σi = N(p)e− ~ Kθp ~σ|0, σi
Mc
= ~σ|p, σi
P|p, σi = p|p, σi
H|p, σi = ωp |p, σi
M|p, σi = m|p, σi
S 2 |p, σi = ~2 s(s + 1)|p, σi
Sz |p, σi = ~σ|p, σi
14
Note that eigenvectors of the spin operator S were obtained here by applying pure
boosts to vectors at p = 0. A different set of transformations connecting bases in points 0
and p (see footnote on page 136) would result in a different momentum-spin basis |p, σi
and in a different spin operator S (see [KP91]). Does this contradict our statement about
the uniqueness of the spin operator in subsection 4.3.6? Not really. The point is that the
alternative spin operator S′ (and the corresponding alternative position operator R′ ) will
not be expressed as a function of basic generators of the Poincaré group. This condition
was important for our proof of the uniqueness of S (and R) in section 4.3.
5.1. MASSIVE PARTICLES 139
H 0
ωp’ m> 0
=
m
ωp
Lθ P
0 p p’
where we denoted
p
ωp ≡ m2 c4 + p2 c2 (5.7)
the one-particle energy
The common spectrum of the energy-momentum eigenvalues (ωp , p) can
be conveniently represented as points on the mass hyperboloid in the 4-
dimensional energy-momentum space (see Fig. 5.2). For massive particles,
the spectrum of the velocity operator V = Pc2 /H is the interior of a 3-
dimensional sphere |v| < c in the 4D energy-momentum space. This spec-
trum does not include the surface of the sphere, therefore massive particles
cannot reach the speed of light.15
multiplication
i i
e− ~ Pa |p, σi = e− ~ pa |p, σi (5.8)
i i
Ht ω t
e ~ |p, σi = e ~ p |p, σi (5.9)
i ~
Let us now apply rotation e− ~ Jφ to the vector |p, σi and use equations (5.2)
and (D.8)
i ~ i ~ ic ~
e− ~ Jφ |p, σi = N(p)e− ~ Jφ e− ~ Kθp |0, σi
i ~ ic ~ i ~ i ~
= N(p)e− ~ Jφ e− ~ Kθp e ~ Jφ e− ~ Jφ |0, σi
X s
− ic (R−1 K)·θ~p ~
= N(p)e ~ ~
φ Dσ′ σ (φ)|0, σ′i
σ′ =−s
s
X
ic ~
= N(p)e− ~ K·Rφ~ θp ~
Dσ′ σ (φ)|0, σ′i
σ′ =−s
s
X
= ~ ~ p, σ ′ i
Dσ′ σ (φ)|R (5.10)
φ
σ′ =−s
This means that both momentum and spin of the particle are rotated by the
~ as expected.
angle φ,
ic ~
Applying a boost L ≡ e− ~ Kθ to the vector |p, σi and using (5.5) we
obtain
The product of two boosts on the right hand side of equation (5.11) is a
transformation from the Lorentz group, so it can be represented in the form
(boost)×(rotation)= BQ
ic ~ ic ~ ic ~ ic ~
P|p′ i = PL|pi = Pe− ~ Kθ |pi = e− ~ Kθ e ~ Kθ Pe− ~ Kθ |pi
" ! #!
ic ~
~
θ ~
θ H
= e− ~ Kθ P + P· (cosh θ − 1) + sinh θ |pi
θ θ c
" ! #!
~θ ~θ ωp
= p+ p· (cosh θ − 1) + sinh θ |p′ i
θ θ c
So we conclude that
" ! #
~θ ~θ ωp
′
p = p+ p· (cosh θ − 1) + sinh θ ≡ Λp (5.14)
θ θ c
~ W (p, Λ) = Φ(λ
φ ~ −1 Λλp ) (5.16)
Λp
Explicit formulas for this angle can be found, e.g., in ref. [Rit61]. Then,
substituting (5.15) in (5.12), we obtain
ic ~
e− ~ Kθ |p, σi = N(p)LU(λp ; 0, 0)|0, σi = N(p)U(λΛp ; 0, 0)Rφ~W (p,Λ) |0, σi
Xs
= N(p)U(λΛp ; 0, 0) ~ W (p, Λ))|0, σ ′i
Dσs ′ σ (φ
σ′ =−s
s
N(p) X
~ W (p, Λ))|Λp, σ ′ i
= Dσs ′ σ (φ (5.17)
N(Λp) σ′ =−s
Equations (5.10) and (5.17) show that rotations and boosts are accompa-
nied with turning the spin vector in each subspace Hp by rotation matrices
D s . If the representation of the rotation group D s were reducible, then each
subspace Hp would be represented as a direct sum of irreducible components
Hpk
Hp = ⊕k Hpk
and each subspace
Hk = ⊕p∈R3 Hpk
would be reducible with respect to the entire Poincaré group. Therefore, in
order to construct an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group in H,
the representation D s must be an irreducible unitary representation of the
rotation group, as was mentioned already in subsection 5.1.1.
In this book we will be interested in describing interactions between elec-
trons and protons, which are massive particles with spin 1/2. Then the
relevant representation D s of the rotation group is the 2-dimensional repre-
sentation from Appendix H.5.
Let us now recap the above construction of unitary irreducible repre-
sentations of the Poincaré group for massive particles.19 First we chose a
19
This construction is known as the induced representation method [Mac00].
5.2. MOMENTUM AND POSITION REPRESENTATIONS 143
hp|p′ i = 0 if p 6= p′
Z
|Ψi = dpψ(p)|pi (5.18)
Z
ψ(q) = hq|Ψi = dpψ(p)hq|pi
This implies that the inner product of two basis vectors is given by the Dirac’s
delta function (see Appendix B)20
Then in analogy with equation (F.23) we can define the decomposition of the
identity operator
Z
I= dp|pihp| (5.20)
Z Z
I|Ψi = dp|pihp|Ψi = dp|piψ(p) = |Ψi
Z Z
′ ~
− ~i Jφ i ~
Jφ ~
− ~i Jφ i ~
Jφ
I = e Ie =e ~ dp|pihp| e = ~ dp|Rφ~ pihRφ~ p|
Z Z
dp
= dq det |qihq| = dq|qihq| = I
dq
where we used (5.10) and the fact that det |dp/dq| = det(R−φ~ ) = 1 is the
Jacobian of the transformation from variables p to q = Rφ~ p.
Let us consider more closely the invariance of I with respect to boosts.
Using equation (5.17) we obtain
Z
′ − ic Kθ~ ic
Kθ~ − ic Kθ~ ic ~
I = e ~ =e Ie ~ dp|pihp| e ~ Kθ
~
Z
N(p) 2
= dp|ΛpihΛp|
N(Λp)
−1
N(Λ−1 q) 2
Z
dΛ q
= dq det
|qihq|
(5.21)
dq N(q)
where N(q) is the normalization factor introduced in (5.5) and det |dΛ−1q/dq|
is the Jacobian of the transformation from variables p to q = Λp. This Ja-
cobian should not depend on the direction of the boost θ, ~ and we can choose
this direction along the z-axis to simplify calculations. Then from (5.14) we
obtain
Λ−1 qx = qx (5.22)
Λ−1 qy = qy (5.23)
1p 2 4
Λ−1 qz = qz cosh θ − m c + q 2 c2 sinh θ (5.24)
s c
2
1p 2 4
ωΛ−1 q = m2 c4 + c2 qx2 + c2 qy2 + c2 qz cosh θ − m c + q 2 c2 sinh θ
c
= ωq cosh θ − cqz sinh θ
146 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
and21
−1 1 0 0
dΛ q
det
= det 0 1 0
dq √cqx sinh θ √ cqy sinh θ
cosh θ − cqz2 sinh
√ θ
m2 c4 +q 2 c2 m2 c4 +q 2 c2 m c +q c2
4 2
N(Λ−1 p) 2
Z
′ ωΛ−1 p
I = dp |pihp|
ωp N(p)
s
mc2
N(p) = (5.27)
ωp
Putting together our results from equations (5.8) - (5.10), (5.17), and
(5.27), we can find the action of an arbitrary Poincaré group element on
basis vectors |p, σi. Bearing in mind that in a general Poincaré transfor-
mation23 (Λ; r; t) we agreed24 first to perform translations (r, t) and then
21
In particular, this means that inside 3D momentum integrals we are allowed to use
the equality
dq d(Λq)
= (5.25)
ωq ωΛq
for any element Λ of the Lorentz group, i.e., that dq/ωq is a “Lorentz invariant measure.”
We will use this property quite often in our calculations.
22
We could also multiply this expression for N (p) by an arbitrary unimodular factor,
but this would not have any effect, because state vectors and their wave functions are
defined up to an unimodular factor anyway.
23
Λ is a product of a rotation and a boost, as in equation (I.12).
24
see equation (3.59)
5.2. MOMENTUM AND POSITION REPRESENTATIONS 147
i i
U(Λ; r, t)|p, σi = U(Λ; 0, 0)e− ~ Pr e ~ Ht |p, σi
r s
ωΛp − i p·r+ i ωp t X ~ W (p, Λ))|Λp, σ ′ i
= e ~ ~ Dσ ′ σ ( φ (5.28)
ωp σ′ =−s
Z
hΨ|Φi = dpdp′ ψ ∗ (p)φ(p′ )hp|p′ i
Z
= dpdp′ ψ ∗ (p)φ(p′ )δ(p − p′ )
Z
= dpψ ∗ (p)φ(p) (5.29)
So, for a state vector |Ψi with unit normalization, its wave function ψ(p)
must satisfy the condition
Z
1 = hΨ|Ψi = dp|ψ(p)|2
r
− ic K̂θ~ − ic Kθ~ ωΛ−1 p −1
e ~ ψ(p) ≡ hp|e |Ψi =
~ hΛ p|Ψi
ωp
r
ωΛ−1 p
= ψ(Λ−1 p) (5.30)
ωp
Then the boost invariance of the inner product (5.29) can be easily proven
using property (5.25)
Z
′ ′ ωΛ−1 p
hΦ |Ψ i = dpφ∗ (Λ−1 p)ψ(Λ−1 p)
ωp
Z
d(Λ−1 p) ∗ −1
= φ (Λ p)ψ(Λ−1 p)ωΛ−1 p
ωΛ p
−1
Z
= dpφ∗ (p)ψ(p) = hΦ|Ψi.
d − i P̂x a
P̂x ψ(p) = i~ lim e ~ ψ(p) = px ψ(p) (5.31)
a→0 da
d i
Ĥψ(p) = −i~ lim e ~ Ĥt ψ(p) = ωp ψ(p) (5.32)
t→0 dt
i~ d ic
K̂x ψ(p) = lim e− ~ K̂x θ ψ(p)
c θ→0 dθ s
p
i~ d m2 c4 + p2 c2 cosh θ − cpx sinh θ
= lim p ×
c θ→0 dθ m2 c4 + p2 c2
1p 2 4
ψ px cosh θ − m c + p2 c2 sinh θ, py , pz
c
ωp d px
= i~ − 2 − ψ(p) (5.33)
c dpx 2ωp
c2
R̂x ψ(p) = − (Ĥ −1 K̂x + K̂x Ĥ −1 )ψ(p)
2
i~ −1 d d −1 px c2
= − −ωp ωp − ωp ω − 2 ψ(p)
2 dpx dpx p ωp
5.2. MOMENTUM AND POSITION REPRESENTATIONS 149
d
= i~ ψ(p) (5.34)
dpx
d d
Jˆx ψ(p) = (R̂y P̂z − R̂z P̂y )ψ(p) = i~ pz − py ψ(p) (5.35)
dpy dpz
According to equation (5.34), the exponent of the Newton-Wigner posi-
i
tion operator e ~ Rb acts as a translation operator in the momentum space:
i
e ~ R̂b ψ(p) = ψ(p − b) This suggests the following useful representation for
momentum eigenvectors
i
|pi = e ~ R·p|0i (5.36)
i
ψr (p) = hp|ri = (2π~)−3/2 e− ~ pr (5.38)
as can be verified by substitution of (5.34) and (5.38) to the eigenvalue equa-
tion
i d − i pr
R̂ψr (p) = (2π~)−3/2 R̂ e− ~ pr = i~(2π~)−3/2 e ~
dp
i
= r(2π~)−3/2 e− ~ pr = rψr (p)
27
see Theorem 4.1
150 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
Z
i i ′ ′
′ −3
hr |ri = (2π~) dpdp′ e− ~ pr+ ~ p r hp′ |pi
Z
i i ′ ′
−3
= (2π~) dpdp′ e− ~ pr+ ~ p r δ(p − p′ )
Z
i ′
−3
= (2π~) dpe− ~ p(r−r ) = δ(r − r′ ) (5.39)
which means that |ri are improper states just as |pi are. Similarly to (5.18),
a normalized state vector |Ψi can be represented as an integral over the
position space
Z
|Ψi = drψ(r)|ri
where ψ(r) = hr|Ψi is the wave function of the state |Ψi in the position
representation. The absolute square |ψ(r)|2 of the wave function is the prob-
ability density for particle’s position. The inner product of two vectors |Ψi
and |Φi can be expressed through their position-space wave functions
Z
hΦ|Ψi = drdr′φ∗ (r)ψ(r′ )hr|r′i
Z Z
′ ∗ ′ ′
= drdr φ (r)ψ(r )δ(r − r ) = drφ∗ (r)ψ(r)
Using Equations (5.37) and (5.38) we find that the position space wave
function of a momentum eigenvector is the usual plane wave
i
ψp (r) = hr|pi = (2π~)−3/2 e ~ pr (5.40)
i
e− ~ P̂a ψ(r) = ψ(r − a)
d i d d
P̂ψ(r) = i~ lim e− ~ P̂a ψ(r) = i~ lim ψ(r − a) = −i~ ψ(r)
a→0 da a→0 da dr
(5.41)
Other operators in the position representation have the following forms29
r
d2
Ĥψ(r) = m2 c4 − ~2 c2 2 ψ(r)
dr
d d
Jˆx ψ(r) = −i~ y − z ψ(r)
dz dy
r r !
1 d 2 d 2
K̂x ψ(r) = m2 c4 − ~2 c2 2 x + x m2 c4 − ~2 c2 2 ψ(r)
2 dr dr
R̂ψ(r) = rψ(r)
29
Here we used a formal notation for the Laplacian operator
d2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
2
≡ 2
+ 2+ 2
dr ∂x ∂y ∂z
152 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
Z Z Z
i
−3/2
|Ψi = drψ(r)|ri = (2π~) drψ(r) dpe− ~ pr |pi
Z Z
−3/2 − ~i pr
= (2π~) dp drψ(r)e |pi
Z
i
−3/2
ψ(p) = (2π~) drψ(r)e− ~ pr (5.42)
Z
i
−3/2
ψ(r) = (2π~) dpe ~ pr ψ(p) (5.43)
F ′ = Ug F Ug−1 (5.44)
|Ψ′ i = Ug |Ψi (5.45)
where30
30
see equation (3.59)
5.2. MOMENTUM AND POSITION REPRESENTATIONS 153
z z’
O O’
y y’
x x’
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
a
Figure 5.3: Rods for measuring the x-component of position in the reference
frame O and in the frame O ′ displaced by the distance a.
i ~ ic ~ i i
Ug = Ug (Λ; a, t) = e− ~ Jφ e− ~ Kθ e− ~ Pa e ~ Ht
i
Ug = Ug (1; a, 0, 0, 0) = e− ~ Px a
i i
Rx′ = e− ~ Px a Rx e ~ Px a (5.46)
Rx′ = Rx − a
i
Rx′ = Rx − [Px , Rx ]a = Rx − a
~
The position operator Rx can be represented also through its spectral
decomposition
Z∞
Rx = dxx|xihx|
−∞
where |xi are eigenvectors (states) with positions x. Then equation (5.46)
can be rewritten as
Z∞
i i
Rx′ = e− ~ Px a dxx|xihx| e ~ Px a
−∞
Z∞ Z∞
= dxx|x + aihx + a| = dx(x − a)|xihx| = Rx − a
−∞ −∞
i
e− ~ Px a |xi = |x + ai
31
Here we switch to the Schrödinger representation, in which operators of observables
are assumed to be fixed.
5.2. MOMENTUM AND POSITION REPRESENTATIONS 155
This means, in particular, that if the vector |Ψi = |xi describes a state of the
particle located at point x from the point of view of the observer O (measured
by the rod X), then the same state is described by the vector
i
|Ψ′ i = Ug−1 |Ψi = e ~ Px a |xi = |x − ai (5.48)
from the point of view of the observer O ′ (the position is measured by the
rod X ′ ). A particle localized in the origin of the frame O is described by the
vector |0i in that frame. From the point of view of observer O ′ this same
particle is described by the vector | − ai.
We can also apply inertial transformations to wave functions instead of
state vectors. For example, the state vector
Z
|Ψi = drψ(r)|ri
Z Z
i
′ P a
|Ψ i = e ~ x |Ψi = drψ(x, y, z)|x − a, y, zi = drψ(x + a, y, z)|x, y, zi
32
One can also interpret this as a result of the inertial transformation g being applied
to the state preparation device.
156 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
This means that the passive transformation of the wave function has the
form
i
e ~ P̂x a ψ(x, y, z) = ψ(x + a, y, z)
The above considerations find their most important applications in the
case when the inertial transformation Ug is a time translation. As we estab-
lished in (4.56), the position operator in time-translated reference frame O ′′
takes the form
i i
Rx′′ = e ~ Ht Rx e− ~ Ht = Rx + Vx t
If we want to find how the state vector |Ψi looks from the time translated
reference frame O ′′, we should apply the passive transformation (5.47)
i
|Ψ′′ i = e− ~ Ht |Ψi (5.49)
It is common to consider a continuous sequence of time shifts parameterized
by the value of time t and to speak about time evolution of the state vector
|Ψ(t)i. Then equation (5.49) can be regarded as a solution of the time-
dependent Schrödinger equation
d
|Ψ(t)i = H|Ψ(t)i
i~ (5.50)
dt
In actual calculations it is more convenient to deal with numerical functions
(wave functions in a particular basis) rather than with abstract state vec-
tors. To get this type of description, equation (5.50) should be multiplied
on the left by certain basis bra-vectors. For example, if we multiply (5.50)
by position eigenvectors hr|, we will obtain the Schrödinger equation in the
position representation
d
i~ hr|Ψ(t)i = hr|H|Ψ(t)i
dt
d
i~ Ψ(r, t) = ĤΨ(r, t) (5.51)
dt
where Ψ(r, t) ≡ hr|Ψ(t)i is a wave function in the position representation and
the action of the Hamiltonian on this wave function is denoted by ĤΨ(r, t) ≡
hr|H|Ψ(t)i.
5.3. MASSLESS PARTICLES 157
ωp = cp (5.52)
we can write
p
p′ = Λp = p + [p(cosh θ − 1) − p sinh θ] = p[cosh θ − sinh θ]
p
= pe−θ (5.53)
any massless particle36 . Then we see that for massless particles the mass
hyperboloid (5.7) degenerates to a cone (5.52) with the point p = 0 deleted
(see Fig. 5.2). Therefore, the spectrum of velocity V = Pc2 /H is the surface
of a sphere |v| = c. This means that massless particles can move only with
the speed of light in any reference frame. This is the famous second postulate
of Einstein’s special theory of relativity.
Statement 5.1 (invariance of the speed of light) The speed of massless
particles (e.g., photons) is equal to c independent on the velocity of the source
and/or observer.
k = (0, 0, 1) (5.54)
The next step is to find the little group corresponding to the vector k, i.e.,
the subgroup of Lorentz transformations, which leave this vector invariant.
The energy-momentum 4-vector corresponding to the standard vector (5.54)
is (ck, ck) = (c, 0, 0, c). Therefore, in the 4D notation from Appendix I.1, the
matrices S of little group elements must satisfy equation
c c
0 0
0 = 0
S
c c
36
The physical meaning of this result is clear because there are no photons with zero
momentum and energy.
5.3. MASSLESS PARTICLES 159
Since the little group is a subgroup of the Lorentz group, condition (I.3) must
be fulfilled as well
S T gS = g
One can verify that the most general matrix S with these properties has the
form [Wei64a]
1 + 12 (X12 + X22 ) X1 X2 − 21 (X12 + X22 )
X1 cos θ + X2 sin θ cos θ sin θ −X1 cos θ − X2 sin θ
S(X1 , X2 , θ) =
−X1 sin θ + X2 cos θ − sin θ cos θ X1 sin θ − X2 cos θ
1
2
(X12 + X22 ) X1 X2 1 − 12 (X12 + X22 )
(5.55)
0 1 0 0
∂ 1 0 0 −1
= Jx − cKy
T1 = lim S(X1 , X2 , θ) =
0
X1 ,X2 ,θ→0 ∂X1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
∂ 0 0 0 0 = Jy + cKx
T2 = lim S(X1 , X2 , θ) =
X1 ,X2 ,θ→0 ∂X2 1 0 0 −1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
∂ 0 0 1 0
= Jz
R = lim S(X1 , X2 , θ) =
X1 ,X2 ,θ→0 ∂θ 0 −1 0 0
0 0 0 0
37
So, just as in the massive case, the massless little group is a 3-dimensional subgroup
of the Lorentz group. However, this subgroup is different from the rotation group of the
massive case.
160 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
where J~ and K ~ are Lorentz group generators (I.13) and (I.14). The commu-
tators are easily calculated
[T1 , T2 ] = 0
[R, T2 ] = −T1
[R, T1 ] = T2
These are commutation relations of the Lie algebra for the group of “trans-
lations” (T1 and T2 ) and rotations (R) in a 2D plane.
The next step is to find the full set of unitary irreducible representations of
the little group constructed above. We will do that by following the “induced
representation” prescription outlined at the end of subsection 5.1.3. First we
introduce three Hermitian operators Π ~ = (Π1 , Π2 ) and Θ ≡ Jz , which provide
a representation of the Lie algebra generators T and R, respectively.38 So,
little group “translations” and rotations are represented in the subspace Hk 39
i i i
by unitary operators e− ~ Π1 x , e− ~ Π2 y and e− ~ Θφ .
Next we should clarify the structure of the Hilbert subspace Hk , keeping
in mind that this subspace should carry an irreducible representation of the
little group. Suppose that the subspace Hk contains a state vector |~π i which
is an eigenvector of Π ~ with a nonzero “momentum” ~π 6= 0
~ πi = (π1 , π2 )|~π i
Π|~
i
e− ~ Θφ |π1 , π2 i = |π1 cos φ + π2 sin φ, π1 sin φ − π2 cos φi (5.56)
also belongs to the subspace Hk . Vectors (5.56) form a circle π12 + π22 = const
in the 2D “momentum” plane. The linear span of these vectors form an
infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. This means that Hk , is infinite-dimensional.
If we used this representation of the little group to build the unitary irre-
ducible representation of the full Poincaré group, we would obtain massless
38
One can notice a formal analogy of operators Π~ and Θ with 2-dimensional “momen-
tum” and “angular momentum”, respectively.
39
This is the eigensubspace of the particle momentum operator P, corresponding to the
“standard” eigenvector k.
5.3. MASSLESS PARTICLES 161
i ~
e− ~ Πr |~π = 0i = |~π = 0i (5.57)
i i
e− ~ Θφ |~π = 0i ≡ e− ~ Jz φ |~π = 0i = eiτ φ |~π = 0i (5.58)
The allowed values of the parameter τ can be obtained from the fact that
the representation must be either single- or double-valued.40 Therefore, the
rotation through the angle φ = 2π can be represented by either 1 or -1, and
τ must be either integer or half-integer number
H = ⊕p Hp (5.60)
λp k = p
Just as in the massive case, the choice of the set of transformations λp is not
unique. However, one can show that representations of the Poincaré group
constructed with differently chosen λp are unitarily equivalent. So, we are
free to choose any set λp , which makes our calculations more convenient.
Our decision is to define λp as a Lorentz boost along the z-axis
cosh θ 0 0 sinh θ
0 1 0 0
Bp =
0
(5.61)
0 1 0
sinh θ 0 0 cosh θ
p
followed by a rotation Rp which brings direction k = (0, 0, 1) to p
λp = Rp Bp (5.62)
(see Fig. 5.4). The rapidity of the boost θ = log(p) is such that the length
of Bp k is equal to p.43 The absolute value of the rotation angle in Rp is
p
cos φ = k· = pz /p (5.63)
p
~ is
and the direction of φ
~
φ p
= k× / sin φ = (p2x + p2y )−1/2 (−py , px , 0)
φ p
42
Here τ is a fixed half-integer number (5.59) that specifies the helicity of our particle.
43
see formula (5.53)
5.3. MASSLESS PARTICLES 163
pz
p Rp
Bp
Λ k=(0,0,1)
RΛp BΛp
Λp
p px
0
The full basis |p, τ i in H is now obtained by propagating the basis vector
|k, τ i to other fixed momentum subspaces Hp 44
1
|p, τ i = p U(λp ; 0, 0)|k, τ i (5.64)
|p|
The next step is to consider how general elements of the Poincaré group
act on the basis vectors (5.64). First we apply a general transformation from
the Lorentz subgroup U(Λ; 0, 0) to an arbitrary basis vector |p, τ i
rotation around the z-axis is called the Wigner angle φW (p, Λ).45 According
to equation (5.58), this rotation acts as multiplication by a unimodular factor
U(λ−1
Λp Λλp ; 0, 0)|k, τ i = e
iτ φW (p,Λ)
|k, τ i
Thus, taking into account (5.64) we can write for arbitrary Lorentz transfor-
mation Λ
p
iτ φW (p,Λ) |Λp| iτ φW (p,Λ)
U(Λ; 0, 0)|p, τ i = U(λΛp ; 0, 0)e |k, τ i = p e |Λp, τ i
|p|
For a general Poincaré group element we finally obtain a transformation that
is similar to the massive case result (5.28)
s
|Λp| − i p·r+ ic |p|t iτ φW (p,Λ)
U(Λ; r, t)|p, τ i = e ~ ~ e |Λp, τ i (5.65)
|p|
~θ
H(θ) = H(0) cosh θ − cP(0) · sinh θ
θ !
cP (0)P(0) ~θ
= H(0) cosh θ 1 − · tanh θ
H(0)P (0) θ
v
= H(0) cosh θ 1 − cos φ0 (5.66)
c
where we denoted φ0 the angle between the direction of photon’s propagation
(seen in the reference frame O) and the direction of movement of the reference
frame O ′ with respect to O
P(0) θ~
cos φ0 ≡ · (5.67)
P (0) θ
Sometimes the Doppler effect formula is written in another form where
the angle φ between the photon momentum and the reference frame velocity
is measured from the point of view of O ′
P(θ) θ~
cos φ ≡ · (5.68)
P (θ) θ
~θ
H(0) = H(θ) cosh θ + cP(θ) · sinh θ
θ !
cP (θ)P(θ) ~θ
= H(θ) cosh θ 1 + · tanh θ
H(θ)P (θ) θ
v
= H(θ) cosh θ 1 + cos φ
c
Therefore
H(0)
H(θ) = (5.69)
cosh θ(1 + vc cos φ)
166 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
S S S’
(a) v (b)
v v
O’ O’
O O
Figure 5.5: To the discussion of the Doppler effect: (a) observer at rest O
and moving observer O ′ measure light from the same source (e.g., a star) S;
(b) one observer O measures light from two sources S and S ′ that move with
respect to each other.
The difference between angles φ0 and φ, i.e., the dependence of the direc-
tion of light propagation on the observer is known as the aberration effect.
In order to see the same star in the sky observers O and O ′ must point their
telescopes in different directions. These directions make angles φ0 and φ,
~
respectively, with the direction θθ of the relative velocity of O and O ′ . The
relationship between these angles can be found by taking the scalar product
~
of both sides of (4.3) with θθ and taking into account equations (5.66) - (5.68)
and cP (θ) = H(θ)
assume that the distance between the stars S and S ′ is much smaller than
the distance from the stars to the Earth. Photons emitted simultaneously
by S and S ′ move with the same speed c and arrive to Earth at the same
time. Two stars are seen by O in the same region of the sky independent
on the velocity v. We also assume that sources S and S ′ are identical, i.e.,
they emit photons of the same energy in their respective reference frames.
Furthermore, we assume that the energy h(0) of photons arriving from the
source S to the observer O is known. Our goal is to find the energy (denoted
by h(θ)) of photons emitted by S ′ from the point of view of O. In order
to do that, we introduce an imaginary observer O ′ whose velocity v with
respect to O is the same as velocity of S ′ with respect to S and apply the
principle of relativity. According to this principle, the energy of photons from
S ′ registered by O ′ is the same as the energy of photons from S registered
by O, i.e., h(0). Now, in order to find the energy of photons from S ′ seen by
O we can apply formula (5.69) with the opposite sign of velocity
h(0)
h(θ) = (5.70)
cosh θ(1 − vc cos φ)
where φ is the angle between velocity v of the star S ′ and the direction of
light arriving from stars S and S ′ from the point of view of O.
Description of the Doppler effect from a different point of view will be
found in subsection 6.4.2.
168 CHAPTER 5. SINGLE PARTICLES
Chapter 6
INTERACTION
Johannes Kepler
169
170 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
f1 : L1 → L
f2 : L2 → L
f1 (∅L1 ) = ∅L
f1 (IL1 ) = IL
f1 (x1 ) ↔ f2 (x2 )
where x1 ∈ L1 , x2 ∈ L1
(III) If we have full information about subsystems 1 and 2, then we have
full information about the combined system. Therefore, if x1 ∈ L1 and x2 ∈
L2 are atoms then the meet of their images f1 (x1 ) ∧ f2 (x2 ) is also an atomic
proposition in L.
X
G(1) = gPg(1)
g
Then the mapping f1 transforms G(1) into a Hermitian operator f1 G(1) in
the Hilbert space H of the compound system
X
f1 (G(1) ) = gf1 Pg(1)
g
which has the same spectrum g as G(1) . Thus we conclude that all observables
of individual particles, e.g., P1 , R1 in H1 and P2 , R2 in H2 have well-defined
meanings in the Hilbert space H of the combined system.
In what follows we will use small letters to denote observables of individual
particles in H.4 For example, the position and momentum of the particle 1
in the two-particle system will be denoted as p p1 and r1 . The operator of
energy of the particle 1 will be written as h1 = m21 c4 + p21 c2 , etc. Similarly,
observables of the particle 2 in H will be denoted as p2 , r2 , and h2 . According
to Postulate 6.1(II), spectral projections of observables of different particles
commute with each other in H. Therefore, observables of different particles
commute with each other as well.
3
It is not yet clear what is the physical meaning of the other three possibilities.
4
We will keep using capital letters for the total observables (H, P, J, and K) of the
compound system.
6.1. HILBERT SPACE OF A MANY-PARTICLE SYSTEM 173
In this case, both particles 1 and 2 and the compound system are in pure
quantum states. However, the most general pure 2-particle state in H1 ⊗
H2 is described by a general (normalizable) function of two vector variables
ψ(r1 , r2 ) which is not necessarily expressed in the product form (6.1). In this
case, individual subsystems are in mixed states: the results of measurements
performed on the particle 1 are correlated with the results of measurements
performed on the particle 2, even though the particles do not interact with
each other. The existence of such entangled states is a distinctive feature of
quantum mechanics, which is not present in the classical world.
6.1.3 Statistics
The above construction of the two-particle Hilbert space H = H1 ⊗H2 is valid
when particles 1 and 2 belong to different species. If particles 1 and 2 are
identical, then there are vectors in H1 ⊗ H2 that do not correspond to phys-
ically realizable states, and the Hilbert space of two-particle states is “less”
than H1 ⊗ H2 . Indeed, if two particles 1 and 2 are identical, then no mea-
surable quantity will change if these particles are interchanged. Therefore,
after permutation of two particles, the wave function may at most acquire
an insignificant unimodular phase factor β
If we swap the particles again then the original wave function must be re-
stored
Therefore β 2 = 1, which implies that the factor β for any physical state
ψ(r1 , σ1 ; r2 , σ2 ) in H can be either 1 or -1. If a vector in H does not have
this property, then this vector does not correspond to a physically realizable
state. Thus the Hilbert space of physical states of two identical particles is
only a subspace in H.
Is it possible that in a system of two identical particles one state φ1 (r1 , σ1 ; r2, σ2 )
has factor β equal to 1
If equations (6.3) and (6.4) were true, then the linear combination of the
states φ1 and φ2
It then follows that the factor β must be the same for all states in the Hilbert
space H of the system of two identical particles. This result implies that all
particles in nature are divided in two categories: bosons and fermions.
For bosons β = 1 and two-particle wave functions are symmetric with
respect to permutations. Wave functions of two bosons form a linear subspace
H1 ⊗sym H2 ⊆ H1 ⊗ H2 . This means, in particular, that two identical bosons
may occupy the same quantum state, i.e., the wave function ψ(r1 , σ1 )ψ(r2 , σ2 )
belongs to the bosonic subspace H1 ⊗sym H2 .
For fermions, β = −1 and two-particle wave functions are antisymmetric
with respect to permutations of particle variables. The Hilbert space of two
6.2. RELATIVISTIC HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICS 175
H(p1 , r1 , p2 , r2 ) (6.5)
P(p1 , r1 , p2 , r2 ) (6.6)
J(p1 , r1 , p2 , r2) (6.7)
K(p1 , r1 , p2 , r2 ) (6.8)
5
For simplicity we will assume that particles 1 and 2 are massive, spinless, and not
identical.
176 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
H0 = h1 + h2 (6.10)
6
These representations are no longer irreducible, of course. For example, f1 (Ug1 ) is a
direct sum of (infinitely) many irreducible representations isomorphic to Ug1 .
6.2. RELATIVISTIC HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICS 177
P0 = p1 + p2 (6.11)
J0 = j1 + j2 (6.12)
K0 = k1 + k2 (6.13)
The Poincaré commutation relations for generators (6.10) - (6.13) follow im-
mediately from the facts that one-particle generators corresponding to par-
ticles 1 and 2 satisfy Poincaré commutation relations separately and that
operators of different particles commute with each other.
With definitions (6.10) - (6.13), inertial transformations of particle ob-
servables with respect to the representation Ug0 are easy to find. For example,
positions of particles 1 and 2 change with time as
i i i i
r1 (t) = e ~ H0 t r1 e− ~ H0 t = e ~ h1 t r1 e− ~ h1 t = r1 + v1 t
r2 (t) = r2 + v2 t
H = H0 + V (r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (6.14)
P = P0 + U(r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (6.15)
J = J0 + Y(r1, p1 , r2 , p2 ) (6.16)
K = K0 + Z(r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (6.17)
It may happen that some interaction operators on the right hand sides of
equations (6.14) - (6.17) are zero. Then these generators and corresponding
finite transformations coincide with generators and transformations of the
non-interacting representation Ug0 . Such generators and transformations will
be referred to as kinematical. Generators which contain interaction terms
are called dynamical.
H = H0 + V (6.18)
P = P0 (6.19)
J = J0 (6.20)
K = K0 + Z (6.21)
As we discussed in subsection 6.2.3, the observables H, P, J, and K are total
observables that correspond to the compound system as a whole. The total
momentum P (6.11) and the total angular momentum J (6.12) are simply
vector sums of the corresponding operators for individual particles. The
total energy H and the boost operator K are written as sums of one-particle
operators plus interaction terms. The interaction term V in H is usually
called the potential energy operator. Similarly, we will call Z the potential
boost. It is important to note that in an instant-form relativistic interacting
system the potential boost operator cannot vanish. We will see later that the
non-vanishing “boost interaction” has a profound effect on transformations
of observables between moving reference frames. The potential boost Z will
play a crucial role in our non-traditional approach to relativity in the second
part of this book.
Other total observables (e.g., the total mass M, spin S, center-of-mass
position R, and its velocity V, etc.) are defined as functions of generators
(6.18) - (6.21) by formulas from chapter 4. For interacting systems, these
Hermitian operators are generally interaction-dependent as well.
According to the principle of relativity, ten operators (6.18) - (6.21) must
obey Poincaré commutation relations (3.52) - (3.58). This requirement leads
to the following equivalent relationships
6.3. INSTANT FORM OF DYNAMICS 181
S = J − [R × P] = J0 − [R0 × P0 ] = S0
M = M0 + N
So, we have reduced our task of solving (6.22) - (6.26) to a simpler problem
of finding one operator N satisfying conditions (6.27). Indeed, by knowing N
and non-interacting operators M0 , P0 , R0 , S0 , we can restore the interacting
generators using formulas (4.45) - (4.47)
P = P0 (6.28)
q
H = + M 2 c4 + P02c2 (6.29)
1 [P0 × S0 ]
K = − (R 0 H + HR 0 ) − (6.30)
2c2 Mc2 + H
J = J0 = [R0 × P0 ] + S0 (6.31)
Suppose also that these relative operators have the following non-relativistic
(c → ∞) limits
~π → p1 − p2
ρ~ → r1 − r2
N = N(π12 , ρ21 , (~π1 · ρ~1 ), π22 , ρ22 , (~π2 · ρ~2 ), (~π1 · ρ~2 ), (~π2 · ρ~1 ), . . .) (6.37)
of the instant form dynamics has position operator R different from the non-
interacting Newton-Wigner position R0 . Let us now establish a connection
between such a general instant form interaction and the Bakamjian-Thomas
form. We are going to demonstrate that corresponding representations of the
Poincaré group are related by a unitary transformation.
Suppose that operators
(P0 , J0 , K, H) (6.38)
define a Bakamjian-Thomas dynamics. Let us now choose an unitary op-
erator W commuting with P0 and J0 .9 and apply this transformation to
generators (6.38).
J0 = W J0 W −1 (6.39)
P0 = W P0W −1 (6.40)
K′ = W KW −1 (6.41)
H′ = W HW −1 (6.42)
Since unitary transformations preserve commutators
W [A, B]W −1 = [W AW −1 , W BW −1 ]
the transformed generators (6.39) - (6.42) satisfy commutation relations of
the Poincaré Lie algebrapin the instant form. However, generally, the new
mass operator M ′ = c−2 (H ′)2 − P20 c2 does not commute with R0 , so (6.39)
- (6.42) are not necessarily in the Bakamjian-Thomas form.
Thus we have a way to build a non-Bakamjian-Thomas instant form repre-
sentation (P0 , J0 , K′ , H ′ ) if a Bakamjian-Thomas representation (P0 , J0 , K, H)
is given. However, this construction does not answer the question if all in-
stant form interactions can be connected to the Bakamjian-Thomas dynamics
by a unitary transformation? The answer to this question is “yes”: For any
instant form interaction10 {P0 , R′, S′ , M ′ } one can find a unitary operator
W which transforms it to the Bakamjian-Thomas form [CP82]
9
In the case of two massive spinless particles such an operator must be a function of
rotationally invariant combinations of vectors P0 , ~π , and ρ~.
10
Here it is convenient to use “alternative sets” of basic operators introduced in subsec-
tion 4.3.4.
6.3. INSTANT FORM OF DYNAMICS 185
T ≡ R′ − R0
i
W = e~W
Z P0
W = T(P, ~π, ρ~)dP (6.44)
0
W −1 P0 W = P0
W −1 J0 W = J0
Z P0 Z P0
∂
[W, R0 ] = − R0 , T(P, ~π, ρ~)dP = −i~ T(P, ~π, ρ~)dP
0 ∂P0 0
′
= −i~T(P0 , ~π , ρ~) = −i~(R − R0 )
[W, [W, R0 ]] = 0
Therefore
11
The integral in (6.44) can be treated formally as an integral of ordinary function
(rather than operator) along the segment [0, P0 ] in the 3D space of variable P0 with
arguments ~π and ρ
~ being fixed.
186 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
i i i 1
W R0 W −1 = e ~ W R0 e− ~ W = R0 + [W, R0 ] − [W, [W, R0 ]] + . . .
~ 2!~2
= R0 + (R′ − R0 ) = R′
W −1 R′ W = R0
W −1 S′ W = W −1 (J0 − R′ × P0 )W = J0 − R0 × P0 = S0
M = W −1 M ′ W
i i
lim e− ~ p2 a N(π 2 , ρ2 , (~π · ρ~))e ~ p2 a = 0 (6.45)
a→∞
the n-particle interaction (6.37) must ensure that each spatially separated
m-particle group (m < n) behaves as if it were alone. This, in particular,
implies that we cannot independently choose interactions in systems with
different number of particles. The interaction in the n-particle sector of the
theory must be consistent with interactions in all m-particle sectors, where
m < n.
Interactions satisfying these conditions are called cluster separable. We
will postulate that all interactions in nature have the property of separability.
1. the interaction separates too, i.e., the clusters move independent of each
other;
1
V = (6.46)
|r1 − r2 ||r3 − r4 |
has the property that no matter how far two pairs of particles (1+2 and 3+4)
are from each other, the relative distance between 3 and 4 affects the force
acting between particles 1 and 2. Such infinite-range interactions are not
present in nature.
In the non-relativistic case the cluster separability is achieved without
much effort. For example, the non-relativistic Coulomb potential energy in
the system of two charged particles is13
1 1
V12 = ≡ (6.47)
|~ρ| |r1 − r2 |
13
Here we are interested just in the general functional form of interaction, so we are not
concerned with putting correct factors in front of the potentials.
188 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
which clearly satisfies condition (6.45). In the system of three charged par-
ticles 1, 2, and 3, the potential energy can be written as a simple sum of
two-particle terms
i i
lim e ~ p3 a (V12 + V13 + V23 )e− ~ p3 a
a→∞
1 1 1
= lim + +
a→∞ |r1 − r2 | |r2 − r3 + a| |r1 − r3 + a|
1
=
|r1 − r2 |
This is the same potential (6.47) as in an isolated 2-particle system. There-
fore, both conditions (1) and (2) are satisfied and interaction (6.48) is cluster
separable. As we will see below, in the relativistic case construction of a
general cluster-separable multi-particle interaction is a more difficult task.
Let us now make some definitions which will be useful in discussions
of cluster separability. A smooth m-particle potential V (m) is defined as
operator that depends on variables of m particles and tends to zero if any
particle or a group of particles is removed to infinity.14 For example, the
potential (6.47) is smooth while (6.46) is not. Generally, a cluster separable
interaction in a n-particle system can be written as a sum
X X
V = V (2) + V (3) + . . . + V (n) (6.49)
{2} {3}
P (2)
where {2} V is a sum of smooth 2-particle potentials over all pairs of
P (3)
particles; {3} V is a sum of smooth 3-particle potentials over all triples of
14
In section 8.4 we will explain why we call such potentials smooth.
6.3. INSTANT FORM OF DYNAMICS 189
H = H0 + V (p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , r3 )
K = K0 + Z(p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , r3 )
i i
lim e ~ p3 a V (p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , r3)e−i ~ p3 a = V12 (p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ) (6.50)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p3 a Z(p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , r3 )e− ~ p3 a = Z12 (p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ) (6.51)
a→∞
where V12 and Z12 are interaction operators for the 2-particle system.
Let us see if these principles can be satisfied by Bakamjian-Thomas in-
teractions. In this case the potential energy is
V = H − H0
p
= (p1 + p2 + p3 )2 c2 + (M0 + N(p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , r3 ))2 c4
q
− (p1 + p2 + p3 )2 c2 + M02 c4
i i
lim e ~ p3 a V (p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , r3 )e− ~ p3 a
a→∞
p
= (p1 + p2 + p3 )2 c2 + (M0 + N(p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , ∞))2 c4
q
− (p1 + p2 + p3 )2 c2 + M02 c4 (6.52)
190 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
According to (6.50) we should require that the right hand side of equation
(6.52) depends only on variables pertinent to particles 1 and 2. Then we
must set
N(p1 , r1 ; p2 , r2 ; p3 , ∞) = 0
and interaction in the 2-particle sector 1+2 vanishes. Similarly, we can show
that interaction V tends to zero when either particle 1 or particle 2 is removed
to infinity. Therefore, V is a smooth 3-particle potential, and there is no
interaction in any 2-particle subsystem: the interaction turns on only if there
are three or more particles close to each other. This is clearly unphysical.
So, we conclude that the Bakamjian-Thomas construction cannot describe
a non-trivial cluster-separable interaction in many-particle systems (see also
[Mut78]).
i i
lim e ~ p3 a He− ~ p3 a = H0 + V12 ≡ H12 (6.53)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p3 a Ke− ~ p3 a = K0 + Z12 ≡ K12 (6.54)
a→∞
q
i i 1
lim e ~ p3 a Me− ~ p3 a = 2 H12 2
− P02 c2 ≡ M12 (6.55)
a→∞ c
i i c2 c[P0 × W12 ]
lim e ~ p3 a Re− ~ p3 a = − (K12 H12 + H12 K12 ) −
a→∞ 2 M12 H12 (M12 c2 + H12 )
≡ R12 (6.56)
where operators H12 , K12 , M12 , and R12 (energy, boost, mass, and center-
of-mass position, respectively) will be considered as given. Now we want to
combine the two-particle potentials Vij and Zij together in a cluster-separable
3-particle interaction in analogy with (6.48). It appears that we cannot
form the interactions V and Z in the 3-particle system simply as a sum of
2-particle potentials. One can verify that such a definition would violate
Poincaré commutators. Therefore
i i
lim e ~ p1 a M12 e− ~ p1 a = M0 (6.57)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p2 a M12 e− ~ p2 a = M0 (6.58)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p3 a M12 e− ~ p3 a = M12 (6.59)
a→∞
The Hamiltonian H12 and boost K12 define an instant form representation
U12 of the Poincaré group in the 3-particle Hilbert space H. The correspond-
ing position operator (6.56) is generally different from the non-interacting
Newton-Wigner position operator
192 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
c2 c[P0 × W0 ]
R0 = − (K0 H0 + H0 K0 ) − (6.60)
2 M0 H0 (M0 + H0 )
Operators Bij = {B12 , B13 , B23 } commute with P0 and J0 . Since representa-
tion Uij becomes non-interacting when the distance between particles i and
j tends to infinity, we can write
i i
lim e ~ p3 a B13 e− ~ p3 a = 1 (6.61)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p3 a B23 e− ~ p3 a = 1 (6.62)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p3 a B12 e− ~ p3 a = B12 (6.63)
a→∞
M = M 12 + M 13 + M 23 − 2M0
−1 −1 −1
= B12 M12 B12 + B13 M13 B13 + B23 M23 B23 − 2M0
16
see subsection 6.3.3
6.3. INSTANT FORM OF DYNAMICS 193
which also commutes with R0 . Using this mass operator, we can build an-
other Bakamjian-Thomas representation with generators
q
2
H = P02 + M (6.64)
1 c[P0 × W0 ]
K = − 2 (R0 H + HR0 ) − (6.65)
2c MH(M c2 + H)
This representation has interactions between all particles, however, it does
not satisfy the cluster property yet. For example, by removing particle 3 to
infinity we do not obtain the interaction M12 characteristic for the subsystem
of two particles 1 and 2. Instead, we obtain a unitary transform of M12 17
i i
lim e ~ p3 a M e− ~ p3 a
a→∞
i i
−1 −1 −1
= lim e ~ p3 a (B12 M12 B12 + B13 M13 B13 + B23 M23 B23 − 2M0 )e− ~ p3 a
a→∞
i i i i
−1
= B12 M12 B12 − 2M0 + lim (e ~ p3 a M13 e− ~ p3 a + e ~ p3 a M23 e− ~ p3 a )
a→∞
−1 −1
= B12 M12 B12 − 2M0 + 2M0 = B12 M12 B12 (6.66)
To fix this deficiency, let us perform a unitary transformation of the repre-
sentation (6.64) - (6.65) with operator B 18
H = B −1 HB (6.67)
K = B −1 KB (6.68)
M = B −1 M B (6.69)
We choose the transformation B from the requirement that it must cancel
factors Bij and Bij−1 in equations like (6.66) as particle k is removed to infinity.
In other words, B can be any unitary operator, which has the following limits
i i
lim e ~ p3 a Be− ~ p3 a = B12 (6.70)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p2 a Be− ~ p2 a = B13 (6.71)
a→∞
i i
lim e ~ p1 a Be− ~ p1 a = B23 (6.72)
a→∞
17
Here we used (6.57) - (6.59) and (6.61) - (6.63).
18
which must commute with P0 and J0 , of course, to preserve the instant form of
interaction
194 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
i i i i
lim e ~ p3 a Be− ~ p3 a = lim e ~ p3 a exp(ln B12 + ln B13 + ln B23 )e− ~ p3 a
a→∞ a→∞
= exp(ln B12 ) = B12
i i i i
lim e ~ p3 a He− ~ p3 a = lim e ~ p3 a B −1 HBe− ~ p3 a
a→∞ a→∞
q
−1 ~i p3 a 2 i
= lim B12 e P02 c2 + M c4 e− ~ p3 a B12
a→∞
q
−1 −1 2 4
= B12 P02 c2 + (B12 M12 B12 ) c B12
q
= P02 c2 + M12 2 4
c = H12
q
1 1p
M0 = + 2 H02 − P02 c2 = + 2 (h1 + h2 )2 − (p1 + p2 )2 c2
c s c
q q 2
1 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 2
= + 2 m1 c + p1 c + m2 c + p2 c − (p1 + p2 )2 c2(6.73)
c
As particles’ momenta can have any value in the 3D momentum space, the
eigenvalues m of the mass operator have continuous spectrum in the range
m1 + m2 ≤ m < ∞ (6.74)
q
H0 = + M02 c4 + P02 c2
H H
(m1+m2)c 2
(m1+m2)c 2
Px c Px c
0 0
(a) (b)
M|Ψp,n i = µn |Ψp,n i
P0 |Ψp,n i = p|Ψp,n i
√ p
H|Ψp,n i = M 2 c4 + P 2 c2 |Ψp,n i = µ2n c4 + p2 c2 |Ψp,n i
p
hn = µ2n c4 + p2 c2
which are shown in Fig. 6.1(b) below the continuous part of the common
spectrum of P0 and H. An example of a bound system whose mass spec-
trum has both continuous and discrete parts – the hydrogen atom – will be
considered in greater detail in section 12.2.
E = E2 − E1
When the source is moving with respect to the observer (or observer is
moving with respect to the source), the energies of levels 1 and 2 experience
inertial transformations given by formula (4.4). Therefore, to check our the-
ory for consistency, we would like to prove that the Doppler shift calculated
with this formula is the same as that obtained in subsection 5.3.4.
Suppose that the compound system has two bound states characterized
by mass eigenvalues m1 and m2 > m1 (see Fig. 6.2). Suppose also that
initially the system is p
in the excited state with mass m2 , total momentum
p2 , and energy E2 = m22 c4 + p22 c2 . In the final state we have the same
systempwith a lower mass m1 , different total momentum p1 , and energy
E1 = m21 c4 + p21 c2 . In addition, there is a photon with momentum k and
energy ck. From the momentum and energy conservation laws we can write
21
The transition energy E is actually not well-defined, because the excited state 2 is
not a stationary state. (See section 13.1.) Therefore our discussion in this subsection is
valid only approximately for long-living states 2, for which the uncertainty of energy can
be neglected.
198 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
E m2
B (p ,E ) m1
2 2
AA
(p1,E1)) k
00 P xc
Figure 6.2: Energy level diagram for a bound system with the ground state
of mass m1 and the excited state of mass m2 . If the system is at rest, its
excited state is represented by point A. Note that the energy of emitted
photons (arrows) is less than (m2 − m1 )c2 . A moving excited state with
momentum p2 is represented by point B. The energies and momenta k of
emitted photons depend on the angle between k and p2 .
p2 = p1 + k
E2 = E1 + ck
q q
m22 c4 + p22 c2 = m21 c4 + p21 c2 + ck
q
= m21 c4 + (p2 − k)2 c2 + ck
q
1 2 2
k m21 c2 + (p2 − k)2 = µ c + p2 k cos φ − k 2
2
where µ2 ≡ m22 − m21 and φ is the angle between vectors p2 and k.22 Taking
squares of both sides again we obtain a quadratic equation
22
Note also that vector k points from the light emitting system to the observer, so the
angle φ can be interpreted as the angle between the velocity of the source and the line of
sight, which is equivalent to the definition of φ in subsection 5.3.4.
6.4. BOUND STATES AND TIME EVOLUTION 199
1
k 2 (m22 c2 + p22 − p22 cos2 φ) − kµ2 c2 p2 cos φ − µ4 c4 = 0
4
with the solution23
q
µ 2 c2
k = p2 cos φ + m22 c2 + p22
2m22 c2 + 2p22 sin2 φ
Introducing
p the rapidity θ of the initial state, we obtain p2 = m2 c sinh θ,
m22 c2 + p22 = m2 c cosh θ and
This formula gives the energy of the photon emitted by a system moving
with the speed v = c tanh θ
E(0)
E(θ, φ) ≡ ck =
cosh θ(1 − vc cos φ)
where
µ 2 c2
E(0) =
2m2
is the energy of the photon emitted by a source at rest. This agrees with our
earlier result (5.70).
i ′
U(t ← t′ ) = e− ~ H(t−t ) (6.76)
i i ′
U(t ← t′ ) = e− ~ H(t−t1 ) e− ~ H(t1 −t ) = U(t ← t1 )U(t1 ← t′ ) (6.77)
U(t ← t′ ) = U −1 (t′ ← t) (6.78)
for any t, t′ , t1 .
In the Schrödinger picture, the time evolution of a state vector is given
by (5.49)
i ′
|Ψ(t)i = U(t ← t′ )|Ψ(t′ )i = e− ~ H(t−t ) |Ψ(t′ )i (6.79)
d d i ′ i ′
i~ |Ψ(t)i = i~ e− ~ H(t−t ) |Ψ(t′ )i = He− ~ H(t−t ) |Ψ(t′ )i
dt dt
= H|Ψ(t)i (6.80)
H|Ψin = En |Ψin
the initial state can be represented as a sum (and/or integral) of basis eigen-
vectors
X
|Ψ(0)i = Cn |Ψin
n
6.4. BOUND STATES AND TIME EVOLUTION 201
i i
X X i
|Ψ(t)i = e− ~ Ht |Ψ(0)i = e− ~ Ht Cn |Ψin = Cn e− ~ En t |Ψin (6.81)
n n
There is another useful formula for the state vector’s time evolution in a
theory with Hamiltonian H = H0 + V . Denoting
i i
V (t) = e ~ H0 (t−t0 ) V e− ~ H0 (t−t0 )
Z Z Z !
t t t′
− ~i H0 (t−t0 ) i 1
|Ψ(t)i = e 1− V (t′ )dt′ − 2 V (t′ )dt′ V (t′′ )dt′′ + . . . |Ψ(t0 )i
~ t0 ~ t0 t0
(6.82)
satisfies the Schrödinger equation (6.80) with the additional condition that
at t = t0 the solution coincides with the given initial state |Ψ(t0 )i. Indeed
d
|Ψ(t)i
i~
dt !
Z Z t Z t′
d − i H0 (t−t0 ) i t 1
= i~ e ~ 1− V (t′ )dt′ − 2 V (t′ )dt′ V (t′′ )dt′′ + . . . |Ψ(t0 )i
dt ~ t0 ~ t0 t0
Z t Z t Z t′ !
i i 1
= H0 e− ~ H0 (t−t0 ) 1 − V (t′ )dt′ − 2 V (t′ )dt′ V (t′′ )dt′′ + . . . |Ψ(t0 )i
~ t0 ~ t0 t0
Z t
i i
+e− ~ H0 (t−t0 ) V (t) 1 − V (t′′ )dt′′ + . . . |Ψ(t0 )i
~ t0
= (H0 + V )|Ψ(t)i
25
which are required for formula (6.81)
26
e.g., classical mechanics or classical field theory
6.5. CLASSICAL HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICS 203
i i
ψr0 ,p0 (r) ≡ hr|Ψr0,p0 i = η(r − r0 )e ~ φ e ~ p0 (r−r0 ) (6.83)
2 /d2 i
ψr0 ,p0 (r) = Ne−(r−r0 ) e ~ p0 r (6.84)
27
Spatially delocalized states of particles play a role in such low-temperature effects as
superconductivity and superfluidity.
i i
28
such that e ~ φ is a unimodular phase factor: |e ~ φ | = 1. The introduction of this factor
seems redundant here, because any wave function is defined up to a multiplier, anyway.
i
However, we will find the factor e ~ φ important in our discussions of the interference effect
in subsection 6.5.6 and in section 15.4.
29
compare with the form (5.40) of momentum eigenfunctions in the position space
204 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
The exact magnitude of this coefficient is not important for our discussion,
so we will not calculate it here.
2 /d2
ψ0,0 (r) = Ne−r (6.85)
and its counterpart in the momentum space is30
Z
2 /d2 i
−3/2
ψ0,0 (p) = (2π~) N dre−r e− ~ pr
2 d2 /(4~2 )
= (2~)−3/2 Nd3 e−p (6.86)
The product of the uncertainties of the momentum-space (∆p ≈ 2~ d
) and
position-space (∆r ≈ d) wave functions is independent on the parameter d
∆r∆p ≈ 2~ (6.87)
This is an example of the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, which tells us
that for all quantum states the above uncertainties must satisfy the famous
inequality
i
ψ(p, t) = e− ~ Ĥt ψ0,0 (p, 0)
Nd3 −p2 d2 /(4~2 ) − it √m2 c4 +p2 c2
= e e ~
(2~)3/2
whose position representation counterpart is31
Nd3
Z √
−p2 d2 /(4~2 ) ~i pr − it m2 c4 +q 2 c2
ψ(r, t) = 2 3/2
dpe e e ~
(4π~ )
Z 2
Nd3 − ~i mc2 t 2 d it i
≈ e dp exp −p + + pr
(4π~2 )3/2 4~2 2~m ~
3/2
d2 m − ~i mc2 t mr 2
= N e exp −
d2 m + 2i~t d2 m + 2i~t
and the probability density is
2~ ∆p
vs ≈ ≈ (6.89)
dm m
One can verify that at large times this speed does not depend on the shape
of the initial wave packet. The important parameters are the size d of this
wave packet and the particle’s mass m.
A simple estimate demonstrates that for macroscopic objects this spread-
ing phenomenon can be safely neglected. For example, for a particle of mass
m = 1 mg and the initial position uncertainty of d = 1 micron, the time
needed for the wave function to spread to 1 cm is more than 1011 years.
Therefore, for quasiclassical states of macroscopic particles with sufficiently
high masses, their positions and momenta are well defined at all times and
their time evolution can be described by a classical trajectory pretty well.
So, in these conditions one can safely replace quantum mechanics with its
classical counterpart.
We can continue this line of reasoning and translate other quantum no-
tions to the classical language as well. For example, we know that any 1-
particle quantum observable F can be expressed as a function of the particle
position R, momentum P, and mass M.33 The eigenvalue of M is just a
constant. Therefore, in the classical phase space picture, all observables (the
energy, angular momentum, velocity, etc.) are represented as real functions
f (p, r) on the phase space.
33
See subsection 4.3.4. Recall that in this section we are talking only about spinless
particles. So, we set S = 0.
208 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
1
F (t) = F − [H, F ]P t + [H, [H, F ]P ]P t2 + . . . (6.94)
2
34
This is also clear from (6.93) as hf (R, P)g(R, P)i = hg(R, P)f (R, P)i.
6.5. CLASSICAL HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICS 209
where
−i
[f, g]P ≡ lim [f (R, P), g(R, P)] (6.95)
~→0 ~
where ki are Hermitian operators. From equation (6.95) it is clear that the
Poisson bracket is equal to the coefficient of the dominant term of the first
order in ~
[f, g]P = k1
As a consequence, the classical Poisson bracket [f, g]P is much easier to calcu-
late than the full quantum commutator [f, g]. The following theorem demon-
strates that calculation of the Poisson bracket can be reduced to simple dif-
ferentiation.
Theorem 6.4 If f (R, P) and g(R, P) are two observables of a massive spin-
less particle, then35
∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
[f (R, P), g(R, P)]P = · − · (6.96)
∂R ∂P ∂P ∂R
35
Equation (6.96) is the definition of the Poisson bracket usually presented in classical
mechanics textbooks without proper justification. Here we are deriving this formula from
quantum-mechanical commutators.
210 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
−i ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
lim [f (R, P ), g(R, P )] = · − · (6.97)
~→0 ~ ∂R ∂P ∂P ∂R
First, functions f (R, P ) and g(R, P ) can be represented by their Taylor ex-
pansions around the origin (r = 0, p = 0) in the phase space, e.g.,
where Cij and Dij are numerical coefficients, and we agreed to write factors
R to the left from factors P . Then it is sufficient to prove formula (6.97) for
f and g being monoms of the form Rn P m . In particular, we would like to
prove that
[R, P ]P = 1
which agrees with definition (6.95) and with quantum result (4.25).
To prove (6.98) for higher powers we will use mathematical induction.
Suppose that we established the validity of (6.98) for a set of powers n, m, q, s
as well as for any set of lower powers n′ , m′ , q ′, s′ , where n′ ≤ n, m′ ≤ m,
q ′ ≤ q, s′ ≤ s. The proof by induction now requires us to establish the
validity of the following equations
6.5. CLASSICAL HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICS 211
Let us prove only the first equation. Three others are proved similarly. Using
equations (4.53), (6.98), and (E.11) we, indeed, obtain
i
[Rn P m , Rq+1 P s ]P = − lim [Rn P m , Rq+1 P s ]
~→0 ~
i i
= − lim [Rn P m , R]Rq P s − lim R[Rn P m , Rq P s ]
~→0 ~ ~→0 ~
= [Rn P m , R]P Rq P s + R[Rn P m , Rq P s ]P
= −mRn+q P m+s−1 + (ns − mq)Rn+q P m+s−1
= (ns − mq − m)Rn+q P m+s−1
Since Poisson brackets are obtained from commutators (6.95), all prop-
erties of commutators from Appendix E.2 remain valid for Poisson brackets
as well.
For a concrete example, let us apply the above formalism of Poisson
brackets to the time evolution. We can use formulas (6.94) and (6.96) in the
case when F is either position or momentum and obtain36
dP(t) ∂H(R, P)
= −[H(R, P), P]P = − (6.99)
dt ∂R
dR(t) ∂H(R, P)
= −[H(R, P), R]P = (6.100)
dt ∂P
where one recognizes the classical Hamilton’s equations of motion.
36
Here we used equation (4.54) and a similar formula [Px , f (Rx )] = −i~∂f (Rx )/∂Rx .
212 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
∂Ψ(r, t) ~2 ∂ 2 Ψ(r, t)
i~ + − V (r)Ψ(r, t) = 0 (6.103)
∂t 2m ∂r2
which is valid for the position-space wave function Ψ(r, t) of a single particle
moving in an external potential V (r).37 Omitting for brevity time arguments
and denoting time derivatives by dots we can write
∂Ψ(r) ∂η i
i~ = −i~ · r˙0 − (p˙0 · r)η + (p˙0 · r0 )η + (p0 · r˙0 )η − φ̇η exp A
∂t ∂r ~
37
Here we make several assumptions and approximations to simplify our calculations.
First, we consider a particle moving in a fixed potential. This is not an isolated system,
which is a subject of most discussions in the book. Nevertheless, this is still a good
approximation in the case when the object creating the potential V (r) is heavy, so that it
can be considered fixed. Second, the position-dependent potential V (r) does not depend
on the particle’s momentum. Third, we are working in the non-relativistic approximation.
6.5. CLASSICAL HAMILTONIAN DYNAMICS 213
~2 ∂ 2 Ψ(r) ~2 ∂ ∂η i i i
2
= exp A + p0 η exp A
2m ∂r 2m ∂r ∂r ~ ~ ~
~2 ∂ 2 η 2i ∂η p20 η i
= 2
+ · p0 − 2 exp A
2m ∂r ~ ∂r ~ ~
∂V (r) i
−V (r)Ψ(r) = −V (r0 )η − (r − r0 )η exp A
∂r r=r0 ~
There are three kinds of terms on the left hand side of (6.103): those propor-
tional to ~0 , ~1 , and ~2 . They must vanish independently. The ~2 -dependent
terms are too small; they are beyond the accuracy of the quasiclassical ap-
proximation and can be ignored. The terms that are first order in ~ result in
equation ṙ0 = pm0 , which is the usual relationship between velocity and mo-
mentum for momentum-independent potentials.38 ~0 terms lead to equation
p20 ∂V (r)
0 = −(ṗ0 · r) + (ṗ0 · r0 ) + (p0 · ṙ0 ) − φ̇ − − V (r0 ) − (r − r0 )
2m ∂r r=r0
(6.104)
The function ṗ0 (t) can be determined from the first Hamilton’s equation
(6.99)
∂V (r)
ṗ0 = −
∂r r=r0
So, we can rewrite (6.104) as an equation for the last undetermined (phase)
function φ(t)
∂φ p2 (t)
= 0 − V (r0 (t))
∂t 2m
The solution of this equation for a particle propagating in the time interval
[t0 , t] is given by the so-called action integral 39
Zt
′ p20 (t′ )
φ(t) = φ(t0 ) + dt − V (r0 (t′ )) (6.105)
2m
t0
38
This is also the 2nd Hamilton’s equation (6.100).
39
Note that the integrand has the form (“kinetic energy” - “potential energy”), which
is known in classical mechanics as the Lagrangian.
214 CHAPTER 6. INTERACTION
B C
Figure 6.3: Interference picture in the two-slit experiment. Two dotted bell-
shaped curves on the right show the image density profiles when one of the
two slits is closed. The thick full line is the interference pattern when both
slits are opened. Compare with Fig. 1.3(b).
SCATTERING
217
218 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
U(∞ ← −∞)
≈ U0 (∞ ← η)U(η ← η ′ )U0 (η ′ ← −∞)
= U0 (∞ ← η)U0 (η ← 0)[U0 (0 ← η)U(η ← η ′ )U0 (η ′ ← 0)]U0 (0 ← η ′ )U0 (η ′ ← −∞)
= U0 (∞ ← 0)Sη,η′ U0 (0 ← −∞) (7.1)
where
State U0 D
C
U
0 time, t
S
B
U
A U0
Figure 7.1: A schematic representation of the scattering process.
Therefore, the exact formula for the time evolution from −∞ to ∞ can be
written as
between parts of the scattering system is weak. In these regions exact time
evolutions can be well approximated by free time evolutions. These free
“trajectories” are governed by the operator U0 and shown in the figure by
two thin straight lines with arrows: one for large positive times C → D and
another for large negative times A → B. The thick line (the exact interacting
time evolution) asymptotically approaches thin lines (free time evolutions)
in the remote past (around A) and in the remote future (around D). The
past and future free evolutions can be extrapolated to time t = 0, and there
is a gap B − C between these extrapolated states. The S-operator (which
connects states B and C as shown by the dashed arrow) is designed to bridge
this gap. This operator provides a mapping between free states extrapolated
to time t = 0. Thus, in scattering theory the exact time evolution A → D is
approximated by three steps: the system first evolves freely until time t = 0,
i.e., from A to B. Then there is a sudden jump B → C represented by the S-
operator. Finally, the time evolution is free again C → D. As seen from the
figure, this description of the scattering process is perfectly exact, as long as
we are interested only in the mapping from asymptotic states in the remote
past A to asymptotic states in the remote future D. However, it is also
clear that scattering theory does not provide a good description of the time
evolution in the interacting region around t = 0. In the scattering operator S
the information about particle interactions enters integrated over the infinite
time interval t ∈ (−∞, ∞). In order to describe the time evolution in the
interaction region (t ≈ 0) the S-matrix approach is not suitable. The full
interacting time evolution operator U is needed for this purpose.
In applications we are mostly interested in matrix elements of the S-
operator
The vanishing commutator [S, H0 ] = 0 implies that in (7.3) one can change
places of U0 and S, so that the interacting time evolution operator can be
written as the full free time evolution operator times the S-operator
d
S(t)
dt
d i i ′ i ′
= lim e ~ H0 t e− ~ H(t−t ) e− ~ H0 t
dt t →−∞
′
i
H t i − i
H(t−t ′ ) − i H t′ i
H t i − i
H(t−t′ ) − i H t′
= lim e ~ 0 H0 e ~ e ~ 0 + e~ 0 − H e ~ e ~ 0
t′ →−∞ ~ ~
i i i ′ i ′
= − ′ lim e ~ H0 t (H − H0 )e− ~ H(t−t ) e− ~ H0 t
~ t →−∞
i i i ′ i ′
= − ′ lim e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H(t−t ) e− ~ H0 t
~ t →−∞
i i i i i ′ i ′
= − ′ lim e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t e ~ H0 t e− ~ H(t−t ) e− ~ H0 t
~ t →−∞
i i i ′ i ′
= − ′ lim V (t)e ~ H0 t e− ~ H(t−t ) e− ~ H0 t
~ t →−∞
i
= − V (t)S(t) (7.9)
~
where we denoted6
6
Note that the t-dependence of V (t) does not mean that we are considering time-
222 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
i i
V (t) = e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t (7.10)
One can directly check that solution of equation (7.9) with the natural
initial condition S(−∞) = 1 is given by the “old-fashioned” perturbation
expansion
Z t Z t Z t′
i ′ 1 ′ ′ ′
S(t) = 1 − V (t ) dt − 2 V (t ) dt V (t′′ ) dt′′ + . . . ,
~ −∞ ~ −∞ −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞ Z t
i 1
S = 1− V (t) dt − 2 V (t) dt V (t′ ) dt′ + . . . (7.11)
~ −∞ ~ −∞ −∞
This formula can be also derived from equation (6.82) in the case when the
initial time t0 = −∞ is in the remote past and the final time t = +∞ is in
the distant future
|Ψ(+∞)i
Z ∞
− ~i H0 (t−t0 ) i i ′ i ′
= lim e 1− e ~ H0 (t −t0 ) V e− ~ H0 (t −t0 ) dt′
t→+∞ ~ −∞
Z ∞ Z t′
1 i
H (t′ −t0 ) − ~i H0 (t′ −t0 ) ′ i ′′ −t ) i ′′ −t )
− 2 e ~ 0 Ve dt e ~ H0 (t 0
V e− ~ H0 (t 0
dt′′ + . . . |Ψ(−∞)i
~ −∞ −∞
dependent interactions. The argument t has very little to do with actual time dependence
of operators in the Heisenberg representation, which must be generated by the full inter-
acting Hamiltonian H and not by the free Hamiltonian H0 as in equation (7.10). In such
cases we will use the term “t-dependence” instead of “time dependence”.
7
Note that the trick of “adiabatic switching” described in the next subsection (and
tacitly assumed to be working here) allows us to keep unchanged the infinite limits (−∞
and ∞) of integrals.
7.1. SCATTERING OPERATORS 223
|Ψ(+∞)i
Z
− ~i H0 (t−t0 )
i ∞ i H0 t′ − i H0 t′ ′
= lim e 1− e~ Ve ~ dt
t→+∞ ~ −∞
Z ∞ Z t′
1 i
H0 t′ − ~i H0 t′ ′ i ′′ i ′′
− 2 e ~ Ve dt e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t dt′′ + . . . |Ψ(−∞)i
~ −∞ −∞
Comparing this formula with representation (7.8) of the time evolution op-
erator we conclude that the S-factor is the same as (7.11).
We will avoid discussion of (non-trivial) convergence properties of the
series on the right hand side of equation (7.11). Throughout this book we
will tacitly assume that all relevant perturbation series do converge.
We will often use the following convenient shorthand notation for t-
integrals
Z
i t
Y (t) ≡ − Y (t′ )dt′ (7.12)
~ −∞
Z
i +∞
Y (t) ≡ − Y (t′ )dt′ = Y (∞) (7.13)
|{z} ~ −∞
S = 1 + Σ(t) (7.14)
|{z}
Σ(t) = V (t) + V (t)V (t′ ) + V (t)V (t′ )V (t′′ ) + V (t)V (t′ )V (t′′ )V (t′′′ ) + . . .
(7.15)
Formula (7.11) is not the only way to write the perturbation expansion for
the S-operator and, perhaps, not the most convenient one. In most books on
quantum field theory the covariant Feynman–Dyson perturbation expansion
[Wei95] is used, which involves a time ordering of operators in the integrands8
8
When applied to a product of several t-dependent bosonic operators, the time ordering
symbol T changes the order of operators in such a way that the t label increases from right
224 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
Z+∞ Z+∞
i 1
S = 1− dt1 V (t1 ) − dt1 dt2 T [V (t1 )V (t2 )]
~ 2!~2
−∞ −∞
Z+∞
i
+ dt1 dt2 dt3 T [V (t1 )V (t2 )V (t3 )]
3!~3
−∞
Z+∞
1
+ 4 dt1 dt2 dt3 dt4 T [V (t1 )V (t2 )V (t3 )V (t4 )] + . . . (7.17)
4!~
−∞
For our purposes in chapter 11 we found more useful yet another equivalent
perturbative expression suggested by Magnus [Mag54, PL66, BCOR09]
1 1
F (t) = V (t) − [V (t′ ), V (t)] + [V (t′′ ), [V (t′ ), V (t)]]
2 6
1 1
+ [[V (t′′ ), V (t′ )], V (t)] − [V (t′′′ ), [[V (t′′ ), V (t′ )], V (t)]]
6 12
1
− [[V (t′′′ ), [V (t′′ ), V (t′ )]], V (t)]
12
1
− [[V (t′′′ ), V (t′′ )], [V (t′ ), V (t)]] + . . . (7.19)
12
One important advantage of this representation is that expression (7.18) for
the S-operator is manifestly unitary in each perturbation order. The three
to left, e.g.
A(t1 )B(t2 ), if t1 > t2
T [A(t1 )B(t2 )] = (7.16)
B(t2 )A(t1 ), if t1 < t2
For the time ordered product of fermionic (anticommuting) operators see equation (J.87).
7.1. SCATTERING OPERATORS 225
S = exp(|{z}
F ) = 1 + |{z} Σ (7.20)
1
F = V − [V , V ] + . . . (7.21)
2
Σ = V + V V + V VV + ... (7.22)
Zt Zt
i i
H t′ i
H t′ i i ′
hn|V (t)|mi ≡ − hn|e ~ 0 Ve ~ 0 |midt′ = − Vnm e ~ (En −Em )t dt′
~ ~
−∞ −∞
i i
!
e ~ (En −Em )t e ~ (En −Em )(−∞)
= −Vnm − (7.25)
En − Em En − Em
What shall we do with the meaningless term containing (−∞) on the right
hand side?
9
the difference being of the order n + 1 or higher
226 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
i
lim V e− ~ H0 t |Ψi = 0
t→±∞
lim V (t)|Ψi = 0 (7.26)
t→±∞
i i
V (t) = e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t e−ǫ|t| (7.27)
10
Of course, interaction V must be cluster separable to ensure that.
11
see, e.g., [GW64]
7.1. SCATTERING OPERATORS 227
If the parameter ǫ is small and positive, such a modification would not affect
the movement of wave packets and the S-matrix. At the end of calculations
we will take the limit ǫ → +0. Then the t-integral (7.25) takes the form
i i
!
e ~ (En −Em )t−ǫ|t| e ~ (En −Em )(−∞)−ǫ(∞)
hn|V (t)|mi ≈ −Vnm −
En − Em En − Em
i
e ~ (En −Em )t
−→ −Vnm (7.28)
En − Em
7.1.4 T -matrix
In this subsection we will introduce the idea of the T -matrix, which is often
useful in scattering calculations.12 Let us calculate matrix elements of the
S-operator (7.11) in the basis of eigenvectors of the free Hamiltonian (7.23)
- (7.24)13
hn|S|mi
Z
i ∞ i ′ i ′
= δnm − hn|e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t |midt′
~ −∞
Z ∞ Z t′
1 i ′ − i ′ ′ i ′′ i ′′
− 2 hn|e ~ H 0 t
Ve ~ H 0 t
|kidt hk|e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t |midt′′ + . . .
~ −∞ −∞
Z
i ∞ i (En −Em )t′
= δnm − e~ Vnm dt′
~ −∞
Z Z t′
1 ∞ i (En −Ek )t′ ′ i ′′
− 2 e~ Vnk dt e ~ (Ek −Em )t Vkm dt′′ + . . .
~ −∞ −∞
Z i ′
i ∞ i (En −Ek )t′ ′ e ~ (Ek −Em )t
= δnm − 2πiδ(En − Em )Vnm + e ~ dt Vnk Vkm + . . .
~ −∞ Em − Ek
1
= δnm − 2πiδ(En − Em )Vnm + 2πiδ(En − Em ) Vnk Vkm + . . .
Em − Ek
12
I am indebted to Cao Bin for numerous discussions which resulted in writing this
subsection.
13
Summation over indices k and l is implied. Formula (7.28) is used for t-integrals.
228 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
The first term is a unit matrix that describes free propagation. The matrix
in the second term is called the T -matrix (or transition matrix ).
1 1 1
Tnm ≡ Vnk δkm + Vkm + Vkl Vlm + . . .
Em − Ek Em − Ek Em − El
1 1 1
= hn|V 1 + V + V V + . . . |mi
Em − H0 Em − H0 Em − H0
The series in the parentheses can be summed up using the standard formula
(1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + . . .
1
Tnm = hn|V |mi (7.30)
1 − (Em − H0 )−1 V
= hn|V (Em − H0 )(Em − H0 − V )−1 |mi
= hn|V (Em − H0 )(Em − H)−1 |mi (7.31)
N
X
E0 = ma c2
a=1
Therefore
E ∈ [E0 , ∞) (7.33)
Let us pick a value E in this interval. Then Tnm in (7.32) can be calculated
as a matrix of an energy-dependent T -operator T (E)
X
S = 1 − 2πi PE V (E − H0 )(E − H)−1PE (7.34)
E
The corresponding S-matrix has a block-diagonal form, i.e., the matrix ele-
ment Snm is non-zero only if the indices n and m satisfy condition Em = En .
This implies that the S-operator commutes with the free Hamiltonian H0 .14
Exact formula (7.34) is not very useful in practical scattering calculations.
However, it helps to derive some interesting results, such as the connection
between poles of the S-matrix and energies of bound states discussed in the
next subsection.
H|Ψαi = Eα |Ψα i
time intervals, large or small. On the other hand, the S-operator represents
time evolution in the “integrated” form, i.e., knowing the state of the system
in the remote past |Ψ(−∞)i, the free Hamiltonian H0 , and the scattering
operator S, we can find the evolved state in the distant future15
Calculations of the S-operator are much easier than those of the detailed
time evolution and yet they fully satisfy the needs of current experiments
in high energy physics. In particular, the knowledge of the S-operator is
sufficient to calculate scattering cross-sections as well as energies and life-
times of stable and metastable bound states.16 This situation created an
impression that a comprehensive theory can be constructed which uses the
S-operator as the fundamental quantity rather than the Hamiltonian and
wave functions. However, in order to describe the detailed time evolution of
all states and wavefunctions of bound states, the knowledge of the S-operator
is not enough: the full interacting Hamiltonian H is needed. Therefore the
S-operator description is not complete, and such a theory is applicable only
to a limited class of experiments.
Knowing the full interacting Hamiltonian H, we can calculate the S-
operator by formulas (7.14), (7.17), or (7.18). However, the inverse state-
ment is not true: the same S-operator can be obtained from many different
Hamiltonians. Suppose that two Hamiltonians H and H ′ are related to each
other by a unitary transformation eiΦ
H ′ = eiΦ He−iΦ
Then they yield the same scattering (and Hamiltonians H and H ′ are called
scattering equivalent) as long as condition
i i
lim e ~ H0 t Φe− ~ H0 t = 0 (7.35)
t→±∞
15
see equation (7.8)
16
The two latter quantities are represented by positions of poles of the S-operator on
the complex energy plane, as discussed in the preceding subsection.
232 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
i i ′ ′ i ′
S′ = lim e ~ H0 η e− ~ H (η−η ) e− ~ H0 η
η′ →−∞,η→∞
i
i ′
i ′
= ′ lim e ~ H0 η eiΦ e− ~ H(η−η ) e−iΦ e− ~ H0 η
η →−∞,η→∞
i i
i i ′ i ′
i ′ i ′
= ′ lim e ~ H0 η eiΦ e− ~ H0 η e ~ H0 η e− ~ H(η−η ) e− ~ H0 η e ~ H0 η e−iΦ e− ~ H0 η
η →−∞,η→∞
i i ′ i ′
= lim e ~ H0 η e− ~ H(η−η ) e− ~ H0 η
η′ →−∞,η→∞
= S (7.36)
Note that due to Lemma F.11, the energy spectra of two scattering equiv-
alent Hamiltonians H and H ′ are identical. However, their eigenvectors
are different, and corresponding descriptions of dynamics (e.g., via equa-
tion (6.81)) are different too. Therefore scattering-equivalent theories may
not be physically equivalent.
P0
Q0 ≡
M0 c2
X0 ≡ M0 c2 R0
which satisfy canonical commutation relations
P0 = M0 c2 Q0
J0 = [X0 × Q0 ] + S0
q q
1 2 2 2 2 [Q0 × S0 ]
K0 = − 1 + c Q0 X0 + X0 1 + c Q0 − p
2 1 + 1 + c2 Q20
q
2
H0 = M0 c 1 + c2 Q20 .
A point form interaction can be now introduced by modifying the mass op-
erator M0 → M provided that the following conditions are satisfied18
[M, K0 ] = [M, J0 ] = 0.
This modification of the mass operator introduces interaction in generators
of the translation subgroup
P = Mc2 Q0
q
2
H = Mc 1 + c2 Q20 (7.37)
while Lorentz subgroup generators K0 and J0 remain interaction-free.
18
Just as in subsection 6.3.2, these conditions can be satisfied by defining M = M0 + L,
where L is a rotationally-invariant function of relative position and momentum operators
commuting with Q0 and X0 .
234 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
6
M = M0
P = Q0 Mc2
J = J0
X0
R =
Mc2
Then we introduce the unitary operator
Θ = ζ0 ζ −1
where
[Z0 , Q0 ] = iQ0
it follows that
d
Q0 (b) = i[Z0 , Q0 ] = −Q0
db
Q0 (b) = e−b Q0
2 )Z 2 )Z 2
ei ln(M0 c 0
Q0 e−i ln(M0 c 0
= e− ln(M0 c ) Q0 = M0−1 c−2 Q0
2 )Z 2
ei ln(M c Q0 e−i ln(M c )Z0 = M −1 c−2 Q0
0
2 2
ei ln(M0 c )Z0 X0 e−i ln(M0 c )Z0 = M0 c2 X0
2 2
ei ln(M c )Z0 X0 e−i ln(M c )Z0 = Mc2 X0
which imply
2 2 2 2
ΘPΘ−1 = e−i ln(M0 c )Z0 ei ln(M c )Z0 Q0 Mc2 e−i ln(M c )Z0 ei ln(M0 c )Z0
2 2
= e−i ln(M0 c )Z0 Q0 ei ln(M0 c )Z0 = Q0 M0 c2 = P0
−1
ΘJ0 Θ = J0
−1 2 2 2 2
ΘRΘ = e−i ln(M0 c )Z0 ei ln(M c )Z0 X0 M −1 c−2 e−i ln(M c )Z0 ei ln(M0 c )Z0
2 2
= e−i ln(M0 c )Z0 X0 ei ln(M0 c )Z0 = X0 M0−1 c−2 = R0
where operators
i i
Ω± (H, H0 ) ≡ lim e ~ H0 t e− ~ Ht
t→±∞
are called Møller wave operators. Now we can use the Birman-Kato invariance
principle [Dol76] which states that Ω± (H, H0 ) = Ω± (f (H), f (H0)) where f is
any smooth function with positive derivative. Using the following connection
between the point form mass operator M and the instant form mass operator
M′
we obtain
q q
± 2± 2
Ω (H, H0 ) ≡ Ω Mc 1 + c2 Q20 , M0 c 1 + c2 Q20
= Ω± (Mc2 , M0 c2 ) = Ω± (ζ0−1M ′ ζ0 c2 , M0 c2 )
= ζ0−1 Ω± (M ′ c2 , M0 c2 )ζ0
q
−1 ±
p
2
= ζ0 Ω (M ′ )2 c4 + P0 c2 , M0 c4 + P0 c2 ζ0
= ζ0−1 Ω± (H ′ , H0 )ζ0
S ′ = Ω+ (H ′ , H0 )Ω− (H ′ , H0 )
= ζ0 Ω+ (H, H0 )ζ0−1ζ0 Ω− (H, H0 )ζ0−1
= ζ0 Ω+ (H, H0 )Ω− (H, H0 )ζ0−1 = ζ0 Sζ0−1
but S commutes with free generators (7.7) and hence commutes with ζ0 ,
which implies that S ′ = S and transformation Θ conserves the S-matrix.
In addition to the scattering equivalence of the instant and point forms
proved above, Sokolov and Shatnii [Sok75, SS78] established the mutual scat-
tering equivalence of all three major forms of dynamics - the instant, point,
7.2. SCATTERING EQUIVALENCE 237
and front forms. Then, it seems reasonable to assume that the same S-
operator can be obtained in any form of dynamics.
The scattering equivalence of the S-operator is of great help in practical
calculations. If we are interested only in scattering properties, energies, and
lifetimes of bound states, then we can choose the most convenient Hamil-
tonian and the most convenient form of dynamics. However, as we have
mentioned already, the scattering equivalence of Hamiltonians and forms of
dynamics does not mean their complete physical equivalence. We will see
in subsection 17.2.7 that the instant form of dynamics should be preferred
in those cases when desired physical properties19 cannot be described by the
S-operator, but require knowledge of the full interacting Hamiltonian.
19
e.g., the detailed time evolution
238 CHAPTER 7. SCATTERING
Chapter 8
FOCK SPACE
This subject has been thoroughly worked out and is now under-
stood. A thesis on this topic, even a correct one, will not get you
a job.
R.F. Streater
239
240 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
H = ⊕∞
ijklm=0 H(i, j, k, l, m) (8.1)
where
It is tempting to use notation from section 6.2 and express each sector Hamil-
tonian using observables of individual particles there: p1 , p2 , etc. For exam-
ple, in the sector H(1, 0, 0, 0, 0), the free Hamiltonian is
p
H0 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0) = m2 c4 + p2 c2 (8.12)
q q
H0 (2, 0, 0, 0, 2) = p1 c + p2 c + m c + p3 c + m2 c4 + p24 c2
2 4 2 2
(8.13)
|p1 , σ1 ; p2 , σ2 ; . . . ; pn , σn i (8.14)
We need to distinguish two cases. The first case is when the one-particle state
(p, σ) created by a†p,σ is among the states listed in (8.14), for example (p, σ) =
(pi , σi ). Since electrons are fermions and two fermions cannot occupy the
same state due to the Pauli exclusion principle, this action leads to a zero
result, i.e.
The second case is when the created one-particle state (p, σ) is not among
the states listed in (8.14). Then the creation operator a†p,σ just adds one
electron in the state (p, σ) to the beginning of the list of particles
Annihilation operators always yield zero when acting on the vacuum state
ap,σ |0i = 0
The above formulas fully define the action of creation and annihilation
operators on basis vectors in purely electronic sectors. These rules are easily
generalized to all states: they do not change if other particles are present and
they can be extended to linear combinations of the basis vectors by linearity.
Creation and annihilation operators for other fermions – positrons, protons
and antiprotons – are constructed similarly.
For brevity we will refer to creation and annihilation operators collec-
tively as to particle operators. This will distinguish them from operators of
momentum, position, energy, etc. of individual particles which will be called
particle observables. Let us emphasize that creation and annihilation opera-
tors are not intended to directly describe any real physical process and they
do not correspond to physical observables. They are just formal mathemati-
cal objects that simplify our notation for other operators having more direct
physical meaning. We will see how operators of observables are built from
particle operators later in this book, e.g., in subsection 8.1.8.
Then, acting on a state |p′′ , σ ′′ i, which is different from both |p, σi and
|p′ , σ ′ i, we obtain
(a†p,σ ap′ ,σ′ + ap′ ,σ′ a†p,σ )|p′′ , σ ′′ i = ap′ ,σ′ |p, σ; p′′ , σ ′′ i = 0
Similarly, we obtain
One can easily demonstrate that the result is still zero when acting on zero-,
two-, three-, etc. particle states as well as on their linear combinations. So,
we conclude that in the entire Fock space
{a†p,σ , ap,σ } = 1
cp,τ |p1 , τ1 ; p2 , τ2 ; . . . ; pn , τn i = 0
if the annihilated 1-photon state (p, τ ) was not present there. If the photon
(p, τ ) was present in the n-photon state, then the annihilation operator cp,τ
simply destroys this component, thus resulting in a (n − 1)-photon state
Acting on a state with two photons with quantum numbers (p, τ ) this oper-
ator yields
Np,τ |p, τ ; p, τ i = Np,τ c†p,τ c†p,τ |0i = c†p,τ cp,τ c†p,τ c†p,τ |0i
= c†p,τ c†p,τ cp,τ c†p,τ |0i + c†p,τ c†p,τ |0i = c†p,τ c†p,τ c†p,τ cp,τ |0i + 2c†p,τ c†p,τ |0i
= 2|p, τ ; p, τ i
Np,τ |p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ i = Np,τ c†p,τ c†p′ ,τ ′ |0i = c†p,τ cp,τ c†p,τ c†p′ ,τ ′ |0i
= c†p,τ c†p,τ cp,τ c†p′ ,τ ′ |0i + c†p,τ c†p′ ,τ ′ |0i = c†p,τ c†p,τ c†p′ τ ′ cp,τ |0i + c†p,τ c†p′ ,τ ′ |0i
= |p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ i
δσ,σ′ δ(p − p′ )
= hp, σ|p′ , σ ′ i = h0|ap,σ a†p′ ,σ′ |0i = −h0|a†p′ ,σ′ ap,σ |0i + δσ,σ′ δ(p − p′ )
= δσ,σ′ δ(p − p′ )
confirms that our choice (8.21) is consistent with the normalization of mo-
mentum eigenvectors (5.19).
8.1. ANNIHILATION AND CREATION OPERATORS 249
{ap,σ , a†p′ ,σ′ } = {bp,σ , b†p′ ,σ′ } = {dp,σ , d†p′ ,σ′ } = {fp,σ , fp†′ ,σ′ }
= δ(p − p′ )δσσ′ (8.22)
{ap,σ , ap′ ,σ′ } = {bp,σ , bp′ ,σ′ } = {dp,σ , dp′ ,σ′ } = {fp,σ , fp′ ,σ′ }
= {a†p,σ , a†p′ ,σ′ } = {b†p,σ , b†p′ ,σ′ } = {d†p,σ , d†p′ ,σ′ }
†
= {fp,σ , fp†′ ,σ′ } = 0 (8.23)
[cp,τ , c†p′ ,τ ′ ] = δ(p − p′ )δτ τ ′ (8.24)
[c†p,τ , c†p′ ,τ ′ ] = [cp,τ , cp′ ,τ ′ ] = 0 (8.25)
XZ
Nph = dpc†p,τ cp,τ
τ
We can also write down similar operator expressions for the numbers of other
particles. For example
XZ
Nel = dpa†p,σ ap,σ (8.27)
σ
Z X Z X
H0 = dpωp [a†p,σ ap,σ + b†p,σ bp,σ ] + dpΩp [d†p,σ dp,σ + fp,σ
†
fp,σ ]
σ=±1/2 σ=±1/2
Z X
+c dpp c†p,τ cp,τ (8.29)
τ =±1
p
where we denoted p ω p = m2 c4 + p2 c2 the energy of free electrons and
positrons, Ωp = M 2 c4 + p2 c2 is the energy of free protons and antipro-
tons, and cp is the energy of free photons. One can easily verify that H0 in
(8.29) acts on states in the sector H(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) just as equation (8.12) and
it acts on states in the sector H(2, 0, 0, 0, 2) exactly as equation (8.13). So,
we have obtained a single expression which works equally well in all sectors
of the Fock space. Similar arguments demonstrate that operator
Z X Z X
P0 = dpp [a†p,σ ap,σ + b†p,σ bp,σ ] + dpp [d†p,σ dp,σ + fp,σ
†
fp,σ ]
σ=±1/2 σ=±1/2
Z X
+ dpp c†p,τ cp,τ (8.30)
τ =±1
i
e− ~ J0z φ |pi = |px cos φ + py sin φ, py cos φ − px sin φ, pz i
i
e− ~ J0z φ |px , py , pz i = αp† x cos φ+py sin φ,py cos φ−px sin φ,pz αpx ,py ,pz |px , py , pz i
†
= αR α |px , py , pz i
z (φ)p p
Therefore, for arbitrary 1-particle state, the operator of finite rotation takes
the form
Z
− ~i J0z φ †
e = dpαR α
z (φ)p p
(8.31)
It is easy to show that the same form is valid everywhere on the Fock space.
An explicit expression for the generator J0z can be obtained now by taking
a derivative of (8.31) with respect to φ
Z
d − i J0z φ d †
J0z = i~ lim e ~ = i~ lim dpαR α
z (φ)p p
φ→0 dφ φ→0 dφ
Z !
∂αp† ∂αp†
= i~ dp py − px αp (8.32)
∂px ∂py
s
− ic K0z θ ωp cosh θ + cpz sinh θ
e ~ |pi = |px , py , pz cosh θ + ωp cosh θi
ωp
(8.33)
6
See equation (5.28).
252 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
s
− ic K0z θ ωp cosh θ + cpz sinh θ †
e ~ |pi = αpx ,py ,pz cosh θ+ωp cosh θ αpx ,py ,pz |px , py , pz i
ωp
Therefore, for arbitrary 1-particle state in the Fock space, the operator of a
finite boost takes the form
Z r
− ic K0z θ ωΛp †
e ~ = dp α αp (8.34)
ωp Λp
An explicit expression for the generator K0z can be now obtained by taking
a derivative of (8.34) with respect to θ
i~ d ic
K0z = lim e− ~ K0z θ
c θ→0 dθ s
Z
i~ d ωp cosh θ + cpz sinh θ †
= lim dp αpx ,py ,pz cosh θ+c−1ωp sinh θ αp
c θ→0 dθ ωp
Z !
pz † ωp ∂αp†
= i~ dp α αp + 2 αp (8.35)
2ωp p c ∂pz
i ~ ic ~ i i
U0 (Λ; r, t) ≡ e− ~ J0 φ e− ~ K0 θ e− ~ P0 r e ~ H0 t
U0 (Λ; r, t)a†p,σ U0−1 (Λ; r, t)|0i = U0 (Λ; r, t)a†p,σ |0i = U0 (Λ; r, t)|p, σi
r
ωΛp − i p·r+ i ωp t X 1/2 ~
= e ~ ~ Dσ′ σ (φW (p, Λ))|Λp, σ ′i
ωp σ′
Therefore8
r
ωΛp − i p·r+ i ωp t X 1/2 ~
U0 (Λ; r, t)a†p,σ U0−1 (Λ; r, t) = e ~ ~ Dσ′ σ (φW (p, Λ))a†Λp,σ′
ωp ′
σ
r
ωΛp − i p·r+ i ωp t X 1/2 ∗ ~ W (p, Λ))a† ′
= e ~ ~ (D )σσ′ (−φ Λp,σ (8.36)
ωp ′
σ
r
ωΛp i p·r− i ωp t X 1/2 ~
U0 (Λ; r, t)ap,σ U0−1 (Λ; r, t) = e~ ~ Dσσ′ (−φW (p, Λ))aΛp,σ′
ωp ′σ
(8.37)
Transformation laws for photon operators are obtained from equation
(5.65)
s
|Λp| − i (p·r)+ ic pt iτ φW (p,Λ) †
U0 (Λ; r, t)c†p,τ U0−1 (Λ; r, t) = e ~ ~ e cΛp,τ (8.38)
p
s
|Λp| i (p·r)− ic pt −iτ φW (p,Λ)
U0 (Λ; r, t)cp,τ U0−1 (Λ; r, t) = e~ ~ e cΛp,τ (8.39)
p
H = H0 + V
The non-interacting Hamiltonian H0 has been constructed in equation (8.29).
The interaction energy V (and the corresponding interaction boost Z) in
QED will be explicitly written only in section 9.1. Until then, we are going
to study rather general properties of interactions and S-operators in the Fock
space. We will try to use some physical principles to narrow down the allowed
form of the operator V .
Note that in our approach we assume that interaction does not have any
effect on the structure of the Fock space. All properties of this space defined
in the non-interacting case remain valid in the presence of interaction: the
inner product, the orthogonality of n-particle sectors, the existence of particle
number operators, etc. In this respect our theory is different from axiomatic
or constructive quantum field theories, in which the Hilbert space has a non-
Fock structure, which depends on interactions.
i i
F (t) ≡ e ~ Ht F (0)e− ~ Ht = F (0)
It then follows that conserved observables commute with the Hamiltonian
[F, H] = [F, H0 + V ] = 0, which imposes some restrictions on the interaction
operator V . For example, the conservation of the total momentum and the
total angular momentum implies that
[V, P0 ] = 0 (8.40)
[V, J0 ] = 0 (8.41)
These commutators are automatically satisfied in the instant form of dynam-
ics (6.22) adopted in our study. It is also well-established that all interactions
8.2. INTERACTION POTENTIALS 255
conserve the lepton number (the number of electrons minus the number of
positrons, in our case). Therefore, H = H0 + V must commute with the
lepton number operator
XZ
L = Nel − Npo = dp(a†p,σ ap,σ − b†p,σ bp,σ ) (8.42)
σ
[V, L] = 0 (8.43)
Moreover, all known interactions conserve the baryon number (=the number
of protons minus the number of antiprotons in our case). So, V must also
commute with the baryon number operator
XZ
B = Npr − Nan = dp(d†p,σ dp,σ − fp,σ
†
fp,σ ) (8.44)
σ
[V, B] = 0 (8.45)
Taking into account that electrons have charge −e, protons have charge e and
antiparticles have charges opposite to those of particles, we can introduce the
electric charge operator
Q = e(B − L)
XZ
= e dp(b†p,σ bp,σ − a†p,σ ap,σ + d†p,σ dp,σ − fp,σ
†
fp,σ ) (8.46)
σ
ap′ ,σ′ cq′ ,τ ′ a†p,σ c†q,τ = ap′ ,σ′ a†p,σ cq′ ,τ ′ c†q,τ
= (a†p,σ ap′ ,σ′ + δ(p − p′ )δσ,σ′ )(−c†q,τ cq′ ,τ ′ + δ(q − q′ )δτ,τ ′ ))
= −a†p,σ c†q,τ ap′ ,σ′ cq′ ,τ ′ + a†p,σ ap′ ,σ′ δ(q − q′ )δτ,τ ′
− c†q,τ cq′ ,τ ′ δ(p − p′ )δσ,σ′ + δ(p − p′ )δσ,σ′ δ(q − q′ )δτ,τ ′
8.2. INTERACTION POTENTIALS 257
∞ X
X ∞
V = VN M (8.49)
N =0 M =0
XZ
VN M = dq′1 . . . dq′N dq1 . . . dqM DN M (q′1 η1′ ; . . . ; q′N ηN
′
; q1 η1 ; . . . ; qM ηM ) ×
{η,η′ }
N M
!
X X
δ q′ i − qj αq† ′ ,η′ . . . αq† ′ ′ αq1 ,η1 . . . αqM ,ηM (8.50)
1 1 N ,ηN
i=1 j=1
N M
!
X X
δ q′ i − qj
i=1 j=1
i i
V (t) = e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t (8.52)
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
DN M (q1 η1 ; . . . ; qN ηN ; q1 η1 ; . . . ; qM ηM )
= DN M (q′1 η1′ ; . . . ; q′N ηN
′
; q1 η1 ; . . . ; qM ηM )ζ(q′1η1′ ; . . . ; q′N ηN
′
; q1 η1 ; . . . ; qM ηM )
Then, substituting (8.50) in (8.52) and using (8.36) - (8.39), the t-dependent
form of any regular potential VN M (t) can be written as
i i i
VN M (t) = e ~ H0 t VN M e− ~ H0 t = VN M ◦ e ~ ENM t
where
8.2. INTERACTION POTENTIALS 259
N
X M
X
EN M (q′1 , . . . , q′N , q1 , . . . , qM ) ≡ ωq′i − ω qj (8.53)
i=1 j=1
i i i
V (t) = e ~ H0 t V e− ~ H0 t = V ◦ e ~ EV t
which means that for each potential VN M (t) in the sum V (t), the argument
of the t-exponent contains the corresponding energy function EN M . In this
notation we can conveniently write
d i
V (t) = V (t) ◦ EV
dt ~
Z
i ∞
V (t) ≡ − V (t)dt = −2πiV ◦ δ(EV ) (8.54)
|{z} ~ −∞
Equation (8.54) means that each term in V (t) is non-zero only on the hyper-
|{z}
surface of solutions of the equation
unphys, decay
4
unphys
ys
3
ph
2
1 R, O unphys, decay
0 R unphys
0 1 2 3 4 N
Figure 8.1: Positions of different operator types in the “index space” (N, M).
N and M are numbers of creation and annihilation operators, respectively.
R = “renorm,” O = “oscillation.”
these types of operators renorm, oscillation, decay, phys, and unphys.10 The
rationale for introducing this classification and nomenclature will become
clear in chapters 10 and 11 where we will examine renormalization and the
“dressed particle” approach in quantum field theory.
R = a† a + b† b + d† d + f † f + c† c + C (8.56)
Renorm potentials are characterized by the property that the energy function
(8.53) is identically zero. So, renorm potentials always have energy shell
where they do not vanish. Renorm potentials commute with H0 , therefore
regular renorm operators13 do not depend on t. The free Hamiltonian (8.29)
and the total momentum (8.30) are examples of renorm operators, i.e., sums
of renorm potentials.
Phys potentials have at least two creation operators and at least two
destruction operators (index (N, M) with N ≥ 2 and M ≥ 2). For phys
potentials the energy shell always exists. For example, in the case of a phys
potential d†p+k,ρ fq−k,σ
†
ap,τ bq,η the energy shell is determined by the solution
of equation Ωp+k + Ωq−k = ωp + ωq which is not empty.
V = V ren + V unp + V ph
Now we need to learn how to perform various operations with these three
classes of potentials, i.e., how to evaluate products, commutators, and t-
integrals required for calculations of scattering operators in (7.14) - (7.19).
i i
A(t) = e ~ H0 t Ae− ~ H0 t
i i
B(t) = e ~ H0 t Be− ~ H0 t
i i i i
C(t) = e ~ H0 t Ae− ~ H0 t e ~ H0 t Be− ~ H0 t
i i
= e ~ H0 t ABe− ~ H0 t
characteristic for regular operators. The conservation laws (8.48), (8.51) are
valid for the product AB if they are valid for A and B separately. Therefore
C(t) is regular.
17
except chapter 13 where we discuss decays
264 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
A|0i = 0 (8.58)
A|1i = Aᆠ|0i = 0 (8.59)
α1† α2 α3 |0i = 0
α1† α2 α3 |1i = 0.
However, for Hermiticity, such operators should be always present in pairs
with (N, 1) operators α2† α3† α1 . Then, there exists at least one one-particle
state |1i for which equation (8.59) is not valid, e.g.,
Lemma 8.3 Product and commutator of any two phys operators A and B
is phys.
1 1
AB = (AB + BA) + [A, B]
2 2
is phys as well.
Z
R= dpf (p)αp† αp
Z Z
αq† dpf (p)αp† αp
− dpf (p)αp† αp
αq†
Z Z
† †
= ± dpf (p)αp αq αp − dpf (p)αp† αp αq†
Z Z Z
= dpf (p)αp αp αq ± dpf (p)αp δ(p − q) − dpf (p)αp† αp αq†
† † †
= ±f (q)αq†
This commutator is proportional to αq† , so the secondary term has the same
operator structure as the primary term and it is already in the normal order,
so no tertiary terms need to be created. If the product α† α changes places
with an annihilation operator αq then the commutator ∓f (q)αq is propor-
tional to the annihilation operator. If there are many α† and α operators in A
19
The upper sign is for bosons and the lower sign is for fermions.
266 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
If U is Hermitian then the state U|1i has at least two particles (see proof of
Lemma 8.2) and the same is true for the state P U|1i. Therefore, [P, U] cre-
ates several particles when acting on a one-particle state, which is impossible
if [P, U] were renorm.
Finally, there are no limitations on the type of commutator of two unphys
operators [U, U ′ ]. It can be a superposition of phys, unphys, and renorm
terms.
The above results are summarized in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Operations with regular operators in the Fock space. (Notation:
P=phys, U=unphys, R=renorm, NR=non-regular.)
Type of operator
dA
A [A, P ] [A, U] [A, R] dt
A A
|{z}
P P P+U P P P P
U P+U P+U+R U U U 0
R P U R 0 NR ∞
Lemma 8.6 A t-derivative of a regular operator A(t) is regular and has zero
renorm part.
8.2. INTERACTION POTENTIALS 267
d d i H0 t − i H0 t i i i
A(t) = e ~ Ae ~ = e ~ H0 t [H0 , A]e− ~ H0 t
dt dt ~
i
= [H0 , A(t)] (8.60)
~
In addition, it is easy to check that the derivative obeys all conservation laws
(8.48), (8.51). Therefore, it is regular.
Suppose that dtd A(t) has a non-zero renorm part R. Then R is t-independent
and originates from a derivative of the term Rt + S in A(t), where S is t-
independent. Since A(t) is regular, its renorm part must be t-independent,
therefore R = 0.
−1
V (t) = V (t) ◦ (8.61)
EV
However, this property does not hold for t-integrals of renorm operators.
These operators are t-independent, therefore
ie−ǫt i it
V ren = lim V ren ◦ = lim V ren ◦ − V ren ◦ + . . . (8.62)
ǫ→+0 ǫ~ ǫ→+0 ǫ~ ~
ren
|{z} = ∞
V (8.63)
Thus, renorm operators are different from others in the sense that their t-
integrals (8.62) are infinite and non-regular. Infinite-limit t-integrals (8.63)
are infinite, unless V ren = 0.21
Since for any unphys operator V unp either the energy shell does not ex-
ist or the coefficient function is zero on the energy shell, we conclude from
equation (8.54) that
20
Here we assume the adiabatic switching of interaction (7.27) and use integral notation
(7.12) - (7.13).
21
This fact does not limit the applicability of our theory, because, as we will see in
subsection 10.1.2, properly renormalized expressions for scattering operators should not
contain renorm terms and pathological expressions like (8.62) - (8.63).
268 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
unp
| {z } = 0
V (8.64)
From equations (7.15) and (7.19) it is then clear that unphys terms in F and
Σ do not make contributions to the S-operator. Results obtained so far in
this subsection are presented in last three columns of Table 8.2.
i[H0 , A] = V (8.65)
d
~ A(t) = V (t) (8.66)
dt
Note that it follows from Lemma 8.6 that the operator on the right hand
side of (8.65) cannot contain renorm terms. Indeed, according to (8.66), the
left hand side of (8.65) is a t-derivative, which cannot be renorm. Luckily,
for our purposes in this book we will never meet equations of the above type
with renorm right hand sides. Therefore, here we will assume V ren = 0.
Next we assume that the usual “adiabatic switching” (7.27) works, so
that V (−∞) = 0 and the same property is valid for the solution A(t)
A(−∞) = 0 (8.67)
Then equation (8.66) with the initial condition (8.67) has a simple solution
8.2. INTERACTION POTENTIALS 269
Zt
1
A(t) = V (t′ )dt′ = iV (t) (8.68)
~
−∞
1
A ≡ A(0) = iV ≡ −iV ◦ (8.69)
EV
Z
V̂ = dpdqdp′ dq′ D22 (p, q, p′ , q′ )δ(p + q − p′ − q′ )d†p a†q dp′ aq′
Z
= dpdqdp′ D22 (p, q, p′ , p + q − p′ )d†p a†q dp′ ap+q−p′
Z
= dpdqdkV (p, q, k)d†p a†q dp−k aq+k (8.70)
Z
|Ψi = dp′′ dq′′ Ψ(p′′ , q′′ )d†p′′ a†q′′ |0i (8.71)
we obtain
V̂ |Ψi
Z Z
= dpdqdkV (p, q, k)dp aq dp−k aq+k dp′′ dq′′ Ψ(p′′ , q′′ )d†p′′ a†q′′ |0i
† †
Z Z
= dpdqdkV (p, q, k) dp′′ dq′′ Ψ(p′′ , q′′ )δ(p − k − p′′ )δ(q + k − q′′ )d†p a†q |0i
Z Z
= dpdq dkV (p, q, k)Ψ(p − k, q + k) d†p a†q |0i (8.72)
Comparing this with (8.71) we see that the momentum-space wave function
Ψ(p, q) has been transformed by the action of V̂ to the new wave function
Z
′
Ψ (p, q) ≡ V̂ Ψ(p, q) = dkV (p, q, k)Ψ(p − k, q + k)
Ψ′ (x, y)
Z
1 i i
≡ V̂ Ψ(x, y) = 3
e ~ px+ ~ qy dpdqΨ′ (p, q)
(2π~)
Z Z
1 i
px+ i
qy
= e~ ~ dpdq dkV (p, q, k)Ψ(p − k, q + k)
(2π~)3
Z Z
1 i
(p+k)x+ ~i (q−k)y
= e ~ dpdq dkV (p + k, q − k, k)Ψ(p, q)
(2π~)3
24
Here x and y are positions of the proton and the electron, respectively; and we use
(5.43) to change from the momentum representation to the position representation.
8.2. INTERACTION POTENTIALS 271
Z Z
i
k(x−y) 1 i
px+ ~i qy
= dke ~ V (p + k, q − k, k) dpdqe ~ Ψ(p, q)
(2π~)3
(8.73)
Z
1 i i
Ψ(x, y) = dpdqe ~ px+ ~ qy Ψ(p, q) (8.74)
(2π~)3
and the rest is an operator acting on this wave function. This operator
acquires especially simple form if we assume that V (p, q, k) does not depend
on p and q
V (p, q, k) = v(k)
Then
Z
i
V̂ Ψ(x, y) = dke ~ k(x−y) v(k)Ψ(x, y) = w(x − y)Ψ(x, y) (8.75)
where
Z
i
w(r) = dke ~ kr v(k)
Z
q1 q2 dpdqdk † †
V̂ = dp aq dp−k aq+k (8.76)
(2π)3 ~ k2
272 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
X
V (p + k, q − k, k) = χj (p, q)vj (k)
j
Then we obtain
V̂ Ψ(x, y)
XZ Z
i
k(x−y) 1 i
px+ ~i qy
= dke ~ vj (k) dpdqχj (p, q)e ~ Ψ(p, q)
j
(2π~)3
Z
X 1 i
px+ ~i qy
= wj (x − y)χj (p̂, q̂) dpdqe ~ Ψ(p, q)
j
(2π~)3
X
= wj (x − y)χj (p̂, q̂)Ψ(x, y) (8.78)
j
Z
|Ψi = dpdq1 dq2 ψ(p, q1 , q2 )d†p a†q1 a†q2 |0i (8.79)
V̂ |Ψi
Z Z
= dp dq dk dpdq1 dq2 V (p′ , q′ , k)ψ(p, q1 , q2 )d†p′ a†q′ dp′ −k aq′ +k d†p a†q1 a†q2 |0i
′ ′
(8.80)
The product of particle operators acting on the vacuum state can be normally
ordered as
V̂ |Ψi
Z
= dkdpdq1 dq2 V (k + p, q1 − k, k)ψ(p, q1 , q2 )d†k+p a†q1 −k a†q2 |0i
Z
− dkdpdq1 dq2 V (k + p, q2 − k, k)ψ(p, q1 , q2 )d†k+p a†q2 −k a†q1 |0i
Z Z
= dpdq1 dq2 dkV (p, q1 , k)ψ(p − k, q1 + k, q2 )
Z
+ dkV (p, q2 , k)ψ(p − k, q1 , q2 + k) d†p a†q1 a†q2 |0i (8.81)
Comparing this with equation (8.72) we see that, as expected from the con-
dition of cluster separability, the two-particle interaction in the three-particle
sector separates in two terms. One term acts on the pair of variables (p, q1 ).
The other term acts on variables (p, q2 ).
Removing the electron 2 to infinity is equivalent to multiplying the momentum-
space wave function ψ(p, q1 , q2 ) by exp( ~i q2 a) where a → ∞. The action of
V on such a wave function29 is
hZ i
lim dkV (p, q1 , k)ψ(p − k, q1 + k, q2 )e ~ q2 a
a→∞
Z i
i
+ dkV (p, q2 , k)ψ(p − k, q1 , q2 + k)e ~ (q2 +k)a
i
lim V̂ e ~ q̂2 a |Ψi
a→∞
Z Z
i
= lim dpdq1 dq2 dkV (p, q1 , k)ψ(p − k, q1 + k, q2 ) e ~ q2 a d†p a†q1 a†q2 |0i
a→∞
Z Z
i
q a † † †
= lim dq2 e ~ aq2 |0i
2
dpdq1 dkV (p, q1 , k)ψ(p − k, q1 + k, q2 )dp aq1 |0i
a→∞
29
i.e., the term in parentheses in (8.81)
8.3. A TOY MODEL THEORY 275
Comparing this with equation (8.72), we see that the spatial translation of
the electron 2 results in a state in which the remote electron 2 coexists with
the interacting subsystem “proton + electron 1”. This demonstrates that V̂
is a cluster separable potential.
For general potentials (8.49) - (8.50) with smooth coefficient functions the
above arguments can be repeated: If some particles are removed to infinity
such potentials automatically separate into sums of smooth terms, as required
by cluster separability. Therefore,
Statement 8.7 (cluster separability) The cluster separability of the gen-
eral interaction (8.49) is guaranteed if coefficient functions DN M of all in-
teraction potentials VN M are smooth functions of momenta.
The power of this statement is that when expressing interacting potentials
through particle operators in the momentum representation (as in (8.50)) we
have a very simple criterion of cluster separability: the coefficient functions
must be smooth, i.e., they should not contain singular factors, like delta
functions.30 This demonstrates the great advantage of writing interactions
in terms of particle (creation and annihilation) operators (8.50) instead of
particle (position and momentum) observables, as in section 6.3.31
types of particles except electrons and photons. The relevant part of the Fock
space is a direct sum of electron-photon sectors like those described in for-
mulas (8.2) - (8.10). We will also assume that interaction does not affect
the electron spin and photon polarization degrees of freedom, so the corre-
sponding labels will be omitted. Then relevant (anti)commutation relations
of particle operators can be taken from (8.22) - (8.25)
H = H0 + V1 (8.86)
Z Z
H0 = dpωp a†p ap +c dkkc†k ck
Z Z
ec~ dpdk † † ec~ dpdk †
V1 = √ ap ck ap+k + √ ap ap−k ck (8.87)
(2π~)3/2 ck (2π~)3/2 ck
The coupling constant e is equal to the absolute value of the electron’s charge.
Here and in what follows the perturbation order of an operator (= the power
of the coupling constant e in the operator) is shown by the subscript. For
example, the free Hamiltonian H0 does not depend on e, so it is of zero
perturbation order; the perturbation order of V1 is one, etc.
The above theory satisfies conservation laws
+1 (a) +1 (b))
p p
k k
p+k p−k
+1 (a) +1 (b))
p p
k k
p+k p−k
Z
ec~ dpdk a†p ap−k ck
− √ (8.88)
(2π~)3/2 ck ωp − ck − ωp−k
differs from V1 only by the factor −EV−11
(see equation (8.61)), which is rep-
resented in the diagram 8.3 by drawing a box that crosses all external lines.
A line entering (leaving) the box contributes its energy with the negative
(positive) sign to the energy function EV1 .
In order to calculate the Σ-operator (7.22) in the 2nd perturbation order
we need products V1 V1 . The diagram corresponding to the product of two
diagrams AB is obtained by simply placing the diagram B below the diagram
A and attaching external electron lines of both diagrams to the same order
bar. For example, the diagram for the product of the second term in (8.87)
(Fig. 8.2(b)) and the first term in (8.88) (Fig. 8.3(a))
8.3. A TOY MODEL THEORY 279
+1 p (a) +1 q (b
b)) (c
c)
k +1
p k p k
p−k
q
= k’
k’ p−k
p−k+k’ k’
q+k’ q+k’
+1 (d) +1 (e) +1 (f
f) +1 (g
g)
q p−k
k’ q+k
p p
k
= k p−k k
p−k q p
q+k’ p
Figure 8.4: The normal product of operators in Fig. 8.2(b) and 8.3(a).
V1 V1 ∝ a†q a†p c†k′ ap−k aq+k′ ck + a†q a†p ap−k aq+k′ δ(k′ − k)
+a†p c†k′ ap−k+k′ ck + a†p ap−k+k′ δ(k′ − k) + . . .
= a†q a†p c†k′ ap−k aq+k′ ck + a†q a†p ap−k aq+k
+a†p c†k′ ap−k+k′ ck + a†p ap + . . . (8.91)
The normal ordering of photon operators in 8.4(b) yields diagrams 8.4(d) and
8.4(e) according to equation (8.83). Diagrams 8.4(f) and 8.4(g) are obtained
from 8.4(c) in a similar way.
(I) Assign a distinct momentum label to each external line, except one,
whose momentum is obtained from the (momentum conservation) con-
dition that the sum of all incoming external momenta minus the sum
of all outgoing external momenta is zero.
(II) Assign momentum labels to internal lines so that the momentum con-
servation law is satisfied at each vertex: The sum of momenta of lines
entering the vertex is equal to the sum of momenta of outgoing lines.
If there are loops, one needs to introduce new independent loop mo-
menta 33
(III) Read external lines from top to bottom of the diagram and write corre-
sponding particle operators from left to right.34 Do it first for electron
lines and then for photon lines.
(IV) For each box, write a factor (Ef − Ei )−1 , where Ef is the sum of
energies of particles going out of the box and Ei is the sum of energies
of particles coming into the box.
ec~
(V) For each vertex introduce a factor √ , where k is the momentum
(2π~)3 ck
of the photon line attached to the vertex.
(VI) Integrate the obtained expression by all independent external momenta
and loop momenta.
Σ1 = V1 (8.92)
Σ2 = (V1 V1 )unp + (V1 V1 )ph + (V1 V1 )ren (8.93)
To obtain corresponding contributions to the S-operator we need to take
t-integrals
33
see diagram 8.4(g) in which k is the loop momentum.
34
Incoming lines correspond to annihilation operators; outgoing lines correspond to cre-
ation operators.
282 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
S = 1 + Σ1 + Σ2 + . . .
|{z} |{z}
Note that the right hand side of (8.92) and the first term on the right hand
side of (8.93) are unphys, so, due to equation (8.64), they do not contribute
to the S-operator. For now, we also ignore the contribution of the renorm
term in (8.93).35 Then we obtain in the 2nd perturbation order
Z
~2 e2 c dpdqdk
F ig.8.4(e) = a†p−k a†q+k ap aq
(2π~)3 k(ck + ωp−k − ωp )
F ig.8.4(e)
| {z }
Z
2πie2 ~2 c δ(ωp−k + ωq+k − ωq − ωp ) †
= − 3
dpdqdk ap−k a†q+k ap aq
(2π~) k(ck + ωp−k − ωp )
(8.95)
The delta function in (8.95) expresses the conservation of energy in the scat-
tering process. We will also say that expression (8.95) is non-zero only on
the energy shell, which is defined as a solution of the equation
35
In fact, in a more consistent theory the renorm term (V1 V1 )ren should have been
canceled by a renormalization counterterm, as will be discussed in chapter 10.
8.3. A TOY MODEL THEORY 283
ωp−k + ωq+k = ωq + ωp
p p2
ωp ≡ p2 c2 + m2 c4 ≈ mc2 + (8.96)
2m
Then in the limit of small momentum transfer (k ≪ mc) the denominator in
(8.95) can be approximated as
2 (p − k)2 2 p2
k (ck + ωp−k − ωp ) ≈ k ck + mc + − mc −
2m 2m
2
≈ ck (8.97)
Z
ie2 δ(ωp−k + ωq+k − ωq − ωp ) †
† †
S2 [a a aa] ≈ − 2 dpdqdk ap−k a†q+k aq ap
4π ~ k2
(8.98)
Z
e2 dpdqdk †
V2ef f = ap−k a†q+k aq ap (8.99)
(2π)3 ~ k 2
With this interaction the 2nd order amplitude for electron-electron scattering
is obtained by the usual formula (7.20), keeping only the first term in F
284 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
S2ef f = V2ef f
| {z }
Z
ie2 δ(ωp−k + ωq+k − ωq − ωp ) †
= − 2 dpdqdk ap−k a†q+k aq ap
4π ~ k2
This is the same result as (8.98), in spite of the fact that the new effective
Hamiltonian H0 + V2ef f is completely different from the original Hamilto-
nian (8.86). In particular, it is important to note that interaction (8.99)
is phys, while (8.87) is unphys. The replacement of an unphys interaction
with a scattering-equivalent effective phys potential is the central idea of the
“dressed particle” approach to quantum field theory that will be introduced
in chapter 11.
From equations (8.75) and (B.7) it follows that interaction (8.99) corre-
sponds to the ordinary position-space Coulomb potential36
Z i
e2 e ~ kr e2
w(r) = dk 2 = (8.100)
(2π)3~ k 4πr
So, our toy model is quite realistic.
X
Y = y (j) (8.102)
j
Nδ = V + I (8.104)
and the number of external lines is
E = N − 2I (8.105)
The terms y (j) in the normally ordered product (8.102) can be either discon-
nected or connected. In the latter case there is a continuous sequence (path)
of internal lines connecting any two vertices. In the former case such a path
does not exist, and the diagram splits into several separated pieces.
For illustration consider a product of two potentials V (1) = V1 and V (2) =
V 1 from our example (8.89). The expansion of this product into a sum of
normally ordered terms is shown diagrammaticaly in Figures 8.4(d) - (g)
X
V (1) V (2) = y (j) (8.106)
j
There is only one disconnected term 8.4(d) in the sum on the right hand side.
Let us denote this term y (0) ≡ (V (1) V (2) )disc . This is the term in which the
286 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
factors from the original product are simply rearranged and no pairings are
introduced. All other terms y (1) , y (2) , . . . on the right hand side of (8.106)(d)
are connected, because they have at least one pairing. These pairings are
represented in diagrams 8.4(e) - (g) by one or more internal lines connecting
vertices V (1) and V (2) .
Proof. Operators V (1) V (2) and V (2) V (1) differ only by the order of particle
operators. So, after all particle operators are brought to the normal order in
(V (1) V (2) )disc and (V (2) V (1) )disc , they may differ, at most, by a sign. So, our
goal is to show that this sign is plus (+). Any reordering of boson particle
operators does not affect the sign of an expression, so for our proof we do
not need to pay attention to creation and annihilation operators of bosons
in the two factors. Let us now focus only on fermion particle operators
in V (1) and V (2) . For simplicity, we will assume that only electron and/or
positron particle operators are present in V (1) and V (2) . The inclusion of
the proton and antiproton operators will not change anything in this proof,
(i)
except its length. For the two factors V (i) (where i = 1, 2) let us denote Ne
(i)
the numbers of electron creation operators, Np the numbers of positron
(i)
creation operators, Me the numbers of electron annihilation operators, and
(i)
Mp the numbers of positron annihilation operators. Taking into account
that V (i) are assumed to be normally ordered, we may formally write
V (1) V (2) ∝ [Ne(1) ][Np(1) ][Me(1) ][Mp(1) ][Ne(2) ][Np(2) ][Me(2) ][Mp(2) ] (8.108)
V (2) V (1) ∝ [Ne(2) ][Np(2) ][Me(2) ][Mp(2) ][Ne(1) ][Np(1) ][Me(1) ][Mp(1) ] (8.109)
Let us now bring particle operators on the right hand side of (8.109) to the
(1)
same order as on the right hand side of (8.108). First we move Ne electron
creation operators to the leftmost position in the product. This involves
(1) (2)
Ne Me permutations with electron annihilation operators from the factor
(1) (2)
V (2) and Ne Ne permutations with electron creation operators from the
factor V (2) . Each of these permutations changes the sign of the disconnected
(1) (2) (2)
term, so the acquired factor is (−1)Ne (Ne +Me ) .
(1)
Next we need to move the [Np ] factor to the second position from the
(1) (2) (2)
left. The factor acquired after this move is (−1)Np (Np +Mp ) . Then we move
(1) (1)
the factors [Me ] and [Mp ] to the third and fourth places in the product,
respectively. Finally, the total factor acquired by the expression (V (2) V (1) )disc
after all its terms are rearranged in the same order as in (V (1) V (2) )disc is
where we denoted
Proof. Let us first consider a single commutator of two potentials V (1) and
V (2) .
According to Lemma 8.8, the disconnected terms (V (1) V (2) )disc and (V (2) V (1) )disc
in the commutator (8.111) are canceled. All other terms in the commutator
are connected. This proves the theorem for a single commutator (8.111).
Since this commutator is also bosonic, repeating the above arguments by
induction, we conclude that all multiple commutators of bosonic operators
are connected.
L= I −V +1 (8.112)
D3,2 (p3 , p4 , p5 ; p1 , p2 ) =
39
Here V is the number of vertices and I is the number of internal lines in the diagram.
8.4. DIAGRAMS IN A GENERAL THEORY 289
p3 p4
p5
D
p1+p2−p5−p8−p9
C
p8
p9 p1+p2−p7−p8−p9
p7
p6 B
p1+p2−p6−p7−p8
A
p1 p2
Theorem 8.11 Each term y (j) in the expansion (8.102) of the product of
smooth potentials is smooth if and only if it is represented by a connected
diagram.
represented in the general form (8.50) in which the integrand contains only
one delta function required by the momentum conservation condition and the
coefficient function DN M is smooth.40 From equation (8.103), the original
number of integrals in y (j) is N . Integrals corresponding to E external lines
are parts of the general form (8.50), and integrals corresponding to L loops
can be absorbed into the definition of the coefficient function of y (j). The
number of remaining integrals is then obtained from (8.105) and (8.112)
N′ = N − E − L = I + V − 1 (8.114)
This is just enough integrals to cancel all momentum delta functions (8.104)
except one, which proves that the term y (i) is smooth.
Inversely, suppose that the term y (j) is represented by a disconnected
diagram with V vertices and I internal lines. Then the number of indepen-
dent loops L is greater than the value I − V + 1 characteristic for connected
diagrams. Then the number of integrations N ′ in equation (8.114) is less
than I + V − 1 and the number of delta functions remaining in the integrand
N ′ − Nδ is greater than 1. This means that the term y (j) is represented by
expression (8.50) whose coefficient function is singular, therefore the corre-
sponding operator is not smooth.
F
S = e|{z} (8.115)
F (1) + |{z}
F → |{z}
|{z} F (2)
(1)
S → exp(F F (2) ) = exp(F
|{z} + |{z}
(1)
|{z}) exp(F
(2) (1) (2)
|{z}) = S S
This relationship expresses the cluster separability of the S-operator and the
S-matrix: The total scattering amplitude for spatially separated events is
given by the product of individual amplitudes.
Z
ren e2 ~2 c a†p ap
(V1 V1 ) =− dpdk (8.116)
(2π~)3 (ωp−k − ωp + ck)k
Substituting this result to the right hand side of (8.93) we see that the S-
operator in the second order Σ2 is infinite, which makes it meaningless and
|{z}
unacceptable.
8.4. DIAGRAMS IN A GENERAL THEORY 293
have chosen integration variables in Fig. 8.5 in such a way that each loop
momentum is present only in the internal lines forming the corresponding
loop, e.g., momentum p9 is confined to the loop BDCB, and the energy
function EA of the vertex A does not depend on p9 . Such a selection of
integration variables can be done for any arbitrary diagram. Taking into
account that at large values of momentum ωp ≈ cp, we obtain in the limit
p9 → ∞
EA → const,
EB = ωp1 +p2 −p7 −p8 −p9 + ωp9 − ωp6 − ωp1 +p2 −p6 −p7 −p8
≈ 2cp9 → ∞,
EC = ωp1 +p2 −p5 −p8 −p9 + ωp5 − ωp7 − ωp1 +p2 −p7 −p8 −p9
→ const,
ED = ωp3 + ωp4 − ωp8 − ωp9 − ωp1 +p2 −p5 −p8 −p9
≈ −2cp9 → ∞.
So, in this limit, according to the condition of the theorem, the coefficient
functions at vertices B and D tend to zero rapidly, e.g., exponentially. So,
the loop integral on p9 converges. In order to prove the convergence of
all four loop integrals, we need to make sure that the same rapid decay is
characteristic for all directions in the space Ξ. Here are some arguments that
this is, indeed, true.
The above analysis is applicable to all loop variables: Any loop has a
bottom vertex (vertex B in our example), a top vertex (vertex D in our
example) and possibly a number of intermediate vertices (vertex C in our
example). As the loop momentum goes to infinity, energy functions of the top
and bottom vertices tend to infinity, i.e., move away from the energy shell.
This ensures a fast (e.g., exponential) decay of the corresponding coefficient
function.
Now we can take an arbitrary direction to infinity in the space Ξ. Along
this direction, there is at least one loop momentum which goes to infinity.
Then there is at least one energy function (EA , EB , EC , or ED ) which grows
linearly, while others stay constant (in the worst case). Therefore, according
to the condition of the theorem, the integrand decreases rapidly (e.g., expo-
nentially) along this direction. Thus the integrand rapidly tends to zero in
all directions in Ξ, and integral (8.113) converges.
8.4. DIAGRAMS IN A GENERAL THEORY 295
In chapter 10 we will see that in realistic theories, like QED, the asymp-
totic decay of the coefficient functions of potentials at large momenta is not
fast enough, so Theorem 8.13 is not applicable, and loop integrals usually
diverge. A detailed discussion of such divergences in quantum field theory
and their elimination will be presented in chapter 10, in section 11.1, and in
chapter 14.2.
296 CHAPTER 8. FOCK SPACE
Chapter 9
QUANTUM
ELECTRODYNAMICS
We have considered a few model examples, but they were purely academic
and not directly relevant to real systems observed in nature. The reason for
such inadequacy was that our models failed to satisfy all three requirements
mentioned above simultaneously.
297
298 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
1
see Statement 8.7
9.1. INTERACTION IN QED 299
X
U0 (Λ; ã)φi (x̃)U0−1 (Λ; ã) = Dij (Λ−1 )φj (Λ(x̃ + ã)) (9.1)
j
(IV) Fermionic fields (i.e., fields for particles with half-integer spin) φi (x̃)
and φj (x̃′ ) are required to anticommute if (x̃ − x̃′ ) is a space-like 4-
vector, or equivalently
(V) Bosonic fields (i.e., fields for particles with integer spin or helicity) at
points x̃ and x̃′ are required to commute if (x̃ − x̃′ ) is a space-like
4-vector, or equivalently
Step 2. Having at our disposal quantum fields φi (x̃), ψj (x̃), χk (x̃), . . . for all
particles we can build the potential energy density
X
V (x̃) ≡ V (x, t) = Vn (x, t) (9.5)
n
X
Vn (x, t) = Gnijk...φi (x, t)ψj (x, t)χk (x, t) . . . (9.6)
i,j,k,...
From properties (9.3) - (9.4) and the bosonic character of V (x̃) it is easy
to prove that V (x̃) commutes with itself at space-like separations, e.g.,
Z
H = H0 + V = H0 + dxV (x, 0) (9.9)
Z
1
K = K0 + Z = K0 + 2 dxxV (x, 0) (9.10)
c
8
i.e., there is an even number of fermionic fields in each product in (9.6)
302 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
H = H0 + V (9.11)
V = V1 + V2 (9.12)
Z Z
1 1
V1 = dxj̃(x, 0) · Ã(x, 0) ≡ dxjµ (x, 0)Aµ (x, 0)
c c
Z
1
= dxj(x, 0) · A(x, 0) (9.13)
c
Z
1 j0 (x, 0)j0 (y, 0)
V2 = 2 dxdy (9.14)
2c 8π|x − y|
K = K0 + Z (9.15)
is defined as
Z Z
1 1 xj0 (x, 0)j0 (y, 0)
Z = 3 dxxj(x, 0)A(x, 0) + 4 dxdy
c 2c 8π|x − y|
Z
1
+ 3 dxj0 (x, 0)C(x, 0) (9.16)
c
F = F1 + F2 + . . .
F1 = V1
1
F2 = V2 − [V1 , V1 ] (9.17)
2
...
F
S = e|{z}
1
= 1 + |{z}
F + F F +...
2! |{z} |{z}
1 1 1
= 1 + F1 + F2 + F1 F1 + F2 F1 + F1 F2 + F3 + . . .
|{z} |{z} 2! |{z} |{z} 2! |{z} |{z} 2! |{z} |{z} |{z}
= 1 + F2 + F3 . . .
|{z} |{z}
1
= 1 + V2 − [V1 , V1 ] + F3 . . . (9.18)
|{z} 2 | {z } |{z}
11
see equation (8.64)
9.2. S-OPERATOR IN QED 305
Z
e †
V1 = − dkdpAα (p + k)Aβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~)3/2
Z
e † †
− dkdpAα (p − k)Aβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~)3/2
Z
e †
+ dkdpDα (p + k)Dβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~)3/2
Z
e † †
+ dkdpDα (p − k)Dβ (p)Cαβ (k) + . . .
(2π~)3/2
V1
Z
e † 1
= 3/2
dkdpAα (p + k)Aβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~) ωp+k − ωp − ck
Z
e † † 1
+ 3/2
dkdpAα (p − k)Aβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~) ωp−k − ωp + ck
Z
e † 1
− 3/2
dkdpDα (p + k)Dβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~) Ωp+k − Ωp − ck
Z
e † † 1
− 3/2
dkdpDα (p − k)Dβ (p)Cαβ (k)
(2π~) Ωp−k − Ωp + ck
+... (9.19)
1
− [V1 , V1 ]
2
12
Operators A, C, D are defined in (J.49) - (J.56) and (K.11).
306 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
Z
e2 † † ′
= − dkdpdk′ dp′ Aα (p + k)Aβ (p)D γ (p′ − k )Dδ (p′ ) ×
2(2π~)3
† 1
[Cαβ (k), Cγδ (k′ )]
ωp+k − ωp − ck
2 Z
e † † ′
− 3
dkdpdk′ dp′ Aα (p − k)Aβ (p)Dγ (p′ + k )Dδ (p′ ) ×
2(2π~)
† 1
[Cαβ (k), Cγδ (k′ )]
ωp−k − ωp + ck
2 Z
e † † ′
− 3
dkdpdk′ dp′ Dα (p + k)Dβ (p)Aγ (p′ − k )Aδ (p′ ) ×
2(2π~)
† 1
[Cαβ (k), Cγδ (k′ )]
Ωp+k − Ωp − ck
2 Z
e † † ′
− 3
dkdpdk′ dp′ Dα (p − k)Dβ (p)Aγ (p′ + k )Aδ (p′ ) ×
2(2π~)
† 1
[Cαβ (k), Cγδ (k′ )] + ...
Ωp−k − Ωp + ck
Z
e2 ~2 c dkdpdq µ ν
= 3
γαβ γγδ hµν (k) ×
4(2π~) k
† † 1
− D γ (p − k)Dδ (p)Aα (q + k)Aβ (q)
ωq+k − ωq − ck
† † 1
+ D γ (p + k)Dδ (p)Aα (q − k)Aβ (q)
ωq−k − ωq + ck
† † 1
− D α (p + k)Dβ (p)Aγ (q − k)Aδ (q)
Ωp+k − Ωp − ck
† † 1
+ D α (p − k)Dβ (p)Aγ (q + k)Aδ (q) + ...
Ωp−k − Ωp + ck
2 2 Z
e~ c dkdpdq µ ν
= γαβ γγδ hµν (k) ×
4(2π~)3 k
† † 1
− D α (p − k)Dβ (p)Aγ (q + k)Aδ (q)
ωq+k − ωq − ck
† † 1
+ D α (p − k)Dβ (p)Aγ (q + k)Aδ (q)
ωq+k − ωq + ck
† † 1
− D α (p − k)Dβ (p)Aγ (q + k)Aδ (q)
Ωp−k − Ωp − ck
9.2. S-OPERATOR IN QED 307
† † 1
+ D α (p − k)Dβ (p)Aγ (q + k)Aδ (q) + ...
Ωp−k − Ωp + ck
Z
e2 ~2 c2 µ ν hµν (k)
= − 3
dkdpdqγαβ γγδ ×
2(2π~) (q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2
† †
D α (p − k)Aγ (q + k)Dβ (p)Aδ (q)
Z
e2 ~2 c2 µ ν hµν (k)
− 3
dkdpdqγαβ γγδ ×
2(2π~) (P̃ − K̃ ÷ P̃ )2
† †
D α (p − k)Aγ (q + k)Dβ (p)Aδ (q) (9.20)
where we denoted13
Next take into account that we need to know our S-operator only in the
vicinity of the energy shell where
Ωp−k − Ωp = ωq − ωq+k
(P̃ − K̃ ÷ P̃ )2 = (q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2 (9.23)
† mc2 X ν
A (q + k)γ ν A(q) = √ U (q + k, σ; q, σ ′ )a†q+k,σ aq,σ′
ωq+k ωq ′
σσ
2
† Mc X
D (p − k)γ µ Dβ (p) = p W µ (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )d†p−k,τ dp,τ ′
Ωp−k Ωp τ τ ′
1
− [V1 , V1 ]
2
13
Recall that in Appendix I.1 we agreed to denote 4-vectors by the tilde. Then (p̃ ÷ q̃)2
is a 4-square of the difference between 4-vectors p̃ and q̃, i.e., (p̃ ÷ q̃)2 = (p̃ − q̃)µ (p̃ − q̃)µ .
Thus, for example, (q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2 = (ωq+k − ωq )2 − c2 k 2 .
308 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
e2 ~2 c2 Mmc4 X
= − √ p ×
(2π~)3 ωq+k ωq Ωp−k Ωp
σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
Z
hµν (k)U ν (q + k, σ; q, σ ′ )W µ (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ ) †
dkdpdq dp−k,τ a†q+k,σ dp,τ ′ aq,σ′
(q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃) 2
2 2 2 4
e ~c Mmc X
= − √ p ×
(2π~)3 ωq+k ωq Ωp−k Ωp
σ,τ σ′ ,τ ′
Z h (U(q + k, σ; q, σ ′) · W(p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )
dkdpdq
(q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2
(k · U(q + k, σ; q, σ ′))(k · W(p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ ) i †
− dp−k,τ a†q+k,σ dp,τ ′ aq,σ′
2
k (q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃) 2
e2 ~2 c2 Mmc4 X Z
F2 = p dkdpdq ×
(2π~)3 ωq+k ωq Ωp−k Ωp ′ ′
σ,τ,σ ,τ
h U(q + k, σ; q, σ ′ ) · W(p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )
−
(q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2
(k · U(q + k, σ; q, σ ′ ))(k · W(p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ ))
+
k 2 (q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2
U 0 (q + k, σ; q, σ ′ )W 0 (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ ) i †
− 2 2
dp−k,τ a†q+k,σ dp,τ ′ aq,σ(9.24)
′
c k
From (J.84) we further obtain
Ωp−k − Ωp 0
(k · W(p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )) = − W (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )
c
ωq+k − ωq 0
= W (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )
c
′ ωq+k − ωq 0
(k · U(q + k, σ; q, σ )) = U (q + k, σ; q, σ ′ )
c
and
14
the third term in equation (L.11)
9.2. S-OPERATOR IN QED 309
e2 ~2 c2 Mmc4 X Z
F2 = p dkdpdq ×
(2π~)3 ωq+k ωq Ωp−k Ωp ′ ′ σ,τ,σ ,τ
U (q + k, σ; q, σ )W (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ ) − (U(q + k, σ; q, σ ′) · W(p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ )
0 ′ 0
×
(q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃)2
d†p−k,τ a†q+k,σ dp,τ ′ aq,σ′
e2 ~2 c2 Mmc4 X Z
= p dkdpdq ×
(2π~)3 ωq+k ωq Ωp−k Ωp σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
Uµ (q + k, σ; q, σ ′)W µ (p − k, τ ; p, τ ′ ) †
dp−k,τ a†q+k,σ dp,τ ′ aq,σ′ (9.25)
(q̃ + k̃ ÷ q̃) 2
Now we insert this result in formula (9.18) for the S-operator. According to
(8.54), in order to perform the integration on t from −∞ to ∞, we just need
to multiply the coefficient function by the factor −2πiδ(E(p, q, k)), where
is the energy function. This makes the S-operator non-trivial only on the
energy shell E(p, q, k) = 0. Finally, we can represent the 2nd order scattering
operator in the general form (8.50)
X Z
† †
S2 [d a da] = dpdqdp′ dq′ s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ )d†p,τ a†q,σ dp′ ,τ ′ aq′ ,σ′
σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
(9.26)
310 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )
ie2 c2 mMc4 δ 4 (p̃ + q̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ )U µ (q, σ; q′ , σ ′ )Wµ (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ )
= − p (9.27)
4π 2 ~ ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′ (q̃ − q̃ ′ )2
ic ~ ic ~
e− ~ K0 θ S2 [d† a† da]e ~ K0 θ = S2 [d† a† da]
15
see Appendix M.1
9.2. S-OPERATOR IN QED 311
On the left hand side of this equality we apply boosts to particle operators
using formulas (8.36) - (8.37)
X Z ic ~ ic ~
dpdqdp′ dq′ s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )e ~ K0 θ d†p,τ a†q,σ dp′ ,τ ′ aq′ ,σ′ e− ~ K0 θ
σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
X Z
= dpdqdp′ dq′ s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ ) ×
σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
p √
ΩΛp Ωp X 1/2 ∗ ωλq ωq X 1/2 ∗
~ †
(D )τ ρ (−φW (p, Λ))dΛp,ρ (D )σπ (−φ ~ W (q, λ))a† ×
λq,π
Ωp ρ
ω q π
p √
ΩΛp′ Ωp′ X 1/2 ~ ωλq′ ωq′ X 1/2
′
Dτ ′ η (−φW (p , Λ))dΛp′,η ~ W (q′ , λ))aλq′ ,χ
Dσ′ χ (−φ
Ωp′ η
ω q ′
χ
p
where ωq = m2 c4 + q 2 c2 , λq is the boost transformation of the electron’s
momentum,16 and φ ~ W (q, λ) is the corresponding Wigner angle (5.16). The
analogous proton-related quantities Ωq , Λq, and φ ~ W (q, Λ) are obtained by
replacing the electron mass m with the proton mass M. Changing summation
and integration variables and denoting R(p, λ)τ and R(p, Λ)σ the results of
Wigner rotations on the electron and proton spin components, respectively,
we obtain17
p
X Z Ωp ΩΛ−1 p ωq ωλ−1 q Ωp′ ΩΛ−1 p′ ωq′ ωΛ−1 q′
−1 −1 −1 ′ −1 ′
= d(Λ p)d(λ q)d(Λ p )d(λ q ) ×
σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
ΩΛ−1 p ωλ−1 q ΩΛ−1 p′ ωΛ−1 q′
s2 (Λ−1 p, λ−1 q, Λ−1p′ , λ−1 q′ ; R−1 (p, Λ)τ, R−1(q, λ)σ, R(p′ , Λ)τ ′ , R(q′ , λ)σ ′ ) ×
d†p,τ a†q,σ dp′ ,τ ′ aq′ ,σ′
s
X Z ΩΛ−1 p ωλ−1 q ΩΛ−1 p′ ωλ−1 q′
= dpdqdp′ dq′ ×
σ,τ,σ′ ,τ ′
Ωp ωq Ωp′ ωq′
s2 (Λ−1 p, λ−1 q, Λ−1p′ , λ−1 q′ ; R−1 (p, Λ)τ, R−1(q, λ)σ, R(p′ , Λ)τ ′ , R(q′ , λ)σ ′ ) ×
d†p,τ a†q,σ dp′ ,τ ′ aq′ ,σ′
Comparing this result with (9.26) we conclude that the Lorentz invariance
16
see formula (5.14)
17
We also used equation (5.25) here.
312 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
Mmc4
s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ ) ≡ p S2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )
Ωp ωq Ωp′ ωq′
and the new function S2 satisfies a simpler invariance condition
S2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )
= S2 (Λ−1 p, λ−1 q, Λ−1p′ , λ−1 q′ ; R−1 (p, Λ)τ, R−1 (q, λ)σ, R(p′ , Λ)τ ′ , R(q′ , λ)σ ′ )
(9.30)
′ ′ ′ ′
ie2 c2 4 ′
µ
′ U (q, σ; q , σ )Wµ (p, τ ; p , τ )
S2 = δ (p̃ + q̃ − p̃ − q̃ )
4π 2 ~ (q̃ − q̃ ′ )2
As shown in Appendix J.8, the quantities U µ and W µ transform as 4-vectors
under the change of arguments indicated on the right hand side of (9.30). So
the 4-product U µ Wµ stays invariant. The 4-square (q̃ − q̃ ′ )2 is invariant as
well. This proves Lorentz invariance of the 2nd order contribution (9.27) to
the S-operator.
1. Drop the 2nd order interaction V2 in (9.12), so that the full interaction
operator is given simply by V1 in (9.13)18
Z
1
V1 = dxjµ (x, 0)Aµ (x, 0)
c
Z
= dx(−eψ(x, 0)γ µ ψ(x, 0) + eΨ(x, 0)γ µ Ψ(x, 0))Aµ (x, 0)
(9.31)
We will omit a proof that this approach works in all orders. Let us simply
show how it applies to our example. Here we will repeat calculation of the
2nd order S-matrix element S2 in the Feynman-Dyson formulation. We use
formulas (7.17), (9.29), and (L.1)
s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )
= h0|aq,σ dp,τ S2 d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
Z+∞
1
= −h0|aq,σ dp,τ 2 dt1 dt2 T [V1 (t1 )V1 (t2 )] d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
2!~
−∞
Z
1
= − 2 2 d4 x1 d4 x2 h0|aq,σ dp,τ T [(J µ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 ) + J µ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 )) ×
2!~ c
(J µ (x̃2 )Aµ (x̃2 ) + J µ (x̃2 )Aµ (x̃2 ))]d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
Z
1
= − 2 2 d4 x1 d4 x2 h0|aq,σ dp,τ T [J µ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 )J µ (x̃2 )Aµ (x̃2 )]
2!~ c
18
So, we will call V1 the Feynman-Dyson interaction operator to distinguish it from the
Hamiltonian interaction operator V1 + V2 .
19
commutators (K.12) and photon propagators (K.16)
314 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
+T [J µ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 )J µ (x̃2 )Aµ (x̃2 )] d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
Z
e2
= 2 d4 x1 d4 x2 ×
~
h0|aq,σ dp,τ T [ψ(x̃1 )γ µ ψ(x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 )Ψ(x̃2 )γ ν Ψ(x̃2 )Aν (x̃2 )]d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
(9.32)
If the operator sandwiched between vacuum vectors h0| . . . |0i is converted
to the normal order, then all its terms will not contribute to the matrix ele-
ment, except the c-number term. In order to provide such a c-number term,
the operator under the T -symbol should have the structure d† a† da. From
expressions (J.26) and (J.29) for quantum fields ψ and Ψ we conclude that
operator d† (with a corresponding numerical factor) may come only from the
factor Ψ, operator a† comes from ψ and operators d and a come from factors
Ψ and ψ, respectively. In the process of bringing the full operator to the
normal order, creation (annihilation) operators inside the T -symbol change
places with corresponding annihilation (creation) operators outside this sym-
bol. This leaves expressions like (momentum delta function) × (Kronecker
delta symbol of spin labels) × (numerical factor). The delta function and
the Kronecker delta disappear after integration (summation) and only the
numerical factor is left. For example, the electron creation operator from the
factors ψ α being coupled with the annihilation operator aq,σ results in the
numerical factor
s
mc2 i
exp q̃ · x̃i uα (q, σ) (9.33)
(2π~)3 ωq ~
After these routine manipulations the coefficient function takes the form20
s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )
Z
e2 mMc4
≈ d4 x1 d4 x2 2 p ×
~ (2π~)6 ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′
i i ′ i i ′
exp q̃ · x̃1 exp − q̃ · x̃1 exp p̃ · x̃2 exp − p̃ · x̃2 ×
~ ~ ~ ~
20
where the matrix element h0|T [Aµ (x̃1 )Aν (x̃2 )]|0i (the photon propagator ) was taken
from (K.17)
9.2. S-OPERATOR IN QED 315
u(q, σ)γµ u(q′ , σ ′ )w(p, τ )γν w(p′, τ ′ )h0|T [Aµ (x̃1 )Aν (x̃2 )]|0i
Z
1 e2 c2 mMc4
= d4 x1 d4 x2 d4 s p ×
2πi (2π~)9 ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′
i ′ i ′
exp (q̃ − q̃ − s̃) · x̃1 exp (p̃ − p̃ + s̃) · x̃2 ×
~ ~
gµν
ua (q, σ)γµab ub (q′ , σ ′ ) 2 wc (p, τ )γνcd wd (p′ , τ ′ )
s̃
ie2 c2 mMc4
= − 2 p δ 4 (p̃ + q̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ ) ×
4π ~ ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′
gµν
ua (q, σ)γµab ub (q′ , σ ′ ) ′ 2
wc (p, τ )γνcd wd (p′ , τ ′ ) (9.34)
(q̃ − q̃ )
ie2 c2 mMc4 δ 4 (p̃ + q̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ )U µ (q, σ; q′ , σ ′ )Wµ (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ )
= − p (9.35)
4π 2 ~ ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′ (q̃ − q̃ ′ )2
which, as expected, is exactly the same as in the non-covariant approach
(9.27).
Using results from Appendix J.9 and assuming that the proton is very
heavy (M → ∞), we obtain this coefficient function in the (v/c)2 approxi-
mation21
s2 (p, q, p′ , q′ ; τ, σ, τ ′ , σ ′ )
ie2 δτ,τ ′ mc2 1 0
≈ √ U (q + k, σ; q, σ ′ )
(2π)2 ~ ωq ωq′ k 2
ie2 δτ,τ ′ 1 q2 qk k2 † (2q + k)2 i~σel · [k × q]
≈ 1− − − χσ 1 + + χσ′
(2π)2 ~ k 2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 4m2 c2 8m2 c2 4m2 c2
ie2 δτ,τ ′ δσ,σ′ 1 q2 qk k2 q2 qk k2
≈ 1− − − + + +
(2π)2 ~ k 2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 4m2 c2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 8m2 c2
ie2 δτ,τ ′ 1 † i~σel · [k × q]
+ χ χσ′
(2π)2 ~ k 2 σ 4m2 c2
ie2 δτ,τ ′ δσ,σ′ 1 1 αδτ,τ ′ † ~σel · [k × q]
= − − χ χσ′
(2π) ~ 2 k 2 8m c 2 2 4πm2 c σ k2
In the extreme non-relativistic approximation, we can ignore terms with c in
denominators and obtain
21
We omit the energy delta function and introduce the vector of transferred momentum
k = q′ − q = p − p′ .
316 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
q,τ
γμ q',τ'
a bb
kk
c dd p',σ'
p,σ
γν
Figure 9.1: Feynman diagram for the electron-proton scattering in the 2nd
perturbation order.
Z
ie2 X δ(E(p, q, k)) †
† †
S2 [d a da] = dpdqdk dp−k,τ dp,τ a†q+k,σ aq,σ
(2π)2 ~ στ k2
(9.36)
This is consistent with our toy model (8.98). The difference in sign is related
to the fact that equation (8.98) describes scattering of two electrons having
the same charge and, therefore, repelling each other, while equation (9.36)
refers to a Coulomb-type attractive electron-proton potential.22
s
mc2
ua (q, σ) (9.37)
(2π~)3 ωq
in (9.34) and by a thin incoming arrow in the diagram 9.1. Similarly, the
final state of the electron is represented by the factor
s
mc2
ub (q′ , σ ′ ) (9.38)
(2π~)3 ωq′
in (9.34) and by a thin outgoing arrow in the diagram 9.1. The incoming and
outgoing proton lines are represented by thick arrows in the diagram and by
factors
s s
Mc2 Mc2
wc (p, τ ), wd (p′ , τ ′ ) (9.39)
(2π~)3 Ωp (2π~)3 Ωp′
√ √
~ c ~ c
p eµ (p, ρ), p e∗µ (p, ρ) (9.40)
2p(2π~)3 2p(2π~)3
respectively.
An internal photon line carrying 4-momentum k̃ corresponds to the pho-
ton propagator in (9.34)26
~2 c2 g µν
(9.41)
2πi(2π~)3 k̃ 2
different sources will be collected and analyzed together later.
25
See graph 9.2, where external photon lines are shown by dashed arrows.
26
Compare with (K.17). Here we omit the integration sign and the exponential factor,
which will be tackled later.
318 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
It is shown by the dashed line in the diagram 9.1. An internal electron line27
connects two vertices and corresponds to the electron propagator28
/ + mc2 )bc
(k
(9.42)
2πi(2π~)3 (k̃ 2 − m2 c4 )
/ + Mc2 )bc
(k
(9.43)
2πi(2π~)3 (k̃ 2 − M 2 c4 )
The number of vertices (V) in the graph is the same as the order of
perturbation theory (=2 in the diagram 9.1). Each vertex is associated with
the factor
µ
i(2π~)4 eγab
~
This factor has three summation indices. Two bispinor indices a and b are
coupled to indices of fermion factors (9.37) - (9.39) or (9.42) - (9.43). Thus,
in the diagram, each vertex is connected to two fermion lines (either external
or internal). The 4-vector index µ is coupled to indices of either free pho-
ton factor (9.40) or photon propagator (9.41). Correspondingly, each vertex
connects to one photon line (either external or internal). So, we conclude
that each contribution to the QED S-matrix can be represented simply by
drawing a connected29 diagram, whose edges and vertices respect the above
connectivity rules.
Let us now discuss exponential factors R 4 and integrations. Each interaction
vertex is associated with a 4-integral d x. Each incoming external particle
line (attached to the vertex with integration variable x̃′ ) is associated with
exponential factor exp( ~i p̃· x̃′ ). Each outgoing external particle line (attached
to the vertex with integration variable x̃) is associated with exponential factor
27
For brevity, we call it “internal electron lines.” However, in fact, the corresponding
propagator has contributions from both electron and positron operators.
28
Compare with (J.89).
29
As discussed in subsection 8.4.2, we should not consider disconnected diagrams, be-
cause they correspond to non-interesting spatially separated scattering events.
9.2. S-OPERATOR IN QED 319
p
p0 = ω p = m2 c4 + p2 c2 (9.44)
p
p′0 = ωp′ = m2 c4 + (p′ )2 c2 (9.45)
√
at t = −∞
~ c
outgoing photon line √ eµ (p, τ ) photon in the state |p, τ i
(2π~)3 2p
at t = +∞
(/+mc
p 2
)ab
internal electron line (2πi)(2π~)3 (p̃2 −m2 c4 )
no interpretation
carrying 4-momentum pµ
~2 c2 gµν
internal photon line (2πi)(2π~)3 p̃2
no interpretation
carrying 4-momentum pµ
i(2π~)4 e µ
interaction vertex ~
γab no interpretation
q,τ p,σ
q,τ p,σ
31
For example, in our calculation (9.32) the symmetry factor of 2 is needed due to
the appearance of two identical expressions under the t-ordering sign. This symmetry
factor canceled the 1/2! multiplier exactly. In all S-matrix calculations in this book such
cancelation of the symmetry factor and the 1/V! multiplier also occurs.
322 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS
" √ # "s #
i(2π~)4 eγcd
ν
~ ceν (q′ , τ ′ ) mc2
p ud (p′ , σ ′ ) δ 4 (p̃ + q̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ )
~ (2π~)3 2q ′ (2π~)3 ωp′
"s # " √ #
mc2 i(2π~)4 eγab ν
~ ceν (q′ , τ ′ ) / − /q′ + mc2 )bc
(p
+ ua (p, σ) p
(2π~)3 ωp ~ (2π~)3 2q ′ (2πi)(2π~)3((p̃ − q̃ ′ )2 − m2 c4 )
" √ # "s #
µ
i(2π~)4 eγcd ~ ce∗µ (q, τ ) mc2
p 3
ud (p′ , σ ′ ) δ 4 (p̃ + q̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ )
~ 3
(2π~) 2q (2π~) ωp ′
From this expression one can obtain the cross section for the elastic electron-
photon scattering. We are not going to reproduce this standard calculation,32
but only note that in the limit of low photon energy one gets exactly the
Thomson cross section formula familiar from classical electrodynamics. Since
the Thomson formula was well tested experimentally, this suggests that all
higher order contributions to our low-energy result should vanish. We will
find this observation useful in our discussion of the charge renormalization
condition in the next chapter.
RENORMALIZATION
325
326 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
V = V1 + V2 (10.1)
is not complete. It must be corrected by adding certain counterterms. The
counterterms are formally infinite operators. However, if they are carefully
selected, then one can cancel the infinities occurring in loop integrals, so
that only some residual finite contributions (radiative corrections ) remain in
each perturbation order. These small radiative corrections are exactly what is
needed to obtain scattering cross sections, energies of bound states, and some
other properties in remarkable agreement with experiments. The procedure
of adding counterterms to the interaction operator is called renormalization.5
2
Here we show only diagrams, in which loops are associated with electron lines. For a
complete treatment, one should also take into account loops, similar to 10.1(b), (c), (g),
but associated with proton lines. However, it can be shown that their contributions to
scattering amplitudes is much smaller due to the inequality m ≪ M . So, we will omit
them in our analysis.
3
see Appendix M
4
see subsection 8.4.3
5
We should note, however, that the brief story of renormalization presented above is
different from what can be found in most textbooks. The usual explanation of renormal-
ization involves discussion of the difference between bare and physical particles. While
former have infinite masses and charges, the latter acquire observable masses and charges
due to formation of virtual clouds. See section 10.4. In our approach we deal exclusively
with physical particles. We formulate the renormalization program as a modification of
the full Hamiltonian.
327
q’ p’
q (a) p (b)
(c)
q’ p’ q’ p’
h
q’−h
k k kk
h
k−h q−h
p q p
q (d) (e)
q’ p’ q’ p’
h+k h+k
q−h p+h q−h p’−h
h
h
q (f) p q (g) p (h)
10.1.1 Regularization
As we mentioned above, loop integrals in QED are ultraviolet-divergent
and/or infrared-divergent and it is difficult to do calculations with infinite
quantities. To make things easier, it is convenient to perform regularization.
The idea is to modify the theory by hand in such a way that all loop integrals
are forced to be finite, so that intermediate manipulations do not involve in-
finities. The simplest regularization approach adopted in Appendix M is to
introduce momentum cutoffs in all loop integrals. The cutoffs depend on two
parameters having the dimensionality of mass: the ultraviolet cutoff Λ limits
integrals at high loop momenta and infrared cutoff λ controls integrations
at low momenta singularities. Of course, the theory with such truncated
integrals cannot be exact. To obtain final results, at the end of calculations
the ultraviolet cutoff momentum should be set to infinity Λ → ∞ and the
infrared cutoff should be set to zero λ → 0.6 If counterterms in the Hamilto-
nian are chosen correctly, then in these limits the S-matrix elements should
remain finite, accurate, and cutoff-independent.
unp
S = exp(|{z}
F ) = exp(F F ph + F
| {z } + |{z}
ren
|{z})
F ph + |{z}
= exp(|{z} F ren) (10.2)
Sa†p,σ |0i
F ren )a†p,σ |0i
F ph + |{z}
= exp(|{z}
ph ren 1 ph ren 2 †
= 1 + |{z}
F +F |{z} + 2! (|{z}
F +F |{z}) + . . . ap,σ |0i
1 ph 2 1 ph ren 1 ren ph 1 ren 2
= ph
1 + |{z}
F +F ren
|{z} + 2! (|{z}
F ) + |{z} |{z} + 2! F
F F F + (F ) + . . . a†p,σ |0i
2! |{z} |{z} 2! |{z}
ren 1 ren 2 †
= 1+F |{z} + 2! (F |{z}) + . . . ap,σ |0i
ren †
= exp(F|{z})ap,σ |0i (10.3)
A similar derivation can be performed for a one-photon state c†p,τ |0i and the
vacuum vector
So, the “scattering” in these states depends only on the renorm part of F .
ren ren
We know from (8.63) that the t-integral F |{z} is infinite, even if F is itself
finite. Therefore, if F ren 6= 0 then the S-operator multiplies 0- and 1-particle
states by infinite phase factors. This divergence is unacceptable.
Intuitively, we expect single particle states and the vacuum to evolve
freely during the entire time interval from t = −∞ to t = +∞. This means
that there can be no non-trivial scattering in such states. This also means
330 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
that the S-operator must be equal to the identity operator when acting on
such states. But this condition is not satisfied in the QED theory presented
so far.
We have two options to deal with this problem. One option is to claim (as
advised in many textbooks) that |0i is not the true (physical) vacuum state
of the system and that a†p,σ |0i, c†p,τ |0i are not true (physical) one-particle
states. These are examples of the so-called “bare” states.8 The real physical
0-particle and 1-particle states should be obtained as linear combinations of
the bare states for which the self-scattering is absent. Then scattering theory
of such physical particles would not have divergences and paradoxes.
In this book we will adopt a different9 point of view. We will maintain
that |0i, a†p,σ |0i, c†p,τ |0i, . . . are true representatives of real physical 0-particle
and 1-particle states. Then our explanation for the divergent results (10.3) -
(10.5) is that we have started to develop our theory from a wrong interaction
operator (10.1). We insist that this operator must be modified or renormal-
ized, so that the theory is forced to be finite. In particular, we will demand
that the new renormalized interaction satisfies the condition
F ren = 0 (10.6)
F ph
F = |{z}
|{z}
If this condition is satisfied then (10.3) - (10.5) take physically acceptable
forms
e2 + Ce4
V (r) ≈ −
4πr
with a non-zero constant C, but from experiments we know that C = 0 to a
high degree of precision.
1
F = V1 − [V1 , V1 ] + . . .
2
11
see Table 8.2
10.1. RENORMALIZATION CONDITIONS 333
in violation of the condition (10.6). We will see that interaction (10.1) vio-
lates the charge renormalization condition as well. These two problems are
very serious even though they are not directly related to divergences in loop
diagrams. The presence of such divergences is just another argument that
QED interaction V1 + V2 must be modified.
The idea of the renormalization approach is to switch from the interaction
Hamiltonian V1 + V2 to another interaction V c by addition of renormalization
counterterms, which will be denoted collectively by Q
V c = V1 + V2 + Q (10.13)
The form of Q must be chosen such that the no-self-scattering and charge
renormalization conditions are satisfied. In particular, the new scattering
phase operator
1
F c = V c − [V c , V c ] + . . . (10.14)
2
should not contain renorm terms. Moreover, high-order contributions Fnc (n >
2) to the scattering of charged particles should be nonsingular at k̃ = 0.
Unfortunately, the program outlined above is difficult to implement. The
reason is that scattering calculations with the QED Hamiltonian (10.1) are
rather cumbersome. As we discussed in subsection 9.2.3, it is much easier
to use the Feynman-Dyson approach, in which the 2nd order interaction op-
erator V2 is omitted, and the momentum space photon propagator is taken
simply as ∝ gµν /p̃2 . This is the standard way to calculate the S-matrix in
QED, and we will adopt this approach in the present chapter. The gen-
eral idea of renormalization remains the same. We are looking for certain
counterterms QF D that can be added to the original interaction operator
Z
V1 (t) = −e dxψ(x̃)γµ ψ(x̃)Aµ (x̃) (10.15)
VFcD = V1 + QF D (10.16)
334 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
(a) (b)
k
a b c d
p,σ γμ γν p',σ' p,σ p',σ'
Figure 10.2: Feynman diagrams for the scattering electron→ electron in the
2nd perturbation order.
Z+∞ Z+∞
i 1
Sc = 1 − dt1 VFc D (t1 ) − dt1 dt2 T [VFc D (t1 )VFc D (t2 )] . . . (10.17)
~ 2!~2
−∞ −∞
10.2 Counterterms
Next we would like to see how the program outlined above works in practice.
In this section we are going to derive explicit expressions for counterterms
QF D in the 2nd and 3rd order.
FD †
h0|ap,σ S2a ap′ ,σ′ |0i
Z
me2 c4 δ 4 (p̃ − p̃′ ) / − /k + mc2 )bc g µν cd
(p
= − ua (p, σ) d 4
kγµab · γν ub (p′ , σ ′ )
(2πi)2 (2π~)ωp 2 2
(p̃ − k̃) − m c 4 k̃ 2
10.2. COUNTERTERMS 335
(10.18)
2 4 4 ′
me c δ (p̃ − p̃ )
= 2
ua (p, σ) C0 δab + C1 (p /) ub (p, σ ′ )
/ − mc2 )ab + Rab (p
(2π) (2π~)ωp
(10.19)
3π 2 mc2 Λ
C0 = 4 ln + 1
2ic3 m
2
2π Λ λ 9
C1 = − 3 ln + 2 ln +
ic m m 4
R(p / − mc2 )2 + C3 (p
/) = C2 (p / − mc2 )3 + . . . (10.20)
Dloop (p / − mc2 ) + R(p
/) = ~2 e2 c2 C0 + C1 (p /) (10.21)
2 2 2 2 Λ 1
2 2
Dloop (p
/ = mc ) = ~ e c C0 = 3ie π mc 2 ln + (10.22)
m 2
For loops in internal electron lines, the 4-momentum p̃ is not necessarily on
the mass shell, so the full factor (10.21) should be taken into account.
Next consider the other electron self-scattering diagram 10.2(b).15
FD †
h0|ap,σ S2b ap′ ,σ′ |0i
mc2 µ ′ ′ (2π~)8 e2 ~2 c2 gµν δ 4 (p̃ − p̃′ )
= ua (p, σ)γ ab u b (p , σ ) − ×
(2π~)3 ωp ~2 (2πi)(2π~)3 (p̃ − p̃′ )2
Z
1 4 (k/ + mc2 )cd γcd ν
d k
(2πi)(2π~)3 k̃ 2 − m2 c4
The integral on k̃ vanishes due to (J.7) and (J.8)
Z Z
4T r(γ ν γ ρ kρ + γ ν mc2 ) 4k ν
dk = d4 k =0
k̃ 2 − m2 c4 k̃ 2 − m2 c4
so, diagrams like 10.2(b) make no contributions in both external and internal
electron lines.
i(2π~)4 i(2π~)4
Dcount(p
/) = − δm2 + / − mc2 )
(Z2 − 1)2 (p (10.26)
~ ~
16
δm2 has the dimension of energy and (Z2 − 1)2 is dimensionless. Both of them are
second-order quantities, as indicated by the subscripts. Here the numerical factors δm2
and (Z2 )2 are regarded as unknown constants whose values need to be adjusted to cancel
out divergent terms in (10.21). Eventually, we will see that these factors coincide with
renormalization parameters - the mass shift and the electron wave function renormalization
factor - in usual approaches. Note that in our philosophy of renormalization we are not
following the usual logic. In particular, we are not “shifting” the electron’s mass and do
not multiply the electron field by a factor, as in [Wei95].
17
This formula is obtained by inserting QF D c
2el (t) instead of VF D (t) in the second term on
the right hand side of (10.17).
338 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
i(2π~)4
/ = mc2 ) = −
Dcount (p δm2
~
This contribution should be added to the loop term (10.22). Thus we con-
clude that loops in external electron lines will be canceled exactly18 if we
choose19
ie2 c2 C0 3mc3 e2 1 Λ
δm2 = − =− + 2 ln (10.27)
(2π)4 ~ 16π 2 ~ 2 m
In other words, when doing calculations in the renormalized theory the self-
energy loops in external electron lines and contributions from the counterterm
(10.23) can be simply ignored. In our study this means that diagrams 10.1(b-
c) and (i-j) can be omitted.
Electron-photon loops and “cross” vertices can also appear in internal
electron lines whose 4-momentum p̃ is not necessarily on the mass shell. Then
the loop contribution (10.21) has a non-vanishing divergent term proportional
to C1 . In order to cancel this divergence, it is sufficient to choose the other
renormalization factor in (10.23)20
18
In the language of traditional mass renormalization theory this cancelation comes from
the requirement that the renormalized electron propagator has a pole at /p = mc2 , where
m is the physical mass of the electron.
19
This expression for the “mass shift” can be compared with formula for δm in (21)
[Fey49], with expression right after equation (8.42) in [BD64] and with second equation
on page 523 in [Sch61].
20
Compare this result with (8.43) in [BD64] and with equation (94b) in section 15 in
[Sch61]. Note that the finiteness requirement does not specify this factor uniquely. One
can replace C1 with C1 + δ, where δ is any finite constant, and still have a finite result.
Usually, the correct choice δ = 0 is justified by the requirement that the residue of the
renormalized electron propagator is equal to 1. In our approach this requirement is covered
10.2. COUNTERTERMS 339
ie2 c2 C1 e2 Λ λ 9
(Z2 − 1)2 = = − ln + 2 ln + (10.28)
(2π)4 ~ 8π 2 ~c m m 4
Then infinite contributions from the loop and the counterterm cancel each
other, and only a finite and harmless R-correction remains
Dloop (p /) = ~2 e2 c2 R(p
/) + Dcount (p /)
p−k
p,τ b cc p,τ’’
γµ γν
a d
k
Figure 10.3: Feynman diagram for the scattering photon→photon in the 2nd
perturbation order.
η(0) = 0 (10.31)
The factor in (10.29) associated only with the loop and two attached vertices
(no contributions from external lines) is
Z
(Z3 − 1)2
QF2ph
D
(t) =− dxF µν (x̃)Fµν (x̃) (10.33)
4
where we denoted
Fµν ≡ ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ
µν
F Fµν = (∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ )(∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ )
= ∂ µ Aν ∂µ Aν − ∂ µ Aν ∂ν Aµ − ∂ ν Aµ ∂µ Aν + ∂ ν Aµ ∂ν Aµ
= 2∂ µ Aν ∂µ Aν − 2∂ µ Aν ∂ν Aµ
and (Z3 − 1)2 is yet unspecified 2nd order renormalization factor. Let us
now evaluate the effect of the counterterm (10.33) on the photon→photon
scattering amplitude. From definitions (K.2) and (10.24) it follows25
√ Z
i c dq qν X − i q̃·x̃ i
∂ν Aµ (x, t) = 3/2
√ [−e ~ eµ (q, τ )cq,τ + e ~ q̃·x̃ e∗µ (q, τ )c†q,τ ]
(2π~) 2q c τ
i i
h0|cp,τ ∂ν Aµ (x, t) → h0| √ e ~ p̃·x̃ pν e∗µ (p, τ )
(2π~)3/2 2pc
i i ′
∂ν Aµ (x, t)c†p′ ,τ ′ |0i → − √ e− ~ p̃ ·x̃ p′ν eµ (p′ , τ ′ )|0i
(2π~)3/2 2p′ c
Then the S-matrix contribution from (10.33) has a form similar to (10.29)
24
From the dimension (O.2) of the photon quantum field, it is easy to show that this
operator has the required dimension of energy if (Z3 − 1)2 is dimensionless. Moreover, this
operator explicitly satisfies the Poincaré invariance condition (9.7).
25
Here symbol → denotes the part that is relevant for calculation of the matrix element
(10.34).
342 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
8i(Z3 − 1)2 π 4 ~ 2 µν
Dcount (p̃) = − (p̃ g − pµ pν ) (10.35)
c2
The constant (Z3 − 1)2 should be chosen such that expression (10.35) exactly
cancels the loop factor (10.32) when p̃2 = 0, i.e., for external photon lines
ie2 c2 Π(0)
(Z3 − 1)2 = − (10.36)
8π 4 ~
Then for internal photon lines28 the sum of the loop (10.32) and the coun-
terterm (10.35) is finite
ie2 c2 (Π(0) + δ)
(Z3 − 1)2 = −
8π 4 ~
and (10.37) would remain finite
(d)+(k) †
h0|aq,σ dp,τ S4 dp′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
2 4 4 4
e mMc ~ c
= − 2 4
p δ 4 (q̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ + p̃) ×
(2πi) (2π~) ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′
e2 (η(k̃ 2 ) − δ) µ gµν 2 νλ gλκ κ
2
U (q, σ; q′ , σ ′ ) (k̃ g − k ν k λ ) W (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ )
~ k̃ 2 k̃ 2
e4 mMc4 c4
= 2 6
p δ 4 (q̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ + p̃) ×
~ (2π) ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′
η(k̃ 2 ) − δ
Uµ (q, σ; q′ , σ ′ )W µ (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ )
k̃ 2
4 4
ec 4 ′ ′ η(k̃ 2 ) − δ
≈ δ (q̃ − q̃ − p̃ + p̃) δσ,σ′ δτ,τ ′ (10.39)
(2π)6 ~2 k̃ 2
Taking into account equation (10.31), we conclude that if δ 6= 0, then this
matrix element has a singularity ∝ −δ/k̃ 2 at small values of k̃. This singu-
larity leads to a 4th order correction to the long-range scattering of charged
30
Here we denoted k̃ ≡ q̃ ′ − q̃ = p̃ − p̃′ , used non-relativistic approximations from
Appendix J.9 and formulas (J.84) - (J.85): U µ gµν k ν k λ gλκ W κ = U µ kµ kκ W κ = 0.
344 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
(e)
h0|aq,σ dp,τ S4 d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
e4 c4 mMc4
≈ 4 2
p δ 4 (q̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ + p̃)u(q, σ) ×
(2πi) (2π~) ωq ωq p p ′ Ω Ω ′
Z
4 −h / + /q + mc2 −h / + /q′ + mc2 µ 1
d hγµ γκ γ ×
(h̃ − q̃)2 − m2 c4 (h̃ − q̃ ′ )2 − m2 c4 h̃2
1
u(q′, σ ′ ) ′ W κ (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ ) (10.40)
(q̃ − q̃)2
I κ (q̃, q̃ ′)
Zθ
π 2 γ κ 8θ λ 8 1 Λ
= 3
ln + α tan αdα + + 6θ cot θ + 2 ln
ic tan(2θ) m tan(2θ) 2 m
0
2 ′ κ
2π θ(q + q )
− (10.41)
imc5 sin(2θ)
To apply the charge renormalization condition, we should consider this
expression at small values of the transferred momentum (i.e., when q̃ ≈ q̃ ′ ,
θ ≈ 0). In this case we can use equation (J.4)
0 = u(q, σ)(γ µ (q
/ − mc2 ) + (q / − mc2 )γ µ )u(q, σ ′ )
= u(q, σ)(γ µ γ ν qν + γ ν qν γ µ − 2γ µ mc2 )u(q, σ ′)
= u(q, σ)(2g µν qν − 2γ µ mc2 )u(q, σ ′ )
= 2u(q, σ)(q µ − γ µ mc2 )u(q, σ ′ )
10.2. COUNTERTERMS 345
to see that when sandwiched between u and u, the 4-vector q µ can be replaced
by γ µ mc2 . Therefore, in (10.41) we will set q κ ≈ (q ′ )κ ≈ γ κ mc2 and obtain31
F π2γ κ
lim I κ (q̃, q̃ ′ ) =
k̃→0,q̃→0 ic3
λ Λ 9
F ≡ 4 ln + 2 ln +
m m 2
(e)
h0|aq,σ dp,τ S4 d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
ie4 c4 F π 2 mMc4 δ 4 (q̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ + p̃)
= − 3 4 2
p
′ 2
Uκ (q, σ; q′ , σ ′ )W κ (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ )
c (2πi) (2π~) ωq ωq Ωp Ωp (q̃ − q̃)
′ ′
(10.42)
has a singularity ∝ F/k̃ 2 . This means that in disagreement with our Postu-
late 10.2, the 4th perturbation order makes a non-trivial contribution to the
long-distance electron-proton scattering. Even more disturbing is the fact
that this effect is infinite in the limit Λ → ∞.
This unacceptable situation can be fixed by adding one more (vertex )
renormalization counterterm to the QED interaction
Z
QF3 D (t) = −e(Z1 − 1)2 dxψ(x̃)γµ ψ(x̃)Aµ (x̃) (10.43)
It has the same form as the basic QED interaction (10.15), so the diagram
10.1(h) is easily evaluated33
(h)
h0|aq,σ dp,τ S4 d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i
ie2 c2 (Z1 − 1)2 mMc4 δ 4 (q̃ + p̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ )
= p Uκ (q, σ; q′ , σ ′ )W κ (p, τ ; p′ , τ ′ )
4π 2 ~ ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′ (q̃ ′ − q̃)2
e2 F
(Z1 − 1)2 = = −(Z2 − 1)2
16π 2 c~
After adding all three renormalization counterterms (10.23), (10.33), and
(10.43) the full Feynman-Dyson interaction operator (10.16) takes the form
VFc D (t)
= V1 (t) + QF2elD (t) + QF2ph
D
(t) + QF3 D (t) + . . .
Z Z
= −e dxψ(x̃)γµ ψ(x̃)A (x̃) + e dxΨ(x̃)γµ Ψ(x̃)Aµ (x̃)
µ
Z Z
+δm2 dxψ(x̃)ψ(x̃) + (Z2 − 1)2 dxψ(x̃)(−i~cγµ ∂µ + mc2 )ψ(x̃)
Z Z
(Z3 − 1)2
− µν
dxF (x̃)Fµν (x̃) − e(Z1 − 1)2 dxψ(x̃)γµ ψ(x̃)Aµ (x̃) + . . .
4
(10.44)
(d)+(k) (e)+(h) (f ) (g)
h0|aq,σ dp,τ S4c d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i = s4 + s4 + s4 + s4 δ 4 (q̃ + p̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ )
(10.45)
For our purposes it will be sufficient to work in the limit of low momenta of
particles35 and small transferred momentum k̃.
F π2 κ
I κ (q̃, q̃ ′ ) − γ
ic3
Zθ
π 2 γ κ 8θ λ 8 1 Λ
= 3
ln + α tan αdα + + 6θ cot θ + 2 ln
ic tan(2θ) m tan(2θ) 2 m
0
2 ′ κ 2 κ
2π θ(q̃ + q̃ ) π γ λ Λ 9
− 5
− 4 ln + 2 ln +
imc sin(2θ) ic3 m m 2
35
see Appendix J.9
36
Here α ≡ e2 /(4π~c) ≈ 1/137 is the fine structure constant.
348 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
Zθ
π2γ κ 8θ λ 8
= − 4 ln + α tan αdα − 4 + 6θ cot θ
ic3 tan(2θ) m tan(2θ)
0
2 ′ κ
2π θ(q̃ + q̃ )
−
imc5 sin(2θ)
p
k̃ 2
θ ≈
2mc2
8θ 4|k̃| 4|k̃| 4k̃ 2
≈ ≈ ≈4−
tan(2θ) mc2 tan mc |k̃| |k̃|
mc2 mc |k̃|3 3m2 c4
2 2 + 3m3 c6
Zθ Zθ
8 4 4 θ3 k̃ 2
α tan αdα ≈ α2 dα = · ≈
tan(2θ) θ θ 3 3m2 c4
0 0
1 θ k̃ 2
6θ cot θ ≈ 6θ − = 6 − 2θ2 ≈ 6 −
θ 3 2m2 c4
2θ 2θ 2θ2 k̃ 2
≈ ≈ 1 + ≈ 1 +
sin(2θ) 2θ − (4/3)θ3 3 6m2 c4
! !
F π2 2π 2 γ κ k̃ 2 π 2 (q̃ + q̃ ′ )κ k̃ 2
I κ (q̃, q̃ ′ ) − 3 γ κ ≈ 1− − 1+
ic ic3 12m2 c4 imc5 6m2 c4
π 2 γ κ 4k̃ 2 λ
− 3 2 4
ln
ic 3m c m
so that diagrams 10.1(e) + (h) become
2icα2 δτ,τ ′ Mmc4 k2
·p 1+ U 0 (q + k, ǫ; q, ǫ′ )
4π 2 k 2 Ωp−k ωq+k Ωp ωq 12m2 c2
icα2 δτ,τ ′ q2 qk k2 k2
≈ 1− − − 1+ ×
2π 2 k 2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 4m2 c2 12m2 c2
† (2q + k)2 + 2i~σel · [k × q]
χσ 1 + χσ′
8m2 c2
icα2 δτ,τ ′ † q2 qk k2 k2 q2 qk k2
≈ χ 1 − − − + + + +
2π 2 k 2 σ 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 4m2 c2 12m2 c2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 8m2 c2
~σel [k × q]
+ i χσ′
4m2 c2
37
In chapter 14.2 we will see that this expression is related to the electron’s anomalous
magnetic moment (AMM).
38
see Appendix J.9. For example, in this limit we can replace W 0 ≈ δτ,τ ′ and W ≈ 0.
350 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
icα2 δτ,τ ′ † 1 1 ~σel [k × q]
≈ χσ − +i χσ′ (10.49)
2π 2 k 2 2
24m c 2 4m2 c2 k 2
icα2 δτ,τ ′ Mmc4 k2 ωq+k + ωq
− 2 2
·p · 1 − 2 2
u(q + k, σ)u(q, σ ′)
4π k Ωp−k ωq+k Ωp ωq k 2 6m c mc2
icα2 δτ,τ ′ q2 qk k2 k2 q 2 + k 2 + 2qk q2
= − 1− − − − + + ×
2π 2 k 2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 4m2 c2 6m2 c2 4m2 c2 4m2 c2
†
p
2
p
2
q+k
χσ ωq+k + mc , ωq+k − mc · ~σel ×
|q + k|
" p #
ωq + mc 2
p χσ′
2 q
− ωq − mc q · ~σel 2mc2
p p
icα2 δτ,τ ′ k2 † ω q+k + mc 2 ωq + mc2
= − 1 − χ σ
2π 2 k 2 6m2 c2 2mc2
p p
ωq+k − mc2 ωq − mc2 q + k q
− · ~σel · ~σel χσ′
2mc2 |q + k| q
icα2 δτ,τ ′ k2
≈ − 1− ×
2π 2 k 2 6m2 c2
† (q + k)2 q2 |q + k|q q + k q
χσ 1+ 1+ − · ~σel · ~σel χσ′
8m2 c2 8m2 c2 4m2 c2 |q + k| q
icα2 δτ,τ ′ † 1 1 i~σel [k × q]
= χσ − 2 + + χσ′ (10.50)
2π 2 k 24m2 c2 4m2 c2 k 2
Putting (10.49) and (10.50) together, we obtain39
We use Dirac equations (J.83) - (J.82) for functions u(q) and w(p) and
the anticommutator relationship (J.4) for gamma matrices to rewrite the
numerator
(f ) e4 c4
s4 ≈ ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
40
Here we dropped spin indices, as in our approximation the spin dependence will be
lost anyway.
352 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
where
Z
d4 h
b(p, q, k) =
[h̃2 − 2(q̃ · h̃][h̃2 + 2(p̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
(10.54)
Z 4 α
d hh
bα (p, q, k) =
[h̃ − 2(q̃ · h̃)][h̃ + 2(p̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
2 2
Z
d4 hhα hβ
bαβ (p, q, k) =
[h̃2 − 2(q̃ · h̃)][h̃2 + 2(p̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
bα (p, q, k) ≈ −k α b(p, q, k)
bαβ (p, q, k) ≈ k α k β b(p, q, k)
Now substitute these results in (10.53) and use definitions (J.62) - (J.63) of
functions U µ and W µ
(f ) e4 c4
s4 = b(p, q, k) ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
[4(q̃ · p̃)(u(q)γν u(q′ )w(p)γν w(p′ ) − 2u(q)γν u(q′ )w(p)q /γν w(p′ )
/k
+ 2u(q)p /k/γν u(q′ )w(p)γν w(p′) − u(q)γµ/kγν u(q′ )w(p)γµ/kγν w(p′ )]
e4 c4
= b(p, q, k)[4(q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ ) − 2Uν w(p)q/γν w(p′ )
/k
(2π)4 (2π~)2
+ 2u(q)p /k/γν u(q′ )Wν − u(q)γµ/kγν u(q′ )w(p)γµ/kγν w(p′ )]
10.3. RENORMALIZED S-MATRIX 353
u(q)γµ/kγν u(q′ )
= u(q)γµ/q′ γν u(q′ ) − u(q)γµ/γ
q ν u(q′ )
= u(q)γµ (−γν/q′ + 2(q ′ )ν )u(q′ ) − u(q)(−q /γµ + 2q µ )γν u(q′ )
= −u(q)γµ γν/q′ u(q′ ) + 2u(q)γµ (q ′ )ν u(q′ ) + u(q)q
/γµ γν u(q′)
−2u(q)q µ γν u(q′ )
= −mc2 u(q)γµ γν u(q′ ) + 2(q ′)ν Uµ + mc2 u(q)γµ γν u(q′ ) − 2q µ Uν
= 2(q ′ )ν Uµ − 2q µ Uν (10.56)
(f ) e4 c4
s4 = b(p, q, k) ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
[4(q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ ) − 2Uν (2(q̃ · p̃)Wν − 2(p′ )ν (q̃ · W̃ ))
+ 2(2(q ′ )ν (p · U) − 2(q̃ · p̃)Uν )Wν − (2(q ′ )ν Uµ − 2q µ Uν )(−2(p′ )ν Wµ + 2pµ Wν )]
4e4 c4
= b(p, q, k) ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
[(q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ ) − (q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ ) + (p̃′ · Ũ )(q̃ · W̃ ) + (q̃ ′ · W̃ )(p̃ · Ũ ) − (q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ )
+ (q̃ ′ · p̃′ )(Ũ · W̃ ) − (q̃ ′ · W̃ )(p̃ · Ũ) − (q̃ · W̃ )(p̃′ · Ũ) + (q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ )]
4e4 c4
= b(p, q, k)(q̃ ′ · p̃′ )(Ũ · W̃ )
(2π)4 (2π~)2
4e4 Mmc8
≈ b(p, q, k) (10.58)
(2π)4 (2π~)2
Function b(p, q, k) is evaluated in (M.52)
! Z1
π2 k̃ 2 dy
b(p, q, k) = ln (10.59)
ic3 k̃ 2 λ 2 c4 (p̃ + q̃)2 y 2 − 2p̃(p̃ + q̃)y + p̃2
0
Z
dy 2 2ax + b
2
=√ tan−1 √ + const
ay + by + c 4ac − b2 4ac − b2
So, we get
Z1
dy
(p̃ + q̃)2 y 2 − 2p̃(p̃ + q̃)y + p̃2
0
−1 2(p̃ + q̃)2 y − 2p̃(p̃ + q̃) y=1
−1
= 2B tan
B y=0
2 2
−1 −1 2q̃ + 2(p̃ · q̃) −1 2p̃ + 2(p̃ · q̃)
= 2B tan + tan
B B
1 mc Mc
≈ 3
tan−1 + tan−1 (10.60)
iMc q iq iq
10.3. RENORMALIZED S-MATRIX 355
p p p
B ≡ 4(p̃ + q̃)2 p̃2 − 4(p̃2 + (p̃ · q̃))2 = 2 p̃2 q̃ 2 − (p̃ · q̃)2 = 2 M 2 m2 c8 − (p̃ · q̃)2
s 2
p 2 q 2
≈ 2 M 2 m2 c8 − Mc2 + mc2 + − c2 (pq)
2M 2m
p
≈ 2 −M 2 c6 q 2 = 2iMc3 q
(f ) α2 mc2 −1 mc −1 Mc k2
s4 ≈ tan + tan ln − 2 2
π 2 qk 2 iq iq λ c
(10.61)
We will not elaborate this result further as we expect some cancelations with
the crossed ladder diagram evaluated in the next subsection.
Z
(g) e4 c4 u(q)γµ (q/ − /h + mc2 )γν u(q′ )
s4 ≈ d4 h ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2 (q̃ − h̃)2 − m2 c4 + iσ
/′ − /h + Mc2 )γµ w(p′ )
w(p)γν (p 1
′ 2
(p̃ − h̃) − M c 2 4 [h̃ − λ c ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
2 2 4
and
(g) e4 c4
s4 = ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
/′ u(q′ )w(p)q
[4u(q)p /w(p′ )b(−p′ , q, k)
− 2u(q)γν u(q′ )w(p)q /γα γν w(p′ )bα (−p′ , q, k)
− 2u(q)γµ γα/p′ u(q′ )w(p)γµ w(p′ )bα (−p′ , q, k)
+ u(q)γµ γα γν u(q′ )w(p)γµ γβ γν w(p′ )bαβ (−p′ , q, k)] (10.62)
Z
′ d4 h
b(−p , q, k) ≡
[h̃2 − 2(q̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − 2(p̃′ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
can be obtained from (10.54) by replacing p̃ → −p̃′ . Using the same assump-
tions as in the preceding subsection, two other integrals can be expressed in
terms of b(−p′ , q, k)
Z
α ′ d4 hhα
b (−p , q, k) ≡
[h̃2 − 2(q̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − 2(p̃′ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
≈ −k α b(−p′ , q, k)
Z
αβ ′ d4 hhα hβ
b (−p , q, k) ≡
[h̃2 − 2(q̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − 2(p̃′ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][(h̃ + k̃)2 − λ2 c4 ]
≈ k α k β b(−p′ , q, k)
′ ′
u(q)γµ/kp/u(q /′ − /)p
) = u(q)γµ (q q /′ u(q′ )
= u(q)γµ/q′/p′ u(q′ ) − u(q)γµ/p
q/′ u(q′)
10.3. RENORMALIZED S-MATRIX 357
to obtain
(g) e4 c4
s4 = b(−p′ , q, k) ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
[4(p̃′ · Ũ)(q̃ · W̃ ) + 2Uν (2(q̃ · p̃)Wν − 2(p′ )ν (q · W ))
+ 2(2(q̃ ′ · p̃′ )Uµ − 2(p̃′ · Ũ )q µ )Wµ + (2(q ′)ν Uµ − 2q µ Uν )(−2(p′ )ν Wµ + 2pµ Wν )]
4e4 c4
= b(−p′ , q, k) ×
(2π)4 (2π~)2
[(p̃′ · Ũ )(q̃ · W̃ ) + (q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ ) − (p̃′ · Ũ)(q̃ · W̃ ) + (q̃ ′ · p̃′ )(Ũ · W̃ )
− (p̃′ · Ũ)(q̃ · W̃ ) − (q̃ ′ · p̃′ )(Ũ · W̃ ) + (q̃ · W̃ )(p̃′ · Ũ ) + (q̃ ′ · W̃ )(p̃ · Ũ)
− (q̃ · p̃)(Ũ · W̃ )]
4e4 c4
= 4 2
b(−p′ , q, k)(q̃ ′ · W̃ )(p̃ · Ũ )
(2π) (2π~)
4e4 Mmc8
≈ b(−p′ , q, k)
(2π)4 (2π~)2
! Z1
π2 k̃ 2 dy
b(−p′ , q, k) = ln
ic3 k̃ 2 λ 2 c4 (−p̃′ + q̃)2 y 2 + 2p̃′ (−p̃′ + q̃)y + p̃2
0
p
B′ ≡ 4(q̃ − p̃′ )2 (p̃′ )2 − 4((p̃′)2 − (p̃′ · q̃))2 ≈ B = 2iMc3 q
Z1
dy
(−p̃′ + q̃)2 y 2 + 2p̃′ (−p̃′ + q̃)y + p̃2
0
358 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
−1 2(−p̃′ + q̃)2 y + 2p̃′ (−p̃′ + q̃) y=1
−1
≈ 2B tan
B y=0
2 ′
2
−1 −1 2q̃ − 2(p̃ · q̃) −1 2p̃ − 2(p̃′ · q̃)
= 2B tan + tan
B B
1 mc Mc
≈ 3
− tan−1 + tan−1
iMc q iq iq
and
(g) α2 mc2 −1 mc −1 Mc k2
s4 ≈ 2 2 − tan + tan ln − 2 2
π qk iq iq λ c
(f )+(g) α2 mc2 k2
s4 ≈− ln − 2 2 (10.63)
πqk 2 λ c
10.3.5 Renormalizability
Combining results (10.46), (10.51), (10.52), (10.63) we get the following Λ-
independent 4th order amplitude for the electron-proton scattering
h0|aq,σ dp,τ S4c d†p′ ,τ ′ a†q′ ,σ′ |0i ≈ δ 4 (q̃ − q̃ ′ − p̃′ + p̃)δτ τ ′ ×
h iα2
iα2 λ mc2 α2 k2
δσσ′ + 2 2 ln δσσ′ − ln − 2 2 δσσ′
15π 2 m2 c 3π m c m πqk 2 λ c
α2 χ†σ (~σel · [k × q])χσ′ i
− (10.64)
4π 2 m2 ck 2
As expected, this result is finite and does not depend on the cutoff param-
eter Λ. In other words, this result is ultraviolet-safe, so that we fulfilled
the promise of the renormalization approach. Unfortunately, the amplitude
(10.64) still contains unpleasant infrared-divergent logarithms. Their phys-
ical origin is related to the vanishing photon mass. Any collision involving
10.4. TROUBLES WITH RENORMALIZED QED 359
i c it
|0(t)i = e− ~ H t |0i = (1 − (H0 + V c ) + . . .)|0i
~
∝ |0i + ta† b† c† |0i + td† f † c† |0i + . . .
∝ |0i + t|abci + t|df ci + . . . (10.65)
We see that various multiparticle states (|abci, |df ci, etc.) are created from
the vacuum during time evolution. The physical vacuum in QED is not just
45
Here we are concerned only with the presence of a† b† c† and d† f † c† interaction terms
in (L.8). All other terms are omitted. We also omit factors i, ~ and coefficient functions
which are not relevant in this context.
10.4. TROUBLES WITH RENORMALIZED QED 363
interaction is present all the time, but the time evolution is trivial: station-
ary wave function acquire simple time-dependent phase factors exp − ~i En t .
Experimental measurements of such bound states are usually limited to their
energies En , while accessing their wave functions is virtually impossible. As
we know from subsection 7.1.5, En can be obtained as positions of poles of
the S-matrix S(E) on the complex energy plane. Thus, for description of
most experiments it is sufficient to know the S-operator; the knowledge of
the Hamiltonian is not required.47
So, in the present experimental situation, the lack of a well-defined Hamil-
tonian and the inability of renormalized QFT to describe time evolution can
be tolerated. But there is no doubt that time-dependent processes in high
energy physics will be eventually accessible to more advanced experimental
techniques. See, for example, recent measurements of the time-dependent dy-
namics of atomic wave functions with attosecond resolution [DLM12]. More-
over, the time evolution is clearly observable in everyday “macroscopic” life.
So, a consistent and comprehensive subatomic theory must describe time-
dependent phenomena. The renormalized QED cannot do that, so the scope
of this theory is limited.
ψ ∝ α† + α
fields,48 we would necessarily have unphys and renorm terms there. For
example, converting a product of four fields to the normally ordered form
V ∝ ψ4
= (α† + α)(α† + α)(α† + α)(α† + α)
= α† α† α† α† + α† α† α† α + α† ααα + αααα + α† α† + αα (10.66)
+α† α + C (10.67)
† †
+α α αα (10.68)
we obtain unphys terms (10.66) together with renorm terms (10.67) and
one phys term (10.68). The presence of unphys terms is an indication that
bare states created by operators α† cannot be sensibly associated with true
physical particles.
This analysis suggests that any quantum field theory is destined to suffer
from renormalization difficulties. Do we have any alternative? We are go-
ing to show that with certain modifications, quantum field theories can be
salvaged. It is possible to construct a satisfactory relativistic quantum ap-
proach where the Hamiltonian is well-defined, renormalization problems are
absent, and time evolution can be described in a natural way. This approach
will be discussed in the second part of this book.
48
as prescribed by general QFT rules from subsection 9.1.1.
366 CHAPTER 10. RENORMALIZATION
Part II
QUANTUM THEORY OF
PARTICLES
367
369
DRESSED PARTICLE
APPROACH
The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you
are the easiest person to fool.
Richard Feynman
371
372 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
going to postulate that our desired interaction operator V d has phys terms5
V d = α† α† αα + α† α† ααα + α† α† α† αα + . . . (11.1)
According to Table 8.2 in subsection 8.2.5, commutators of phys terms can be
only phys. Therefore, when the scattering operator F d is calculated from V d
via equation (7.21) only phys terms can appear there in each perturbation
order. Then both V d and F d yield zero when acting on zero-particle and
one-particle states
V d |0i = V d α† |0i = 0
F d |0i = F d α† |0i = 0
as required by the no-self-scattering renormalization condition 10.1. More-
over, time evolutions of the vacuum and one-particle states are not different
from their free time evolutions
− ~i H d t it d ph
|0(t)i = e |0i = 1 − (H0 + (V ) ) + . . . |0i
~
it i
= 1 − H0 + . . . |0i = e− ~ H0 t |0i
~
− ~i H d t † it
|α(t)i = e α |0i = 1 − (H0 + (V ) ) + . . . α† |0i
d ph
~
it i
= 1 − H0 + . . . α† |0i = e− ~ H0 t |αi
~
as they should be. Physically this means that, in addition to forbidding self-
scattering in zero-particle and one-particle states,6 our ansatz (11.1) also
forbids any self-interaction in these states. So, our search for a better QED
interaction will be based on the following
Postulate 11.1 (stability of vacuum and one-particle states) There is
no (self-)interaction in the vacuum and one-particle states, i.e., the time evo-
lution of these states is not affected by interaction and is governed by the
5
Recall that decay and oscillation operators are not present in QED. So, we will not
consider them here.
6
i.e., satisfying Statement 10.1
376 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
Summarizing discussions from various parts of this book, we can put together
a list of conditions that should be satisfied by any realistic interaction
(F) coefficient functions should rapidly tend to zero at large values of mo-
menta 7
(G) the scattering operator S d in our “dressed” theory is exactly the same
(in each perturbation order) as the operator S c in renormalized QED.
H ′ = eiΦ He−iΦ
preserves the S-operator if the Hermitian operator Φ has the form (8.49)
- (8.50) where all terms ΦN M are either phys or unphys and have smooth
coefficient functions.
Idea of the proof. Assume that operator Φ has the standard form (8.49)
- (8.50)
∞ X
X ∞
Φ = ΦN M
N =0 M =0
XZ
ΦN M = dq′1 . . . dq′N dq1 . . . dqM DN M (q′1 η1′ ; . . . ; q′N ηN
′
; q1 η1 ; . . . ; qM ηM ) ×
{η,η′ }
N M
!
X X
δ q′ i − qj αq† ′ ,η′ . . . αq† ′ ′ αq1 ,η1 . . . αqM ,ηM
1 1 N ,ηN
i=1 j=1
11.1. DRESSING TRANSFORMATION 379
Then the left hand side of the scattering equivalence condition (7.35) for each
term ΦN M is
i i
lim e ~ H0 t ΦN M e− ~ H0 t
t→±∞
XZ
= lim dq′1 . . . dq′N dq1 . . . dqM DN M (q′1 η1′ ; . . . ; q′N ηN
′
; q1 η1 ; . . . ; qM ηM ) ×
t→±∞
{η,η′ }
N M
!
X X i
δ q′ i − qj e ~ ENM t αq† ′ ,η′ . . . αq† ′ ′ αq1 ,η1 . . . αqM ,ηM (11.4)
1 1 N ,ηN
i=1 j=1
i[Φunp
1 , H0 ] = −V1
Φunp
1 = iV1 (11.11)
for the unphys part of Φ1 . This choice ensures that not only the unphys part
of V1d is zero, but the entire first order dressed interaction potential vanishes
V1d = 0, so that conditions (B) - (F) are trivially satisfied in this order. The
coefficient function of V1 is non-singular. By Lemma 11.3 this implies that
Φunp
1 in equation (11.11) is smooth. By Theorem 11.2, the presence of this
term in the dressing transformation eiΦ does not affect the S-operator in
agreement with our condition (G). So, we managed to satisfy all necessary
conditions in the first perturbation order.
1
V2d = V2c + i[Φ2 , H0 ] − [V1 , V1 ] + [V1 , V1 ]
2!
1
= V2c + i[Φ2 , H0 ] − [V1 , V1 ] (11.12)
2
It is convenient to write separately unphys, phys, and renorm parts of this
equation and take into account that [Φren
2 , H0 ] = 0
1
(V2d )unp = (V2c )unp + i[Φunp
2 , H0 ] − [V1 , V1 ]
unp
(11.13)
2
d ph ph 1
(V2 ) = (V2 ) + i[Φ2 , H0 ] − [V1 , V1 ]ph
c ph
(11.14)
2
d ren c ren 1 ren
(V2 ) = (V2 ) − [V1 , V1 ] (11.15)
2
13
More generally, we can also choose Φph 1 to be any phys operator whose coefficient
function vanishes on the energy shell. See next subsection.
382 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
All components on the right hand sides of (11.13) - (11.15) (except com-
mutators of Φunp 2 and Φph2 ) are, basically, known to us already: In QED,
ph
(V2 ) is the same as V2 in (L.11); operator (V2c )ren is coming from elec-
c ph
i
Φunp
2 = iV2unp − [V1 , V1 ]unp (11.16)
2
Operators V1 and V2unp are smooth. Then, by Lemma 11.3, the operator V1
is also smooth and by Lemma 8.12 the commutator [V1 , V1 ]unp is smooth as
well. Using Lemma 11.3 again, we see that operator Φunp 2 is smooth, and
iΦ
by Theorem 11.2 its presence in the transformation e does not affect the
S-operator. This is exactly what we need.
Let us now turn to equation (11.14) for the phys part of the dressed
particle interaction V2d . What are the conditions for selecting Φph 2 ? For
example, we cannot simply choose Φph 2 = 0, because in this case the dressed
particle interaction would acquire the form
1
(V2d )ph = V2ph − [V1 , V1 ]ph
2
and there is absolutely no guarantee that the coefficient function of (V2d )ph
rapidly tends to zero at large values of particle momenta (condition (F)). In
order to have this guarantee, we are going to choose Φph2 such that the right
hand side of (11.14) rapidly tends to zero when momenta are far from the
energy shell. In addition, we will require that Φph2 is non-singular.
14
Both
15
conditions can be satisfied by choosing
14
This is needed to obey the charge renormalization postulate from subsection 10.1.3.
15
Note that this part of our dressing transformation closely resembles the “similarity
renormalization” procedure suggested by Glazek and Wilson [GW93, Gla97].
11.1. DRESSING TRANSFORMATION 383
i
Φph
2 = ph
iV2 − [V1 , V1 ]ph
◦ (1 − ζ2 ) (11.17)
2
(III) ζ2 is smooth;
(IV) ζ2 rapidly tends to zero when the arguments move away from the energy
shell.17
ph 1
(V2d )ph = V2 − [V1 , V1 ]ph
◦ ζ2 (11.18)
2
so that (V2d )ph rapidly tends to zero when momenta of particles move away
from the energy shell in agreement with condition (F). Moreover, property
(I) guarantees that expression under the t-integral in (11.17) vanishes on the
energy shell. Therefore, this t-integral18 is non-singular and, according to
Theorem 11.2, Φph 2 does not modify the S-operator, i.e., condition (G) is
satisfied.
In (11.18) V1 and V1 are smooth operators, so, according to Theorem 8.12,
their commutator is also smooth. Operator V2ph and function ζ2 are smooth
16
The arguments of ζ2 (particle momenta and spin projections) should be the same as
arguments of coefficient functions in V2ph and [V1 , V1 ]ph . The “small circle” notation was
defined in subsection 8.2.3
2
17
For example, we can choose ζ2 = e−αE where α is a positive constant and E is the
energy function of the operator on the right hand side of (11.17). Actually, it may happen
that loop integrals involving V2d converge even without involvement of convergency factors
ζ2 . For example, in subsection 14.2.1 we will see that in QED the loop integral in the
product V2d V2d converges even if ζ2 = 1 everywhere.
18
calculated by formula (8.61)
384 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
as well. So, due to Statement 8.7, we conclude that the second-order dressed
interaction (V2d )ph is separable in accordance with our requirement (C).
Finally, we need to choose Φren2 . Note that this operator is not present in
the system of equations (11.13) - (11.15), so it should be derived from other
considerations. Apparently, the only sensible choice is
Φren
2 = 0 (11.19)
Φren
i = 0
unp
Φi = iΞunp
i + i(Vic )unp ,
Φph
i = i(Ξph c ph
i + (Vi ) ) ◦ (1 − ζi ) (11.21)
where functions ζi have properties (I) - (IV) from the preceding subsection.
Similar to the 2nd order discussed above, one then demonstrates that Φi is
smooth, so that condition (G) is satisfied in the i-th order and that (Vid )ren =
(Vid )unp = 0.
Solving equations (11.20) order-by-order we obtain the dressed particle
Hamiltonian
On the other hand, in the dressed particle approach with Hamiltonian (11.22),
the S-operator can be written using formulas (7.20) and (7.22)
According to our condition (G), these two operators should be equal order-
by-order. Thus we obtain the following set of relations between Vid and Sic
on the energy shell21
where Yi stands for a sum of certain products of Vjd from lower orders (2 ≤
j ≤ i − 2) with t-integrations (“underlines”). The relations (11.24) - (11.27)
are independent on the cutoff Λ, so they remain valid when Λ → ∞. In this
limit operators Sic and Σci are finite and assumed to be known on the energy
shell from the standard renormalized QED theory. This immediately implies
that V2d and V3d are finite on the energy shell and, due to our condition (F),
they are finite for all momenta even outside the energy shell.
Can we say that operator V4d is finite too? The part Σc4 is definitely
|{z}
finite, but how can we be sure that the term
(momenta). Then all loop integrals present in the product (11.28) are guar-
anteed to converge.22 Consequently, operator (11.28) is finite on the energy
shell, and V4d in (11.26) is also finite on the energy shell and everywhere else.
These arguments can be repeated in all higher orders, thus proving that the
dressed particle Hamiltonian H d is free of ultraviolet divergences.
1
V2d ≈ V2ph − [V1 , V1 ]ph (11.29)
2
Operator V2ph can be taken from formula (L.11), and calculations involved
in [V1 , V1 ]ph have been explained in subsection 9.2.1. So, obtaining the full
operator V2d is not that difficult.
In higher perturbation orders commutator formulas (11.20) become rather
complicated and the method of unitary dressing transformation becomes im-
practical. Fortunately, there is an equivalent, but a much simpler alternative
approach: One can fit the desired dressed interaction operators Vid directly
to the renormalized S-operator (or, more precisely, to its components Σci
in each perturbation order) of traditional QED, as described in subsection
11.1.8.
For example, in the 2nd order we obtain from (11.24) and our assumption
ζi ≈ 1
which is consistent with (11.29). Let us now briefly describe the structure
of this operator. Some examples of potentials present in V2d are shown in
Table 11.1. We can classify them into two groups: elastic potentials and
inelastic potentials. Elastic potentials do not change the particle content of
the system: they have equal number of annihilation and creation operators
of the same particle types. As shown in subsection 8.2.8, elastic potentials
24
For example, the ratio of the hydrogen’s binding energy (13.6 eV) and the electron’s
rest energy (511 keV) is only 2.6×10−5.
11.2. DRESSED INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PARTICLES 389
All 3rd order potentials are inelastic. Two of them are shown in Table
11.1: The term d† a† c† da (bremsstrahlung) describes creation of a photon
in a proton-electron collision.25 In the language of classical electrodynamics,
this can be interpreted as emission of radiation due to acceleration of charged
particles and is also related to the radiation reaction force. The Hermitian-
conjugated term d† a† dac describes absorption of a photon by a colliding pair
of charged particles.
The situation is less certain for the 4th and higher order dressed particle
interactions. Near the energy shell we can again set ζ4 ≈ 1 in equation
(11.26)
V4d = d† a† da + a† a† a† b† aa + . . . (11.32)
The contribution (Σc4 )ph in equation (11.31) is well-defined near the energy
shell, because we assume exact knowledge of the S-operator of renormalized
QED in all perturbation orders. However, there is less clarity about the con-
tribution (V2d V2d )ph . As explained in section 8.4, the diagram for the product
(V2d V2d )ph should be constructed from diagrams V2d and V2d by coupling some
of their external lines, thus transforming them into internal lines and loops.
25
A more detailed discussion of this effect can be found in section 14.1.
390 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
Loop integration momenta are not limited, so the product (V2d V2d )ph generally
depends on the behavior of the factors everywhere in the momentum space,
even outside their energy shells. So, (11.31) depends on our global choice
ζ2 outside the energy shell. The function ζ2 satisfies conditions (I) - (IV),
but still there is a great freedom in choosing the out-of-shell behavior of ζ2 .
This freedom is reflected in the uncertainty of V4d even on the energy shell.
Therefore, we have two possibilities depending on the operator structure of
the 4th order potential we are interested in.
First, there are potentials contained only in the term (Σc4 )ph in (11.31)
and not present in the product (V2d V2d )ph . For example, this product does
not contain operator a† a† a† b† aa responsible for the creation of an electron-
positron pair in two-electron collisions. For such potentials, their 4th order
expression near the energy shell can be explicitly obtained from formula
(11.31).26
Second, there are potentials V4d whose contributions come from both two
terms on the right hand side of (11.31). For such potentials, the second term
26
This certainty is stressed by the bold 4 in the last row of Table 11.1.
11.2. DRESSED INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PARTICLES 391
on the right hand side of this equation is dependent on the particular choice of
function ζ2 and, therefore, remains uncertain. One example is the 4th order
contribution to the electron-proton interaction d† a† da, which is responsible
for the famous Lamb shift. See subsection 14.2.3.
The uncertainty of high order interactions Vid is perfectly understandable:
It simply reflects the one-to-many correspondence between the S-operator
and Hamiltonians. It means that there is a broad class of finite phys in-
teractions {V d } all of which can be used for S-matrix calculations without
encountering divergent integrals. Then which member of the class {V d } is
the unique correct interaction Hamiltonian V d ? As we are not aware of any
theoretical condition allowing to determine the off-energy-shell behavior of
functions ζi , this question should be deferred to experiments. There seems
to be no other way but to fit functions ζi to experimental measurements.
Such experiments are bound to be rather challenging because they should
go beyond usual information contained in the S-operator (scattering cross-
sections, energies and lifetimes of bound states, etc.) and should be capable
of measuring radiative corrections to wave functions and time evolution of
observables in the region of interaction. Modern experiments do not have
sufficient resolution to meet this challenge.
To summarize the above discusion, let us now mention a few important
differences between the original QED interaction V c and the dressed parti-
cle potential energy V d . First, we see that in interaction operators Vid of
higher perturbation orders there are more and more terms with increasing
complexity. In contrast to QED Hamiltonians H and H c , there seems to be
no way to write H d in a closed form. However, to the credit of RQD, all
these high order terms directly reflect real interactions and processes observ-
able in nature. Unfortunately, the above construction of the dressed particle
Hamiltonian does not allow us to obtain full information about V d : The
off-energy-shell behavior of potentials is fairly arbitrary and the on-energy-
shell behavior27 can be determined theoretically only for lowest order terms.
Uncovering the dressed interaction potentials in the entire momentum space
would require additional information that can be made available only from
sophisticated experiments.
The idea of defining “effective” particle interactions, which reproduce
scattering amplitudes obtained from quantum field theory and satisfy equa-
tions like (11.24) - (11.27) has a long history. Approaches based on this idea
27
which is the most relevant for comparison with experiments
392 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
E E
Pc 0 Pc
0
0 0
a) (b)
interacting case.29 Dressed interaction does perturb states with two or more
particles. In particular, if inter-particle potentials in V d are relatively weak
and attractive, one can expect formation of hyperboloids of bound states, as
shown in Fig. 11.1(b). In the next section we will illustrate the description
of bound states in RQD using the hydrogen atom as an example.
Traditional renormalized quantum field theories also make similar state-
ments about the energy-momentum spectrum of multiparticle states.30 How-
ever, in field theories these statements are not obvious. They cannot be
deduced directly from the renormalized Hamiltonian H c . The main reason
is that the interacting part of H c cannot be regarded as weak, because it
includes divergent renormalization counterterms.
and to particle observables. Physically, this means that instead of bare par-
ticles (created and annihilated by α† and α, respectively) the theory is for-
mulated in terms of fully dressed particles (created and annihilated by op-
erators αd† and αd , respectively), i.e., particles together with their virtual
29
See Fig. 11.1(b) and compare with Fig. 6.1(b).
30
See, for example, Fig. 17.4 in [Sch61], Fig. 16.1 in [BD65], and Fig. 7.1 in [PS95b].
394 CHAPTER 11. DRESSED PARTICLE APPROACH
|Ψi = a† d† |0i
r(t) = hΨ|R(t)|Ψi
i d i d
= h0|dae ~ H t Re− ~ H t a† d† |0i (11.33)
where R is the position operator for the bare electron, and the time evolution
is governed by the dressed Hamiltonian H d . However, we can rewrite this
expression in the following form characteristic for the Shirokov’s approach
i c i c
r(t) = h0|da(eiΦ e ~ H t e−iΦ )R(eiΦ e− ~ H t e−iΦ )a† d† |0i
i c i c
= h0|eiΦ (e−iΦ daeiΦ )e ~ H t (e−iΦ ReiΦ )e− ~ H t (e−iΦ a† d† eiΦ )e−iΦ |0i
i i
Hct c
= d h0|dd ad e ~ Rd e− ~ H t a†d d†d |0id (11.34)
COULOMB POTENTIAL
AND BEYOND
This work contains many things which are new and interesting.
Unfortunately, everything that is new is not interesting, and ev-
erything which is interesting, is not new.
Lev D. Landau
397
398 CHAPTER 12. COULOMB POTENTIAL AND BEYOND
we would like to demonstrate how this Hamiltonian can be cast into a form
suitable for calculations, i.e., expressed through creation and annihilation
operators of electrons, protons, photons, etc. Here we will focus on pair in-
teractions between electrons and protons in the lowest (second) order of the
perturbation theory. In section 12.1 we will use the (v/c)2 approximation
to obtain what is commonly known as the Darwin-Breit potential between
charged particles with spin 1/2. The major part of this interaction is the
usual Coulomb potential. In addition, there are relativistic corrections re-
sponsible for magnetic, contact, spin-orbit, spin-spin, and other interactions
which are routinely used in relativistic calculations of atomic and molecu-
lar systems. This derivation demonstrates how formulas familiar from ordi-
nary quantum mechanics and classical electrodynamics follow naturally from
RQD. In section 12.2 we will solve the stationary Schrödinger equation for the
hydrogen atom and obtain its energy spectrum with relativistic corrections.
where v2 is the coefficient function of the interaction operator V2d [d† a† da].
We are going to write our formulas with the accuracy of (v/c)2 . So, we use
(J.64) - (J.69) to obtain the coefficient function in (12.5) as a sum of three
terms
v2A
e2 ~2 (el)† (pr)† 1 1 1 ~σpr [k × p] ~σel [k × q] (el) (pr)
= − χ χπ − − −i +i χǫ′ χπ′
(2π~)3 ǫ k 2 2
8M c 2 2
8m c 2 2
4M c k2 2 4m2 c2 k 2
e2 ~2 (el)† (pr)† pq kq pk 1
v2B = χǫ χ π − + −
(2π~)3 Mmc2 k 2 2Mmc2 k 2 2Mmc2 k 2 4Mmc2
i[~σpr × k] · q ip · [~σel × k] (~σel · ~σpr ) (~σpr · k)(~σel · k) (el) (pr)
− + + − χǫ′ χπ′
2Mmc2 k 2 2Mmc2 k 2 4Mmc2 4Mmc2 k 2
e2 ~2 1 (el) (pr)
v2C = − χ(el)† χπ(pr)† (2pk − k 2 )(2qk + k 2 )χǫ′ χπ′
(2π~) k 4Mmc2 ǫ
3 4
e2 ~2 (el)† (pr)† (pk)(qk) qk pk 1 (el) (pr)
= − χ χπ − + − χǫ′ χπ′
(2π~)3 ǫ Mmc2 k 4 2Mmc2 k 2 2Mmc2 k 2 4Mmc2
Putting these three terms together we finally rewrite (12.6) in the form
v2 (p, q, k; π, ǫ, π ′, ǫ′ )
e2 ~2 (el)† (pr)† 1 1 1 pq
= 3
χǫ χπ − 2+ 2 2
+ 2 2
+
(2π~) k 8M c 8m c Mmc2 k 2
(pk)(qk) ~σpr [k × p] ~σel [k × q] ~σpr [k × q] ~σel [k × p]
− 2 4
+i 2 2 2
−i 2 2 2
−i 2 2
+i
Mmc k 4M c k 4m c k 2Mmc k 2Mmc2 k 2
(~σel · ~σpr ) (~σpr · k)(~σel · k) (el) (pr)
+ − χǫ′ χπ′ (12.7)
4Mmc2 4Mmc2 k 2
e2 ~2 1 1 ~σel [k × q] (el)
v2 (p, q, k; π, ǫ, π ′ , ǫ′ ) ≈ δ ′
π,π ǫχ(el)†
− + − i χǫ′
(2π~)3 k 2 8m2 c2 4m2 c2 k 2
(12.8)
12.1. DARWIN-BREIT HAMILTONIAN 401
e2 e2 ~2 1 1 e2 h (r · q̂)(r · p̂) i
V̂2d [d† a† da] = − + 2 + δ(r) + p̂ · q̂ +
4πr 8c M 2 m2 8πMmc2 r r2
e2 ~[r × p̂] · ~σpr e2 ~[r × q̂] · ~σel e2 ~[r × q̂] · ~σpr e2 ~[r × p̂] · ~σel
− + + −
16πM 2 c2 r 3 16πm2 c2 r 3 8πMmc2 r 3 8πMmc2 r 3
2 2
e ~ ~σpr · ~σel (~σpr · r)(~σel · r) 2
+ − + 3 + (~
σ pr · ~
σ el )δ(r)
4Mmc2 4πr 3 4πr 5 3
(12.9)
With the accuracy of (v/c)2 the free Hamiltonian H0 can be written as
p p
Ĥ0 = M 2 c4 + p̂2 c2 + m2 c4 + q̂ 2 c2
2 2 p̂2 q̂ 2 p̂4 q̂ 4
= Mc + mc + + − − + ...
2M 2m 8M 3 c2 8m3 c2
4
see subsection 8.2.8; x is the proton’s position and y is the electron’s position
5
Some of these interaction terms are non-Hermitian due to the non-commutativity of
operators r and p, q. This minor problem can be solved by symmetrizing non-commutative
products, e.g., by replacing AB → (AB + BA)/2.
402 CHAPTER 12. COULOMB POTENTIAL AND BEYOND
where the rest energies of particles Mc2 and mc2 are simply constants, which
can be eliminated by a proper choice of zero on the energy scale. Note
also that Pauli matrices are proportional to particle spin operators (H.5):
Ŝel = ~2 ~σel , Ŝpr = ~2 ~σpr . So, finally, the QED Hamiltonian responsible for
the electron-proton interaction in the 2nd order is obtained in the form of
Darwin-Breit potential
e2
V̂Coulomb = − (12.11)
4πr
This is the only interaction term which survives in the non-relativistic limit
c → ∞. V̂orbit is a spin-independent relativistic correction to the Coulomb
interaction
p̂4 q̂ 4 e2 ~2 1 1
V̂orbit = − − + 2 + δ(r)
8M 3 c2 8m3 c2 8c M 2 m2
e2 h (r · q̂)(r · p̂) i
+ p̂ · q̂ + (12.12)
8πMmc2 r r2
The first two terms do not depend on relative variables, so they can be
regarded as relativistic corrections to energies of single particles. The contact
interaction (proportional to ~2 δ(r)) can be neglected in the classical limit
~ → 0. Keeping the (v/c)2 accuracy and substituting p̂/M → v̂pr and
q̂/m → v̂el , the remaining terms can be rewritten in a more familiar form of
the Darwin potential [Bre68]
∂
Q̂ = i~
∂r
If we make these substitutions in (12.10), then the energies ε and wave func-
tions Ψε (r, π, ǫ) of stationary states of the hydrogen atom at rest can be
found as solutions of the stationary Schrödinger equation
d ∂
Ĥ i~ , r, Sel , Spr Ψε (r, π, ǫ) = εΨε (r, π, ǫ) (12.16)
∂r
!
Q̂2 e2
− Ψε (r, π, ǫ) = εΨε (r, π, ǫ) (12.17)
2µ 4πr
Ψε (r, π, ǫ) = ψε (r)χ(π, ǫ)
12.2. HYDROGEN ATOM 405
The energy ε is independent on the spin part χ(π, ǫ), which can be chosen
as an arbitrary set of four complex numbers, satisfying the normalization
condition
µc2 α2
ε(n, l, m) = − (12.19)
2n2
Few low energy solutions are shown in table 12.1, where a0 ≡ 4π~2 /(µe2 ) ≈
~/(αmc) denotes the Bohr radius, and α ≡ e2 /(4π~c) ≈ 1/137 is the fine
structure constant.
For further calculations we will need expectation values for inverse powers
of r in different eigenstates. For example
Z Z ∞ 2
−1 ∗ 1 1 r
hr i(2S) ≡ drψ2S (r) ψ2S (r) = 3 drr 2 − e−r/a0
r 8a0 0 a0
Z ∞ Z Z
1 −r/a0 4 ∞ 2 −r/a0 1 ∞ 3 −r/a0
= 4 drre − drr e + 2 drr e
8a30 0 a0 0 a0 0
1 1
= 4a20 − 8a20 + 6a20 =
8a30 4a0
406 CHAPTER 12. COULOMB POTENTIAL AND BEYOND
These results are shown in Table 12.2 along with probability densities at the
origin |ψ(0)|2 .
E
2S 2P 2P3/2 2P3/2
2P3/2
2S1/2 2S1/2
2P1/2 2S1/2 2P1/2
2P1/2
1S
1S1/2
1S1/2 1S1/2
Figure 12.1: Low energy states of the hydrogen atom: (a) the non-relativistic
approximation (with the Coulomb potential (12.11)); (b) with the fine struc-
ture (due to the orbit (12.12) and spin-orbit (12.14) corrections); (c) with
Lamb shifts (due to the 4th and higher order radiative corrections); (d) with
the hyperfine structure (due to the spin-spin corrections (12.15)). Not to
scale.
Then perturbations Vorbit and Vspin−orbit are responsible for the fine structure
of the hydrogen atom and Vspin−spin is responsible for the hyperfine structure
(see Fig. 12.1). More details can be found in §84 of ref. [BLP01].
Let us first calculate energy level corrections due to the perturbation
Vorbit . We will take into account that M ≫ m, thus ignoring terms propor-
tional to inverse powers of M in (12.12)8 and assuming that µ = m. The
energy correction due to the second term in (12.12) is
Z
1
∆εrelat =− 3 2 drψ ∗ Q̂4 ψ (12.21)
8m c
∂f (r, θ, φ) ∂f θ̂ ∂f φ̂ ∂f
= r̂ + +
∂r ∂r r sin φ ∂θ r ∂φ
Z " 2 #
~2 2m e2 e2
∂ψε
∆εrelat = drψε∗ − 2 ε+ ψε − e2 δ(r)ψε −
4m2 c2 ~ 4πr 2
2πr ∂r
Z Z Z π Z ∞
e2 ∗ 1 ∂ψε e2 2π ∂ψε
− drψε 2 =− dφ sin θdθ drψε∗
2π r ∂r 2π 0 0 0 ∂r
2 Z 2π Z π Z ∞ 2 2 Z 2π Z π
e ∂|ψε | e
= − dφ sin θdθ dr = dφ sin θdθ|ψε (0)|2
4π 0 0 0 ∂r 4π 0 0
= e2 |ψε (0)|2 (12.22)
Z
−e 2
drψε∗ δ(r)ψε = −e2 |ψε (0)|2
10
Here r̂ ≡ r/r, θ̂, φ̂ are unit vectors directed along directions of growth of the corre-
sponding coordinates.
11
we take into account that ψε (r, θ, φ) → 0 as r → ∞
12.2. HYDROGEN ATOM 409
Z
1 ∗ 2 e2 ε e4
∆εrelat = − drψε ε + + ψε
2mc2 2πr 16π 2 r 2
1 2 e2 ε −1 e4 −2
= − ε + hr i + hr i
2mc2 2π 16π 2
Z
e2 ~2 e2 ~2
∆εcontact = drδ(r)|ψε (r)|2 = |ψε (0)|2 (12.23)
8m2 c2 8m2 c2
Using data from Tables 12.1 and 12.2 we obtain orbital energy corrections
for individual states ψnlm as shown in the 2nd and 3rd rows of Table 12.3.
e 2 ~2 mc2 α4 mc2 α4
contact (12.23) 8m2 c2
hδ(r)i 2 16
0 0
e2 2 4 mc2 α4
spin-orbit (12.24) 8πm2 c2
h L·S
r3
el
i 0 0 − mc48α 48
2 4 2 4 2 4 mc2 α4
Total correction − mc8 α − 5mc
128
α
− 5mc
128
α
384
Q2 e2
He−p = − (12.25)
2m 4πr
commutes with the orbital angular momentum operator L, with the electron
spin operator Sel and with the total angular momentum operator J. So, all
six substates are degenerate with respect to (12.25).
On the other hand, the total Hamiltonian (12.10) commutes only with
the total angular momentum J and it does not commute with L and Sel
separately. Therefore, the total energies of the two groups 2P 1/2 and 2P 3/2
may be different. Let us demonstrate the effect of perturbation (12.24) on
the state 2P 1/2 . We use formula
mc2 α4
∆εspin−orbit(2P 3/2 ) =
48
One can see from Table 12.3 that the total 2nd order energy corrections to
states 2S 1/2 and 2P 1/2 are the same. So, these two states remain degenerate
in our approximation
13
some of them even divergent
412 CHAPTER 12. COULOMB POTENTIAL AND BEYOND
Chapter 13
DECAYS
413
414 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
section 13.4 we are going to show that the famous Einstein’s time dilation
formula is not exactly applicable to such decays.
ma > mb + mc (13.2)
13.1. UNSTABLE SYSTEM AT REST 415
H = Ha ⊕ Hbc (13.3)
where Ha is the subspace of states of the unstable particle a and Hbc ≡
Hb ⊗ Hc is the orthogonal subspace of the decay products.
Now we can introduce a Hermitian operator T that corresponds to the
experimental proposition “particle a exists.” The operator T can be fully de-
fined by its eigensubspaces and eigenvalues. When a measurement performed
on the unstable system finds it in a state corresponding to the particle a, then
the value of T is 1. When the decay products b + c are observed, the value
of T is 0. Apparently, T is the projection operator on the subspace Ha . For
each normalized state vector |Φi ∈ H, the probability of finding the unstable
particle a is given by the expectation value of this projection
To study the time evolution (= decay) of this state, we need to know the
full Hamiltonian H = H0 + V in trhe Hilbert space H. The non-interacting
part H0 can be easily constructed by usual rules from subsection 8.1.8
For the interaction part we choose the simplest operator of the decay type
(8.50) that can be responsible for the process a → b + c is3
Z
V = dpdq G(p, q)a†p+q bp cq + G∗ (p, q)b†p c†q ap+q (13.7)
i
|Ψ(t)i = e− ~ Ht |Ψ(0)i (13.8)
i i
ω(t) = hΨ(0)|e ~ Ht T e− ~ Ht |Ψ(0)i (13.9)
3
Note that in order to have a Hermitian Hamiltonian we need to include in the inter-
action both the term b† c† a responsible for the decay and the term a† bc responsible for the
inverse process b + c → a. Due to the relation (13.2), these two terms have non-empty
energy shells, so, according to our classification in subsection 8.2.4, they belong to the
“decay” type.
4
In this chapter we are working in the Schrödinger picture.
13.1. UNSTABLE SYSTEM AT REST 417
Ha
|Ψ(0)>
1
ω(t) |Ψ(t)>
bc
It is clear that our Hamiltonian H does not commute with the projection
operator T
[H, T ] 6= 0 (13.10)
Before calculating the decay law (13.9) we will need to do some prepara-
tory work first. In subsections 13.1.2 - 13.1.4 we are going to construct two
useful bases. One is the basis |pi of eigenvectors of the total momentum
operator P0 in Ha . Another one is the basis |p,
pmi of common eigenvectors
of P0 and the interacting mass operator M = H 2 − P02 c2 /c2 in H.
where Uga , Ugb , and Ugc are unitary irreducible representations of the Poincaré
group corresponding to the particles a, b, and c, respectively. Generators of
this representation will be denoted by P0 , J0 , H0 , and K0 . According to
(13.2), the operator of the non-interacting mass
q
1
M0 = + 2 H02 − P02 c2
c
has a continuous spectrum in the interval [mb + mc , ∞) and a discrete point
ma embedded in this interval.
From definition (13.11) it is clear that the subspaces Ha and Hbc are
separately invariant with respect to Ug0 . Moreover, the projection operator
T commutes with non-interacting generators
Z
|Ψi = dpψ(p)|pi (13.13)
and the projection operator T can be written ascompare with equation (5.20)
Z
T = dp|pihp| (13.14)
Z Z
2
dp|ψq (p)| = dp|δ(p − q)|2 = ∞
Therefore, improper states like |qi cannot be used in formula (13.4) for calcu-
lating the decay law of states with definite (or almost definite) momentum p0 .
For such calculations we should use other (proper) state vectors |p0 ) whose
normalized momentum-space wave functions are sharply localized near p0 .
In order to satisfy the normalization condition
Z
dp|ψ(p)|2 = 1
7
see subsection 5.2.1
420 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
p
ψp0 (p) = δ(p − p0 ) (13.16)
P = P0
J = J0
while generators of time translations (the Hamiltonian H) and boosts contain
interaction-dependent terms
H = H0 + V
K = K0 + Z
We will further assume that the interacting representation Ug belongs to the
Bakamjian-Thomas form of dynamics9 in which the interacting operator of
mass M commutes with the Newton-Wigner position operator (4.32)
8
Another way to achieve the same goal would be to keep the delta-function represen-
tation (13.15) of definite-momentum
R states, but use (formally vanishing) normalization
factors, like N = ( dp|ψ(p)|2 )−1/2 . Perhaps such manipulations with infinitely large and
infinitely small numbers can be justified within non-standard analysis [Fri94].
9
For the Bakamjian-Thomas theory see subsection 6.3.2. The possibilities for the decay
interaction to be in other forms of dynamics will be discussed in subsection 13.4.3.
13.1. UNSTABLE SYSTEM AT REST 421
q
−2
M ≡ c H 2 − P20 c2
[R0 , M] = 0 (13.17)
H|p, mi = ωp |p, mi
p
where ωp ≡ m2 c4 + c2 p2 . In the zero-momentum eigensubspace of the
momentum operator P0 we can introduce a basis |0, mi of eigenvectors of
the interacting mass M
P0 |0, mi = 0
M|0, mi = m|0, mi
Then the basis |p, mi in the entire Hilbert space H can be built by formula11
s
mc2 − ic Kθ~
|p, mi = e ~ |0, mi
ωp
10
In addition to these two operators, whose eigenvalues are used for labeling eigenvectors
|p, mi, there are other independent operators in the mutually commuting set containing
P0 and M . These are, for example, the operators of the square of the total angular
momentum J02 and the projection of J0 on the z-axis J0z . Therefore a unique character-
ization of any basis vector requires specification of all corresponding quantum numbers
as |p, m, j 2 , jz , . . .i. However these additional quantum numbers are not relevant for our
discussion, and we omit them.
11
Compare with (5.5) and (5.27). Here K is the interacting boost operator whose explicit
form will not be required in our derivation.
422 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
i
e ~ R0 ·p |0, mi = γ(p, m)|p, mi (13.24)
where γ(p, m) is a unimodular factor. Unlike in (5.36), we cannot conclude
that γ(p, m) = 1. However, if the interaction is not pathological we can
assume that the factor γ(p, m) is smooth, i.e., without rapid oscillations.
Obviously, vector |0i from the basis (5.36) can be expressed as a linear
combination of zero-momentum basis vectors |0, mi, so we can write13
Z∞
|0i = dmµ(m)|0, mi (13.25)
mb +mc
12
compare with equation (5.28)
13
Here we assume that interaction responsible for the decay does not change the spec-
trum of mass. In particular, we will neglect the possibility of existence of bound states of
particles b and c, i.e., discrete eigenvalues of M below mb + mc . Then the spectrum of M
(similar to the spectrum of M0 ) is continuous in the interval [mb + mc , ∞), and integration
in (13.25) should be performed from mb + mc to infinity. Note that this assumption does
not hold in the example considered in subsection 13.2.2, where one discrete eigenvalue of
the mass operator M appears below the threshold mb + mc , as shown in Figs. 13.2 and
13.3.
13.1. UNSTABLE SYSTEM AT REST 423
where µ(m) is yet unknown function, which depends on the choice of the
interaction Hamiltonian V and satisfies equations
The physical meaning of µ(m) is the probability amplitude for finding the
value m of the interacting mass M in the initial unstable state |0i ∈ Ha .
It will be referred to as the mass distribution of the unstable particle. We
now use equations (5.36) and (13.25) to expand vectors |pi ∈ Ha in the basis
|p, mi
Z∞
i i
R p R p
|pi = e ~ 0 |0i = e ~ 0 dmµ(m)|0, mi
mb +mc
Z∞
= dmµ(m)γ(p, m)|p, mi (13.27)
mb +mc
Z
|Ψi = dpψ(p)|pi (13.28)
Z Z∞
= dp dmµ(m)γ(p, m)ψ(p)|p, mi (13.29)
mb +mc
Z∞
hq|p, mi = dm′ µ∗ (m′ )γ ∗ (q, m′ )hq, m′ |p, mi
mb +mc
= γ (p, m)µ∗ (m)δ(q − p)
∗
(13.30)
424 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
Z
i
|Ψ(t)i = dpψ(p)e− ~ Ht |pi
Z Z∞
i
= dpψ(p) dmµ(m)γ(p, m)e− ~ Ht |p, mi
mb +mc
Z Z∞
i
= dpψ(p) dmµ(m)γ(p, m)e− ~ ωp t |p, mi
mb +mc
The inner product of this vector with |qi is found by using (13.30)
hq|Ψ(t)i
Z Z∞
i
= dpψ(p) dmµ(m)γ(p, m)e− ~ ωp t hq|p, mi
mb +mc
Z Z∞
i
= dpψ(p) dm|µ(m)|2 γ(p, m)γ ∗ (p, m)e− ~ ωp t δ(q − p)
mb +mc
Z∞
i
= ψ(q) dm|µ(m)|2e− ~ ωq t (13.31)
mb +mc
Z Z
ω(t) = dqhΨ(t)|qihq|Ψ(t)i = dq|hq|Ψ(t)i |2
∞ 2
Z Z
2
2 − ~i ωq t
= dq|ψ(q)| dm|µ(m)| e (13.32)
mb +mc
13.2. BREIT-WIGNER FORMULA 425
This formula is valid for the decay law of any state |Ψi ∈ Ha . In the particular
case of the normalized state |0) whose wave function ψ(q) is well-localized
in the momentum space near zero momentum, we can set approximately
p
ψ(q) ≈ δ(q)
Z Z
dq|ψ(q)|2 ≈ dqδ(q) = 1
and14
∞ 2
Z
i 2
ω|0) (t) ≈ dm|µ(m)|2 e− ~ mc t (13.33)
mb +mc
This result demonstrates that the decay law is fully determined by the mass
distribution |µ(m)|2. In the next section we will consider an exactly solv-
able decay model in which the mass distribution and the decay law can be
calculated explicitly.
H0 = Ha0 ⊕ H(bc)0
where15
Ha0 = H0 ∩ Ha
H(bc)0 = H0 ∩ (Hb ⊗ Hc )
14
compare, for example, with equation (3.8) in [FGR78]
15
Recall that symbol ∩ denotes intersection of two subspaces in the Hilbert space.
426 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
ρ~ = pb = −pc
and each state |Ψi in H0 can be written as an expansion in the above basis
(|0i, |~ρi)
Z
|Ψi = ξ|0i + d~ρζ(~ρ)|~ρi
ξ
ζ(~ρ1)
|Ψi =
ζ(~ρ2)
ζ(~ρ3)
...
ξ
|Ψi = (13.34)
ζ(~ρ)
The vector |Ψi should be normalized, hence its wave function satisfies the
normalization condition
16
These are projections of |Ψi on the relative momentum eigenvectors |~ ρi. Of course,
the spectrum of ρ ~ is continuous and, strictly speaking, cannot be represented by a set
of discrete values ρ~i . However, we can justify our approximation by the usual trick of
placing the system in a finite box (then the momentum spectrum becomes discrete) and
then taking the limit, in which the size of the box goes to infinity.
13.2. BREIT-WIGNER FORMULA 427
Z
2
|ξ| + d~ρ|ζ(~ρ)|2 = 1 (13.35)
ω = |ξ|2
1
|0i = (13.36)
0
ma c2 0 0 0 ...
0 ηρ~1 c2 0 0 ... 2
≡ ma c 0
H0 = 0 0 ηρ~2 c2 0 ...
0 ηρ~ c2
0 0 0 ηρ~3 c2 ...
0 0 0 0 ...
where
q
1 2 4 2 2
p
2 4 2 2
ηρ~ = 2 mb c + c ρ + mc c + c ρ (13.37)
c
Z
V = d~ρ G(~ρ, −~ρ)a†0 bρ~ c−~ρ + G∗ (~ρ, −~ρ)b†ρ~ c†−~ρ a0
Z
≡ d~ρ g(~ρ)a†0 bρ~ c−~ρ + g ∗ (~ρ)b†ρ~ c†−~ρ a0
428 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
0 g(~ρ1 ) g(~ρ2 ) g(~ρ3 ) ...
∗
g (~ρ1 ) 0 0 0 ... R
∗
≡ 0 dqg(q) . . .
V = g (~ρ2 ) 0 0 0 ...
g ∗ (~ρ) 0
g ∗ (~ρ3 ) 0 0 0 ...
... 0 0 0 ...
where g(~ρ) is the matrix element of the interaction operator between states
|0i and |~ρi
ma c2 g(~ρ1 ) g(~ρ2 ) g(~ρ3 ) . . . ξ
g ∗(~ρ1 ) ηρ~1 c2 0 0 ... ζ(~ρ1 )
ξ ∗ 2
H = g (~ρ2 ) 0 ηρ~2 c 0 . . . ζ(~ρ2 )
ζ(~ρ) ∗ 2
g (~ρ3 ) 0 0 ηρ~3 c . . . ζ(~ρ3 )
... 0 0 0 ... ...
R
ma c2 ξ + dqg(q)ζ(q)
g ∗(~ρ1 )ξ + ηρ~1 ζ(~ρ1)c2 R
∗ 2
ma c2 ξ + dqg(q)ζ(q)
= g (~ρ2 )ξ + ηρ~2 ζ(~ρ2)c ≡
g ∗(~ρ)ξ + ηρ~ ζ(~ρ)c2
g ∗(~ρ3 )ξ + ηρ~3 ζ(~ρ3)c2
...
The next step is to find eigenvalues (which we denote mc2 ) and eigenvec-
tors
µ∗ (m)
|0, mi ≡ (13.39)
ζm (~ρ)
17
R
R Here symbol dqg(q) . . . denotes a linear operator, which produces a number
dqg(q)ζ(q) when acting on an arbitrary test function ζ(q). The function g(~
ρ) coin-
cides with G(p, q) on the zero-momentum subspace g(~ρ) ≡ G(~
ρ, −~
ρ).
13.2. BREIT-WIGNER FORMULA 429
of the Hamiltonian H.18 This task is equivalent to the solution of the follow-
ing system of linear equations:
Z
2 ∗
ma c µ (m) + dqg(q)ζm (q) = mc2 µ∗ (m) (13.40)
g ∗(~ρ)µ∗ (m)
ζm (~ρ) = (13.42)
mc2 − ηρ~ c2
Z
1 |g(q)|2
m − ma = 4 dq (13.43)
c m − ηq
To comply with the law of conservation of the angular momentum,19 the func-
tion |g(q)| must depend only on the absolute value q ≡ |q| of its argument.
Therefore, we can rewrite equation (13.43) in the form
m − ma = F (m) (13.44)
where
Z∞
G(q)
F (m) ≡ dq (13.45)
m − ηq
0
4πq 2
G(q) ≡ |g(q)|2 (13.46)
c4
From the normalization condition (13.35)
18
Note that the function µ(m) in (13.39) is the same as in (13.26). So, in order to
calculate the decay law (13.33), all we need to know is |µ(m)|2 .
19
for a spinless particle a
430 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
Z
2
|µ(m)| + dq|ζm (q)|2 = 1 (13.47)
and equation (13.42) we finally obtain a formula for the mass distribution
Z
2 G(q)
|µ(m)| 1 + dq = 1
(m − ηq )2
1
|µ(m)|2 = (13.48)
1 − F ′ (m)
where F ′ (m) is the derivative of F (m). So, in order to calculate the decay
law (13.33) we just need to know the derivative of F (m) at points m of the
spectrum of the interacting mass operator.20 The following subsection will
detail such a calculation.
F(m
m)
M0 m
mb+mc ma
F(m)
M3
M0 M1 M2 M4 M5 m
m2 m6
m1 m3ma m4 m5
Figure 13.3: Spectra of the free (opened circles, H0 ) and interacting (full
circles, H = H0 + V ) Hamiltonians.
432 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
∞
1 X |g(~ρi )|2
m − ma = 2 = F (m) (13.49)
c i=1 m − mi
z = ηρ
ρ = η −1 (z)
dη −1 (z)
Γ(z) ≡ 2π G(η −1 (z)) (13.50)
dz
we obtain
13.2. BREIT-WIGNER FORMULA 433
Z∞ m−∆
Z m+∆
Z
Γ(z) Γ(z) Γ(z)
F (m) = dz = dz + dz
2π(m − z) 2π(m − z) 2π(m − z)
mb +mc mb +mc m−∆
Z∞
Γ(z)
+ dz (13.51)
2π(m − z)
m+∆
Here we split the integration interval [mb + ma , +∞) into three segments.
When ∆ → 0, the first and third terms on theR right hand side of (13.51) give
the principal value integral (denoted by P )
m−∆
Z Z∞ Z∞
Γ(z) Γ(z) Γ(z)
dz + dz −→ P dz ≡ P(m)
2π(m − z) 2π(m − z) 2π(m − z)
mb +mc m+∆ mb +mc
(13.52)
Let us now look more closely at the second integral on the right hand side
of (13.51). If ∆ is sufficiently small,21 then function Γ(z) may be considered
constant Γ(z) = Γ(m). Moreover, in our discrete approximation, the density
of points mj in the interval [m − ∆, m + ∆] is almost constant. So, this
interval can be divided into 2N small equal segments
∆
mj = m0 + j
N
where m0 = m, integer j runs from −N to N, and the integral is represented
by a partial sum
m+∆
Z m+∆
Z N
Γ(z) Γ(m0 ) 1 Γ(m0 ) X ∆/N
dz ≈ dz ≈ ∆
2π(m − z) 2π m−z 2π j=−N m − m0 − j N
m−∆ m−∆
(13.53)
21
but still much larger than the distance between adjacent points mj and mj+1
434 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
∆
mj = m0 + j (13.54)
N
and with residues Γ(m0 )∆/(2πN). As any analytical function is uniquely
determined by the positions of its poles and the values of its residues, we
conclude that integral (13.53) has the following representation
m+∆
Z
Γ(z) Γ(m0 ) πN
dz ≈ cot (m − m0 ) (13.55)
2π(m − z) 2 ∆
m−∆
Indeed, the cot function on the right hand side of (13.55) also has poles at
points (13.54). The residues of this function are exactly as required too.22
Now we can put equations (13.52) and (13.55) together and write
Γ(m) πNm
F (m) = P(m) + cot
2 ∆
Then, using
πΓ(m)N
F ′ (m) = − (1 + cot2 (πN∆−1 m)) (13.56)
2∆
22
For example, near the point m0 (where j = 0) the right hand side of (13.55) can be
approximated as
Γ(m0 ) πN Γ(m0 )∆/N
cot (m − m0 ) ≈
2 ∆ 2π(m − m0 )
For formula (13.48) we need values of F ′ (m) at the discrete set of solutions
of the equation
F (m) = m − ma
Γ(m)
m − ma = P(m) − cot(πN∆−1 m)
2
2(m − ma − P(m))
cot(πN∆−1 m) = −
Γ(m)
4(m − ma − P(m))2
cot2 (πN∆−1 m) =
Γ2 (m)
Substituting this to (13.56) and (13.48) we obtain the desired result
′ Γ(m)N 4(m − ma − P(m))2
F (m) = −π 1+
2∆ Γ2 (m)
1
|µ(m)|2 = 2)
(13.57)
1 + πΓ(m)N/(2∆) 1 + 4(ma +P(m)−m)
2
Γ (m)
Γ(m)∆/(2πN)
≈ (13.58)
Γ2 (m)/4 + (ma + P(m) − m)2
where we neglected the unity in the denominator of (13.57) as compared to
the large factor ∝ N∆−1 . Formula (13.58) gives the probability for finding
particle a at each point of the discrete spectrum M1 , M2 , M3 , . . .. This proba-
bility naturally tends to zero as the density of points N∆−1 tends to infinity.
However, when approaching the continuous spectrum in the limit N → ∞ we
do not need the probability at each spectrum point. We, actually, need the
probability density which can be obtained by multiplying the right hand side
of equation (13.58) by the number of points per unit interval N∆−1 . Then
the mass distribution for the unstable particle takes the famous Breit-Wigner
form
Γ(m)/(2π)
|µ(m)|2 = (13.59)
Γ2 (m)/4 + (ma + P(m) − m)2
436 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
µ(m)|2
|µ
m
mb+mc mA
This resonance mass distribution describes an unstable particle with the ex-
pectation value of mass23 mA = ma + P(mA ) and the width of ∆m ≈ Γ(mA )
(see Fig. 13.4).
For unstable systems whose decays are slow enough to be observed in
time-resolved experiments, the resonance shown in Fig. 13.4 is very narrow,
so that instead of functions Γ(m) and P(m) we can use their values (con-
stants) at m = mA : Γ ≡ Γ(mA ) and P ≡ P(mA ). Moreover, we will assume
that the instability of the particle a does not have a large effect on its mass,
i.e., that P ≪ ma and mA ≈ ma .24 We also neglect a small contribution
from the isolated point M0 of the mass spectrum discussed in the beginning
of this subsection. Then
Γ/(2π)
|µ(m)|2 ≈ (13.60)
Γ2 /4 + (ma − m)2
i
|0, ti = e− ~ Ht |0i
Z∞ Z∞
− ~i Ht − ~i Ht i 2
e |0i = dmµ(m)e |0, mi = dmµ(m)e− ~ mc t |0, mi
mb +mc mb +mc
Z∞
− ~i mc2 t 2 1 I(t)
= dme |µ(m)| ≡
g ∗ (~ρ)/(mc2 − ηρ~ c2 ) J(~ρ, t)
mb +mc
(13.61)
The first integral I(t) determines the decay law for the particle at rest. Sub-
stituting (13.60) in the integrand, we obtain
Z i 2
2
1 ∞ Γe− ~ mc t
ω(t) = |I(t)|2 ≈ 2
dm 2 2
(13.62)
4π mb +mc Γ /4 + (ma − m)
Γ ≪ ma − (mb + mc ) (13.63)
so the integrand is well localized around the value m ≈ ma , and we can
introduce further approximation by setting the lower integration limit in
(13.62) to −∞. Then the decay law obtains a familiar exponential form
2
2 2
1 − i
m c 2t Γc t Γc t
ω(t) ≈ 2πe ~ a exp − = exp −
4π 2 2~ ~
t
= exp − (13.64)
τ0
where
438 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
~
τ0 = (13.65)
Γc2
is the lifetime of the unstable particle. The nondecay probability decreases
from 1 to 1/e during the lifetime interval.
Using formulas (13.38), (13.46) and (13.50) we can also see that the decay
rate Γ25
Im(m)
ma+iΓ/2
Re(m)
0 ηρ ma-iΓ/2
Z∞ i 2
Γg ∗(~ρ) e− ~ mc t dm
J(~ρ, t) = (13.67)
2πc2 (m − ηρ~ )(m − ma − iΓ/2)(m − ma + iΓ/2)
−∞
The integration contour should be closed as shown in Fig. 13.5, because then
the integral along the large semi-circle in the lower half-plane can be ignored,
i 2
as the factor e− ~ mc t tends to zero there. So we obtain
i 2
!
g ∗ (~ρ) − ~i (ma −iΓ/2)c2 t iΓe− ~ ηρ~ c t
J(~ρ, t) = 2 e − (13.68)
c (ma − ηρ~ − iΓ/2) 2(ma − ηρ~ ) + iΓ
To be consistent with the initial condition (13.36), our solution must satisfy
J(~ρ, 0) = 0. This is, indeed, true as within our approximations we can set
ηρ~ = ma in the second term in the parentheses, so that the whole expression
vanishes at t = 0.
The first term in the parentheses is significant only at short times compa-
rable with the particle’s lifetime τ0 . In the limit t → ∞ only the second term
contributes, and we can write the wave function in the position representation
(5.43)
Z i 2
iΓ i
ρ
~r ∗ e− ~ ηρ~ c t
J(r, t) ≈ − 2 d~ρe ~ g (~ρ) (13.69)
2c (2π~)3/2 (ma − ηρ~ )2 + Γ2 /4
440 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
!
1 c2 ρ0 c2 ρ0
ηρ~ ≈ ηρ0 + 2 p +p (ρ − ρ0 )
c m2b c4 + c2 ρ20 m2c c4 + c2 ρ20
1
= ηρ0 + (vb + vc ) (ρ − ρ0 )
c2
where vb vc are the average speeds with which the two decay products leave
the region of their creation. With these approximations we rewrite equation
(13.69)
Z
C i i
J(r, t) ≈ d~ρe ~ ρ~r e− ~ (vb +vc )ρt (13.70)
(2π~)3
Zπ Z∞
2πC i i
J(r, t) ≈ sin θdθ ρ2 dρe ~ ρr cos θ e− ~ (vb +vc )ρt
(2π~)3
0 0
Z∞
2π~C i i i
≈ ρdρ(e ~ ρr − e− ~ ρr )e− ~ (vb +vc )ρt
ir(2π~)3
−∞
1
∝ [δ(r − (vb + vc )t) + δ(r + (vb + vc )t)]
r
The second delta function in square brackets can be ignored, because its
argument never turns to zero as r, vb , vc , t are positive quantities and the
limit t → +∞ is taken. Then
13.3. DECAY LAW FOR MOVING PARTICLES 441
1
J(r, t) ∝ δ(r − (vb + vc )t)
r
which means that after all approximations adopted here the wave function
of the decay products has the form of a spherical shell expanding around
the decay point with a constant speed. The separation between two decay
products changes as
r = (vb + vc )t (13.71)
This indicates that particles b and c are not interacting in the asymptotic
regime: they move apart with constant velocities, as expected.
ic
|Ψ(θ, 0)i = e ~ Kx θ |Ψi
i ′ ic
|Ψ(θ, t′ )i = e− ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ |Ψi (13.72)
According to the general formula (13.5), the decay law from the point of view
of O ′ is
28
at t′ = t = 0, where t′ is time measured by the observer’s O′ clock
442 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
Let us use the basis set decomposition (13.29) of the state vector |Ψi.
Then, applying equations (13.72), (13.21), and (13.22) we obtain
Z
i ′ ic
′
|Ψ(θ, t )i = dpψ(p)e− ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ |pi
Z Z∞
i ′ ic
= dpψ(p) dmµ(m)γ(p, m)e− ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ |p, mi
mb +mc
Z Z∞ r
− ~i ωΛp t′ ωΛp
= dpψ(p) dmµ(m)γ(p, m)e |Λp, mi
ωp
mb +mc
The inner product of this vector with |qi can be found with the help of
(13.30) and new integration variables r = Λp
hq|Ψ(θ, t′)i
Z Z∞ r
− ~i ωΛp t′ ωΛp
= dpψ(p) dmµ(m)γ(p, m)e hq|Λp, mi
ωp
mb +mc
Z Z∞ r
i ′ ωΛp
= dpψ(p) dm|µ(m)|2 γ(p, m)γ ∗ (Λp, m)e− ~ ωΛp t δ(q − Λp)
ωp
mb +mc
Z∞ Z r
ωΛ−1 r ωr i ′
= dm dr ψ(Λ−1 r)γ(Λ−1 r)γ ∗ (r)|µ(m)|2e− ~ ωr t δ(q − r)
ωr ωΛ−1 r
mb +mc
Z∞ r
ωΛ−1 q i ′
= dm ψ(Λ−1 q)γ(Λ−1 q, m)γ ∗ (q, m)|µ(m)|2 e− ~ ωq t
ωq
mb +mc
The non-decay probability in the reference frame O ′ for all values of θ and t′
is then found by substituting (13.14) in equation (13.73)
13.3. DECAY LAW FOR MOVING PARTICLES 443
ω(θ, t′ )
Z Z
= dqhΨ(θ, t )|qihq|Ψ(θ, t )i = dq|hq|Ψ(θ, t′ )i |2
′ ′
∞ 2
Z Z r
ωΛ−1 q −1 −1 ∗
2 − ~i ωq t′
= dq dm ψ(Λ q)γ(Λ q, m)γ (q, m)|µ(m)| e
ωq
mb +mc
(13.75)
This general formula is not very convenient for calculations. So, in the fol-
lowing subsections we will consider some specific situations in which (13.75)
can be simplified and fully evaluated.
∞ 2
Z Z
2
2 − ~i ωq t
ω(0, t) = dq|ψ(q)| dm|µ(m)| e (13.76)
mb +mc
In section 13.1 we applied this formula to calculate the decay law of a particle
with zero momentum. Here we will consider the case when the unstable par-
ticle has a non-zero momentum p, i.e., the state is described by a normalized
vector |p) whose wave function is (13.16)
p
ψ(q) = δ(q − p) (13.77)
∞ 2
Z
2 − i
ω t
ω|p) (0, t) = dm|µ(m)| e ~ p (13.78)
mb +mc
444 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
In a number of works [Ste96, Kha97, Shi04, Urb14] it was noticed that this
result disagrees with Einstein’s time dilation formula (I.25). Indeed, if one
interprets the state |p) as a state of unstable particle moving with definite
speed
c2 p
v = p = c tanh θ
m2a c4 + p2 c2
then the decay law (13.78) cannot be connected with the decay law of the
particle at rest (13.33) by Einstein’s formula (I.25)29
ic ~
e ~ Kθ |0) (13.80)
which is not an eigenstate of the momentum operator P0 . So, strictly speak-
ing, formula (13.78) is not applicable to this state. However, it is not difficult
to see that (13.80) is an eigenstate of the velocity operator [Shi06]. Indeed,
taking into account that Vx |0) = 0 and equations (4.3) - (4.4), we obtain
ic ic ic ic ic Vx − c tanh θ
Vx e ~ Kx θ |0) = e ~ Kx θ e− ~ Kx θ Vx e ~ Kx θ |0) = e ~ Kx θ |0)
1 − Vx tanh
c
θ
ic
≈ −c tanh θe ~ Kx θ |0) (13.81)
29
In subsection 13.4.1 we will illustrate this inequality with numerical calculations.
13.3. DECAY LAW FOR MOVING PARTICLES 445
Thus, a fair comparison with the time dilation formula (I.25) requires consid-
eration of unstable states having definite values of velocity for both observers.
This will be done in subsection 13.3.4.
|∆p| ≫ Γc (13.82)
|∆r| ≪ cτ0 (13.83)
In particular, the latter inequality means that the uncertainty of position
is mush less than the distance passed by light during the lifetime of the
particle. For example, in the case of muon τ0 ≈ 2.2 · 10−6 s and, according
to (13.83), the spread of the wave function in the position space must be
much less than 600m, which is a reasonable assumption. Therefore, we can
safely assume that the factor |µ(m)|2 in (13.75) has a very sharp peak near
30
the
q value m = ma . Then we can move the value of the smooth function
ωΛq
ωq
ψ(Λq)γ(Λq, m)γ ∗ (q, m) at m = ma outside the integral on m
ω(θ, t′)
Z s 2 Z∞ 2
Ω −1
Λ q −1 −1 ∗ 2 − ~i ωq t′
≈ dq ψ(Λ q)γ(Λ q, ma )γ (q, ma ) dm|µ(m)| e
Ωq
mb +mc
30
see discussion after equation (13.24)
446 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
∞ 2
Z Z
ΩL−1 q −1
2
2 − ~i ωq t′
= dq |ψ(L q)| dm|µ(m)| e
Ωq
mb +mc
∞ 2
Z Z
2
2 − ~i ωLp t′
= dp|ψ(p)| dm|µ(m)| e (13.84)
mb +mc
p
Here Ωp = m2a c4 + p2 c2 , Λp is given by equation (13.23) and Lp = (px cosh θ+
Ωp
c
sinh θ, py , pz ).
∞ 2
Z
it′
√
′ 2 − m2 c4 +m2 c4 sinh2 θ
ω|0) (θ, t ) ≈ dm|µ(m)| e ~ a
(13.86)
mb +mc
∞ 2
Z
′
2 − ~i ωp t′
ω|0) (θ, t ) ≈
dm|µ(m)| e (13.87)
mb +mc
31
As we mentioned in the preceding subsection, in reality this state is not exactly an
eigenstate of momentum (velocity) |0). However, its wave function is still much better
localized in the p-space than the slowly varying second factor under the integral in (13.84),
so, approximation (13.85) is justified.
32
From the point of view of this observer, particle’s velocity is c tanh θ.
13.4. “TIME DILATION” IN DECAYS 447
So, in this approximation the decay law (13.87) in the frame of reference
O ′ moving with the speed c tanh θ takes the same form as the decay law
(13.78) of a particle moving with momentum ma c sinh θ with respect to the
stationary observer O.33 So, the violation of the Einstein’s time dilation
formula mentioned in subsection 13.3.2 is a real effect that warrants a more
in-depth study. In the next section we will evaluate (13.87) numerically.
SR t
ω|0) (θ, t) = ω|0) 0, (13.88)
cosh θ
In this calculation we assume that the mass distribution |µ(m)|2 of the un-
stable particle has the Breit-Wigner form35
αΓ/2π
Γ2 /4+(m−ma )2
, if m ≥ mb + mc
|µ(m)|2 = (13.89)
0, if m < mb + mc
where parameter α is a factor that ensures the normalization to unity
Z∞
|µ(m)|2 = 1
mb +mc
33
Note the disagreement between ourresult and conclusions of ref. [Shi06].
34
For similar calculations of the decay law of fast moving particles see [Urb14].
35
see equation (13.60) and Fig. 13.4
448 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
The following parameters of this distribution have been chosen: The mass
of the unstable particle was ma = 1000 MeV/c2 , the total mass of the decay
products was mb + mc = 900 MeV/c2 , and the width of the mass distribution
was Γ= 20 MeV/c2 . These values do not correspond to any real particle, but
they are typical for strongly decaying baryon resonances.
It is convenient to measure time in units of the lifetime τ0 cosh θ. Denoting
χ ≡ t/(τ0 cosh θ), we find that special-relativistic decay laws (13.88) for any
rapidity θ are given by the same universal function ω SR (χ). This function
was evaluated for values of χ in the interval from 0 to 6 with the step of
0.1. Calculations were performed by direct numerical integration of equation
(13.78) using the Mathematica program shown below
gamma = 20
mass = 1000
theta = 0.0
As expected, function ω SR (χ) (shown by the thick solid line in Fig. 13.6) is
very close to the exponent e−χ .
Next we used equation (13.78)36 to calculate decay laws ω|0) (θ, χ) of mov-
ing particles. These calculations were done by the same Mathematica code,
only instead of θ = 0 we used three values of the rapidity parameter θ
(=theta), namely θ = 0.2, 1.4, and 10.0. These rapidities corresponded
to moving frame velocities of 0.197c, 0.885c, and 0.999999995c, respectively.
These calculations revealed important differences between acurate quantum
mechanical result (13.78) and the special-relativistic approximation (13.88).
These differences ω|0) (θ, χ) − ω SR (χ) are plotted as thin lines in Fig. 13.6.
Deviations from the Einstein’s time dilation formula are as high as 0.3% in
the example considered here. Is it possible to observe these deviations in
experiments with moving unstable particles?
36
or, what is essentially the same, equation (13.87)
13.4. “TIME DILATION” IN DECAYS 449
ω|0)(θ,χ)−ωSR(χ)
ωSR(χ)
0.002
0.001
1 2 3 4 5 6
χ
0.001 θ=10
θ=1.4
0.002 θ=0.2
Applying this statement to decaying particles, we would expect that the non-
decay probability does not depend on the observer’s velocity. In particular,
this would mean that at time t = 0 we should have
39
see subsection 17.3.6
40
see Appendix I.4
41
This assertion does not hold in our RQD theory, as illustrated in Fig. 17.3.
13.4. “TIME DILATION” IN DECAYS 451
ω(θ, 0) = 1 (13.90)
for all θ. Here we are going to prove that this expectation is incorrect.
Suppose that special-relativistic equation (13.90) is valid, i.e., for any
|Ψi ∈ Ha and any θ > 0, boost transformations of the observer keep the
initial state vector within the unstable particle’s subspace
ic
e ~ Kx θ |Ψi ∈ Ha
ic
Then the subspace Ha is invariant under action of boosts e ~ Kx θ , which means
that operator Kx commutes with the projection T on the subspace Ha . Then
from Poincaré commutator (3.57) and [T, P0x ] = 0 it follows by Jacobi iden-
tity that
ic
e ~ Kx θ |Ψi ∈
/ Ha (13.91)
ω(θ, 0) < 1, f or θ 6= 0 (13.92)
This is the “decay caused by boost,” which means that special-relativistic
equations (I.25) and (13.90) are not accurate and that boosts of the observer
have a non-trivial effect on the internal state of the observed unstable system.
The presence of “decays caused by boosts” means that particle composi-
tion of systems involving unstable states is not a relativistic invariant. For
example, one should be careful when making assertions like this one:
Flavor is the quantum number that distinguishes the different
types of quarks and leptons. It is a Lorentz invariant quantity.
For example, an electron is seen as an electron by any observer,
never as a muon. C. Giunti and M. Lavender [GL]
452 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
Although this statement about the electron is correct (because the electron
is a stable particle), it is not true about the muon. An unstable muon can
be seen as a single particle by the observer at rest and, at the same time, it
will be perceived as a group of three decay products (an electron, a neutrino
νµ , and an antineutrino ν̃e ) by a moving observer.
In spite of its fundamental importance, the effect of boosts on the non-
decay probability is very small. For example, our rather accurate approxi-
mation (13.84) failed to “catch” this effect. Indeed, for t = 0 this formula
predicted
∞ 2
Z Z
2
2
ω(θ, 0) = dp|ψ(p)| dm|µ(m)| = 1
mb +mc
surprising relationship between decay laws of the same particle viewed from
the moving reference frame ω(θ, t) and from the frame at rest ω(0, t)43
ic i i ic
ω(θ, t) = h0|e− ~ K0x θ e ~ Ht T e− ~ Ht e ~ K0x θ |0i
ic i ic ic ic ic i ic
= h0|e− ~ K0x θ e ~ Ht e ~ K0x θ e− ~ K0x θ T e ~ K0x θ e− ~ K0x θ e− ~ Ht e ~ K0x θ |0i
ic i ic ic i ic
= h0|e− ~ K0x θ e ~ Ht e ~ K0x θ T e− ~ K0x θ e− ~ Ht e ~ K0x θ |0i
it it
= h0|e ~ (H cosh θ+cPx sinh θ) T e− ~ (H cosh θ+cPx sinh θ) |0i
it it
= h0|e ~ H cosh θ T e− ~ H cosh θ |0i
= ω(0, t cosh θ)
where the last equality follows from comparison with the decay law at rest
(13.9). This means that the decay rate in the moving frame is cosh θ times
faster than in the rest frame. This is in direct contradiction with experiments.
The point form of dynamics is not acceptable for the description of de-
cays for yet another reason. Due to the interaction-dependence of the total
momentum operator (17.37), one should expect decays induced by space
translations
i
e ~ Px a |Ψi ∈
/ Ha , f or a 6= 0 (13.93)
43
In this derivation we assumed that the state of the particle at rest |Ψi is an eigenvector
of the interacting momentum operator P|Ψi = 0.
454 CHAPTER 13. DECAYS
Chapter 14
455
456 CHAPTER 14. RQD IN HIGHER ORDERS
All terms on the right hand sides can be found relatively easily. All warnings
from subsection 11.2.1 regarding the non-uniqueness of the off-energy-shell
behavior of the potentials remain valid here. Indeed, according to (11.23),
Σ-operators are directly related to the scattering matrix S c
So, our plan in this section is as follows: In subsection 14.1.1 we are go-
ing to find the 3rd order contribution to the S-operator having the desired
structure d† a† c† da. Then in subsection 14.1.2 we will use the correspondence
(14.1), (14.3) between the S-operator and the dressed particle Hamiltonian
in order to obtain V3d [d† a† c† da] near the energy shell. Next, in subsections
14.1.3-14.1.5, we will use approach developed in chapter 13 to calculate the
radiative transition rate between two states of the hydrogen atom and asso-
ciated energy shifts.
Z+∞
i
S3 = dt1 dt2 dt3 T [V1 (t1 )V1 (t2 )V1 (t3 )]
3!~3
−∞
Z
i
= 3
d4 x1 d4 x2 d4 x3 T [V1 (x̃1 )V1 (x̃2 )V1 (x̃3 )] (14.5)
3!~
Z
i
= d4 x1 d4 x2 d4 x3 ×
3!~3
T [(Jµ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 ) + Jµ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 )) ×
(Jν (x̃2 )Aν (x̃2 ) + Jν (x̃2 )Aν (x̃2 )) ×
(Jλ (x̃3 )Aλ (x̃3 ) + Jλ(x̃3 )Aλ (x̃3 ))] (14.6)
S3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ)
Z
i
= 3 3
d4 x1 d4 x2 d4 x3 ×
2~ c
h0|aq,τ dp,σ T [Jµ (x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 )Jν (x̃2 )Aν (x̃2 )Jλ (x̃3 )Aλ (x̃3 )]d†p′ ,σ′ a†q′ ,τ ′ c†s,κ |0i
Z
ie3
= 3
d4 x1 d4 x2 d4 x3 ×
2~
h0|aq,τ dp,σ T [(ψ(x̃1 )γµ ψ(x̃1 )Aµ (x̃1 ))(ψ(x̃2 )γν ψ(x̃2 )Aν (x̃2 )) ×
(Ψ(x̃3 )γλ Ψ(x̃3 )Aλ (x̃3 ))]d†p′ ,σ′ a†q′ ,τ ′ c†s,κ |0i
S3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ)
ie3 c3/2 mMc4 c
= − 2
p √ ×
4π ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′ (2π~) 3/2 2s
1
δ 4 (−s̃ + q̃ + p̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ ) ×
(p̃ − p̃′ )2
/ − /s + mc2 )bc cd
(q
ua (q, τ ) /eab (s, κ) W/ (p, σ; p′ , σ ′ )
(q̃ − s̃)2 − m2 c4
/ + /q′ + mc2 )bc cd
(s
+W/ab (p, σ; p′ , σ ′ ) /
e (s, κ) ud (q′ , τ ′ )
(s̃ + q̃ ′ )2 − m2 c4
Now let us assume that the electron and the proton are non-relativistic
and simplify the above expression. According to approximations derived in
Appendix J.9 and using
p̃2 = (p̃′ )2 = m2 c4
s̃2 = 0
(p̃ − p̃′ )2 ≈ −c2 (p − p′ )2
(s̃ + q̃ ′ )2 − m2 c4 = 2s̃ · q̃ ′
(q̃ − s̃)2 − m2 c4 = −2s̃ · q̃
14.1. SPONTANEOUS RADIATIVE TRANSITIONS 459
q’,τ’
q’,τ’
p’,σ’ s,κ p’,σ’
γνν
γνν
s,κ γλ γλ
γµ
γµ
p,σ q,τ p,σ
q,τ
(a) (b)
Figure 14.1: 3rd order Feynman diagrams for the photon emission in
electron-proton collisions.
W 0 (p, σ, p′ , σ ′ ) ≈ δσ,σ′
W(p, σ, p′ , σ ′ ) ≈ 0
p
ωq ωq′ Ωp Ωp′ ≈ Mmc4
we obtain
S3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ)
1 1 δ 4 (−s̃ + q̃ + p̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ )δσσ′
≈ ie3 c5/2 2 √ ×
4π (2π~)3/2 2s c2 (p − p′ )2
/ − /s + mc2 )bc cd
(q
ua (q, τ ) −e /ab (s, κ) γ0
2q̃ · s̃
/ + /q′ + mc2 )bc cd
(s
+ γ0ab /
e (s, κ) ud (q′ , τ ′ )
2q̃ ′ · s̃
Next we assume that the energy and momentum of the emitted photon
is much less than energies and momenta of charged particles. We also use
Dirac equations (J.83), (J.82) and the non-relativistic approximation (J.71)
to write3
3
Here we used the tilde to write ẽ in order to stress the 4-component nature of this
quantity despite the fact that it does not transform as a 4-vector.
460 CHAPTER 14. RQD IN HIGHER ORDERS
s̃ · q̃ ′ = csωq′ − c2 (s · q′ ) ≈ mc3 s
s̃ · q̃ ≈ mc3 s
q̃ · ẽ = −c(q · e)
q̃ ′ · ẽ = −c(q′ · e)
Therefore4
S3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ)
√ ′
ie3 cδ 4 (−s̃ + q̃ + p̃ − p̃′ − q̃ ′ ) δσσ′ δτ,τ ′ q̃ · ẽ q̃ · ẽ
≈ √ · −
4π 2 (2π~)3/2 2s (p − p′ )2 q̃ ′ · s̃ q̃ · s̃
(14.7)
3 4 ′ ′ ′
ie δ (q̃ + p̃ − p̃ − q̃ ) δσσ′ δτ,τ ′ (q − q) · e(s, κ)
≈ − p ·
4π 2 m(2π~)3/2 2(cs)3 (q′ − q)2
(14.8)
This is our final expression for the terms JJJ in the scattering operator
(14.6). The contribution from JJ J + J JJ + J J J terms can be obtained
simply by replacing the electron’s mass m in (14.8) by the proton’s mass M.
So, this contribution is much smaller and will be neglected.
4
Our result in (14.7) can be compared with equations (7.57) - (7.58) in [BD64].
14.1. SPONTANEOUS RADIATIVE TRANSITIONS 461
V3d
X Z
= dpdqdp′ dq′ dsV3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ)a†q′ ,τ ′ d†p′ ,σ′ c†s,κ aq,τ dp,σ
στ σ′ τ ′ κ
(14.9)
whose coefficient function is6
V3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ)
e3 δσσ′ δτ,τ ′ (q′ − q) · e(s, κ)
≈ p δ(q + p − p′ − q′ )
8π 3 m(2π~)3/2 2(cs)3 (q′ − q)2
(14.10)
The action of the operator (14.9) on a two particle (electron+proton) initial
state
XZ
|Ψi i ≡ dp′′ dq′′ Ψ(p′′ , q′′ ; λ, ν)a†q′′ ,ν d†p′′ ,λ |0i
λν
is
X XZ Z
′′ ′′
V3d |Ψi i = dp dq dpdqdp′ dq′ dsV3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ) ×
στ σ′ τ ′ κ λν
Ψ(p , q′′ ′′
; λ, ν)a†q′ ,τ ′ d†p′ ,σ′ c†s,κ aq,τ dp,σ a†q′′ ,ν d†p′′ ,λ |0i
X XZ Z
′′ ′′
= dp dq dpdqdp′ dq′ dsV3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ) ×
στ σ′ τ ′ κ λν
5
For brevity we drop the label [d† a† c† da] from the V3d operator symbol.
6
This formula is obtained simply by dividing scattering amplitude (14.8) by the factor
(−2πi) and omitting the energy delta function δ(ωq + Ωp − ωq′ − Ωp′ ).
462 CHAPTER 14. RQD IN HIGHER ORDERS
Ψ(p′′ , q′′ ; λ, ν)a†q′ ,τ ′ d†p′ ,σ′ c†s,κ δ(q − q′′ )δτ ν δ(p − p′′ )δσλ |0i
X Z
= dpdqdp′ dq′ dsV3JJJ (p, q, p′ , q′ , s; σ, τ, σ ′ , τ ′ , κ) ×
στ σ′ τ ′ κ
Ψ′ (p′ , q′ , s; σ ′ τ ′ κ)
XZ e3 δ(q + p − p′ − q′ )δσσ′ δτ,τ ′ (q′ − q) · e(s, κ)
= dpdq p Ψ(p, q; σ, τ )
στ 8π 3 m(2π~)3/2 2(cs)3 (q′ − q)2
Z
e3 k · e(s, κ)
= p dk Ψ(p′ + k, q′ − k; σ ′ , τ ′ )
3
8π m(2π~) 3/2 2(cs) 3 k2
Ψ′ (x, y, s; σ ′ τ ′ κ)
Z Z
e3 ′ ′ ~i p′ x+ ~i q′ y k · e(s, κ)
= p dp dq e dk ×
8π 3 m(2π~)9/2 2(cs)3 k2
Ψ(p′ + k, q′ − k; σ ′ , τ ′ )
Z Z
e3 ′ ′ ~i (p′ −k)x+ ~i (q′ +k)y k · e(s, κ)
= p dp dq e dk ×
8π 3 m(2π~)9/2 2(cs)3 k2
Ψ(p′ , q′ ; σ ′ , τ ′ )
Z
~3/2 e3 i k · e(s, κ)
= p dke ~ k(y−x) ×
(2π~)3 m(2π)3/2 2(cs)3 k2
7
x and y are position vectors of the proton and the electron, respectively.
14.1. SPONTANEOUS RADIATIVE TRANSITIONS 463
Z
1 ′ ′ ~i p′ x+ ~i q′ y ′ ′ ′ ′
dp dq e Ψ(p , q ; σ , τ )
(2π~)3
e3 ~1/2 i(y − x) · e(s, κ)
= p 3
Ψ(x, y; σ ′, τ ′ )
m(2π) 3/2 2(cs) 3 4π|y − x|
This means that the 3rd order position-space bremsstrahlung potential be-
tween two charged particles is
i~1/2 e3 r · e(s, κ)
V3d (r, s, κ) = p (14.11)
4πm 2(2πcs)3r 3
e2 r
a ≈
4πmr 3
Thus we conclude that the total radiated power should depend on the square
of electron’s acceleration a2 . This is in agreement with the well-know Lar-
mor’s formula of classical electrodynamics. Thus the 3rd order bremsstrahlung
interaction V3d has direct relevance to the “radiation reaction” effect [McD00,
Par02, Par05].
2P 1/2 and 1S 1/2 of the hydrogen atom. The corresponding state vectors
will be denoted |Ψi i and |Ψf i, respectively. They are eigenvectors of the
two-particle electron-proton Hamiltonian10
p2e p2p e2
He−p = + − (14.12)
2m 2M 4πr
with eigenvalues Ei and Ef
−1
8π 2 s2 d
2 dη (z)
Γ(s, κ) = |hΨ |V
i 3 (r, s, κ)|Ψ f i| (14.13)
c4 dz z=ma
e2 r
[pe , He−p ] = pe , = i~e2 (14.14)
4πr 4πr 3
i~1/2 e3 r · e(s, κ)
hΨi |V3d (r, s, κ)|Ψf i = p Ψi Ψf
m 2(2πcs)3 4πr 3
e
= p hΨi |(pe · e)He−p − He−p (pe · e)|Ψf i
m 2~(2πE)3
e
= p EhΨi |(pe · e)|Ψf i
m 2~(2πE)3
Next we use
im im im m
− [r, He−p] = − [re , He−p ] + [rp , He−p ] ≈ pe − pp ≈ pe
~ ~ ~ M
to obtain
ie
hΨi |V3d (r, s, κ)|Ψf i = − p EhΨi |(r · e)He−p − He−p (r · e)|Ψf i
2(2π~E)3
ie
= p E 2 hΨi |(r · e)|Ψf i
2(2π~E) 3
√
ie E
= p hΨi |(r · e)|Ψf i (14.15)
2(2π~)3
products (the photon) is massless (mc = 0), and its energy is much smaller
than rest energies of the atomic states11 cs ≪ ma c2 ≈ mb c2
q
1 1
z = ηs = 2 mb c + c s + cs ≈ 2 (mb c2 + cs)
2 4 2 2
c c
−1
s = η (z) ≈ (z − mb )c
dη −1 (z)
≈ c
dz z=ma
√ !2
8π 2 E 2 e E
Γ(s, κ) = p |hΨi |(r · e)|Ψf i|2
c5 2(2π~)3
E3
= |hΨi |(d · e(s, κ))|Ψf i|2
2~3 c5
where d ≡ −er is the atom’s dipole moment operator.
The full transition probability12 should be obtained by summing (14.13)
over two photon polarizations κ = ±1 and integrating over all possible di-
rections s/s of the emitted photon13
+1 Z +1 Z
1 c2 X E3 X
= dΩΓ(s, κ) = dΩ|hΨi |(d · e(s, κ))|Ψf i|2
τ0 ~ κ=−1 2π~4 c3 κ=−1
+1 Z
E3 X
= 4 3
dΩ|(dif · e(s, κ))|2
2π~ c κ=−1
For simplicity, we assume that vector dif is directed along the z-axis. Then,
with the help of (K.9) we obtain
11
In the case of the hydrogen atom we can assume, for example, a = 2P 1/2 and b =
1/2
1S .
12
This probability is related to the brightness of the corresponding spectral line. See
also section
R 19.5 in [Bal98] and section 45 in [BLP01].
13
Here dΩ denotes the integral over orientations of s, and dif ≡ hΨi |d|Ψf i is the
matrix element of the dipole moment operator calculated on eigenfunctions of atomic
states |Ψi i and |Ψf i.
14.1. SPONTANEOUS RADIATIVE TRANSITIONS 467
+1
X dif (−sx + isy ) 2 dif (−sx − isy ) 2 |dif |2 (s2x + s2y )
2
|(dif · e(s, κ))| = √ + √ =
κ=−1
2s 2s s2
and the total transition rate (measured in Hz) is given by the well-known
formula
Zπ Z2π Zπ
1 |dif |2 E 3 (s2x + s2y ) |dif |2 E 3 4|dif |2 E 3
= sin θdθ dφ = sin3 θdθ =
τ0 2π~4 c3 s2 ~ 4 c3 3~4 c3
0 0 0
i~1/2 e3 r · e(s, κ)
V3d (r, s, κ) = − p (14.16)
4πm 2(2π)3 (λ2 c4 + c2 s2 )3/4 r 3
where |l; s, κi ≡ |li|s, κi is a basis state, which has the atom in a stationary
state |li15 and a free photon in the state |s, κi with momentum s and helicity
κ. From equality (K.13)
+1
X si sj
ei (s, κ)ej (s, κ) = δij −
κ=−1
s2
we obtain
~e6 XZ si sj D ri E D rj E
∆En = ds δij − n l l n ×
2m2 (2π)3 lij s2 4πr 3 4πr 3
1
(λ2 c4 + c2 s2 )3/2 (En − El − cs)
Z∞
s2 ds
Inl ≡
(λ2 c4 + c2 s2 )3/2 (Enl − cs)
0
Then
Z Z
si sj s2z
ds 2 2 4 = δij ds
s (λ c + c2 s2 )3/2 (Enl − cs) s2 (λ2 c4 + c2 s2 )3/2 (Enl − cs)
Zπ Z∞
s2 cos2 θ
= 2πδij sin θdθ ds 2 4
(λ c + c2 s2 )3/2 (Enl − cs)
0 0
Z1 Z∞
s2 t2 4πδij
= 2πδij dt ds = Inl
(λ2 c4 + c2 s2 )3/2 (Enl − cs) 3
−1 0
~e6 X D ri E D rj E 4πδij
∆En ≈ n l l n 4πδij Inl − Inl
2m2 (2π)3 lij 4πr 3 4πr 3 3
4~e6 X D ri E D ri E
= n l l n Inl
3m2 (2π)3 li 4πr 3 4πr 3
Inl
1h λ2 c4 − Enl cs 2
Enl
= 3 √ + 2 3/2
×
c (λ2 c4 + Enl 2
) λ2 c4 + c2 s2 (λ2 c4 + Enl )
p √ !
λ2 c4 + Enl2
λ2 c4 + c2 s2 + λ2 c2 + Enl cs is=∞
ln
Enl − cs s=0
1 h 1 1 2 4 −1
1 |Enl |λc2 i
≈ 3 − + ln −(|Enl | + λ c |Enl | /2) − Enl − ln
c Enl |Enl | |Enl | Enl
2 4 −1
1 −[|Enl | + λ c |Enl | /2 + Enl ]Enl
≈ 3 ln
c |Enl | |Enl |λc2
If Enl > 0
1 −2Enl
Inl = 3 ln
c Enl λc2
If Enl < 0
−1
1 [λ2 c4 Enl /2]Enl 1 2Enl
Inl = − 3 ln = 3 ln
c Enl Enl λc2 c Enl λc2
So, taking into account that ln(−1) ≪ ln (2|Enl |/(λc2)), we can write for all
values of Enl
1 2|Enl |
Inl ≈ 3 ln
c Enl λc2
470 CHAPTER 14. RQD IN HIGHER ORDERS
Then
4π~e6 X D ri E2 1 2|Enl |
∆En ≈ n l ln
3m2 (2π)3 c3 li 4πr 3 Enl λc2
ri 1
3
= − 2 [pi , He−p ]
4πr i~e
D r E2 1
i
n 3
l = − 2 4 hn |(pi He−p − He−p pi )| li hl |(pi He−p − He−p pi )| ni
4πr ~ e
2
Enl
= 2 4 hn |pi | li hl |pi | ni
~e
to obtain
e2 X 2 λc2
∆En ≈ − 2 2 3 |hn|pi |li| Enl ln
6m π ~c li 2|Enl |
Our next step is to use the so-called Bethe logarithm E n defined for s-states
as16
X
X 2 λc2 λc2
|hn|pi |li| Enl ln ≡ ln |hn|pi |li|2 Enl
li
2|Enl | 2E n li
Then17
X
2α λc2
∆En ≈ − ln |hn|pi |li|2 Enl
3πm2 c2 2E n l
2
X
α λc
= − ln hn|(He−p pi − pi He−p )|lihl|pi |ni
3πm2 c2 2E n l
−hn|pi |lihl|(He−ppi − pi He−p )|ni
16
See, e.g., formulas (8.87) in [BD64] and (14.3.51) in [Wei95].
17
here we used equation (B.2)
14.2. RADIATIVE CORRECTIONS 471
2
α λc
= − 2 2
ln (hn|(He−ppi − pi He−p )pi |ni
3πm c 2E n
−hn|pi (He−p pi − pi He−p )|ni)
2
α λc
= − 2 2
ln hn|([He−p , pi ]pi − pi [He−p , pi ])|ni
3πm c 2E n
2
α λc
= − ln hn|[pi , [pi , He−p]]|ni
3πm2 c2 2E n
2 2 2
~2 α λc ∂ e
= − ln n ∂r2 4πr n
3πm2 c2 2E n
2
4~3 α2 λc
= 2
ln hn|δ(r)|ni (14.17)
3m c 2E n
se 4~3 α2 λ 2 mc2 α5 λ
∆E2S 1/2 = ln |ψ2S 1/2 (0)| = ln
3m2 c 16.64mα2 6π 16.64mα2
(14.18)
shift (14.18) and leads to a finite energy spectrum of the hydrogen atom,
which compares favorably with experiment. Here, within our dressed particle
approach, we are going to reproduce such classic results of renormalized QED
as the electron’s anomalous magnetic moment and the Lamb shifts.
V2d (t)
Z i
e2 ~2 ′ ′ δ(p + q − p′ − q′ )e ~ (Ωp +ωq −Ωp′ −ωq′ )t † †
= − dpdqdp dq dp aq dp′ aq′
(2π~)3 (q − q′ )2 + λ2 c2
and V2d is obtained with the help of (8.61)
V2d (t)
19
This is the leading term in the momentum representation of the Darwin-Breit inter-
action (12.7) with a screening provided by the photon mass λ. Here we are interested
only in the dominant infrared-divergent term in the product V2d V2d , so we will work in
the non-relativistic approximation from Appendix J.9 and thus assume that momenta of
interacting particles are much less that mc. Accordingly, we will omit all terms contain-
ing positive powers of p̃, q̃ and/or k̃. In this approximation the product V2d V2d becomes
spin-independent. So, we disregard spins and drop spin labels of particle states. The same
approximations will be employed for other infrared-divergent terms in this chapter.
14.2. RADIATIVE CORRECTIONS 473
Z i
e2 ~2 ′δ(t + s − t′ − s′ )e ~ (Ωt +ωs −Ωt′ −ωs′ )t † †
′
= dtdsdt ds d a dt′ as′
(2π~)3 [(s − s′ )2 + λ2 c2 ][ωs − ωs′ + Ωt − Ωt′ ] t s
Using
we obtain20
v4d (p, q, k; τ, σ, τ ′ σ ′ )
α2 δσ,σ′ δτ,τ ′ α e2 ~2 σel · [k × q]
† i~ α2 δσ,σ′ δτ,τ ′ λ
= − 3 2
− 3
· χσ 2 2 2
χσ′ δτ,τ ′ − 3 2
ln
30π m c π (2π~) 4m c k 6π m c m
21
Here µ is a small positive constant, which should be taken to 0 at the end of calcula-
tions.
22
This observation justifies the omission of contributions (14.22) and (10.63) in most
textbook calculations of the Lamb shift.
23
See condition ζi ≈ 1 in subsections 11.1.6 - 11.1.7 and discussion in subsection 11.2.1.
14.2. RADIATIVE CORRECTIONS 475
8~3 α2 e2 [r × q] · Sel α 4~3 α2 λ
V4d (q, r, Sel ) = − 2
δ(r) + 2 2 3
− 2
ln δ(r)
30m c 8πm c r π 3m c m
(14.24)
d e2 e2 [r × q] · Sel α e2 ~2 8α
V2+4 (q, r, Sel ) = − + 1+ + 2 2 1− δ(r)
4πr 8πm2 c2 r 3 π 8c m 15π
4~3 α2 λ
− 2
ln δ(r) (14.25)
3m c m
The 1st term is the usual Coulomb potential. The 2nd term describes the
spin-orbit interaction of the electron’s spin with its own momentum. The
3rd and 4th terms are contact potentials. The latter one is rather troubling:
it diverges in the limit of zero photon mass λ → 0. From the point of view
of classical electrodynamics,24 this is not a reason for concern, because such
short-range potentials do not affect macroscopic dynamics of classical point-
like charges. However, this potential has infinite effect on eigenstates and
eigenvalues of quantum compound systems, e.g., the hydrogen atom. How
are we going to solve this problem?
The presence of the Lamb shift was completely unexpected from the point
of view of the quantum theory available at the time. Attempts to explain
this effect played an important role in the development of quantum elec-
trodynamics. Successful calculation of the shift value (14.26) was a major
triumph of QED. Here we are going to calculate the Lamb shift within our
dressed particle approach.
The effects of the 4th order potentials (14.24) on energies of the 2S 1/2
and 2P 1/2 hydrogen states can be calculated using perturbation theory, as in
section 12.2. The results are collected in Table 14.1.
The short-range contact potential in the 1st term in (14.24) shifts only
the s-state, whose wave function is non-zero at the origin
8~3 α2 mc2 α5
∆εcontact
2S 1/2 = − |ψ2S (0)| 2
= −
30m2 c 30π
Table 14.1: 4th order perturbative energy corrections to 2S 1/2 and 2P 1/2
energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
contribution potential ∆ε2S 1/2 ∆ε2P 1/2
e 2 ~2 α mc2 α5
contact (14.24) − 30m2 c2 π δ(r) − 30π 0
3 2 2 5
vertex (14.24) − 4~ α
3m2 c
ln λ
m
δ(r) − mc6πα ln λ
m
0
mc2 α5 λ
emission (14.18) 6π
ln 17.6α2 m
0
2 2 5
spin-orbit (14.24) − e16π
α[r×q]·Sel
2 m2 c2 r 3 0 − mc48πα
mc2 α5
1 2 5
Total correction 6π
− 5 − ln(17.6α2 ) − mc48πα
4~3 α2 λ mc2 α5 λ
∆εvertex
2S 1/2 =− ln 2
|ψ2S (0)| = − ln (14.27)
3m2 c m 6π m
mc2 α5 λ
∆εemission
2S 1/2 = ln
6π 16.64α2m
So, the total energy correction becomes finite. The only interaction affecting
the 2P 1/2 level is the 2nd term in (14.24). The corresponding energy shift
can be evaluated by the method from subsection 12.2.3.
Finally, within our approximations, the full 4th order contribution to the
Lamb shift
spin−orbit
ε2S 1/2 − ε2P 1/2 = ∆εcontact emission
2S 1/2 + ∆ε2S 1/2 + ∆εvertex
2S 1/2 − ∆ε2P 1/2
mc2 α5 3
= − − ln(16.64α ) = 3.91 × 10−6 eV
2
6π 40
= 2π~ × 945 MHz
e2 [r × p] · Sel
Vs−o = − (14.28)
4πMmc2 r 3
geSel
~µel ≡ −
2mc
e[r × p] · ~µel
Vs−o =
4πMcr 3
g = 2(1 + β4 ) (14.29)
′ ′ ie2 ~2 δπ,π′ (el)† ~σel · [k × p] (el)
v2s−o (p, q, k; π, ǫ, π , ǫ ) = χ χǫ′ (14.30)
(2π~)3 ǫ 2Mmc2 k 2
Now our plan is to find a 4th order terms with the similar structure. One can
easily see that the only relevant S-matrix contribution is (10.48). Retaining
only the leading first term in the square bracket there, we obtain
icα2
s4s−o (p, q, k; π, ǫ, π ′ , ǫ′ ) ≈ − U(q + k, ǫ; q, ǫ′ ) · W(p − k, π; p, π ′ )
2π 2 k 2
To obtain the coefficient function of the corresponding potential we just need
to use (J.68), (J.69), and multiply the result by the usual factor 1/(−2πi)
icα2 δπ,π′ (el)† i[~σel × k] 2p − k (el)
v4s−o = χ · χǫ′
(2πi)2π 2k 2 ǫ 2mc 2Mc
ie2 ~2 δπ,π′ α (el)† ~σel · [k × p] (el)
= 3
χǫ 2 2
χǫ′
(2π~) 2π 2Mmc k
This 4th order matrix element differs from the similar 2nd order matrix
element (14.30) only by the factor α/(2π), which is the desired value of β4
in (14.29). So, in our approximation, the g-factor is
α
g =2 1+ ≈ 2.0023 (14.31)
2π
which is the standard 4th order QED result.
480 CHAPTER 14. RQD IN HIGHER ORDERS
Chapter 15
CLASSICAL
ELECTRODYNAMICS
481
482 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
H0 = h1 + h2
q q
= m1 c + p1 c + m22 c4 + p22 c2
2 4 2 2
q1 q2 q1 q2 (p1 · r)(p2 · r)
V ≈ − (p1 · p2 ) +
4πr 8πm1 m2 c2 r r2
1
See section 15.2 and chapter 16.1.
2
The only exception is our discussion of the Aharonov-Bohm effect in section 15.4.
3
We denote r ≡ r1 − r2 throughout this chapter. In the case of electron-proton system,
the charges are q1 = −e and q2 = +e. Contact terms proportional to δ(r) are not relevant
for classical mechanics and are omitted. We also omitted 3rd and 4th order corrections to
this Hamiltonian that were derived in sections 14.1 and 14.2. In Appendix N.3 we verified
that with a properly chosen boost generator K = K0 + Z the Hamiltonian H = H0 + V
satisfies all Poincaré Lie algebra relationships within the (v/c)2 approximation.
484 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
q1 q2 [r × p1 ] · s1 q1 q2 [r × p2 ] · s2 q1 q2 [r × p2 ] · s1
− + +
8πm21 c2 r 3 8πm22 c2 r 3 4πm1 m2 c2 r 3
q1 q2 [r × p1 ] · s2 q1 q2 (s1 · s2 ) 3q1 q2 (s1 · r)(s2 · r)
− 2 3
+ 2 3
−
4πm1 m2 c r 4πm1 m2 c r 4πm1 m2 c2 r 5
(15.2)
This Hamiltonian fully determines the dynamics in the system via Hamilton’s
equations of motion (6.99) - (6.100) and Poisson brackets (6.96). The time
derivative of the first particle’s momentum can be obtained from the first
Hamilton’s equation
dp1 ∂H
= [p1 , H]P = −
dt ∂r1
q1 q2 r q1 q2 (p1 · p2 )r q1 q2 p1 (p2 · r) q1 q2 (p1 · r)p2
= − + +
4πr 3 8πm1 m2 c2 r 3 8πm1 m2 c2 r 3 8πm1 m2 c2 r 3
3q1 q2 (p1 · r)(p2 · r)r
− (15.5)
8πm1 m2 c2 r 5
Since Hamiltonian (15.4) is symmetric with respect to permutations of the
two particles, we can obtain the time derivative of the second particle’s mo-
mentum by replacing indices 1 ↔ 2 in (15.5)
dp2 dp1
= − (15.6)
dt dt
Velocities of particles 1 and 2 are obtained from the second Hamilton’s equa-
tion4
dr1 ∂H
v1 ≡ = [r1 , H]P =
dt ∂p1
2
p1 p p1 q1 q2 p2 q1 q2 (p2 · r)r
= − 13 2 − − (15.7)
m1 2m1 c 8πm1 m2 c2 r 8πm1 m2 c2 r 3
2
dr2 p2 p p2 q1 q2 p1 q1 q2 (p1 · r)r
v2 ≡ = − 23 2 − − (15.8)
dt m2 2m2 c 8πm1 m2 c r 8πm1 m2 c2 r 3
2
From these results we can calculate second time derivatives of particle posi-
tions (=accelerations)5
4
This relationship between velocity and momentum is interaction-dependent because
interaction energy in (15.4) is momentum-dependent.
5
In this derivation we omitted terms proportional to q12 q22 due to their smallness (for-
mally they belong to the 4th perturbation order). Also keeping the accuracy of (v/c)2 we
can set ṙ = dr dr2 p1 p2
dt − dt ≡ v1 − v2 ≈ m1 − m2 in those terms that already have the factor
1
2
(1/c) .
486 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
dpi
fi ≡ (15.11)
dt
In another definition [CV68] the force is a product of the particle’s rest mass
and its acceleration6
6
This is equivalent to the second Newton’s law of motion.
15.1. HAMILTONIAN FORMULATION 487
d 2 ri
fi ≡ mi (15.12)
dt2
These two definitions are identical only for not-so-interesting potentials that
do not depend on momenta (or velocities) of particles. In the Darwin-Breit
electrodynamics we are dealing with momentum-dependent potentials, so we
need to decide which definition of force we are going to use.
The usual definition (15.11) has the advantage that the third Newton’s
law of motion (the law of action and reaction) in a two-body system has a
simple formulation7
f1 = −f2 (15.13)
This is a trivial consequence of the law of conservation of the total momen-
tum. It follows immediately from the vanishing Poisson bracket [P0 , H]P = 0
in the instant form of relativistic dynamics8
dp2 dp1
= [p2 , H]P = [P0 − p1 , H]P = −[p1 , H]P = − (15.14)
dt dt
Contrary to the usual practice, in this book we will use an alternative
definition of force (15.12). Although this definition does not imply the balance
of forces (15.13),9 it is preferable for several reasons. First, definition (15.12)
is consistent with the standard notion that equilibrium (or zero acceleration
d2 r/dt2 = 0) is achieved when the force vanishes.10 Second, definition (15.11)
is less convenient because it is rather difficult to measure momenta of particles
and their time derivatives in experiments. It is much easier to measure
velocities and accelerations of particles, e.g., by time-of-flight techniques. For
example, by measuring current in a wire we actually measure the amount of
charge passing through the cross-section of the wire in a unit of time. This
quantity is directly related to the velocity of electrons, while it has no direct
connection to electrons’ momenta.
7
see (15.6)
8
Note that in the traditional Maxwell’s theory the proof of the validity of the third
Newton’s law is rather non-trivial. This “proof” requires introduction of such dubious
notions as “hidden momentum” and/or momentum of the electromagnetic fields [Kel42,
PN45, SJ67, Jef99a].
9
This can be seen from comparing (15.9) and (15.10): f1 6= −f2 .
10
This is the first Newton’s law of motion.
488 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
z (0,0,R)
v2 y
Now consider a small piece of conductor located in the origin and the charge
1 at the point (0, 0, R) on the z-axis (see Fig. 15.1). Our goal is to show that
the total force14 acting on the charge 1 is zero. To prove this fact it is sufficient
to show that expression (15.15) yields zero when averaged over directions of
v2 with the absolute value v2 kept fixed. The x- and y-components of this
average are zero by symmetry, and the z-component is given by the integral
on the surface of a sphere of radius v2 15
Zπ Z2π
q1 q2 v22 3v22 cos2 θ
Iz = sin θdθ dϕ −
8π R2 R2
0 0
−1
2 2 Z
q1 q2 4πv2 6πv2
= + 2 t2 dt = 0
8π R2 R
1
By similar arguments one can show that the reciprocal force exerted by the
charge on the conductor without current vanishes as well. So, we conclude
that the thermal movement of electrons can be ignored in conductor-charge
calculations.
Let us now consider the charge 1 and an infinite straight wire with a non-
zero drift velocity of electrons v2 in the geometry shown in Fig. 15.2. The
14
or the average of forces (15.15) over different values of v2
15
Here we use spherical coordinates with angles ϕ ∈ [0, 2π) and θ ∈ [0, π], so that
(v2 · r) = v2 R cos θ.
490 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
v2
r2
y
R,0,0)
(v1 · v2 )r v22 r (v1 · r)v2 3(v2 · r)2 r
df1 = q1 ρ2 dr2z − + + −
4πc2 r 3 8πc2 r 3 4πc2 r 3 8πc2 r 5
[v1 × [v2 × r]] v22 r 3(v2 · r)2 r
= q1 ρ2 dr2z + − (15.16)
4πc2 r 3 8πc2 r 3 8πc2 r 5
The full force is obtained by integrating (15.16) on the full length of the
wire. Let us first show that the integral of the 2nd and 3rd term vanishes.
The y- and z-components of this integral are zero due to symmetry. For the
x-component we obtain
Z∞
q1 ρ2 v22 R 2
3r2z R
Ix = dr2z 2 3/2
− 2 5/2
8πm1 c2 2
(R + r2z ) 2
(R + r2z )
−∞
= 0
z q11
p1
r1
µ2
x
0 u
y a
Figure 15.3: Interaction between a current loop and a charge. The charge q1
is located at a general point in space r1 = (r1x , r1y , r1z ) and has an arbitrary
momentum p1 = (p1x , p1y , p1z ).
Z∞
q1 ρ2 [v1 × [v2 × r]]
F1 = dr2z (15.17)
4πc2 r3
−∞
In this expression one easily recognizes the Biot-Savart force law of the tra-
ditional Maxwell’s theory. This means that all results of Maxwell’s theory
referring to magnetic properties of wires with currents remain valid in our
approach.
any effect on its interaction with the charge. So, we will assume that the
current loop is fixed in the origin. We need to take into account only the
velocity-dependent interaction between the charge 1 and negative charges of
conduction electrons having linear density ρ2 and drift velocity v2 ≈ p2 /m2 ,
whose tangential component is u, as shown in Fig. 15.3. Then the potential
energy of interaction between the charge 1 and the loop element dl is given
by the Darwin’s formula
q1 ρ2 dl (p1 · v2 ) (p1 · r)(v2 · r)
Vdl2−q1 ≈ − +
8πm1 c2 r r3
In the coordinate system shown in Fig. 15.3 the line element in the loop
is dl = adθ and v2 = (−u sin θ, u cos θ, 0). In the limit a → 0 we can
approximate
Vloop2−q1
Z2π h
aq1 ρ2 1 a(r1x cos θ + r1y sin θ)
≈ − dθ (−up1x sin θ + up1y cos θ) +
8πm1 c2 r1 r13
0
+(−ur1x sin θ + ur1y cos θ)((p1 · r1 ) − p1x a cos θ − p1y a sin θ) ×
1 3a(r1x cos θ + r1y sin θ) i
+
r13 r15
a2 uq1 ρ2 [r1 × p1 ]z
≈ − (15.20)
4m1 c2 r13
Taking into account the usual definition of the loop’s magnetic moment16 as
a vector ~µ2 whose length is µ2 = πa2 ρ2 u/c and whose direction is orthogonal
16
see equation (5.42) in [Jac99]
15.1. HAMILTONIAN FORMULATION 493
to the plane of the loop, we can generalize (15.20) for arbitrary position and
orientation of the loop
q1 [~µ2 × r] · p1
Vloop2−q1 ≈ − (15.21)
4πm1 cr 3
So, the full Hamiltonian for the system of charge 1 and current loop 2 is
dp2 dp1
= −
dt dt
The velocity of the charge 1 is obtained from the 2nd Hamilton’s equation
of motion
∂H p1 p2 p1 q1 [~µ2 × r]
v1 = = − 13 − (15.23)
∂p1 m1 2m1 c 4πm1 cr 3
dv1
a1 ≡
dt
ṗ1 q1 [~µ2 × ṙ] 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · ṙ)
≈ − +
m1 4πm1 cr 3 4πm1 cr 5
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 ([~µ2 × r] · p1 )r 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · p1 )
= − +
2πm21 cr 3 4πm21 cr 5 4πm21 cr 5
q1 [~µ2 × p2 ] 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · p2 )
+ 3
−
4πm1 m2 cr 4πm1 m2 cr 5
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 [p1 × [r × [~µ2 × r]]] d q1 [~µ2 × r]
= − −
2πm21 cr 3 4πm21 cr 5 dt 4πm1 cr 3
2
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 [p1 × r](~µ2 · r) d q1 [~µ2 × r]
= − 2 3
+ 2 5
− (15.24)
4πm1 cr 4πm1 cr dt 2 4πm1 cr 3
The notation ( dtd )2 means the time derivative (of r) when only particle 2 (the
loop) is allowed to move. For example
d p2
r = −v2 ≈ −
dt 2 m2
dp1 ∂H
= [p1 , H]P = −
dt ∂r1
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 ([p1 × ~µ2 ] · r)r q1 [p2 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 ([p2 × µ ~ 2 ] · r)r
= 3
− 5
− 3
+
4πm1 cr 4πm1 cr 8πm2 cr 8πm2 cr 5
dp2 dp1
= −
dt dt
dr1 ∂H p1 p2 p1 q1 [~µ2 × r]
v1 ≡ = [r1 , H]P = = − 13 −
dt ∂p1 m1 2m1 c 4πm1 cr 3
dv1
a1 ≡
dt
ṗ1 q1 [~µ2 × ṙ] 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · ṙ)
≈ − +
m1 4πm1 cr 3 4πm1 cr 5
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 ([p1 × ~µ2 ] · r)r 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · p1 )
= − +
2πm21 cr 3 4πm21 cr 5 4πm21 cr 5
3q1 [v2 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 ([~µ2 × r] · v2 )r 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · v2 )
− + −
8πm1 cr 3 8πm1 cr 5 4πm1 cr 5
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 [p1 × [r × [~µ2 × r]]]
= −
2πm21 cr 3 4πm21 cr 5
q1 [v2 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 ([~µ2 × r] · v2 )r q1 [~µ2 × v2 ] 3q1 [~µ2 × r](r · v2 )
− + + −
8πm1 cr 3 8πm1 cr 5 4πm1 cr 3 4πm1 cr 5
q1 [p1 × ~µ2 ] 3q1 [p1 × r](~µ2 · r) d q1 [~µ2 × r]
= − 2 3
+ 2 5
−
4πm1 cr 4πm1 cr dt 2 4πm1 cr 3
d q1 ([v2 × ~µ2 ] · r)
− (15.26)
dr1 8πm1 cr 3
This means that acceleration of the charge 1 in the field of the spin’s magnetic
moment is basically the same as in the field of a current loop (15.24). The
only difference is the presence of an additional gradient term - the last term on
the right hand side of (15.26). This difference will be discussed in subsections
15.3.1 - 15.3.3 in greater detail.
~2
µ 3(~µ2 · r)r
b1 = − 3
+ (15.29)
4πr 4πr 5
is used for the “magnetic field” of the magnetic moment µ ~ 2 at point r1 .20
There are, however, important differences between our formulas and the
standard approach. First, in the usual Lorentz force equation21 the force
is identified with the time derivative of momentum (15.11). In our case,
the force is “mass times acceleration.” Second, in our approach, there are
no fields (electric or magnetic) having independent existence at each space
point. There are only direct inter-particle forces. This is why we put “mag-
netic field” in quotes.
For comparison with experiment it is not sufficient to discuss point mag-
netic moments. We need to apply the above results to macroscopic magnets
as well. It is important to mention that there are two origins of magnetization
in materials. The first origin is due to the orbital motion of electrons. The
second one is due to spin magnetic moments of electrons22 . In permanent
magnets both components play roles. The relative strength of the “orbital”
19
which is the same in both cases
20
See equation (5.56) in [Jac99].
21
See, e.g., equation (11.124) in [Jac99].
22
the contribution from nuclear spins is much weaker
15.1. HAMILTONIAN FORMULATION 497
z
µ2
x
u
y
Figure 15.4: A thin solenoid can be represented as a stack of small current
loops. The magnetization vector ~µ2 is directed along the solenoid’s axis.
23
see subsection 15.1.5
498 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
C1 I
C3 C2 I
Figure 15.5: A wire coil (black thick line) with current I can be represented as
a superposition of infinitesimally small wire loops C1 , C2, C3 , . . . (grey lines)
with the same current I. All (imaginary) inside currents cancel each other,
so that only the (real) peripheral current remains.
q2v2r 3q 2 (v · r)2 r 5q 2 v 2 r
f1 = − − = −
4πc2 r 3 8πc2 r 5 8πc2 r 3
2 2
5q v r
f2 =
8πc2 r 3
which indicates the presence of an (longitudinal) attractive force parallel to
the electrons velocity vectors. As discussed in [Ess07, Ess96, Ess95], this
magnetic attraction of conduction electrons may contribute to superconduc-
tivity at low temperatures.
24
Here we ignore the Coulomb force components, which are shielded in metal conductors.
q denotes electron’s charge.
15.2. EXPERIMENTS AND PARADOXES 499
and the traditional force definition f = dp/dt it is easy to see that the
Newton’s third law (f1 = −f2 ) is not satisfied for most geometries [How44].
As we discussed in subsection 15.1.3, this means that the total momentum
of particles Pp is not conserved. The usual explanation [Kel42, PN45] of
this paradox is that the two charges alone do not constitute a closed physical
system. In order to restore the momentum conservation one needs to take into
account the momentum contained in the electromagnetic field surrounding
the charges.
According to Maxwell’s theory, electric and magnetic fields E(r), B(r)
have momentum and energy given by integrals over entire space
Z
f 1
P = dr[E(r) × B(r)] (15.32)
4πc
Z
1
Hf = dr(E 2 (r) + B 2 (r)) (15.33)
8π
So, the idea of the standard explanation is that the total momentum of
“particles + fields” (Pp + Pf ) is conserved in all circumstances.
From the point of view of RQD, it is understandable when Maxwell’s
theory associates momentum and energy with transverse time-varying elec-
tromagnetic fields in free space. As we will discuss in subsection 15.5.5,
these fields can be accepted as rough models of electromagnetic radiation.
For free propagating fields, equations (15.32) and (15.33) are supposed to be
equivalent to the sums of momenta and energies of photons, respectively.
However, Maxwell’s theory goes even farther and claims that bound26
electromagnetic fields surrounding charges or magnets also have non-zero
momentum and energy. If this were true then one could easily imagine sta-
tionary systems (e.g., a charged magnet) where nothing is moving and where
26
stationary, non-radiating
15.2. EXPERIMENTS AND PARADOXES 501
dF (t)
= [F, H]P
dt
Then the conservation of observables H, P, and J follows automatically from
their vanishing Poisson brackets with H.30 Similarly, boost transformations
27
See, e.g., subsection 15.4.3. The angular momentum of static electromagnetic fields
in Maxwell’s theory was discussed in [Rom66].
28
See also [Fra07] for discussion of other difficulties related to the idea of energy and mo-
mentum contained in the electromagnetic field. An interesting critical review of Maxwell’s
electrodynamics and Minkowski space-time picture can be found in section 1 of [GZL04].
29
see sections 16.4 - 16.6 in [Jac99]
30
For example, the explicit conservation of the total momentum P in our theory guar-
antees the resolution of paradoxes 6 and 7 in [Kho].
502 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
dF (~θ)
= −c[F, K]P
d~θ
In the case of total momentum-energy (P, H), the commutators (3.57) -
(3.58) hold independent on the strength of interaction. Then the 4-vector
transformation formulas (4.3) - (4.4) follow. So, in RQD the conservation of
total observables of isolated systems and their correct transformation laws
are embedded in the formalism at the most fundamental level and can be
never violated. In particular, the total momentum P = p1 + p2 of the two-
charge system described in the beginning of subsection 15.2.1 is conserved
automatically.
dJ
= [J, H]P = 0
dt
This result should hold in any inertial frame of reference. For example, in a
moving frame the relevant dynamical variables are 32
ic ~ ic ~
J(~θ) = e ~ K·θ Je− ~ K·θ
ic ~ ic ~
H(~θ) = e ~ K·θ He− ~ K·θ
and the equation of motion for the total angular momentum is33
31
The torque is defined here as the time derivative of the total angular momentum of
the system.
32
in quantum notation
33
Here t′ is time measured by the moving observer. Note that this result is valid only if
K is the full interaction-dependent boost (N.27) - (N.28).
15.2. EXPERIMENTS AND PARADOXES 503
f v
r
f1
+ v
Figure 15.6: The Trouton-Noble “paradox”: two charges moving with the
same velocity v. The forces f1 and f2 produce a non-zero torque.
dJ(~θ) ~θ), H(~θ)]P = [e ic~ K·θ~Je− ic~ K·θ~, e ic~ K·θ~He− ic~ K·θ~]P
= [J(
dt′
ic ~ ic ~
= e ~ K·θ [J, H]P e− ~ K·θ = 0
L L
s
v v
I S N
Amp Amp
(a) (b)
Figure 15.7: The electromagnetic induction. Current in the wire loop L can
be induced by (a) a moving solenoid with current; (b) a moving permanent
magnet.
Maxwell’s theory [PN45, Fur69, SG03, Jac04, But69, Teu96, Jef99b] do not
look convincing.
moment ~µ2 is created by a particle with spin, then the force on the charge 1
at rest is given by (15.26)36
d q1 ([v2 × ~µ2 ] · r) d q1 [~µ2 × r]
f1spin = − − (15.34)
dr1 8πcr 3 dt 2 4πcr 3
If the magnetic moment is created by a small current loop, then we should
use (15.24)
d q1 [~µ2 × r]
f1orb = − (15.35)
dt 2 4πcr 3
In other words, the force produced by a moving spin has two components,
the first of which is conservative and the second is non-conservative37
The force produced by the current loop has only a non-conservative compo-
nent
Z
d q1 [~µ2 × r]
Fnon−cons
1 = − dr2 (15.38)
dt 2 V 4πcr 3
36 d
Recall that dt 2
denotes the time derivative when r1 is kept fixed.
37
The force is defined as conservative if it can be represented as a gradient of a scalar
function (an example is given by the first term on the right hand side of (15.34)). Otherwise
the force is called non-conservative. The integral of a conservative force vector along any
closed loop is zero. Therefore, conservative forces on electrons cannot be detected by
measuring a current in a closed circuit.
506 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
This means that the magnet,38 moving near a wire loop L, induces a current
in the loop as shown in Fig. 15.7(a) and (b).
Let us now show that this prediction agrees quantitatively with Maxwell’s
electrodynamics. We denote by symbol e1 the force with which a microscopic
magnetic moment acts on a unit charge39
e1 ≡ f1non−cons /q1
If we take curl of this quantity, we obtain
∂ 1 d ∂ [~µ2 × r]
× e1 = − ×
∂r1 4πc dt 2 ∂r1 r3
1 d ~µ2 3(~µ2 · r)r
= − − 3 +
4πc dt 2 r r5
1 d
= − b1 (15.39)
c dt 2
where b1 is the “magnetic field” (15.29) of the magnetic moment. After
integrating both sides of equation (15.39) on the magnet’s volume we obtain
exactly the Maxwell’s equation
∂ 1 d
× E1 = − B1
∂r1 c dt 2
A Amp A Amp
B B
C C
N N
N N
N N NN NN NN
S N N NN S S N N N N S
S S S S S S
S S S S
S
M S S S S
S
M
(a) (b)
Figure 15.8: Homopolar generator. (a) the conducting disk C rotates; (b)
the magnet M rotates.
disk C and a cylindrical magnet M. Both the conducting disk and the mag-
net are rigidly attached to their own shafts, and both can independently
rotate about their common vertical axis. The magnetization vector µ ~ 2 of
each small volume element of the magnet is directed along the axis, so the
total magnetic moment is time-independent for both stationary and rotat-
ing magnets. The shaft AB is conducting. Points A and C are connected
to sliding contacts (shown by arrows), and the circuit is closed through the
galvanometer.
There are two modes of operation of this device. In the first mode (see Fig.
15.8(a)) the magnet is stationary while the conducting disk rotates about its
axis. The galvanometer detects a current in the circuit. This has a simple
explanation: The force acting on electrons in the metal can be obtained by
integrating formula (15.28),40 on the magnet’s volume V
Z
q1
F1 (r1 , v1 ) = [v1 × b1 (r1 )]dr2 (15.40)
V c
The full electromotive force in the circuit is obtained by integrating expres-
sion (15.40) on the variable r1 along the closed contour A → B → C → gal-
40
As we saw in subsection 15.3.1, this formula is applicable to both “orbital” and “spin”
magnets at rest.
508 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
W C
2
S
z
C1
placed inside the solenoid. All three cylinders shared the same rotation axis
z. Conductors C1 and C2 formed a cylindrical capacitor. Initially they were
connected by a conducting wire W . Note that in contrast to the homopolar
generator experiment, where a current in a closed circuit was measured, the
system C1 − W − C2 in the Barnett’s setup did not form a closed circuit.
So, the capacitor would obtain a non-zero charge even if the force acting on
electrons in the wire W was conservative.
Similar to the homopolar generator discussed above, this apparatus could
operate in two different modes. In the first mode the cylindrical capacitor
spun about its axis. Due to the presence of the magnetic field inside S a
current ran through the wire W , and the capacitor C1 − C2 became charged.
Then the wire was disconnected, capacitor’s rotation stopped and the ca-
pacitor’s charge measured. As expected, the measured charge was consistent
with the standard Lorentz force formula (15.40).
In the second operation mode, the capacitor was fixed while the solenoid
rotated about its axis. No charge on the capacitor was registered in this
case. This result is consistent with our theory, because, just as in the case
of homopolar generator, the non-conservative force (15.38) vanishes due to
the cylindrical symmetry of the setup, and the conservative force is absent
in the case of a moving solenoid (15.37). So, the null result of the Barnett’s
experiment confirms our earlier conclusion that moving solenoids with current
do not exert conservative forces on nearby charges.
A different result is expected in the case of a rotating permanent magnet.
In this case the conservative force component is non-zero. It can be obtained
by integrating the first term on the right hand side of (15.34) on the volume
V of the magnet
510 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
M B
d µ
z
S1 S2
Z
d q1 ([v2 × ~µ2 ] · r)
Fcons
1 = − dr2 (15.41)
dr1 V 8πcr 3
∂ q1 (d · r)
f1dipole = −
∂r1 4πr 3
we see that a magnetic moment ~µ moving with velocity v acquires an electric
dipole of the magnitude43
[v × ~µ]
d = (15.42)
2c
Thus, the Wilson-Wilson experiment clearly demonstrated that both kinds of
dipole moments (those due to dielectric polarization and those due to moving
dipole moments) are present in the rotating magnet. This confirms qualita-
tively our conclusion about the presence of conservative forces (15.41) near
moving permanent magnets. A quantitative description of this experiment
would require calculation of the polarization and magnetization of bodies
moving in an external magnetic field. This is beyond the scope of the theory
developed here.
dSR = [v × ~µ]/c
Z∞
q1 ([~µ2 × v1 ] · r1 ) q1 ([~µ2 × v1 ] · r1 )
Vlong = dz 2 2
= (15.44)
4πc(x1 + y1 + z 2 )3/2 2πcr 2
−∞
where we took into account that (r1 · ~µ2 ) = 0. This agrees with the van-
ishing “magnetic field” found earlier and presents a curious example of a
non-vanishing potential, which does not produce any force on charges. Ex-
perimental manifestations of such potentials will be discussed in this section.
µ2 y
0 xx
−R R
was found that the interference of the two wave packets at point B de-
pends on the magnetization of the solenoid/rod, in spite of zero force acting
on the electrons. The explanation proposed by Aharonov and Bohm was
based on electromagnetic potentials in the multiply-connected topology of
space induced by the presence of the solenoid. There exist attempts to ex-
plain the Aharonov-Bohm effect as a result of classical electromagnetic force
that creates a “time lag” between wave packets moving on different sides of
the solenoid [RGR91, Boy06, Boy05, Boy07a, Boy07b]. However, this ap-
proach seems to be in contradiction with recent measurements, which failed
to detect such a “time lag” [CBB07]. Several other non-conventional ex-
planations of the Aharonov-Bohm effect were also suggested in the literature
[SC92, Wes98, Pin04, HN08]. Here we suggest a different explanation [Ste08].
Let us consider the idealized version of the Aharonov-Bohm experiment
shown in Fig. 15.11: An infinite solenoid or ferromagnetic fiber with a neg-
ligible cross-section and linear magnetization density µ2 is erected vertically
in the origin. The electron wave packet is split into two parts (e.g., by us-
ing a double-slit) at point A. The subpackets travel on both sides of the
solenoid/bar with constant velocity v1 , and the distance of the closest ap-
proach is R. The subpackets rejoin at point B, where the interference is mea-
15.4. AHARONOV-BOHM EFFECT 515
sured. (The two trajectories AA1 B1 B and AA2 B2 B are denoted by dashed
lines.) The distance AB is sufficiently large, so that the two paths can be
regarded as parallel to the y-axis everywhere
Zt
2
m1 v1y (t′ )
φ(t) ≡ − Vlong (t ) dt′
′
(15.47)
2
t0
and Vlong (t) is the time dependence of the potential (15.44) experienced by
the electron. In the Aharonov-Bohm experiment the electron’s wave packet
separates into two subpackets that travel along different paths AA1 B1 B and
AA2 B2 B. Therefore, the phase factors accumulated by the two subpackets
are generally different, and the interference of the “left” and “right” wave
packets at point B will depend on this phase difference
1
∆φ = (φlef t − φright )
~
Let us now calculate the relative phase difference in the geometry of Fig.
15.11. The kinetic energy term in (15.47) does not contribute, because veloc-
ity remains constant and equal for both paths due to (15.45). However, the
potential energy of the charge 1 is different for the two paths. For all points
on the “right” path the numerator of the expression (15.44) is −q1 µ2 v1y R
and for the “left” path the numerator is q1 µ2 v1y R. Then the total phase
difference
516 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
Z∞
1 q1 µ2 Rv1y eµ2
∆φ = 2 2 2
dt = (15.48)
~ πc(R + v1 t ) ~c
−∞
does not depend on the electron’s velocity and on the value of R. This
phase difference is proportional to the solenoid’s magnetization µ2 . So, all
essential properties of the Aharonov-Bohm effect are fully reproduced within
our approach.47
It is interesting that the presence of the phase difference is not specific to
line magnets of infinite length. This effect was also seen in experiments with
short magnetized nanowires [MIB03]. This observation presents a challenge
for the traditional explanation, which must apply one logic (electromagnetic
potential in the space with “multiple-connected topology”) for infinitely long
magnets and another logic (the presence of the magnetic field) for finite bar
magnets. Our description of the Aharonov-Bohm effect is more economical,
as it applies the same logic independent on whether the magnet is infinite
or finite.48 In both cases there is a difference between action integrals for
electron’s paths passing the line magnet on the right and on the left.
path 1 path 2
µ2 y
θ
R x
q1 q1
a
Figure 15.12: Toroidal magnet and moving charge. “path 1” passes through
the center of the torus; “path 2” is outside the torus.
the torus with a non-zero force. So, the Newton’s third law is apparently vi-
olated. According to McDonald [McDa], the balance of force can be restored
if one takes into account the hypothetical “momentum of the electromagnetic
field.”49 However, this is not the whole story yet. The field momentum turns
out to be non-zero even in the case when both the magnet and the charge
are at rest. This leads to the absurd conclusion that the linear momentum of
the system does not vanish even if nothing moves. The problem is allegedly
fixed by assuming the existence of the “hidden momentum” in the magnet.
However this explanation does not seem satisfactory, and here we would like
to suggest a different version of events.
First we need to derive the Hamiltonian describing dynamics of the sys-
tem “charge 1 + toroidal magnet 2.” We introduce a Cartesian coordinate
system shown in fig 15.12. Assume that the torus has radius a and linear
magnetization density µ2 and that particle 1 moves straight through the cen-
ter of the torus with momentum p1 = (0, p1y , 0) (path 1 in Fig. 15.12). Then
we can use symmetry arguments to disregard x and z components of forces
and write50
49
Note that in the McDonald’s treatment the force is identified with the time derivative
of momentum, while in our approach the force is defined as (mass)×(acceleration).
50
We do not assume that the magnet is stationary. It can move along the y-axis. The
y-component of its velocity is denoted V2y ≈ P2y /M2 , where M2 is the full mass of the
518 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
r2 = (a cos θ, 0, a sin θ)
r = r1 − r2 = (−a cos θ, r1y , −a sin θ)
µ
~2 = (−µ2 sin θ, 0, µ2 cos θ)
[~µ2 × r]y = aµ2 sin2 θ + aµ2 cos2 θ = aµ2
[~µ2 × r] · p1 = aµ2 p1y
[~µ2 × r] · P2 = aµ2 M2 V2y
Then the potential energy of interaction between the charge and the magnet
is obtained by integrating the potential energy in (15.25) on the length of
the torus51
Z2π q1 a2 µ2 p1y
V = dθ −
4πm1 c(a2 cos2 θ + (r1y − R2y )2 + a2 sin2 θ)3/2
0
q1 a2 µ2 V2y
+
8πc(a2 cos2 θ + (r1y − R2y )2 + a2 sin2 θ)3/2
q1 a2 µ2 p1y q1 a2 µ2 P2y
= − +
2m1 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )3/2 4M2 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )3/2
(15.49)
p21y 2
P2y p41y 4
P2y q1 a2 µ2 p1y
H = + − − −
2m1 2M2 8m31 c2 8M23 c2 2m1 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )3/2
q1 a2 µ2 P2y
+
4M2 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )3/2
We will now switch to the quasiclassical approximation in which the light
particle 1 (presumably, an electron) is described by a localized wave packet
magnet and P2 = (0, P2y , 0) is the magnet’s momentum.
51
R2 is the center of mass of the toroid. Here we assume that we are dealing with
a permanent toroidal magnet. For a toroidal solenoid one should integrate the potential
energy expression (15.21). Then the second term on the right hand side of (15.49) would
be absent.
15.4. AHARONOV-BOHM EFFECT 519
, whose center moves according to the laws of classical mechanics. The first
Hamilton’s equation of motion leads to the following results
dp1y ∂V
= −
dt ∂r1y
3q1 a2 µ2 p1y (r1y − R2y ) 3q1 a2 µ2 P2y (r1y − R2y )
= − +
2m1 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )5/2 4M2 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )5/2
dP2y dp1y
= −
dt dt
So, unlike in Maxwell’s theory, the rate of change of the 1st particle’s momen-
tum is non-zero and the 3rd Newton’s law is satisfied without involvement
of the “electromagnetic field momentum.” Acceleration of the charge 1 is
calculated as follows
3
dR2y P2y P2y ∂V
= − 3
+
dt M2 2M2 c ∂P2y
3
P2y P2y q1 a2 µ2
= − +
M2 2M23 c 4M2 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )3/2
d2 R2y ṗ2y 3q1 a2 µ2 (r1y − R2y )(v1y − V2y )
= −
dt2 M2 4M2 c(a2 + (r1y − R2y )2 )5/2
52
This result holds also for a toroidal solenoid.
520 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
So, the magnet’s acceleration does not vanish even if V2y = 0. This is an
example of the situation described in subsection 15.1.3: the forces are not
balanced despite exact conservation of the total momentum.
To complete consideration of the quasiclassical wave packet passing through
the center of the stationary torus we need to calculate the action integral
(6.105). Essentiall, we are going to integrate on time the potential (15.49)
Z∞
q1 a2 µ2 v1y q1 µ2
φ0 = − dt 2
= (15.50)
2c(a2 + v1y t2 )3/2 c
−∞
To calculate the action integral we repeat our earlier derivation of the po-
tential energy (15.49), this time taking into account x- and z-components of
vectors. We will assume that the torus is small, so that at all times r ≫ a,
r1 ≈ r and
[~µ2 × r] = (−µ2 r1y cos θ, µ2 r1z sin θ + µ2 r1x cos θ − µ2 a, −r1y sin θ)
[~µ2 × r] · p1 = µ2 (−p1x r1y cos θ + p1y r1z sin θ + p1y r1x cos θ − p1y a − p1z r1y sin θ)
1
= − (N2 · p1 ) + µ2 [r1 × p1 ]z cos θ − µ2 [r1 × p1 ]x sin θ
a
Here we characterized magnetic properties of the toroidal magnet by the
vector N2 = (0, µ2a2 , 0) which is perpendicular to the plane of the torus and
whose length is µ2 a2 . Then using approximation (15.19), setting p2 = 0 and
integrating the potential energy in (15.25) on the length of the torus, we
obtain
15.4. AHARONOV-BOHM EFFECT 521
Z2π
q1 a[~µ2 × r] · p1
V = − dθ
4πm1 cr 3
0
Z2π
q1
≈ − dθ (−(N2 · p1 ) + µ2 a[r × p1 ]z cos θ − µ2 a[r × p1 ]x sin θ) ×
4πm1 c
0
1 3a(rx cos θ + rz sin θ)
+
r3 r5
Z2π
q1 (N2 · p1 ) 3q1 µ2 a2
= 3
+ 5
dθ [r × p1 ]z rx cos2 θ − [r × p1 ]x rz sin2 θ
2m1 cr 4πm1 cr
0
2
q1 (N2 · p1 ) 3q1 µ2 a
= + ([r × p1 ]z rx − [r × p1 ]x rz )
2m1 cr 3 4m1 cr 5
q1 (N2 · p1 ) 3q1
= 3
+ ([[p1 × r] × r] · N2 )
2m1 cr 4m1 cr 5
q1 (N2 · p1 ) 3q1
= 3
− 5
((p1 · N2 )r 2 − (r · N2 )(p1 · r))
2m1 cr 4m1 cr
q1 (N2 · p1 ) 3q1 (r · N2 )(p1 · r)
= − + (15.52)
4m1 cr 3 4m1 cr 5
The time dependence of this potential energy is obtained by substitution of
(15.51) in (15.52). As expected, the corresponding action integral vanishes
Z∞ Z∞ 3 2
q1 N2 v1y 3q1 N2 v1y t
φR = V (t)dt = dt − 2 2 3/2
+ 2 2 5/2
4c(R2 + v1y t) 4c(R2 + v1y t)
−∞ −∞
= 0
Comparing this result with (15.50) we see that the phase difference for the
two paths (inside and outside the torus) is
1 eµ
∆φ = (φ0 − φR ) =
~ ~c
This is the same result as in the case of infinite linear solenoid (15.48). Note
that this phase shift does not depend on the radius of the magnet a and on the
522 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
e ≡ f2 /q2 (15.53)
15.5. FAST MOVING CHARGES AND RADIATION 523
2
|
c|t'
y
r(t')
1 z
v1 0 v1
v1|t'|
V2d
Z
q1 q2 ~2 c2 dkdp2 dp1 m1 c2 Wµ (p2 − k; p2 )U µ (p1 + k; p1 )
≈ − √ ×
(2π~)3 ωp1 ωp1 +k (ωp1 − ωp1 +k )2 − c2 k 2
d†p2 −k a†p1 +k dp2 ap1
Z
q1 q2 ~2 c2 dkdp2 dp1 m1 c2 U 0 (p1 + k; p1 )
≈ − 3 √ 2 2 2
d†p2 −k a†p1 +k dp2 ap1
(2π~) ωp1 ωp1 +k (ωp1 − ωp1 +k ) − c k
Z
≡ dkdp2 dp1 w2d (p1 + k, p1 , k)d†p2 −k a†p1 +k dp2 ap1 (15.54)
m1 c2 m1 c
√ ≈
ωp1 ωp1 +k p1
p p
0
U (p1 + k; p1 ) = ωp1 +k + m1 c2 ωp1 + m1 c2
p
2
p
2
(p1 + k) · p1 1 p1
+ ωp1 +k − m1 c ωp1 − m1 c 2
≈
|p1 + k|p1 2m1 c m1 c
q1 q2 ~2 c2
w2d (p1 + k, p1 , k) ≈ − ·
(2π~)3 (ωp1 − ωp1 +k )2 − c2 kx2 − c2 ky2 − c2 kz2
(15.55)
∂Ω c2 ky
= −2(ωp1 − ωp1 +k ) =0
∂ky k=0 ωp1 +k k=0
∂Ω c2 (p1z − kz )
= −2(ωp1 − ωp1 +k ) =0
∂kz k=0 ωp1 +k k=0
∂ 2 Ω c2 (p1z − kz ) ∂
2
= −2 (ωp1 − ωp1 +k )
∂kz k=0 ωp1 +k ∂kz k=0
2 2
c (p1z − kz ) c (p1z − kz ) 2c4 p21z 2
= 2 = = 2v1z
ωp1 +k ωp1 +k k=0 ωp2 1
∂ 2 Ω ∂ 2 Ω
= =0
∂ky2 k=0 ∂ky ∂kz k=0
54
We took into account that p1x = p1y = 0.
15.5. FAST MOVING CHARGES AND RADIATION 525
Then the Taylor expansion around k = 0 yields Ω(kx , ky , kz ) ≈ kz2 v12 . Substi-
tuting this expression in (15.55), we obtain
q1 q2 ~2 1
w2d (p1 + k, p1 , k) ≈ · 2
(2π~) kx + ky + kz2 (1 − v12 /c2 )
3 2
Z Z i
i q1 q2 ~2 e ~ kr
w2d (p1 , r) = dkw2 (p1 + k, p1 , k)e ~
kr
= dk 2
(2π~)3 kx + ky2 + kz2 /γ 2
qqγ
= p 1 2 (15.56)
4π x2 + y 2 + γ 2 z 2
p
where we defined γ ≡ 1/ 1 − v12 /c2 ≫ 1 and r ≡ r2 − r1 .
Formula (15.56) is the potential energy of interaction between charges 1
and 2. Within our approximations, the full Hamiltonian can be written as
q1 q2 γ
H ≈ m2 c2 + cp1 + p
4π x2 + y2 + γ 2z2
The force acting on the particle 2 is
dr2 dp2 ∂H
f2 ≡ m2 2
= =−
dt dt ∂r2
and the “electric field” (15.53) at t = 0 can be obtained as the gradient of
the potential (15.56)
1 ∂w2d q1 γx
e(γ)
x (x, y, z) = − · = (15.57)
q2 ∂x2 4π(x2 + y 2 + γ 2 z 2 )3/2
1 ∂w2d q1 γy
e(γ)
y (x, y, z) = − · = (15.58)
q2 ∂y2 4π(x + y 2 + γ 2 z 2 )3/2
2
1 ∂w2d q1 γ 3 z
e(γ)
z (x, y, z) = − · = (15.59)
q2 ∂z2 4π(x2 + y 2 + γ 2 z 2 )3/2
It is interesting to compare this field with the one produced by a charge at
rest (γ = 1)
526 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
z z
0 0
q1 r
e(γ=1) (x, y, z) = (15.60)
4π(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
q
− ct′ = y 2 + z12 (t′ ) (15.62)
On the other hand, in the time interval [t′ , 0] particle 1 has traveled along
the z-axis from z = z1 (t′ ) to z = 0. This condition yields
v1 t′ = z1 (t′ ) (15.63)
y yγ
t′ = − p =− (15.64)
c2 − v12 c
v1
r(t′ ) ≡ r2 − r1 (t) = 0, y, yγ
r c
2
v
r(t′ ) = y 1 + γ 2 21 = yγ (15.65)
c
Using these results in the Liénard-Wiechert formula (15.61) we find electric
field components at time t = 058
q1 γx
Ex (x, y, z) = (15.66)
4π(x2
+ y 2 + γ 2 z 2 )3/2
q1 γy
Ey (x, y, z) = (15.67)
4π(x + y 2 + γ 2 z 2 )3/2
2
q1 γz
Ez (x, y, z) = (15.68)
4π(x + y 2 + γ 2 z 2 )3/2
2
x
1 1
d/2
L
L−d a L
2 d/2
2 ct
0 t1 t2 t3
Figure 15.15: Movements of two charged particles (full bold lines) in the
Kislev-Vaidman paradox plotted on the t − x plane. The time on the hor-
izontal axis is multiplied by c, so that photon trajectories (dashed arrows)
are at 45◦ angles.
1 1
4πW1 = −
L−d L
59
A number of related paradoxes were discussed also in [Eng05, Kho04, Kho05, Kho06].
530 CHAPTER 15. CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS
Then we wait60 until time t2 and move both particles simultaneously by the
distance d/2 away from each other. If we make this move rapidly during a
short time interval (t3 −t2 ) < (L−d)/c, then the retarded field of the particle
2 in the vicinity of the particle 1 remains unperturbed as if the particle 2 has
not been moved at all. The same is true for the field of the particle 1 in the
vicinity of the particle 2. Therefore the work performed by such a move is
1 1
4πW2 = 2 −
L − d/2 L − d
The total work performed in these two steps is nonzero
4π(W1 + W2 )
1 1 2 2
= − + −
L − d L L − d/2 L − d
1 1 2 2
≈ − + −
L(1 − d/L) L 2(1 − d/(2L)) L(1 − d/L)
1 d d2 1 2 d d2 2 d d2
≈ 1+ + 2 − + 1+ + − 1+ + 2
L L L L L 2L 4L2 L L L
2 2 2
1 d d 1 2 d d 2 2d 2d
= + 2+ 3− + + 2+ 3− − 2− 3
L L L L L L 2L L L L
2
d
= − 3 (15.69)
2L
This means that after the shifts are completed we find both charges in the
same configuration as before (at rest and separated by the distance L), how-
ever we gained some amount of energy (15.69). Of course, the balance of
energy (15.69) is not complete. It does not include the energy of photons
emitted by accelerated charges.61 However, one could, in principle, recap-
ture this emitted energy by surrounding the pair of particles by appropriate
photon absorbers and redirect the captured energy to perform the work of
60
The displacement of the charge 1 and its acceleration results in emission of electro-
magnetic radiation (indicated by dashed arrows in Fig. 15.15). So, we would need to wait
for a sufficiently long time until the emitted photons propagated far enough, so that they
do not have any effect on our two-charge system anymore.
61
According to Larmor’s formula, the energy of emitted photons is proportional to the
square of acceleration of the charges. See subsection 14.1.2.
15.5. FAST MOVING CHARGES AND RADIATION 531
moving the charges again. Then, it would become possible to build a per-
petuum mobile machine in which the two steps described above are repeated
indefinitely and each time some amount of energy (15.69) is gained.
The following explanation of this paradox was suggested by Kislev and
Vaidman [KV02]: They claim that there is another energy term missed in the
above analysis, which is related to the interference of electromagnetic waves
emitted by the two particles62 and which restores the energy balance. This
explanation does not look plausible, because there is actually no interaction
energy associated with the interference of light waves: The interference re-
sults in a redistribution of the wave’s amplitude (formation of minima and
maxima) and the wave’s local energy in space, while the total energy of the
wave remains unchanged [Gau03]. In other words, there is no interaction
between photons.63
The correct explanation of the Kislev-Vaidman “paradox” is provided by
the Darwin-Breit instantaneous action-at-a-distance theory. In the absence
of retardation of the Coulomb potential, it is easy to show that W1 + W2 = 0,
and the total work performed by moving the charges is equal to the energy
of the emitted radiation.
Another reason to doubt the validity of retarded Liénard-Wiechert po-
tentials is the paradoxical prediction [Cor86, Gri86, Ste13] that an isolated
electric dipole can move with a constant acceleration in the absence of any
external force. This paradox does not appear when charges interact instan-
taneously, as in RQD.
which spread around with the speed of light. Some photons reach the other
(receiving) charge and interact with it either by absorption64 or by the Comp-
ton scattering,65 thus causing the receiving charge to accelerate. This indirect
transmission of interaction occurs with the speed of light, and is responsible
for TV, radio, and cell-phone signal propagation through air.
EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT
FOR RQD
Our discussion in subsection 15.5.4 suggests that there are two distinct
kinds of forces between charged particles: One is the direct bound Coulomb
or magnetic force, which is dominant when the charges are at rest or move
with low accelerations. In RQD these force fields are rigidly and permanently
attached to the source charges and react immediately to any perturbation
of the charges’ trajectories. This is equivalent to saying that the speed of
propagation of these interactions is infinite. On the other hand, in Maxwell
electrodynamics the attachment of the bound fields to the charge is not rigid:
The electric and magnetic forces are described by Liénard-Wiechert fields,
which propagate with the speed of light.
The second type of force is the indirect radiation interaction. In RQD this
interaction is transmitted by photons traveling with the speed of light. In
Maxwell’s theory, the radiation field is represented by the familiar transverse
electromagnetic wave, in which mutually perpendicular E and B vectors
oscillate and travel in space with the light’s speed.
Thus, in RQD the total force field produced by a group of moving charges
535
536 CHAPTER 16. EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT FOR RQD
e = einst ret
bound + eradiation (16.1)
E = Eret ret
bound + Eradiation (16.2)
In this book we will not derive the explicit form of the eret
radiation component
2
and unconstrained for at least (55 cm) · γ ≈ 550 m from the point of observa-
tion. However, this essential condition was badly violated in the experiment!
In particular, a fully formed electric field was detected at the distance of only
92 cm from the beam pipe exit flange.
Thus the Pizzella group’s measurements were totally inconsistent with
the gradual build-up of the bunch’s electric field predicted by the classical
Maxwell-Liénard-Wiechert theory. However, they were in full agreement with
our RQD explanation, which maintains that the field is rigidly attached to
the instantaneous position of the moving charge.
S
(a) 30 cm (b) 30 cm S
55 cm 55 cm
e- beam e- beam
BD BD
Figure 16.1: Field configurations at t = 0, i.e., after the electron bunch was
stopped by the beam dump (BD): (a) Maxwell’s theory in which the disk-
shaped electric field E of the beam has reached the sensor (S); (b) RQD in
which the runaway disk-shaped electric field is absent (a much weaker sta-
tionary field surrounds the stopped electron bunch), and the photons emitted
from the collision point have not reached the sensor yet.
with the lead brick will also result in formation of a burst of electromagnetic
radiation Eret radiation , which will propagate radially with the speed of light,
as shown in the p figure. The p distance between the sensor and the collision
point is R = y + z = (55 cm)2 + (30 cm)2 ≈ 64 cm. Therefore, the
2 2
t = 0 signal must be the same independent on the presence or absence of the beam dump.
This prediction was not confirmed by the Frascati experiment, which showed a significant
reduction of the signal in the presence of the beam dump. See Fig. 15 in [dSFP+ 12].
540 CHAPTER 16. EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT FOR RQD
v=
R2
∞
d
E v=c R1
Figure 16.2: Sketch of the experiment with microwave horn antennas and its
interpretation. Broken lines indicate the flux of photons concentrated along
the emitter’s (E) axis . Half-circles represent bound electric and magnetic
fields that propagate instantaneously.
dence ∝ r −2 . In the near-field zone (r < 50cm) the signals from both bound
and radiation fields were mixed with the prevalence of the bound (∝ r −3 )
field. Assuming that the radiation field propagated with the constant speed
c within the entire range of r values, the authors were able to subtract the
radiation field contribution from the total signal for all r, thus obtaining
pure bound field waveforms. Analyzing these waveforms, they estimated the
propagation speed of the bound component. In the near-field zone this value
appeared much higher than the speed of light (or even infinite).8 This re-
sult fully agreed with the RQD idea about the instantaneous propagation of
bound fields.
3.01 ×108 m/s, i.e., the speed of light, as expected. In the second run the
receiver (R2) was shifted away from the emitter’s axis (with or without tilting
towards the emitter). For shift distances as large as d =34 cm the transit
time remained nearly constant despite substantial increase of the E − R2
separation. Thus, signal propagation velocities were observed as high as 3.32
×108 m/s, i.e., 10% higher than the speed of light.
These results were later confirmed in a set of experiments performed by
Ranfagni and coworkers [RFPM93, RM96, MRR00]. Wide ranges of mi-
crowave frequencies and E − R separations were explored.
These observations are fully consistent with the following RQD narrative:
The emitting horn antenna generates both bound and radiation electromag-
netic fields. Due to the specific E antenna horn shape, the beam of photons
(=the radiation field) is concentrated near the antenna axis. On the other
hand, the bound field is more diffuse and short-range. When the receiver
is placed on the emitter’s axis, the signal is dominated by microwave pho-
tons, and the apparent signal velocity is close to c. When the receiver is
displaced away from the axis, the photon contribution decreases, and a more
prominent role is played by the bound instantaneous field. Thus the effective
signal propagation speed tends to increase. The radiation field still domi-
nates the signal, so the effective speed exceeds c by only few percents. If
it were possible to shut off the radiation field completely, we would see an
infinite propagation speed.
Such an elimination of the radiation component is, actually, possible in
another kind of experiment that we would like to discuss in the next subsec-
tion.
G2
A A
G1 G1
a) (b)
Figure 16.3: A beam of light impinging on the glass-air interface. (a) If
the incidence angle θ is greater than the Brewster angle, then all light is
reflected at the surface. The region of evanescent light is shown by vertical
dashed lines. (b) If a second piece of glass is placed near the interface, then
“evanescent light” is converted to the “normal light” propagating into the
second piece of glass (G2).
mentary) explanation: Being excited by the light wave, the charged particles
(electrons and nuclei) at the interface G1 - A oscillate. These oscillations
give rise to variable dipole moments at the interface. The dipoles gener-
ate bound electric and magnetic fields in the gap,11 which follow the dipole
dynamics instantaneously. The amplitude of the bound fields decreases ex-
ponentially with the distance from the G1 - A interface. So, when the size
of the gap is sufficiently small, these fields affect charged particles on the
other side of the gap forcing them to oscillate and to emit photons. These
newly created photons propagate inside the piece of class G2 in the form of a
“normal” light beam. In our interpretation, the evanescent wave in the gap
is equivalent to instantaneous Coulomb and magnetic forces acting between
oscillating charges on the two interfaces. Although no real photons cross the
air gap A, the apparent travel time of the light pulse does not depend on
the size of the gap [HN00, AN13], i.e., the signal transmission across the gap
occurs superluminaly.
11
they are also called evanescent waves
Chapter 17
PARTICLES AND
RELATIVITY
How often have I said to you that when you have eliminated the
impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the
truth?
Sherlock Holmes
545
546 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
In the present section we are going to show that relativistic localized states of
particles have a well-defined and non-controversial meaning in spite of these
arguments.
For a sufficiently localized state, the energy uncertainty can be made greater
than the energy required to create a particle-antiparticle pair. However, large
uncertainty in energy does not immediately imply any uncertainty in the
number of particles, and sharp localization does not necessarily require pair
creation. The number of particles in a localized state would be uncertain
if the particle number operator did not commute with position operators
of particles. However, this is not true. One can easily demonstrate that
Newton-Wigner particle position operators do commute with particle number
operators. This follows directly from the definition of particle observables in
the Fock space.1 By their construction, all 1-particle observables (position,
momentum, spin, etc.) commute with projections on n-particle sectors in the
Fock space. Therefore these 1-particle observables commute with particle
number operators. So, one can measure position of any particle without
disturbing the number of particles in the system. This conclusion is valid
for both non-interacting and interacting particle systems, because the Fock
space structure and definitions of one-particle observables do not depend on
interaction.
s
− ic ωp cosh θ − cpx sinh θ
e ~
K̂x θ
ψ(p) = (2π~)−3/2
ωp
Z q
− ic K̂x θ −3 i
e ~ ψ(r) = (2π~) dp cosh θ − (cpx /ωp ) sinh θe ~ pr (17.3)
We are not going to calculate this integral explicitly, but one property of the
function (17.3) must be clear: for non-zero θ this function is non-vanishing
for all values of r.4 Therefore, the moving observer O ′ would not agree with
O that the particle is localized. Observer O ′ can find the particle anywhere
in space. This means that the notion of localization is relative: a state
which looks localized to the observer O does not look localized to the moving
observer O ′ .
The non-invariant nature of localization is a property not familiar in clas-
sical physics. Although this property has not been observed in experiments
yet, it does not contradict any postulates of relativistic quantum theory and
does not constitute a sufficient reason to reject the notion of localizability.
i it
√
m2 c4 +p2 c2
ψ(p, t) = e− ~ Ĥt ψ(p, 0) = (2π~)−3/2 e− ~
4
This property follows from the non-analyticity of the square root in the integrand
[Str04].
550 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
t=0
t>0
r
A ct B
and then use equation (5.43) to find the position-space wave function at
non-zero t
Z
i
Z
it
√ i
−3/2 −3 m2 c4 +p2 c2
ψ(r, t) = (2π~) dpψ(p, t)e ~
pr
= (2π~) dpe− ~ e ~ pr
This integral can be calculated analytically [Rui]. However, for us the most
important result is that the wave function is non-zero at distances larger
than ct from the initial point A (r > ct), i.e., outside the “light cone”.5
The corresponding probability density |ψ(r, t)|2 is shown schematically by
the dashed line in Fig. 17.1. Although the probability density outside the
light cone is very small, there is still a non-zero chance that the particle
propagates faster than the speed of light.
Note that superluminal propagation of the particle’s wave function in the
position space does not mean that particle’s speed is greater than c. As we
have established in subsection 5.1.2, for a free massive particle, eigenvalues
of the quantum-mechanical operator of speed are less than c. So, the possi-
bility of wave functions propagating faster than c is a purely quantum effect
associated with the non-commutativity of operators R and V.
5
This fact can be justified by the same analyticity argument as in footnote on page
549. See also [WWS+ 12] and section 2.1 in [PS95b].
17.1. LOCALIZABILITY OF PARTICLES 551
ct ct’
O O’
x’
x
A B
C
Figure 17.2: Space-time diagram demonstrating the alleged causality para-
dox associated with superluminal spreading of wave functions. Observers
O and O ′ have coordinate systems with space-time axes (x, ct) and (x′ , ct′ ),
respectively. Observers O and O ′ send superluminal signals to each other by
opening boxes with localized quantum particles. See text for more details.
that the signaling device used by the observer O is simply a small impene-
trable box containing massive spinless quantum particles. Before time t = 0
(point A in Fig. 17.2) the box is tightly closed, so that wave functions of the
particles are well-localized inside it. The walls of the closed box at t < 0 are
shown by two thick vertical parallel lines on the space-time diagram 17.2.
At time t = 0 observer O sends a signal to the moving observer O ′ by open-
ing the box. The wave function of spreading particles at t > 0 is shown
schematically in Fig. 17.2 by thin dashed lines parallel to the x-axis. Due
to the superluminal spreading of the wave function, there is, indeed, a non-
zero probability of finding particles at the location of the moving observer
O ′ (point B) immediately after the box was opened.
The observer O ′ has a similar closed box with particles. Upon receiving
the signal from O (point B) she opens her box. It is clear that the wave
packet of her particles ψ ′ (r′ , t′ ) spreads instantaneously in her own reference
frame. The question is how this spreading will be perceived by the stationary
observer O? The traditional answer is that the wave function ψ(r, t) from the
point of view of O should be obtained by applying Lorentz transformations
(I.16) - (I.19) to the arguments of ψ ′
7
This dependence will be discussed in the next section in greater detail.
8
this means that thin dashed lines around point B in Fig. 17.2 should be drawn parallel
to the axis x
9
At times t > 0 the box B remains opened, and the particle’s evolution is described by
the non-interacting Hamiltonian H0 .
554 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
r1 , p1 , v1 , j1 , s1 , h1 , . . . (17.9)
r2 , p2 , v2 , j2 , s2 , h2 , . . . (17.10)
Transformations of these observables between reference frames O and O ′
should be found by the general rule outlined in subsection 3.2.4. Suppose
that observers O and O ′ are related by an inertial transformation, which is
generated by the Hermitian operator F and parameter b. If g is an observable
(a Hermitian operator) of one particle in the reference frame O, and g(b) is
the same observable in the reference frame O ′ then we use equations (3.62)
and (E.13) to obtain
i i ib b2
g(b) = e− ~ F b ge ~ F b = g −
[F, g] − [F, [F, g]] + . . . (17.11)
~ 2!~
Application of this formula to event’s position is not straightforward, because
particle localization does not have absolute meaning in quantum mechanics.
12
see subsections 4.3.8 and 5.2.4
556 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
b2
g(b) ≈ g + b[F, g]P + [F, [F, g]P ]P + . . .
2!
In order to perform calculations with this formula one needs two major things.
First, one needs to know expressions for Poincaré generators F in terms
of one-particle observables (17.9) - (17.10). This is equivalent to having a
full dynamical description of the system. Such a description can be easily
obtained in the case of a non-interacting particle system. However, for in-
teracting particles this is a rather non-trivial problem that can be solved
only approximately. Second, one needs to know Poisson brackets between all
one-particle observables (17.9) - (17.10). This is an easier task, which has
been accomplished already in chapters 4, 5, and in section 6.1. In particular,
we found there that observables of different particles always have vanishing
Poisson brackets. The Poisson brackets for observables referring to the same
particle are (i, j, k = 1, 2, 3)
H0 = h1 + h2 (17.17)
P0 = p1 + p2 (17.18)
J0 = j1 + j2 (17.19)
K0 = k1 + k2 (17.20)
The trajectory of the particle 1 in the reference frame O is obtained from the
usual formula (4.56)
i i i i i i
r1 (t) = e ~ H0 t r1 e− ~ H0 t = e ~ (h1 +h2 )t r1 e− ~ (h1 +h2 )t = e ~ h1 t r1 e− ~ h1 t
t2
≈ r1 + t[h1 , r1 ]P + [h1 , [h1 , r1 ]P ]P + . . . = r1 + v1 t (17.21)
2!
Applying boost transformations to (17.21) and taking into account (4.6) -
(4.8), (4.58) - (4.60), and (4.62) we find the trajectory of this particle in the
reference frame O ′ moving with the speed v = c tanh θ along the x-axis13
r
1x
r1x (θ, t′ ) = β + (v1x − v)t′ (17.22)
cosh θ
j1z v v1y t′
r1y (θ, t′ ) = β r1y + +
h1 cosh θ
r1x v1y v v1y t′
= r1y + β + (17.23)
c2 cosh θ
j1y v v1z t′
r1z (θ, t′ ) = β r1z + +
h1 cosh θ
r1x v1z v v1z t′
= r1z + β + (17.24)
c2 cosh θ
where we denoted β ≡ (1 − v1x vc−2 )−1 . Similar formulas are valid for the
particle 2.
13
If we set t′ = 0 then these formulas coincide with (23) - (24) in ref. [MM97]. By
setting also v1 = 0 we obtain the usual Lorentz length contraction formulas r1x (θ, 0) =
r1x /(cosh θ), r1y (θ, 0) = r1y , r1z (θ, 0) = r1z . Compare with equation (I.20).
558 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
Apparently, these two trajectories intersect from the point of view of the
moving observer O ′ as well. So O ′ also sees the event. Now, the question is:
what are the space-time coordinates of the event seen by O ′ ? The answer to
this question is given by the following theorem.
Proof. Let us first prove that Lorentz formulas (17.5) - (17.8) are correct
transformations for the trajectory of the particle 1 between reference frames
O and O ′ . For simplicity, we will consider only the case in which this particle
is moving along the x-axis: r1y (t) = r1z (t) = v1y = v1z = 0. (More general
situations can be analyzed similarly.) Then we can ignore the y- and z-
coordinates in our proof. So, we need to prove that14
14
Here the left hand side is the Newton-Wigner position of the particle 1 seen from the
reference frame O′ at time t′ . This is formula (17.22). The right hand side is Lorentz-
transformed position as in equation (17.6).
17.2. INERTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS559
where
r1x (t)
t′ = t cosh θ − sinh θ (17.26)
c
To do that, we calculate the difference between the right hand sides of equa-
tions (17.22) and (17.25) with t′ taken from (17.26) and using v = c tanh θ
βr1x
+ (v1x − v)β(t cosh θ − c−1 (r1x + v1x t) sinh θ)
cosh θ
−(r1x + v1x t) cosh θ + ct sinh θ
β
= [r1x + v1x t cosh2 θ − vt cosh2 θ − (v1x r1x /c) sinh θ cosh θ
cosh θ
2
+(vr1x /c) sinh θ cosh θ − (v1x /c)t sinh θ cosh θ + (vv1x /c)t sinh θ cosh θ
−r1x cosh θ + r1x (v1x v/c ) cosh2 θ − v1x t cosh2 θ + (v1x
2 2 2
v/c2 )t cosh2 θ + ct sinh θ cosh θ
−(v1x v/c)t sinh θ cosh θ]
β
= [r1x − vt cosh2 θ − (v1x r1x /c) sinh θ cosh θ
cosh θ
2
+(vr1x /c) sinh θ cosh θ − (v1x /c)t sinh θ cosh θ
−r1x cosh θ + r1x (v1x v/c ) cosh2 θ + (v1x
2 2 2
v/c2 )t cosh2 θ + ct sinh θ cosh θ]
β
= [r1x − ct sinh θ cosh θ − (v1x r1x /c) sinh θ cosh θ
cosh θ
+r1x sinh2 θ − (v1x2
/c)t sinh θ cosh θ
2 2
−r1x cosh θ + (r1x v1x /c) sinh θ cosh θ + (v1x /c)t sinh θ cosh θ + ct sinh θ cosh θ]
= 0
H = h1 + h2 + V (r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (17.27)
P = p1 + p2 + U(r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (17.28)
J = j1 + j2 + Y(r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (17.29)
K = k1 + k2 + Z(r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) (17.30)
where V, U, Y, and Z are interaction operators that are functions of one-
particle observables. One goal of this section is to find out more about the
interaction terms V, U, Y, and Z, e.g., to see if some of these terms can be
set to zero. In other words, we would like to understand if one can find an
observational evidence about the relativistic form of dynamics in nature.
i i i i
r1 (t) = e ~ Ht r1 e− ~ Ht = e ~ (h1 +h2 +V )t r1 e− ~ (h1 +h2 +V )t
t2
= r1 + t[h1 + V, r1 ]P + [(h1 + h2 + V ), [h1 + V, r1 ]P ]P + . . .
2
t2 t2
= r1 + v1 t + t[V, r1 ]P + [V, v1 ]P + [(h1 + h2 ), [V, r1 ]P ]P
2 2
2
t
+ [V, [V, r1 ]P ]P + . . . (17.31)
2
15
see equations (6.14) - (6.17)
17.2. INERTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS561
In the simplest case when interaction V commutes with particle positions and
in the non-relativistic approximation v1 ≈ p1 /m1 , this formula simplifies
t2 ∂V f1 t2
r1 (t) ≈ r1 + v1 t − + . . . = r1 + v1 t + + ...
2m1 ∂r1 2m1
a1 t2
= r1 + v1 t + + ...
2
where we denoted
∂V (r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 )
f1 (r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ) ≡ −
∂r1
the force with which particle 2 acts on the particle 1. The vector a1 ≡ f1 /m1
can be interpreted as acceleration of the particle 1 in agreement with the
Newton’s second law of mechanics. The trajectory r1 (t) of the particle 1
depends in a non-trivial way on the trajectory r2 (t) of the particle 2 and
vice versa. Curved trajectories of particles 1 and 2 are definitely observable
in macroscopic experiments. However, this interacting time evolution, by
itself, cannot tell us which form of relativistic dynamics is responsible for the
interaction. Other types of inertial transformations should be examined in
order to make this determination.
As an example, in this section we will explain which experimental mea-
surements should be performed to tell apart two popular forms of dynamics:
the instant form
H = h1 + h2 + V (17.32)
P = p1 + p2 (17.33)
J = j1 + j2 (17.34)
K = k1 + k2 + Z (17.35)
and the point form
H = h1 + h2 + V (17.36)
P = p1 + p2 + U (17.37)
J = j1 + j2 (17.38)
K = k1 + k2 (17.39)
562 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
ic ic ic ic
r1x (θ) = e− ~ K0x θ r1x e ~ K0x θ = e− ~ k1x θ r1x e ~ k1x θ ≈ r1x − cθ[k1x , r1x ]P + . . .
r1x
= (17.40)
cosh θ(1 − v1x vc−2 )
ic ic ic ic
v1x (θ) = e− ~ K0x θ v1x e ~ K0x θ = e− ~ k1x θ v1x e ~ k1x θ ≈ v1x − cθ[k1x , v1x ]P + . . .
v1x − v
= (17.41)
1 − v1x vc−2
On the other hand, in the instant form, generators of boosts (17.35) are
dynamical, and transformation formulas are different. For example, the boost
transformation of position is
ic ic
r1x (θ) = e− ~ Kx θ r1x e ~ Kx θ
ic ic
= e− ~ (K0x +Zx )θ r1x e ~ (K0x +Zx )θ
≈ r1x − cθ[k1x , r1x ]P − cθ[Zx , r1x ]P + . . .
r1x
= − cθ[Zx , r1x ]P + . . . (17.42)
cosh θ(1 − v1x vc−2 )
The first term on the right hand side is the same interaction-independent
term as in (17.40). This term is responsible for the well-known relativistic
effect of length contraction (I.20). The second term in (17.42) is a correction
due to interaction with the particle 2. This correction depends on observables
of both particles 1 and 2, and it makes boost transformations of positions
dependent in a non-trivial way on the state of the system and on interactions
acting there. So, in the instant form of dynamics, there is a strong analogy
between time translations and boosts of particle observables. They are both
interaction-dependent, i.e., dynamical.
16
For simplicity, we consider only x-components here. For the general case, see (4.6) -
(4.8) and (17.22) - (17.24). As usual, v ≡ c tanh θ.
17.2. INERTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS563
ic ic ic ic
v1x (θ) = e− ~ Kx θ v1x e ~ Kx θ = e− ~ (K0x +Zx )θ v1x e ~ (K0x +Zx )θ
v1x − v
= v1x − cθ[k1x , v1x ]P − cθ[Zx , v1x ]P + . . . = − cθ[Zx , v1x ]P + . . .
1 − v1x vc−2
v1x v(v1x − v)
= (v1x − v) + − cθ[Zx , v1x ]P + . . .
c2
The terms on the right hand side have clear physical meaning: The first
term v1x − v is the usual non-relativistic change of velocity in the moving
reference frame. This is the most obvious effect of boosts that is visible in our
everyday life. The second term is a relativistic correction that is valid for both
interacting and non-interacting particles. This correction is a contribution of
the order c−2 to the relativistic law of addition of velocities (4.6). Currently,
there is abundant experimental evidence for the validity of this law.17 The
third term is a correction due to the interaction between particles 1 and 2.
This effect has not been seen experimentally, because it is very difficult to
perform accurate measurements of observables of interacting particles from
fast moving reference frames, as we mentioned above.
In conclusion, detailed measurements of boost transformations of particle
observables are very difficult, and with the present level of experimental
precision they cannot help us to decide which form of dynamics is active
in any given physical system. Let us now turn to space translations and
rotations.
i i i i i i
r1 (a) = e− ~ P·a r1 e ~ P·a = e− ~ (p1 +p2 )·a r1 e ~ (p1 +p2 )·a = e− ~ p1 ·a r1 e ~ p1 ·a
= r1 − a
i i i i
r1x (a) = e− ~ Px a r1x e ~ Px a = e− ~ (p1x +p2x +Ux )a r1x e ~ (p1x +p2x +Ux )a
≈ r1x − a[(p1x + Ux ), r1x ]P + . . .
= r1x − a − a[Ux , r1x ]P + . . . (17.44)
where the last term on the right hand side is the interaction correction. Such
a correction has not been seen in experiments in spite of the fact that there
is no difficulty in arranging observations from reference frames displaced by
large distances a. So, there is a good reason to believe that interaction
dependence (17.44) has not been seen because it is non-existent.
Thus we conclude that the effect of space translations and rotations must
be independent on interactions in the system. This means that these trans-
18
Rotation matrix Rφ~ has been defined in (D.22).
17.2. INERTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS565
P = P0 (17.45)
J = J0 (17.46)
which means that V = 0, and the system is non-interacting in disagreement with our
initial assumption.
20
The presence of interaction becomes evident only through scattering effects or through
formation of bound states, which are insensitive to the form of dynamics, as shown in
subsection 7.2.3.
566 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
Our plan is similar to the proof of Theorem 17.1. We will compare formu-
las for r(θ, t′ ) and p(θ, t′ ) obtained by two methods. In the first method, we
will use Lorentz transformations of special relativity. In the second method,
we will apply interacting unitary operators of time translation and boost to
r and p. Our goal is to show that these two methods give different results.
It is sufficient to demonstrate that differences occur already in terms linear
with respect to t′ and θ. So, we will work in this approximation.
Let us apply the first method (i.e., traditional Lorentz formulas). From
equations (17.5) - (17.8) and (4.3) we obtain the following transformations
for the position and momentum of the particle 1 (formulas for the particle 2
are similar)
′ ′ r1x (0, t) ′ r1x (t)
r1x (θ, t ) = r1x 0, t + θ − t + θ cθ
c c
dr1x (0, t′ )
≈ r1x (0, t′ ) + r1x (0, t)θ − cθt′
cdt′
dr1x (0, t′ )
≈ r1x (0, t′ ) + r1x (0, t′ )θ − cθt′ (17.54)
cdt′
Next we use the second method (i.e., the direct application of interacting
time translations and boosts)
ic i ′ ic ic ic ic i ′ ic
r1x (θ, t′ ) = e− ~ Kx θ e ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ e− ~ Kx θ r1x (0, 0)e ~ Kx θ e− ~ Kx θ e− ~ Ht e ~ Kx θ
17.2. INERTIAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS569
i ′ cosh θ − ic P t′ sinh θ − ic ic ic ′ sinh θ − ~i Ht′ cosh θ
= e ~ Ht e
~ x ~
Kx θ
e r1x (0, 0)e ~ Kx θ e ~ Px t e
i
Ht′ − ic P t′ θ ic
P t′ θ − ~i Ht′
≈ e ~ e ~ x (r1x (0, 0) − cθ[r1x (0, 0), Kx]P )e ~ x e
i
Ht′ − ~i Ht′
≈ e (r1x (0, 0) − cθt′ − cθ[r1x (0, 0), Kx]P )e
~
i ′ ic ′ ic ′ i ′
≈ e ~ Ht e− ~ Px t θ (p1x (0, 0) − cθ[p1x (0, 0), Kx]P )e ~ Px t θ e− ~ Ht
i ′ i ′
≈ e ~ Ht (p1x (0, 0) − cθ[p1x (0, 0), Kx ]P )e− ~ Ht
= p1x (0, t′ ) − cθ[p1x (0, t′ ), Kx (t′ )]P (17.56)
1 dr1x (0, t)
r1x (0, t)θ = −cθ[r1x (0, t), Kx (t)]P
c dt
dr1x ∂H ∂Kx
or using dt
= [r1x , H]P = ∂p1x
and [r1x , Kx ]P = ∂p1x
∂Kx ∂H
c2 = −rx
∂p1x ∂p1x
∂Kj ∂H
c2 = −rj (17.57)
∂p1i ∂p1i
h1 (0, t)θ r1x (0, t)
p1x (0, t) − = p1x 0, t − θ − cθ[p1x (0, t′ ), Kx (t′ )]P
c c
r1x (0, t)θ ∂p1x (0, t)
≈ p1x (0, t) − − cθ[p1x (0, t′ ), Kx (t′ )]P
c ∂t
r1x (0, t)θ
≈ p1x (0, t) − [p1x (0, t), H]P − cθ[p1x (0, t), Kx (t)]P
c
and
570 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
∂Kj ∂H
c2 = −r1j + δij h1 (17.58)
∂r1i ∂r1i
Putting equations (17.57) - (17.58) together, we conclude that if tra-
jectories of interacting particles transform by Lorentz, then the following
equations must be valid
∂Kk ∂H
c2 = −r1k (17.59)
∂p1 ∂p1
∂Kk ∂H
c2 = −r2k (17.60)
∂p2 ∂p2
∂K k ∂H
c2 = −r1k + δik h1 (17.61)
∂r1i ∂r1i
∂K k ∂H
c2 = −r2k + δik h2 (17.62)
∂r2i ∂r2i
Our next goal is to show that these equations lead to a contradiction. Taking
derivatives of (17.59) by p2 and (17.60) by p1 and subtracting them we obtain
∂2H
=0
∂p2 ∂p1
∂2H
6 = 0
∂p1 ∂r1
∂2H
6 = 0
∂p2 ∂r2
Therefore, only pairs of arguments (p1 , r1 ) and (p2 , r2 ) are allowed to be
together in H, and we can represent the full Hamiltonian in the form
H = H1 (p1 , r1 ) + H2 (p2 , r2 )
This result means that the force acting on the particle 1 does not depend on
the state (position and momentum) of the particle 2.
∂p1
f1 = = [p1 , H]P = [p1 , H1 (p1 , r1 )]P
∂t
and vice versa. Therefore, both particles move independently, i.e., there
is no interaction. This already proves the statement of the Theorem. A
stronger result can be obtained if we disregard the possibility of non-cluster
separable (or long-range) interactions. From the Poisson bracket with the
total momentum we obtain
∂p1
f1 = = [p1 , H]P = [p1 , H1 (p1 )]P = 0
∂t
The same is true for the force acting on the particle 2.
The above theorem shows us that if particles have Lorentz-invariant
“worldlines,” then they are not interacting. In special relativity, Lorentz
transformations are assumed to be exactly and universally valid (see As-
sertion I.1). Then the theorem leads to the conclusion that inter-particle
interactions are simply impossible. This explains why this theorm is com-
monly referred to as “the no-interaction theorem.” Of course, it is absurd to
think that there are no interactions in nature. So, in current literature there
are two interpretations of this result. One interpretation is that the Hamil-
tonian dynamics cannot properly describe interactions. Then a variety of
non-Hamiltonian versions of dynamics were suggested [Kei94, DW65, Pol85].
Another view is that variables r and p do not describe real observables of par-
ticle positions and momenta, or even that the notion of particles themselves
becomes irrelevant in quantum field theory. Quite often the Currie-Jordan-
Sudarshan theorem is considered as an evidence that particle-based descrip-
tion of nature is not adequate, and one should seek a field-based approach
[Boy08].
However, we reject both these explanations. Non-Hamiltonian versions of
particle dynamics contradict fundamental postulates of relativistic quantum
theory, which were formulated and analyzed throughout this book. We also
would like to stick to the idea that physical world is described by particles
with well-defined positions, momenta, spins, etc. We will also assume that
these physical particles interact via instantaneous potentials obtained in the
dressed particle approach to QFT. So, for us the only way out of the paradox
is to admit that Lorentz transformations of special relativity are not appli-
cable to observables of interacting particles. Then from our point of view,
it is more appropriate to call Theorem 17.3 the “no-Lorentz-transformation
theorem.” In contrast to the special-relativistic Assertion I.1, boost transfor-
mations of observables of individual particles should depend on the observed
system, its state and on interactions acting in the system. So, we conclude
that boost transformations are dynamical.
17.3. COMPARISON WITH SPECIAL RELATIVITY 573
goes, all events, independent on their physical nature, must transform by the
same universal formulas (17.5) - (17.8). Though seemingly reasonable, the
above argument is not convincing. There is absolutely no experimental or
theoretical support for the above “coincidence postulate” (i.e., that events,
overlapping in one frame, overlap in all other frames as well).
Thus we conclude that there are no compelling theoretical reasons to
believe in the universal validity of Lorentz transformations (17.5) - (17.8).
Note that special relativity first postulates these transformations and then
tries to formulate dynamical (interacting) theories, which conform with this
assumption. Our approach to relativistic dynamics is fundamentally differ-
ent, in fact, opposite. We start with formulation of relativistic (=Poincaré
invariant) interacting theory. Then we derive boost transformations of par-
ticle observables using standard formulas of quantum theory and see27 that
they are different from universal Lorentz formulas (17.5) - (17.8). Correct
boost transformations depend on the state of the observed multiparticle sys-
tem and on interactions acting there.
We also see28 that “geometric” universality of boosts contradicts the (well-
established) dynamical character of time translations. A theory, in which
time translations are dynamical while space translations, rotations, and boost
are kinematical, cannot be invariant with respect to the Poincaré group. So,
ironically, the assumptions of kinematical boosts, universal Lorentz trans-
formations, and “invariant worldlines” are in conflict with the principle of
relativity. This contradiction is the main reason for the “no interaction”
Theorem 17.3.
ic ~ ic ~
F ′ = e− ~ Kθ F e ~ Kθ
This issue was also discussed by H. Bacry who came to a similar conclusion
T̂ ψ(r, t) = tψ(r, t)
in theory) are particle observables (e.g., positions and momenta) and how
they transform with respect to inertial transformations (e.g., time transla-
tions and boosts) of observers. Particle observables are given by Hermitian
operators in the Hilbert space of the system. Inertial transformations enter
the theory through the unitary representation of the Poincaré group in the
same Hilbert space. Once these ingredients are known, one can calculate
the effect of any transformation on any observable. To do that, there is no
need to make assumptions about the “symmetry” between space and time
coordinates and to introduce a 4-dimensional spacetime geometry. The clear
evidence for non-universal, non-geometrical and interaction-dependent char-
acter of boost transformations was obtained in section 17.2. So, we suggest
that 4D Minkowski space-time should not be used in physical theories at all.
Likewise, there is no basis for the special-relitivistic classification of phys-
ical quantities into 4-scalars, 4-vectors, 4-tensors, etc. In reality, boost trans-
formations of observables in interacting systems may have quite complicated
interaction-dependent forms that deviate from universal linear Lorentz for-
mulas.
Historical and philosophical discussion of the idea that relativistic effects
(such as length contraction and time dilation) result from the dynamical
behavior of individual physical systems rather than from kinematical prop-
erties of the universal “space-time continuum” can be found in the book
[Bro05]. In our work we go further and claim that the difference between
“dynamical” and “kinematical” approaches is not just philosophical one. It
has real observable consequences. We have shown in section 17.2 that boost
transformations are interaction-dependent and that they cannot be reduced
to simple universal Lorentz formulas or “pseudo-rotations” in the Minkowski
space-time. Then the ideas of the universal pseudo-Euclidean space-time
continuum and of the manifest covariance of physical laws33 can be accepted
only as approximations. Additional physical arguments against the notion
of the Minkowski space-time can be found in [Bac04].
We cannot deny that the Minkowski space-time idea turned out to be very
fruitful in the formalism of quantum field theory. However, in section 17.4
we will take a viewpoint that quantum fields are just formal mathematical
objects and that the 4-dimensional manifold on which the fields are defined
has nothing to do with real physical space and time.
33
see Assertions I.1 and I.2
582 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
θ
v
v
TNT
The field concept came to dominate physics starting with the work
of Faraday in the mid-nineteenth century. Its conceptual advan-
tage over the earlier Newtonian program of physics, to formulate
the fundamental laws in terms of forces among atomic particles,
emerges when we take into account the circumstance, unknown to
Newton (or, for that matter, Faraday) but fundamental in special
relativity, that influences travel no farther than a finite limiting
speed. For then the force on a given particle at a given time
cannot be deduced from the positions of other particles at that
34
see Appendix I.5
17.3. COMPARISON WITH SPECIAL RELATIVITY 585
In this subsection we will argue against this traditional logic. Our point
is that if the dynamical character of boosts is properly taken into account,
then instantaneous action-at-a-distance does not contradict the principle of
causality in all reference frames.
Let us now consider two particles interacting via instantaneous action-
at-a-distance potentials. By definition, the momentum is being exchanged
between the two particles. In RQD there are no interaction carriers or inter-
mediate fields or extra degrees of freedom where the transferred momentum
could be stored. Therefore, when particle 1 loses some part of its momen-
tum, particle 2 instantaneously acquires the same amount of momentum.
Otherwise the momentum conservation law would be violated. So, in RQD
the instantaneous character of interactions is not an approximation, but a
necessity.
The dressed particle Hamiltonian in the 2-particle sector of the Fock
space is a function of positions and momenta of the two particles H d =
H d (r1 , p1 , r2 , p2 ). Particle trajectories can be obtained from equation (17.31)
i d i dt
r1 (t) = e ~ H t r1 e− ~ H
i d i dt
p1 (t) = e ~ H t p1 e− ~ H
i d i dt
r2 (t) = e ~ H t r2 e− ~ H
i d i dt
p2 (t) = e ~ H t p2 e− ~ H
d i
f2 (t) = p2 (t) = − [p2 (t), H d]
dt ~
≡ f2 (r1 (t), p1 (t); r2 (t), p2 (t)) (17.64)
2
35
The same conclusions can be reached with the alternative definition of force f = m ddt2r ,
as in subsection 15.1.3.
586 CHAPTER 17. PARTICLES AND RELATIVITY
depends on positions and momenta of both particles at the same time instant
t. Thus, interaction propagates instantaneously in the reference frame O.
The impossibility of superluminal signals is usually “proven” by applying
Lorentz transformations to space-time coordinates of two causally related
events and claiming that there exists a moving frame in which the temporal
order of these events is reversed.36 However, we know from subsection 17.2.9
that for systems with interactions Lorentz transformations are no longer ex-
act. So, the special-relativistic ban on superluminal propagation of interac-
tions may not be valid as well.
Now consider the above two-particle system from the point of view of a
moving reference frame O ′. Trajectories of particles 1 and 2 in this frame
are37
ic d~ i d ′ i d ′ ic d~
r1 (θ, t′ ) = e− ~ K θ e ~ H t r1 e− ~ H t e ~ K θ
ic d~ i d ′ i d ′ ic ~
dθ
p1 (θ, t′ ) = e− ~ K θ e ~ H t p1 e− ~ H t e ~ K
ic d~ i d ′ i d ′ ic d~
r2 (θ, t′ ) = e− ~ K θ e ~ H t r2 e− ~ H t e ~ K θ
ic d~ i d ′ ic d ′ i ~
dθ
p2 (θ, t′ ) = e− ~ K θ e ~ H t p2 e− ~ H t e ~ K
The Hamiltonian in the reference frame O ′ is
ic d~ ic d~
H d (θ) = e− ~ K θ H d e ~ K θ
(17.65)
therefore the force acting on the particle 2 in this frame
d i
f2 (θ, t′ ) = ′
p2 (θ, t′ ) = − [p2 (θ, t′ ), H d (θ)]
dt ~
ic − i Kd ~θ i H d t′ i d ′ ic d ~ i d ~ ic d ~
= − [e ~ e ~ p2 e− ~ H t e ~ K θ , e− ~ K cθ H d e ~ K θ ]
~
i − ic Kd ~θ i H d t′ i d ′ ic d ~
= − e ~ [e ~ p2 e− ~ H t , H d ]e ~ K θ
~
i ic d ~ ic d ~ ic d ~ ic d ~
= − e− ~ K θ [p2 (0, t′), H d ]e ~ K θ = e− ~ K θ f2 (0, t′ )e ~ K θ
~
− ic d~ ic d ~
= e ~ K θ f2 (r1 (0, t′ ), p1 (0, t′ ); r2(0, t′ ), p2 (0, t′ ))e ~ K θ
= f2 (r1 (θ, t′ ), p1 (θ, t′ ); r2(θ, t′ ), p2 (θ, t′ )) (17.66)
36
see Appendix I.5
37
Here t′ is time measured by the clock of observer O′ ; θ is the rapidity of this observer.
d
K is the dressed boost operator introduced in subsection 11.1.9.
17.4. ARE QUANTUM FIELDS NECESSARY? 587
is a function of positions and momenta of both particles at the same time in-
stant t′ . Moreover, in agreement with the principle of relativity, this function
f2 has exactly the same form as in the reference frame at rest (17.64). There-
fore, for the moving observer O ′ the interaction propagates instantaneously
as for the observer at rest O.
If inter-particle potential is used to transmit information between two
events A (the cause) and B (the effect), then in the reference frame at rest
these two events are simultaneous. Then, due to the interaction dependence
of Kd , these two events remain simultaneous in all frames, so instantaneous
potentials do not contradict causality.
The above arguments remain valid for any system of N particles inter-
acting via Poincaré invariant action-at-a-distance potentials.
Dressing
Renormalization transformation
Infinite Finite,
S−operator accurate
S−operator (7)
(wrong)
Sc
(4)
Observable Dynamics
scattering
properties
Z
1 i
αx = 3/2
dpe ~ (p·x) αp (17.68)
(2π~)
Z
1 i
αx† = 3/2
dpe− ~ (p·x) αp† (17.69)
(2π~)
Likewise, the product ψ − (x, 0)ψ + (x, 0) cannot be interpreted as the spatial
density of particles, but the product αx† αx has exactly this interpretation
[WWS+ 12].
As can be seen from formulas for scattering operators in subsection 7.1.2
and from equations (9.9) - (9.10), the parameters t and x are just integration
42
See section 5.2 in [Wei95].
43 √
Note the absence of the denominator ωp under the integral.
17.4. ARE QUANTUM FIELDS NECESSARY? 593
variables, and they are not present in the final expression for the fundamental
measurable quantity calculated in QFT - the S-matrix.
We certainly agree with the following two quotes:
Every physicist would easily convince himself that all quantum cal-
culations are made in the energy-momentum space and that the
Minkowski xµ are just dummy variables without physical mean-
ing (although almost all textbooks insist on the fact that these
variables are not related with position, they use them to express
locality of interactions!) H. Bacry [Bac89]
So, we arrive to the conclusion that quantum fields ψ(x, t) are simply
formal linear combinations of particle creation and annihilation operators.
Their arguments t and x are some dummy variables, which are not related
to temporal and spatial properties of the physical system. Quantum fields
should not be regarded as “generalized” or “second quantized” versions of
wave functions. Their role is more technical than fundamental: They pro-
vide convenient “building blocks” for the construction of Poincaré invariant
operators of potential energy V (9.13) - (9.14) and potential boost Z (9.16)
in the Fock space. That’s all there is to quantum fields.
It seems appropriate to end this section with the following quote from
Mermin
CONCLUSIONS
Don’t worry about people stealing your ideas. If your ideas are
any good, you’ll have to ram them down people’s throats.
Howard Aiken
Our first claim about the primary role of particles contradicts the funda-
mental assumptions of such field-based approaches as quantum field theory
595
596 CHAPTER 18. CONCLUSIONS
Summary:
MATHEMATICAL
APPENDICES
599
Appendix A
A.1 Groups
Group is a set where a product ab of any two elements a and b is defined.
This product is also an element of the group, and the following conditions
are satisfied:
1. associativity:
ea = ae = a (A.2)
3. for each element a there is a unique inverse element a−1 such that
601
602 APPENDIX A. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES
0o
−90o 90o
o
180
(a) (b)
Figure A.1: (a) Square; (b) the group of (rotational) symmetries of the
square.
Table A.1: Multiplication table for the symmetry group of the square
0◦ 90◦ 180◦ −90◦
0◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ −90◦
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
90 90 180 −90 0◦
180◦ 180◦ −90◦ 0◦ 90◦
−90◦ −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦
composition law of rotations leads us to the multiplication table A.1 and the
inversion table A.2 for this simple group.
The group considered above is commutative (or Abelian), because ab = ba
for any two elements a and b in the group. However, this property is not
required for a general group. For example, it is easy to see that the group of
rotational symmetries of a cube is not Abelian: A 90◦ rotation of the cube
about its x-axis followed by a 90◦ rotation about the y-axis is a transformation
that is different from these two rotations performed in the reverse order.
Table A.2: Inversion table for the symmetry group of the square
element inverse element
◦
0 0◦
90◦ −90◦
◦
180 180◦
−90◦ 90◦
spaces whose scalars are either complex (C) or real (R) numbers. If x and y
are two vectors and a and b are two scalars, then
ax + by
is also a vector. A vector space forms an Abelian group with respect to vector
additions. This means associativity
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z),
x+0=0+x=x
x + (−x) = 0,
a(bx) = (ab)x
(a + b)x = ax + bx
604 APPENDIX A. GROUPS AND VECTOR SPACES
a(x + y) = ax + ay
The scalar multiplication identity:
1x = x
We leave it to the reader to prove from these axioms the following useful
results for an arbitrary scalar a and a vector x
0x = a0 = 0
(−a)x = a(−x) = −(ax)
ax = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or x = 0
An example of a vector space is the set of all columns of n numbers1
x1
x2
..
.
xn
The sum of two columns is
x1 y1 x1 + y1
x2
y2
x2 + y2
.. + .. = ..
. . .
xn yn xn + yn
The multiplication of a column by a scalar λ is
x1 λx1
x2
λx2
λ .. = ..
. .
xn λxn
1
If xi are real (complex) numbers then this vector space is denoted by Rn (Cn ).
A.2. VECTOR SPACES 605
X
ai xi = 0
i
X
a0 y + ai xi = 0
i
has a solution in which a0 6= 0.2 This means that we can express an arbitrary
vector y as a linear combination of basis vectors
X ai X
y=− xi = yi xi (A.4)
i
a0 i
Note that any vector y has unique components yi with respect to the basis
xi . Indeed, suppose we found another set of components yi′ , so that
X
y= yi′ xi (A.5)
i
X
0= (yi′ − yi )xi
i
1 0 0
0
1
0
.. , .. ,..., ..
. . .
0 0 1
Za
f (x)δ(x)dx = f (0)
−a
where f (x) is any smooth function, and a > 0. The delta function can be
also defined by its integral representation
Z∞
1 i
e ~ ax da = δ(x)
2π~
−∞
1
δ(ax) = δ(x)
a
The delta function of a vector argument r = (x, y, z) is defined as
δ(r) = δ(x)δ(y)δ(z)
607
608 APPENDIX B. DELTA FUNCTION AND USEFUL INTEGRALS
or
Z
1 i
e ~ k·r dk = δ(r) (B.1)
(2π~)3
It has the property
∂2 1
= −δ(r) (B.2)
∂r2 4πr
The step function θ(t) is defined as
1, if t ≥ 0
θ(t) ≡ (B.3)
0, otherwise
Z∞
1 e−ist
θ(t) = − ds (B.4)
2πi s + iǫ
−∞
Consider integral1
Z Zπ Z2π Z∞ i Z1 Z∞
dr i pr 2e ~ pr cos θ i
e~ = sin θdθ dφ r dr = 2π dz drre ~ prz
r r
0 0 0 −1 0
Z∞ i
pr − ~i pr Z∞
e ~ −e 4π~ pr
= 2π~ rdr = dr sin
ipr p ~
0 0
Z∞
4π~2 4π~2 4π~2
= dρ sin(ρ) = − (cos(∞) − cos(0)) = (B.5)
p2 p2 p2
0
i
1
In this derivation one can set cos(∞) = 0 because in applications the plane wave e ~ pr
in the integrand does not have infinite extension. Typically it has a smooth damping
factor that makes it tend to zero at large values of r, so that cos(∞) can be effectively
taken as zero.
609
Z i
e ~ (p·x+q·y)
K = dxdy
|x − y|
1
x =(z + t)
2
1
y = (z − t)
2
x−y = t
x+y = z
∂(x, y)
J ≡ det
= 1/8
∂(z, t)
Z i Z i
1 e 2~ (p·(z+t)+q·(z−t)) 1 e 2~ (z·(p+q)+t·(p−q))
K = dtdz = dtdz
8 t 8 t
Z i
e 2~ t·(p−q) (2π~)6 δ(p + q)
= (2π~)3δ(p + q) dt = (B.6)
t 2π 2 ~ p2
Other useful integrals are
Z
dk i kr (2π~)3
e ~ = (B.7)
k2 4π~2 r
Z Z
dkk i kr ∂ dk i kr i(2π~)3 ∂ 1 i(2π~)3 r
e ~ = −i~ e ~ = − =
k2 ∂r k2 4π~ ∂r r 4π~r 3
(B.8)
Z 3
dkq · [k × p] i kr i(2π~) q · [r × p]
2
e~ = (B.9)
k 4π~r 3
610 APPENDIX B. DELTA FUNCTION AND USEFUL INTEGRALS
Z
dk(q · k)(p · k) i kr (2π~)3 (q · r)(p · r)
e~ = (q · p) − (B.10)
k4 8π~2 r r2
Z
dk(p · k)(q · k) i kr (2π~)3 (p · r)(q · r) 1
2
e~ = 3
(p · q) − 3 2
+ (p · q)δ(r)
k 4πr r 3
(B.11)
Z 3
dk i kr (2π~) r
e ~ = E − (B.12)
k4 8π~4
Z
2 +br 2 /(4a)
dre−ar = (π/a)3/2 eb (B.13)
When talking about smooth functions in this book we will presume that these
functions are continuous, can be differentiated as many times as needed and
do not contain singularities.
Appendix C
Lemma C.1
z ≤x∧y ⇒ z ≤x (C.1)
Proof. From Postulate 1.8 we have x ∧ y ≤ x, hence z ≤ x ∧ y ≤ x and by
the transitivity Lemma 1.5 we obtain z ≤ x.
Lemma C.2
x≤y ⇔x∧y = x (C.2)
Proof. From x ≤ y and x ≤ x it follows by Postulate 1.9 that x ≤ x ∧ y.
On the other hand, x ∧ y ≤ x (1.8). Lemma 1.4 then implies x ∧ y = x. The
reverse statement follows from Postulate 1.8 written in the form
x∧y ≤y (C.3)
If x∧y = x, then we can replace the left hand side of (C.3) with x and obtain
the left hand side of (C.2)
1
They are summarized in Table 1.1 as statements 1.3 - 1.21.
611
612APPENDIX C. SOME LEMMAS FOR ORTHOCOMPLEMENTED LATTICES.
x∧x = x (C.5)
∅∧x = ∅ (C.6)
I ∧x = x (C.7)
∅⊥ = I (C.8)
which are left as an exercise for the reader.
Proofs of lemmas and theorems for orthocomplemented lattices are facil-
itated by the following observation: Given an expression composed of lattice
elements we can form a dual expression by the following rules:
• 1) change places of ∧ and ∨ signs;
• 2) change the direction of the implication signs ≤;
• 3) change ∅ to I and change I to ∅.
Then it is easy to see that all axioms in Table 1.1 have the property of duality:
Each axiom is either self-dual or its dual is also a valid axiom. Therefore, for
each logical (in)equality, its dual is also a valid (in)equality. For example, by
duality we have from (C.1), (C.2) and (C.4) - (C.8)
x∨y ≤z ⇒ x≤z
x≤y ⇔ x∨y = y
y≤x ⇒ y∨z ≤x∨z
x∨x = x
I ∨x = I
∅∨x = x
I⊥ = ∅
Appendix D
Rotation group
a = ax i + ay j + az k
1
Let us agree that the triple of basis vectors (i, j, k) forms a right-handed system as
shown in Fig. D.1. Such a system is easy to recognize by the following rule of thumb: If
we point a corkscrew in the direction of k and rotate it in the clockwise direction (from i
to j), then the corkscrew will move in the direction of vector k.
613
614 APPENDIX D. ROTATION GROUP
k a+b
b
a
α
0
j y
i
x
Figure D.1: Some objects in the vector space R3 : the origin 0, the basis
vectors i, j, k, a sum of two vectors a + b via the parallelogram rule.
ax
a = ay
az
The transposed vector can be represented as a row
aT = [ax , ay , az ]
One can easily verify that the dot product (D.1) can be written in several
equivalent forms
3
X ax
b·a= bi ai = bx ax + by ay + bz az = [bx , by , bz ] ay = bT a
i=1 az
where bT a denotes the usual “row by column” product of the row bT and
column a. √ √
The length of the vector a can be written as a ≡ |a| = a · a ≡ a2 , and
the distance between two points (or vectors) a and b is defined as d = |a−b|.
2
So, physical space can be identified with the vector space R3 of all triples of real
numbers (see subsection A.2). We will mark vector indices either by letters x, y, z or by
numbers 1,2,3, as convenient.
D.2. SCALARS AND VECTORS 615
3
X
a′i = Rij aj (D.2)
j=1
a′ = Ra (D.3)
′T
b = (Rb)T = bT RT (D.4)
The validity of equation (D.5) for any a and b implies that rotation matrices
satisfy the condition
616 APPENDIX D. ROTATION GROUP
RT R = I (D.6)
1 0 0
I= 0 1 0
0 0 1
Multiplying by the inverse matrix R−1 from the right, equation (D.6) can be
also written as
RT = R−1 (D.7)
3
X 3
X
T
Rij Rjk = Rji Rjk = δik (D.9)
j=1 j=1
1, if i = j
δij = (D.10)
0, if i 6= j
Matrices satisfying condition (D.7) are called orthogonal. Thus, any rotation
has a unique representative in the set of orthogonal matrices.
However, not every orthogonal matrix R corresponds to a rotation. To
see that, we can write
det(R) = 1 (D.11)
a b 0
Rz = c d 0
0 0 1
d −b 0
Rz−1 = −c a 0
0 0 1
a = d
b = −c
3
Matrices with det(R) = −1 describe rotations coupled with inversion (see subsection
2.2.4).
618 APPENDIX D. ROTATION GROUP
therefore
a b 0
Rz = −b a 0
0 0 1
cos φ sin φ 0
Rz = − sin φ cos φ 0 (D.12)
0 0 1
Obviously, parameter φ is just the rotation angle.4 The matrices for rotations
around the x- and y-axes are
1 0 0
Rx = 0 cos φ sin φ (D.13)
0 − sin φ cos φ
and
cos φ 0 − sin φ
Ry = 0 1 0 (D.14)
sin φ 0 cos φ
respectively.
3
X
A′ij = Rik Rjl Akl (D.15)
kl=1
Similarly, one can also define tensors of higher rank, e.g., Aijk .
There are two invariant tensors which play a special role because they
have the same components independent on the orientation of the basis vec-
tors. The first invariant tensor is the Kronecker delta δij .6 Its invariance
follows from the orthogonality of R-matrices (D.9).
3
X 3
X
δij′ = Rik Rjl δkl = Rik Rjk = δij
kl=1 k=1
3
X
ǫ′ijk = Ril Rjm Rkn ǫlmn = Ri1 Rj2 Rk3 + Ri3 Rj1 Rk2 + Ri2 Rj3 Rk1
lmn=1
−Ri2 Rj1 Rk3 − Ri3 Rj2 Rk1 − Ri1 Rj3 Rk2 (D.16)
These are the same properties as those used to define the Levi-Civita symbol
above. So, the right hand side of (D.16) must have the same components as
ǫijk
ǫ′ijk = ǫijk
6
see equation (D.10)
620 APPENDIX D. ROTATION GROUP
Using invariant tensors δij and ǫijk we can convert between scalar, vector
and tensor quantities, as shown in Table D.1. For example, any antisymmet-
ric 3-tensor has 3 independent components, so it can be always represented
as
3
X
Aij = ǫijk Vk
k=1
Using invariant tensors one can also build a scalar or a vector from two
independent vectors A and B. The scalar is constructed by using the Kro-
necker delta
3
X
A·B = δij Ai Bj ≡ A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3
ij=1
This is the usual dot product (D.1). The vector can be constructed using
the Levi-Civita tensor
3
X
[A × B]i = ǫijk Aj Bk
jk=1
This vector is called the cross product (or vector product ) of A and B. It
has the following components
D.5. VECTOR PARAMETERIZATION OF ROTATIONS 621
[A × B]x = Ay Bz − Az By
[A × B]y = Az Bx − Ax Bz
[A × B]z = Ax By − Ay Bx
and properties
[A × B] = −[B × A]
[A × [B × C]] = B(A · C) − C(A · B) (D.17)
The mixed product is a scalar which can be build from three vectors with the
help of the Levi-Civita invariant tensor
3
X
[A × B] · C = ǫijk Ai Bj Ck
ijk=1
[A × B] · C = [B × C] · A = [C × A] · B (D.18)
[A × B] · B = 0
P|
φ
P
n
P P’
P′k = Pk (D.19)
~
[P⊥ × φ]
n=−
φ
the vector which is orthogonal to both φ ~ and P⊥ and is equal to the latter in
~ forms a right-handed system, just like
length. Note that the triple (P⊥ , n, φ)
vectors (i, j, k). Then the result of the passive rotation through the angle φ~
in the plane spanned by vectors P⊥ and n is the same as a rotation about
the axis k in the plane spanned by vectors i and j, i.e., it is given by the
matrix (D.12)
! " #
~
φ ~
φ ~
φ
P′ = P′k + P′⊥ = P· (1 − cos φ) + P cos φ − P × sin φ (D.21)
φ φ φ
φx sin φ
Px′ = (Px φx + Py φy + Pz φz ) (1 − cos φ) + P x cos φ − (P y φ z − P z φ y )
φ2 φ
φ y sin φ
Py′ = (Px φx + Py φy + Pz φz ) 2 (1 − cos φ) + Py cos φ − (Pz φx − Px φz )
φ φ
φz sin φ
Pz′ = (Px φx + Py φy + Pz φz ) 2 (1 − cos φ) + Pz cos φ − (Px φy − Py φx )
φ φ
This transformation can be also represented in a matrix form.
P′ = Rφ−1
~ P = R−φ
~P
where the orthogonal matrix Rφ~ has the following matrix elements
3
X sin φ 1 − cos φ
(Rφ~ )ij = cos φδij + φk ǫijk + φi φj
k=1
φ φ2
Rφ~
cos φ + m2x (1 − cos φ) mx my (1 − cos φ) − mz sin φ mx mz (1 − cos φ) + my sin φ
= mx my (1 − cos φ) + mz sin φ cos φ + m2y (1 − cos φ) my mz (1 − cos φ) − mx sin φ
mx mz (1 − cos φ) − my sin φ my mz (1 − cos φ) + mx sin φ cos φ + m2z (1 − cos φ)
(D.22)
~
and m ≡ φ/φ.
Inversely, let us start from an arbitrary orthogonal matrix Rφ~ with det(Rφ~ ) =
1 and try to find the corresponding rotation vector φ. ~ Obviously, this vector
is not changed by the transformation Rφ~ , so
624 APPENDIX D. ROTATION GROUP
~=φ
Rφ~ φ ~
~ ~) = φ
Therefore, we can define the function Φ(R ~ (which maps from the set
φ
of rotation matrices to corresponding rotation angles) by the following rules:
T r(Rφ~ ) − 1
φ = cos−1 (D.23)
2
~ φ}
{−φ}{ ~ = {~0}
~ 1 }({φ
{φ ~ 2 }{φ
~ 3 }) = ({φ
~ 1 }{φ
~ 2}){φ
~3}
For example, considering two rotations around the z-axis we can write
cos φ sin φ 0 cos ψ sin ψ 0
R(0,0,φ) R(0,0,ψ) = − sin φ cos φ 0 − sin ψ cos ψ 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
cos(φ + ψ) sin(φ + ψ) 0
= − sin(φ + ψ) cos(φ + ψ) 0
0 0 1
= R(0,0,φ+ψ)
We will say that rotations about the same axis n form an one-parameter
subgroup of the rotation group.
9
here ~n is a unit vector.
626 APPENDIX D. ROTATION GROUP
3 3
X 1X i j
{~θ} = 1 + i
θ ti + θ θ tij + . . .
i=1
2 ij=1
3
X
{~θ} ≈ 1 + θi ti
i=1
d ~
ti = lim {θ}
~
θ→0 dθi
For example, in the matrix notation, the generator of rotations around the
z-axis is given by the matrix
cos φ sin φ 0 0 1 0
d d
Jz = lim Rz (φ) = lim − sin φ cos φ 0 = −1 0 0 (D.25)
φ→0 dφ φ→0 dφ
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
Jx = 0 0 1 , Jy = 0 0 0 (D.26)
0 −1 0 1 0 0
10
Here we denote 1 ≡ {~0} the identity element of the group.
D.7. GENERATORS OF ROTATIONS 627
Using the additivity property (D.24) we can express general rotation {~θ}
as exponential function of generators
( ) ( )N 3
!N
~θ ~θ X θi
{~θ} = lim N = lim = lim 1+ ti
N →∞ N N →∞ N N →∞
i=1
N
3
!
X
= exp θi ti (D.27)
i=1
Let us verify this formula in the case of a rotation around the z-axis
1
eJz φ = 1 + φJz + φ2 Jz2 + . . .
2!
φ2
1 0 0 0 φ 0 −2 0 0
2
= 0 1 0 + −φ 0 0 + 0 − φ2 0 + ...
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2
1 − φ2 + . . . φ + ... 0 cos φ sin φ 0
φ 2
= −φ + . . . 1 − 2 + . . . 0 = − sin φ
cos φ 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
= Rz = {0, 0, φ}
629
630 APPENDIX E. LIE GROUPS AND LIE ALGEBRAS
• {~θ}−1 = {−~θ};
~ and {φ}
• if elements {ψ} ~ belong to the same one-parameter subgroup,
then
~ φ}
{ψ}{ ~ = {ψ
~ + φ}
~
We will always assume that group parameters satisfy these properties. Then,
similar to subsection D.7, we can introduce infinitesimal transformations or
generators ta (a = 1, 2, . . . , n) for a general Lie group and express group
elements in the vicinity of the unit element as exponential functions of gen-
erators
n
! n n
X X 1 X b c
{~θ} = exp a
θ ta =1+ a
θ ta + θ θ tbc + . . . (E.1)
a=1 a=1
2!
bc=1
~ ξ)
Let us introduce function ~g (ζ, ~ which associates with two points ζ~ and ξ~ in
~ ξ)
the group manifold a third point ~g (ζ, ~ according to the group multiplication
law, i.e.,
~ ξ}
{ζ}{ ~ = {~g (ζ,
~ ξ)}
~ (E.2)
~ ξ)
Function ~g (ζ, ~ must satisfy conditions
which follow from the group properties (A.2) and (A.3), respectively. To
ensure agreement with equation (E.3), the Taylor expansion of ~g up to the
2nd order in parameters must look like
E.1. LIE GROUPS 631
n
X
~ ξ)
g a (ζ, ~ = ζ a + ξa + fbca ξ bζ c + . . . (E.4)
bc=1
where fbca are real coefficients. Now we substitute expansions (E.1) and (E.4)
into (E.2)
n n
! n n
!
X
a 1X b c X 1X b c
a
1+ ξ ta + ξ ξ tbc + . . . 1+ ζ ta + ζ ζ tbc + . . .
a=1
2 bc=1 a=1
2 bc=1
n n
! n
X
a a
X 1X a
= 1+ ζ +ξ + fbca ξ b ζ c + . . . ta + (ζ + ξ a + . . .)(ζ b + ξ b + . . .)tab + . . .
a=1 bc=1
2 ab=1
n
1 X
(tbc + tcb ) = tb tc − fbca ta
2 a=1
The left hand side is symmetric with respect to the interchange of indices b
and c. Therefore the right hand side must by symmetric as well
n
X n
X
tb tc − fbca ta − tc tb + a
fcb ta = 0 (E.5)
a=1 a=1
[tb , tc ] ≡ tb tc − tc tb
then, according to (E.5), this commutator is a linear combination of genera-
tors
n
X
a
[tb , tc ] = Cbc ta (E.6)
a=1
a
where real parameters Cbc = fbca − fcb
a
are called structure constants of the
Lie group.
632 APPENDIX E. LIE GROUPS AND LIE ALGEBRAS
Proof. Let us first write the associativity law (A.1) in the form5
~ ~g (ξ,
0 = g a (ζ, ~ ~η)) − g a (~g (ζ,
~ ξ),
~ ~η )
~ ~η) + f a ζ b g c (ξ,
≈ ζ a + g a (ξ, ~ ~η) − g a (ζ,
~ ξ)
~ − η a − f a g b (ζ,
~ ξ)η
~ c
bc bc
≈ ζ a + ξ a + η a + fbca ξ b η c + fbca ζ b (ξ c + η c + fxy
c x y
ξ η )
−ζ a − ξ a − fxy
a x y
ζ ξ − η a − fbca (ζ b + ξ b + fxy
b x y c
ζ ξ )η
= fbca ξ b η c + fbca ζ bξ c + fbca ζ bη c + fbca fxy
c b x y
ζ ξ η
a x y
−fxy ζ ξ − fbca η c ζ b − fbca η c ξ b − fbca fxy
b c x y
ηζ ξ
= fbca fxy
c b x y
ζ ξ η − fbca fxy
b x y c
ζ ξ η
= (fbca fxy
c a c
− fcy fbx )ζ bξ x η y
~ {ξ}
Since elements {ζ}, ~ and {~η} are arbitrary, this implies
Now let us turn to the left hand side of the Jacobi identity (E.7)
y y
(fbcx − fcbx y
)(fax − fxa y x
) + (fca x
− fac )(fbx − fxb x
) + (fab x
− fba y
)(fcx y
− fxc )
x y x y x y x y x y x y
= fbc fax − fbc fxa − fcb fax + fcb fxa + fca fbx − fca fxb
x y x y x y x y x y x y
−fac fbx + fac fxb + fab fcx − fab fxc − fba fcx + fba fxc
x y x y x y x y x y x y
= (fbc fax − fab fxc ) + (fca fbx − fbc fxa ) − (fcb fax − fac fxb )
x y x y x y x y x y x y
−(fba fcx − fcb fxa ) + (fab fcx − fca fxb ) − (fac fbx − fba fxc ) (E.9)
According to (E.8) all terms in parentheses on the right hand side of (E.9)
are zero, which proves the theorem.
[A, B] = −[B, A]
[A, B + C] = [A, B] + [A, C]
[A, λB] = [λA, B] = λ[A, B], f or any λ ∈ R
0 = [A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] (E.10)
[A, B] = AB − BA
The structure constants of the Lie algebra of the rotation group can be
obtained by direct calculation from explicit expressions (D.25) - (D.26)
[Jx , Jy ] = Jz
[Jx , Jz ] = −Jy
[Jy , Jz ] = Jx
3
X
[Ji , Jj ] = ǫijk Jk
k=1
In the vicinity of the unit element, any Lie group element can be repre-
sented as exponent exp(x) of a Lie algebra element x (see equation (E.1)).
As product of two group elements is another group element, we must have
for any two Lie algebra elements x and y
where z is also an element from the Lie algebra. Then there should exist a
mapping in the Lie algebra which associates with any two elements x and y a
E.2. LIE ALGEBRAS 635
1 1 1
z = x + y + [x, y] + [[x, y], y] + [[y, x], x]
2 12 12
1 1 1
+ [[[y, x], x], y] − [[[[x, y], y], y], y] + [[[[x, y], y], y], x]
24 720 360
1 1 1
+ [[[[y, x], x], x], y] − [[[[x, y], y], x], y] − [[[[y, x], x], y], x] . . .
360 120 120
This means that Lie bracket relations in the Lie algebra contain full informa-
tion about the group multiplication law in the vicinity of the unit element. In
many cases, it is much easier to deal with generators and their Lie brackets
than directly with group elements and their multiplication law.
In applications one often finds useful the following identity
a2 a3
exp(ax)y exp(−ax) = y + a[x, y] + [x, [x, y]] + [x, [x, [x, y]]] . . . (E.13)
2! 3!
where a ∈ R. This formula can be proved by noticing that both sides are
solutions of the same differential operator equation
dy(a)
= [x, y(a)]
da
with the same initial condition y(a) = y.
There is a unique Lie algebra AG corresponding to each Lie group G.
However, there are many Lie groups with the same Lie algebra. These groups
have the same structure in the vicinity of the unit element, but their global
topological properties can be different.
A Lie subalgebra B of a Lie algebra A is a subspace in A which is closed
with respect to the Lie bracket, i.e., if x, y ∈ B, then [x, y] ∈ B. If H is a
subgroup of a Lie group G, then its Lie algebra AH is a Lie subalgebra of
AG .
636 APPENDIX E. LIE GROUPS AND LIE ALGEBRAS
Appendix F
Hilbert space
637
638 APPENDIX F. HILBERT SPACE
1, if i = j
(|ei i, |ej i) =
0, if i 6= j
Suppose that vectors |xi and |yi have components xi and yi , respectively,
in this basis
Then using (F.1), (F.2) and (F.6) we can express the inner product through
vector components
inner product spaces are always complete, and their subspaces are always closed. Although
in quantum mechanics we normally deal with infinite-dimensional spaces, most properties
having relevance to physics do not depend on the number of dimensions. So, we will
ignore the difference between finite- and infinite-dimensional spaces and freely use finite
n-dimensional examples in our proofs and demonstrations. In particular, we will tacitly
assume that every subspace A is closed or forced to be closed by adding all vectors which
are limits of Cauchy sequences in A.
F.3. BRA AND KET VECTORS 639
Since any linear combination αhf | + βhg| of functionals hf | and hg| is again a
functional, then all functionals form a vector space (denoted H ∗ ). The vectors
in H ∗ will be called bra vectors. We can define an inner product in H ∗ so
that it becomes a Hilbert space. To do that, let us choose an orthonormal
basis |ei i in H. Then each functional hf | defines a set of complex numbers
fi which are values of this functional on the basis vectors
fi = hf |ei i
These numbers define the functional uniquely, i.e., if two functionals hf | and
hg| are different, then their values are different for at least one basis vector
|ek i: fk 6= gk .4 Now we can define the inner product of bra vectors hf | and
hg| by formula
X
(hf |, hg|) = fi gi∗
i
and verify that it satisfies all properties of the inner product listed in (F.1)
- (F.5). The Hilbert space H ∗ is called a dual of the Hilbert space H. Note
that each vector |yi in H defines a unique linear functional hy| in H ∗ by
formula
for each |xi ∈ H. This bra vector hy| will be called the dual of the ket vector
|yi. Equation (F.7) tells us that in order to calculate the inner product of |yi
and |xi we should find the bra vector (functional) dual to |yi and then find
its value on |xi. So, the inner product is obtained by coupling bra and ket
vectors hx|yi, thus forming a closed bra(c)ket expression, which is a complex
number.
Clearly, if |xi and |yi are different kets, then their dual bras hx| and hy|
are different as well. We may notice that just like vectors in H ∗ define linear
functionals on vectors in H, any vector |xi ∈ H also defines an antilinear
functional on bra vectors by formula hy|xi, i.e.,
Then applying the same arguments as above, we see that if hy| is a bra vector,
then there is a unique ket |yi such that for any hx| ∈ H ∗ we have
Lemma F.1 If kets |ei i form an orthonormal basis in H, then dual bras hei |
also form an orthonormal basis in H ∗ .
Proof. Suppose that hei | do not form a basis. Then there is a nonzero vector
hz| ∈ H ∗ which is orthogonal to all hei |, and the values of the functional hz|
on all basis vectors |ei i are zero, so hz| = 0. The orthonormality of hei |
follows from equations (F.8) and F.6)
The components xi of a vector |xi in the basis |ei i are conveniently repre-
sented in the bra-ket notation as
F.4. TENSOR PRODUCT OF HILBERT SPACES 641
So we can write
X X
|xi = |ei ixi = |ei ihei |xi (F.9)
i i
The bra vector hy| dual to the ket |yi has complex conjugate components in
the dual basis
X
hy| = yi∗ hei | (F.10)
i
This can be verified by checking that the functional on the right hand side
being applied to any vector |xi ∈ H yields
X X
yi∗ hei |xi = yi∗ xi = (|yi, |xi) = hy|xi
i i
T |xi = |x′ i
for any two complex numbers α and β and any two vectors |xi and |yi. Given
an operator T we can find images of basis vectors
T |ei i = |e′i i
and find the expansion of these images in the original basis |ei i
X
|e′i i = tij |ej i
j
Coefficients tij of this expansion are called the matrix elements of the op-
erator T in the basis |ei i. In the bra-ket notation we can find a convenient
expression for the matrix elements
X X X
hej |(T |ei i) = hej |e′i i = hej | tik |ek i = tik hej |ek i = tik δjk
k k k
= tij
X X
x′i = hei |x′ i = hei |(T |xi) = hei | (T |ej i)xj = hei |ek itkj xj
j jk
X X
= δik tkj xj = tij xj (F.11)
jk j
X
T = |ei itij hej | (F.12)
ij
Indeed, by applying the right hand side of equation (F.12) to arbitrary vector
|xi we obtain
X X X
|ei itij hej |xi = |ei itij xj = x′i |ei i = |x′ i = T |xi
ij ij i
y1
y2
|yi = ..
.
yn
of complex conjugate components in the dual basis hei |. Then the inner
product is obtained by the usual “row by column” matrix multiplication
rule.
y1
y2 X
hx|yi = [x∗1 , x∗2 , . . . , x∗n ] x∗i yi
.. =
. i
yn
644 APPENDIX F. HILBERT SPACE
t11 t12 . . . t1n
t21 t22 . . . t2n
T = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
tn1 tn2 . . . tnn
Then the action of the operator T on a vector |x′ i = T |xi can be represented
as a product of the matrix corresponding to T and the column vector |xi5
P
x′1 t11 t12 . . . t1n x1 j t1j xj
x′2 t21 t22 . . . t2n x2 P t2j xj
j
.. = .. .. .. . ..= ..
. . . . .. . P .
x′n tn1 tn2 . . . tnn xn j tnj xj
So, each operator has a unique matrix and each n × n matrix defines a
unique linear operator. This establishes an isomorphism between operators
and matrices. In what follows we will often use the terms operator and matrix
interchangeably.
The matrix corresponding to the identity operator is δij , i.e., the unit
matrix
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
I= .... . . ..
. . . .
0 0 ... 1
d1 0 ... 0
0 d2 ... 0
D= .. .. .. ..
. . . .
0 0 . . . dn
5
compare with (F.11)
F.6. MATRICES AND OPERATORS 645
s11 s12 . . . s1n
s21 s22 . . . s2n
[y1′ , y2′ , . . . , yn′ ] = [y1 , y2, . . . , yn ]
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
sn1 sn2 . . . snn
or symbolically
X
yi′ = yj sji
j
hy ′| = hy|S
Suppose that operator T with matrix tij in the ket space H transforms
vector |xi to |yi, i.e.,
X
yi = tij xj (F.13)
j
What is the matrix of operator S in the bra space H ∗ which connects corre-
sponding dual vectors hx| and hy|? As hx| and hy| have components complex
conjugate to those of |xi and |yi, and S acts on bra vectors from the right,
we can write
X
yi∗ = x∗j sji (F.14)
j
X
yi∗ = t∗ij x∗j
j
sij = t∗ji
646 APPENDIX F. HILBERT SPACE
This means that the matrix representing the action of the operator T in the
dual space H ∗ , is different from the matrix T in that rows are substituted
by columns,6 and matrix elements are complex-conjugated. This combined
operation “transposition + complex conjugation” is called Hermitian conju-
gation. Hermitian conjugate (or adjoint) of operator T is denoted T † . In
particular, we can write
X
(AB)ij = aik bkj
k
(AB)† = B † A†
6
This is equivalent to the reflection of the matrix with respect to the main diagonal.
Such matrix operation is called transposition.
F.7. FUNCTIONS OF OPERATORS 647
Proof.
X X X
(AB)†ij = (AB)∗ji = a∗jk b∗ki = b∗ki a∗jk = (B † )ik (A† )kj = (B † A† )ij
k k k
A−1 A = AA−1 = I
1 2
eF = 1 + F + F + ... (F.17)
2!
For any two operators A and B the expression
[A, B] ≡ AB − BA (F.18)
X
T r(A) = Aii
i
X
T r(ABC) = Aij Bjk Cki
ijk
Then
X
T r(BCA) = Bij Cjk Aki
ijk
X
T r(BCA) = Bjk Cki Aij = T r(ABC)
ijk
We can define two classes of operators (and their matrices) which play
important roles in quantum mechanics (see Table F.1). These are Hermitian
and unitary operators. We call operator T Hermitian or self-adjoint if
T = T† (F.19)
i.e., diagonal matrix elements are real, and non-diagonal matrix elements
symmetrical with respect to the main diagonal are complex conjugates of
each other. Moreover, from equations (F.15) and (F.19) we can calculate the
inner product of vectors hx| and T |yi with a Hermitian T
Table F.1: Actions on operators and types of linear operators in the Hilbert
space
Symbolic Condition on matrix elements
or eigenvalues
Action on operators
Complex conjugation A → A∗ (A∗ )ij = A∗ij
Transposition A → AT (AT )ij = Aji
† ∗ T
Hermitian conjugation A → A = (A ) (A† )ij = A∗ji
Inversion A → A−1 inverse eigenvalues
Determinant det(A) product P of eigenvalues
Trace T r(A) i Aii
Types of operators
Identity I Iij = δij
Diagonal D Dij = di δij
Hermitian A = A† Aij = A∗ji
AntiHermitian A = −A† Aij = −A∗ji
Unitary A−1 = A† unimodular eigenvalues
Projection A = A† , A2 = A eigenvalues 0 and 1 only
From this symmetric notation it is clear that a Hermitian T can act either
to the right (on |yi) or to the left (on hx|)
Operator U is called unitary if
U −1 = U †
or, equivalently
U † U = UU † = I
Proof.
†
U ∗ U = (eiF )† (eiF ) = e−iF eiF = e−iF eiF = e−iF +iF = e0 = I
Theorem F.6 |ei i and |e′i i are two orthonormal bases if and only if there
exists a unitary operator U such that
he1 |e′1 i he1 |e′2 i . . . he1 |e′n i
he2 |e′1 i he2 |e′2 i . . . he2 |e′n i
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
hen |e′1 i hen |e′2 i . . . hen |e′n i
X X
U = |ej iujk hek | = |ej ihej |e′k ihek |
jk jk
X X X
U|ei i = |ej ihej |e′k ihek |ei i = |ej ihej |e′k iδki = |ej ihej |e′i i
jk jk j
= |e′i i
X X X
(UU † )ij = uik u∗jk = he′i |ek ihe′j |ek i∗ = he′i |ek ihek |e′j i = he′i |e′j i
k k k
= δij = Iij
7
Here we use the following representation of the identity operator
X
I= |ei ihei | (F.23)
i
If F is operator with matrix elements fij in the basis |ek i, then its matrix
elements fij′ in the basis |e′k i = U|ek i can be obtained by formula
Equation (F.24) can be viewed from two different but equivalent perspectives.
One can regard (F.24) either as matrix elements of F in the new basis set
U|ei i (a passive view) or as matrix elements of the transformed operator
U −1 F U in the original basis set |ei i (an active view).
When the basis is changing, the matrix of the operator changes as well,
but the operator’s type remains the same. If operator F is Hermitian, then
in the new basis8
(F ′ )† = (U −1 F U)† = U † F † (U −1 )† = U −1 F U = F ′
it is Hermitian as well.
If operator V is unitary, then for the transformed operator V ′ we have
(V ′ )† V ′ = (U −1 V U)† V ′ = U † V † (U −1 )† V ′ = U −1 V † UV ′ = U −1 V † UU −1 V U
= U −1 V † V U = U −1 U = I
8
adopting the active view and omitting symbols for basis vectors
F.9. DIAGONALIZATION OF HERMITIAN AND UNITARY MATRICES653
F |xi = λ|xi
f1 0 ... 0
0 f2 ... 0
F = .. .. .. .. (F.26)
. . . .
0 0 . . . fn
X
F = |ei ifi hei | (F.27)
i
654 APPENDIX F. HILBERT SPACE
Proof. Any Hermitian operator can be brought to the diagonal form (F.26)
with eigenvalues on the diagonal. It follows from (F.20) that these diagonal
matrix elements are real.
! !
X X
I = UU † = |ei ifi hei | |ej ifj∗ hej |
i j
X X X
= fi fj∗ |ei ihei |ej ihej | = fi fj∗ |ei iδij hej | = |fi |2 |ei ihei |
ij ij i
a1 0 ... 0
0 a2 ... 0
A= .. .. .. ..
. . . .
0 0 . . . an
then operator f (A) (in the same basis) has the form
f (a1 ) 0 ... 0
0 f (a2 ) ... 0
f (A) = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
0 0 . . . f (an )
a−1
1 0 ... 0
0 a−1
2 ... 0
A−1 =
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
0 0 . . . a−1
n
From Lemma F.10, there is a basis in which the matrix of unitary operator
U is diagonal
eif1 0 ... 0
0 eif2 ... 0
U = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
0 0 . . . eifn
with real fi . It then follows that each unitary operator can be represented
as
U = eiF
where F is Hermitian
f1 0 ... 0
0 f2 ... 0
F = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
0 0 . . . fn
Together with Lemma F.4 this establishes an isomorphism between the sets
of Hermitian and unitary operators.
M|ψk i = mk |ψk i
656 APPENDIX F. HILBERT SPACE
G.1 Projections
Two subspaces A and B in the Hilbert space H are called orthogonal (denoted
A ⊥ B) if any vector from A is orthogonal to any vector from B. The span
of all vectors which are orthogonal to A is called the orthogonal complement
to the subspace A and denoted A′ .
For a subspace A (with dim(A) = m) in the Hilbert space H (with
dim(H) = n > m) we can select an orthonormal basis |ei i such that first
m vectors with indices i = 1, 2, . . . , m belong to A and vectors with indices
i = m + 1, m + 2, . . . , n belong to the orthogonal complement A′ . Then for
each vector |yi we can write
n
X m
X n
X
|yi = |ei ihei |yi = |ei ihei |yi + |ei ihei |yi
i i=1 i=m+1
The first sum lies entirely in A and is denoted by |yk i. The second sum lies in
A′ and is denoted |y⊥ i. This means that we can always make a decomposition
of |yi into two uniquely defined mutually orthogonal components |yki and
|y⊥ i1
1
We will also say that Hilbert space H is represented as a direct sum ( H = A ⊕ A′ ) of
orthogonal subspaces A and A′ .
657
658 APPENDIX G. SUBSPACES AND PROJECTION OPERATORS
PA |yi = |yk i
m
X
PA = |ei ihei |
i=1
so that in the above basis |ei i the operator PA has diagonal matrix with
first m diagonal entries equal to 1, and all others equal to 0. From this, it
immediately follows that
PA ′ = 1 − PA
X
1= Pα
α
or, equivalently
H = ⊕α Hα
X
P = |ei ipi hei |
i
Then
! !
X X X
0 = P2 − P = |ei ipi hei | |ej ipj hej | − |ei ipi hei |
i j i
X X X
= |ei ipi pj δij hej | − |ei ipi hei | = |ei i p2i − pi hei |
ij i i
PA PB = PB PA = 0 (G.1)
660 APPENDIX G. SUBSPACES AND PROJECTION OPERATORS
and suppose that there is vector |yi ∈ B such that |yi is not orthogonal to
A. Then PA |yi = |yA i =
6 0. From these properties we obtain
dim(A) dim(B)
X X
PA + PB = |ei ihei | + |ej ihej | = PA⊕B
i=1 j=1
PA PB = PB PA = PA
G.2. COMMUTING OPERATORS 661
PA PC = PC PA = 0
PB = PA + PC
PA PB = PA (PA + PC ) = PA2 = PA
PB PA = (PA + PC )PA = PA
Lemma G.5 Subspaces A and B are compatible if and only if their corre-
sponding projections commute
[PA , PB ] = 0
PA = PC + PX
PB = PC + PY
[PC , PX ] = 0
[PC , PY ] = 0
We are left to show that X and Y are orthogonal. This follows from the
commutator
0 = [PA , PB ] = [PC + PX , PC + PY ]
= [PC , PC ] + [PC , PY ] + [PX , PC ] + [PX , PY ] = [PX , PY ]
Let us now prove the inverse statement. From the compatibility of A and
B it follows that
PA = PX + PY
PB = PX + PZ
PX PY = PX PZ = PY PZ = 0
[PA , PB ] = [PX + PY , PX + PZ ] = 0
X
F = f Pf (G.2)
f
where index f now runs over all distinct eigenvalues of F and Pf are referred
to as spectral projections of F . This means that
P each Hermitian operator
defines an unique decomposition of unity I = f Pf . Inversely, if Pf is a
decomposition of unity and f are real numbers then equation (G.2) defines
an unique Hermitian operator.
Lemma G.7 If two Hermitian operators F and G commute then all spectral
projections of F commute with G.
P |xi = |xi
F |xi = f |xi
for some real f . Let us first prove that the vector G|xi also lies in the range
of P . Indeed, using the commutativity of F and G we obtain
P GP = GP (G.3)
P GP = P G (G.4)
Now subtracting (G.4) from (G.3) we obtain
[G, P ] = GP − P G = 0
X
F = fi Pi (G.5)
i
X
G = gj Qj (G.6)
j
X
I = Pi
i
X
I = Qj
j
! !
X X X
I = I ·I = Pi Qj = Pi Qj
i j ij
G.2. COMMUTING OPERATORS 665
Representations of groups
Each group has a trivial representation in which each group element is rep-
resented by the identity operator. If the linear space of the representation is
a Hilbert space H, then we can define a particularly useful class of unitary
representations. These representations are made of unitary operators.
667
668 APPENDIX H. REPRESENTATIONS OF GROUPS
Ug′ = V Ug V −1 (H.1)
Ug 0
Wg = (H.2)
0 Vg
This is called the direct sum of two representations. The direct sum is de-
noted by the sign ⊕
Wg = Ug ⊕ Vg
From Appendix E.1 we know that elements of any Lie group in the vicinity
of the unit element can be represented as
g = eA
i
Ug = e− ~ FA
H.2. STONE’S THEOREM 669
[FA , FB ] ≡ FA FB − FB FA = i~Fc
g(0) = e
g(z1 )g(z2 ) = g(z1 + z2 )
g(z)−1 = g(−z)
i
Ug(z) = e− ~ T z (H.3)
This theorem is useful not only for 1-dimensional Lie groups, but also
for Lie groups of arbitrary dimension. The reason is that in any Lie group
one can find multiple one-parameter subgroups, for which the theorem can be
applied.4 For example consider an arbitrary Lie group G and a basis vector
~t from its Lie algebra. Consider a set of group elements of the form
~
g(z) = ez t (H.4)
3
Here we use the Planck’s constant, but any other nonzero real constant will do as well.
4
See Appendix E.1
670 APPENDIX H. REPRESENTATIONS OF GROUPS
~ ~ ~
g(z1 )g(z2 ) = ez1 t ez2 t = e(z1 +z2 )t = g(z1 + z2 )
~
g(z)−1 = e−z t = g(−z)
From the Stone’s theorem we can then conclude that in any unitary rep-
resentation of G representatives of g(z) have the form (H.3) with some fixed
Hermitian operator T .
[Pi , Pj ] = [Ri , Rj ] = 0
[Ri , Pj ] = δij
[Pi , Pj ] = [Ri , Rj ] = 0
[Ri , Pj ] = i~δij
Π A
Π B
A
0 0
A’ A’
B’
(a) (b)
Figure H.1: The space of parameters of the rotation group is not simply
connected: (a) a loop which starts from the center of the ball {~0}, reaches
the surface of the sphere Π at point A and then continues from the opposite
point A′ back to {~0}; this loop cannot be continuously collapsed to {~0},
because it crosses the surface an odd number of times (1); (b) a loop {~0} →
A → A′ → B → B ′ → {~0} which crosses the surface of the sphere Π twice
can be deformed to the point {~0}. This can be achieved by moving the points
A′ and B (and, correspondingly the points A and B ′ ) close to each other, so
that the segment A′ → B of the path disappears.
H.5. UNITARY IRREDUCIBLE REPRESENTATIONS OF THE ROTATION GROUP673
the surface of the sphere Π even and odd number of times, respectively. Two
paths from different classes cannot be continuously deformed to each other.
If we build a projective representation of the rotation group, then, similar
to our discussion of the Poincaré group in subsection 3.2.2, central charges can
be eliminated by a proper choice of numerical constants added to generators.
Then a unitary representation of the rotation group can be constructed in
which the identity rotation is represented by the identity operator and by
traveling a small loop in the group manifold from the identity element {~0}
back to {~0} we will end up with the identity operator I again. However, if
we travel the long path {~0} → A → A′ → {~0} in Fig. H.1(a), there is no
guarantee that in the end we will find the same representative I of the identity
transformation. We can get some other equivalent unitary operator from the
ray containing I, so the representative of {~0} may acquire a phase factor eiφ
after travel along such a loop. On the other hand, making two passes on
the loop {~0} → A → A′ → {~0} → A → A′ → {~0} we obtain a loop which
crosses the surface of the sphere twice and hence can be deformed to a point.
Therefore e2iφ = 1 and eiφ = ±1. This demonstrates that there are two types
of unitary representations of the rotation group: single-valued and double-
valued representations. For single-valued representations, the representative
of the identity rotation is always I. For double-valued representations, the
identity rotation has two representatives I and −I and the product of two
operators in (3.16) may have a non-trivial sign factor
iπ
− ~i Sz 2π 2πi ~/2 0 e 0
e = exp − =
~ 0 −~/2 0 e−iπ
−1 0
= = −I
0 −1
− ~i Sz 4π 1 0
e = =I
0 1
9
We denote Sx , Sy , Sz Hermitian representatives of the Lie algebra basis vectors
Jx , Jy , Jz . See Appendix D.7.
10
see Appendix H.4
H.6. PAULI MATRICES 675
~
Si = σi (H.5)
2
where
0 1
σx ≡ σ1 =
1 0
0 −i
σy ≡ σ2 =
i 0
1 0
σz ≡ σ3 =
0 −1
Sometimes it is convenient to define a fourth Pauli matrix
1 0
σt ≡ σ0 =
0 1
For reference we list here some properties of the Pauli matrices
3
X
[σi , σj ] = 2i ǫijk σk
i=1
{σi , σj } = 2δij
σi2 = 1
For arbitrary numerical 3-vectors a and b we have
Special relativity
ct
x
τ̃ =
y
z
1
see Appendix D.2
2
Here c is the speed of light. Also in this book we always denote 4-vectors by the tilde.
By the way, here we do not bestow the Minkowski space M with any physical meaning.
For us M is just an abstract vector space, unrelated to the physical space and time.
677
678 APPENDIX I. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
and the pseudoscalar product of any two 4-vectors τ̃1 and τ̃2 can be written
in a number of equivalent forms3
3
X
2
τ̃1 · τ̃2 ≡ c t1 t2 − x1 x2 − y1 y2 − z1 z2 = (τ1 )µ g µν (τ2 )ν
µν=0
1 0 0 0 ct2
0 −1 0 0 x2
= [ct1 , x1 , y1 , z1 ]
0 0 −1 0 y2
0 0 0 −1 z2
= τ̃1T gτ̃2 (I.1)
1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
g=
0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 −1
3
X
µ
τ ≡ g µν τν ≡ g µν τν = (ct, −x, −y, −z)
ν=0
τ̃1′ · τ̃2′ ≡ Λτ̃1 · Λτ̃2 = τ̃1T ΛT gΛτ̃2 = τ̃1T gτ̃2 = τ̃1 · τ̃2
g = ΛT gΛ (I.3)
Λτ̃1 · τ̃2 = τ̃1T ΛT gτ̃2 = τ̃1T gΛ−1τ̃2 = τ̃1 · Λ−1 τ̃2 (I.4)
which implies det(Λ) = ±1. Writing equation (I.3) for the g00 component we
also get
3
X
1 = g00 = Λα′ 0 gα′ β ′ Λβ ′ 0 = −Λ210 − Λ220 − Λ230 + Λ200
α′ ,β ′ =0
It then follows that Λ200 ≥ 1, which means that either Λ00 ≥ 1 or Λ00 ≤ −1.
The unit element of the group is represented by the identity transforma-
tion I, which obviously has det(I) = 1 and I00 = 1. As we are interested
680 APPENDIX I. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
only in rotations and boosts which can be continuously connected to the unit
element, we must choose
det(Λ) = 1 (I.5)
Λ00 ≥ 1 (I.6)
The matrices satisfying equation (I.3) with additional conditions (I.5) - (I.6)
will be called pseudoorthogonal. Thus we can say that 4×4 pseudoorthogonal
matrices form a representation of the Lorentz group.
Boost transformations can be written as
ct′ ct
x′ x
′ = B(~θ) (I.7)
y y
′
z z
cosh θ − θθx sinh θ − θθy sinh θ − θθz sinh θ
− θx sinh θ 1 + χθx2 χθx θy χθx θz
B(~θ) = θ
− θy sinh θ 2
(I.8)
θ
χθ θ
x y 1 + χθy χθ θ
y z
− θθz sinh θ χθx θz χθy θz 1 + χθz2
cosh θ − sinh θ 0 0
− sinh θ cosh θ 0 0
B(θ, 0, 0) = (I.9)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
cosh θ 0 − sinh θ 0
0 1 0 0
B(0, θ, 0) =
− sinh θ 0 cosh θ
(I.10)
0
0 0 0 1
4
compare with equations (2.50) and (2.51)
I.1. 4-VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF THE LORENTZ GROUP 681
cosh θ 0 0 − sinh θ
0 1 0 0
B(0, 0, θ) = (I.11)
0 0 1 0
− sinh θ 0 0 cosh θ
~ = 1 0
R(φ) .
0 Rφ~
~
Λ = R(φ)B( ~θ) (I.12)
Λ = eaF
T
0 = ΛT gΛ − g = eaF geaF − g = (1 + aF T + . . .)g(1 + aF + . . .) − g
= a(F T g − gF ) + . . .
where the ellipsis indicates terms proportional to a2 , a3 , etc. This sets the
following restriction on the matrices F
5
This order of factors agrees with our convention (2.47).
682 APPENDIX I. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
F T g − gF = 0.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0
Jx = ,J = ,J = (I.13)
0 0 0 1 y 0 0 0 0 z 0 −1 0 0
0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 −1
1 −1 0 0 0 , Ky = 1
0 0 0 0 , Kz = 1
0 0 0 0
Kx = (I.14)
c 0 0 0 0 c −1 0 0 0 c 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0
These six matrices represent basis elements of the Lie algebra, so that for
representatives of finite transformations we have
~~
R(~θ) = eJ θ
~~
B(~θ) = ecKθ
cosh θ − sinh θ 0 0
− sinh θ cosh θ 0 0
B(θ, 0, 0) = (I.15)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
and Lorentz transformation (I.7) can be written in a more familiar form
From Assertions I.1 and I.2 one can immediately obtain many important
physical predictions of special relativity. One consequence of Lorentz trans-
formations is that the length of a measuring rod reduces by a universal factor
l′ = l/ cosh θ (I.20)
from the point of view of a moving reference frame. Another well-known
result is that the duration of time intervals between any two events increases
by the same factor cosh θ
t
ω(0, t) ≈ exp − (I.23)
τ0
9
Here we follow notation from chapter 13 by writing ω(θ, t) the non-decay probability
observed from the reference frame O′ moving with respect to O with rapidity θ at time t
(measured by a clock attached to O′ ).
10
Actually, as we saw in subsection 13.2.3, the decay law is not exactly exponential, but
this is not important for our derivation of equation (I.25) here.
686 APPENDIX I. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
At time t = τ0 the non-decay probability is exactly ω(0, τ0) = e−1 . This “one
lifetime” event has space-time coordinates
t
ω(θ, t) = ω 0, (I.25)
cosh θ
which was confirmed in numerous experiments [RH41, ACG+ 71, RMR+ 80],
most accurately for muons accelerated to relativistic speeds in a cyclotron
[BBC+ 77, Far92]. These experiments were certainly a triumph of Einstein’s
theory. However, as we see from the above discussion, equation (I.25) can be
derived only under assumption I.1, which lacks proper justification. There-
fore, a question remains whether equation (I.25) is a fundamental exact result
or simply an approximation that can be disproved by more accurate mea-
surements? This question is addressed in chapter 13.
O'
11
This means that the signal has propagated from the “Cause” to the “Effect” superlu-
minally.
688 APPENDIX I. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
Appendix J
1 0 0 0
0
0 1 0 0 σ0 0 1 0
γ =
0 0 −1 0
= = (J.1)
0 −σ0 0 −1
0 0 0 −1
0 0 0 1
x
0 0 1 0 0 σx
γ =
0 −1 0 0
=
−σx 0
−1 0 0 0
1
On the right hand sides each 2 × 2 block is expressed in terms of Pauli matrices from
Appendix H.6
689
690 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
0 0 0 −i
0 0 i 0 0 σy
γy = =
0 i 0 0 −σy 0
−i 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 σz
γz = −1
=
0 0 0 −σz 0
0 1 0 0
0 ~σ
~γ = (J.2)
−~σ 0
γµ Aγ µ = −2A (J.11)
γµ ABγ µ = 2(AB + BA) (J.12)
γµ ABCγ µ = −2CBA (J.13)
~ = i~ 0 i~ 0 ~σ
K [γ , ~γ ] = (J.14)
4c 2c ~σ 0
i~ ~ σx 0
Jx = [γy , γz ] = (J.15)
4 2 0 σx
i~ ~ σy 0
Jy = [γz , γx ] = (J.16)
4 2 0 σy
i~ ~ σz 0
Jz = [γx , γy ] = (J.17)
4 2 0 σz
Using properties of Pauli matrices from Appendix H.6, it is not difficult
to verify that these generators indeed satisfy commutation relations of the
Lorentz algebra (3.53), (3.54), and (3.56). For example,
~2 [σx , σy ] 0 i~2 σz 0
[Jx , Jy ] = = = i~Jz
4 0 [σx , σy ] 2 0 σz
i~2 σx 0 0 σy 0 σy σx 0
[Jx , Ky ] = −
4c 0 σx σy 0 σy 0 0 σx
2
~ 0 σz
= − = i~Kz
2c σz 0
~2 0 σx 0 σy 0 σy 0 σx
[Kx , Ky ] = − 2 −
4c σx 0 σy 0 σy 0 σx 0
~2 [σx , σy ] 0 i~2 σz 0 i~
= − 2 =− 2 = − 2 Jz
4c 0 [σx , σy ] 2c 0 σz c
We also get the following representation of finite boosts3
" #!
− ic K·θ~ 1 0 ~σ · ~θ
Dij (e ~ ) = exp
2 ~σ · ~θ 0
" # 2
1 0 ~σ · θ~ 1 θ 1 0
= 1+ + + ...
2 ~σ · ~θ 0 2! 2 0 1
3
Note that this representation is not unitary.
692 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
θ 2c ~ θ~ θ
= I cosh + K · sinh (J.18)
2 i~ θ 2
This equation allows us to prove another important property of gamma ma-
trices
X
D −1 (Λ)γ µ D(Λ) = Λµν γ ν (J.19)
ν
D −1 (Λ)γ 0 D(Λ)
θ 2c θ θ 2c θ
= I cosh − Kx sinh γ 0 I cosh + Kx sinh
2 i~ 2 2 i~ 2
θ 1 0 θ 0 σx 1 0
= cosh − sinh ×
2 0 1 2 σx 0 0 −1
θ 1 0 θ 0 σx
cosh + sinh
2 0 1 2 σx 0
2 θ 1 0 θ θ 0 −σx θ2 1 0
= cosh − 2 sinh cosh + sinh
2 0 −1 2 2 σx 0 2 0 −1
= γ 0 cosh θ + γ x sinh θ
" # 2
− ic K·θ~ 1 0 0 ~σ · θ ~ 1 θ 1 0
γ 0 D(e ~ )γ 0 = 1+ γ 0
γ + + ...
2 ~σ · ~θ 0 2! 2 0 1
" # 2
1 0 ~σ · θ ~ 1 θ 1 0
= 1− + + ...
2 ~σ · ~θ 0 2! 2 0 1
ic ic
K·θ~ −1 ~
= D e ~ =D e− ~ K·θ
J.3. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DIRAC FIELD 693
A similar calculation for rotations should convince us that for a general trans-
formation Λ from the Lorentz group
/k ≡ kµ γ µ ≡ γ 0 k0 − ~γ · k (J.22)
/k2 = γ µ kµ γ ν kν = 1/2(γ µ γ ν + γ ν γ µ )kµ kν = g µν kµ kν
= k̃ 2 (J.23)
2 2 2 4 2 2 4
/ − mc )(k
(k / + mc ) = /k/k − m c = k̃ − m c (J.24)
γµ/k + /kγµ = 2kµ (J.25)
ψα (x̃) ≡ ψα (x, t)
Z s
dp mc2 X − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ †
= e ~ u α (p, σ)ap,σ + e ~ vα (p, σ)bp,σ
(2π~)3/2 ωp σ
(J.26)
4
This form (apart from the overall normalization of the field) can be uniquely estab-
lished [Wei95] from the properties (I) - (IV) in Step 1 of subsection 9.1.1. The bispinor
index α takes values 1,2,3,4.
694 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
Here ap,σ is the electron annihilation operator, and b†p,σ is the positron cre-
ation operator. For brevity, we denote p̃ ≡ (ωp , cpx , cpy , cpz ) the energy-
momentum 4-vector and x̃ ≡ (t, x/c, y/c, z/c) the 4-vector in the Minkowski
space-time.5 The pseudo-scalar product p of the 4-vectors is denoted by a
µ
dot: p̃ · x̃ ≡ pµ x ≡ px − ωp t and ωp ≡ m2 c4 + p2 c2 . Numerical factors
uα (p, σ) and vα (p, σ) will be discussed in Appendix J.4. Note that according
to equations (8.36) and (8.37)
i i
ψα (x, t) = e− ~ H0 t ψα (x, 0)e ~ H0 t (J.27)
ψ1 (x̃)
ψ2 (x̃)
ψ(x̃) =
ψ3 (x̃)
ψ4 (x̃)
Z s
dp mc2 X i p̃·x̃ † − ~i p̃·x̃ †
ψα† (x̃) = e ~
†
uα (p, σ)ap,σ + e vα (p, σ)bp,σ
(2π~)3/2 ωp σ
X
ψ α (x̃) ≡ ψβ† (x̃)γβα
0
(J.28)
β
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
ψ ≡ ψ † γ 0 = [ψ1∗ , ψ2∗ , ψ3∗ , ψ4∗ ]
0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 −1
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
= [ψ1 , ψ2 , −ψ3 , −ψ4 ]
Z s
dp Mc2 X − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ †
Ψ(x̃) = e ~ w(p, σ)dp,σ + e ~ s(p, σ)fp,σ
(2π~)3/2 Ωp σ
(J.29)
p
where Ωp = M 2 c4 + p2 c2 , M is the proton mass, P̃ · x̃ ≡ px − Ωp t, and
coefficient functions w(p, σ) and s(p, σ) are the same as u(p, σ) and v(p, σ)
but with the electron mass m replaced by the proton mass M.
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
u(0) =
0
, v(0) =
0 0 1
0 0 1 0
696 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
X X
Dαβ (R)uβ (0, σ) = uα (0, τ )Dτ1/2
σ (R) (J.35)
β τ
X X
(Jk )αβ (R)uβ (0, σ) = uα (0, τ )(Sk )τ σ (R)
β τ
Let us check, for example, that this equation is satisfied for rotations around
the x-axis. Acting with the 4 × 4 matrix (J.15)
0 1 0 0
~ 1 0 0 0
Jx =
2 0
0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
~
1 0 0 0 1 0
~ 0 1
Jx u(0) = =
2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
This has the same effect as acting with 2 × 2 matrix (see Table H.1)
~ 0 1
Sx =
2 1 0
0 1 1 0
~ 1
0 1 = ~
0 0 1
u(0)Jx =
2 0 0 1 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 0
X X
Dαβ (R)vβ (0, σ) = vα (0, τ )Dτ∗1/2
σ (R)
β τ
X
u† (0, σ)γ 0 γ 0 D † (R)γ 0 = u† (0, τ )γ 0 Dτ1/2
σ (R)
τ
X
†
u(0, σ)D (−R) = u(0, τ )Dτ1/2
σ (R) (J.36)
τ
X
uα (p, σ) ≡ Dαβ (λp )uβ (0, σ) (J.37)
β
X
vα (p, σ) ≡ Dαβ (λp )vβ (0, σ) (J.38)
β
θ = tanh−1 (v/c)
θ tanh θ v/c pc
tanh = p = p =
2 1 + 1 − tanh2 θ 1 + 1 − v 2 /c2 ωp + mc2
r
θ 1 ωp + mc2
cosh = q =
2 1 − tanh2 θ 2mc2
2
θ θ θ
sinh = tanh cosh
2 2 2
we obtain
ic ~ p θp 2c K ~ ·p θp
D(λp) = e− ~ K· p θp = I cosh + sinh
2 i~ p 2
" #
θp 1 0 θp 0 ~σp·p
= cosh + sinh σ·p
~
2 0 1 2 p
0
" #!
θp θp 0 ~σp·p
= cosh 1 + tanh σ·p
~
2 2 p
0
r " #!
ωp + mc2 pc 0 ~σp·p
= 1+
2mc2 ωp + mc2 ~σp·p 0
r " #
σ ·pc
~
ωp + mc2 1 ωp +mc 2
= σ ·pc
~
2mc2 ωp +mc 2 1
r " σ ·pc
~
#
ωp + mc2 1 ωp +mc 2 χσ
u(p, σ) = σ ·pc
~
2mc2 ωp +mc2
1 0
" p #
ωp + mc 2
= p √ χσ (J.40)
2 p
ωp − mc ~σ · p 2mc2
p
ωp − mc2 (~σ · pp ) χσ
v(p, σ) = p
2
√ (J.41)
ωp + mc 2mc2
χ†σ p p p
u(p, σ) = √ ωp + mc2 , − ωp − mc2 ~σ · (J.42)
2mc2 p
†
χσ p p p
v(p, σ) = √ ωp − mc ~σ · 2 , ωp + mc 2 (J.43)
2mc2 p
These functions are normalized to unity in the sense that8
u(p, σ)u(p, σ ′ )
" p
2
#
p p p ω p + mc 1
= χ†σ ωp + mc2 , ωp − mc2 · ~σ p
2
p
χσ′
p − ωp − mc p · ~σ 2mc2
† 2 (p · ~
σ )(p · ~σ ) 1
2
= χσ ωp + mc − (ωp − mc ) 2
χσ′ = χ†σ χσ′
p 2mc2
= δσ,σ′ (J.44)
P1/2
Let us also calculate the sum σ=−1/2 u(p, σ)u†(p, σ). At zero momentum
we can use the explicit representation (J.30) - (J.33)
1/2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
X 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
u(0, σ)u†(0, σ) =
0 0 0
+ =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
σ−1/2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
= 1 + γ0
2
To generalize this formula for arbitrary momentum, we use (J.37), (J.39),
the Hermiticity of the matrix D(λp ) and properties (J.5), (J.19) - (J.21)
1/2 1/2
X X
u(p, σ)u†(p, σ) = D(λp ) u(0, σ)u†(0, σ) D † (λp )
σ=−1/2 σ=−1/2
8
Here we used (H.8).
J.6. CONVENIENT NOTATION 701
1 1 1
= D(λp ) 1 + γ 0 D(λp ) = D(λp )D(λp ) + γ 0 = D(λp )γ 0 γ 0 D(λp )γ 0 γ 0 + γ 0
2 2 2
1
= D(λp )γ 0 D −1 (λp )γ 0 + γ 0
2 !
1 0 1 ~θ
0 −1
= D(λp )γ D (λp ) + 1 γ = 0
γ cosh θ + ~γ sinh θ + 1 γ 0
2 2 θ
1 1
= 2
γ 0 ωp − ~γ pc + mc2 γ 0 = 2
/p + mc2 γ 0 (J.45)
2mc 2mc
Similarly we can derive a number of useful formulas9
1/2
X 1
u(p, σ)u(p, σ) = 2
/p + mc2 (J.46)
2mc
σ=−1/2
1/2
X X 1
uα (p, σ)uα (p, σ) = 2
T r γ 0 ωp − c~γ p + mc2 = 2
α
2mc
σ=−1/2
1/2
X 1 0
v(p, σ)v †(p, σ) = /
p − mc 2
γ (J.47)
2mc2
σ=−1/2
1/2
X 1 2
v(p, σ)v(p, σ) = /
p − mc (J.48)
2mc2
σ=−1/2
1/2
X X
vα (p, σ)v α (p, σ) = −2
α σ=−1/2
s
mc2 X
Aα (p) = uα (p, σ)ap,σ (J.49)
ωp σ
9
Here we used the facts that the trace of any gamma-matrix is zero, and that the trace
of the unit 4×4 matrix is 4.
702 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
s
† mc2 X
Aα (p) = uα (p, σ)a†p,σ (J.50)
ωp σ
s
mc2 X
Bα† (p) = vα (p, σ)b†p,σ (J.51)
ωp σ
s
mc2 X
B α (p) = vα (p, σ)bp,σ (J.52)
ωp σ
s
Mc2 X
Dα (p) = wα (p, σ)dp,σ (J.53)
Ωp σ
s
† Mc2 X
D α (p) = w α (p, σ)d†p,σ (J.54)
Ωp σ
s
Mc2 X
Fα† (p) = †
sα (p, σ)fp,σ (J.55)
Ωp σ
s
Mc2 X
F α (p) = sα (p, σ)fp,σ (J.56)
Ωp σ
In this notation, indices α, β = 1, 2, 3, 4 are those corresponding to the
bispinor representation of the Lorentz group, and index σ = ±1/2 enumer-
ates two spin projections of fermions.
With the above conventions, the electron/positron and proton/antiproton
quantum fields can be written compactly
h iZ i
i
−3/2
ψα (x̃) = (2π~) dp e− ~ p̃·x̃ Aα (p) + e ~ p̃·x̃ Bα† (p) (J.57)
Z h i i
i
−3/2 − ~ P̃ ·x̃ P̃ ·x̃ †
Ψα (x̃) = (2π~) dp e D α (p) + e ~ Fα (p) (J.58)
ic ~ ic ~
U0 (Λ; 0)A(p)U0−1 (Λ; 0) = e− ~ K0 θ A(p)e ~ K0 θ
J.7. TRANSFORMATION LAWS 703
s
mc2 X ic ~ ic ~
= u(p, σ)e ~ K0 θ ap,σ e− ~ K0 θ
ωp σ
s r
mc2 ωΛp X X 1/2
~ W )aΛp,σ′
= u(p, σ) Dσσ′ (−φ
ωp ωp σ
σ′
s r
mc2 ωΛp X X 1/2
~ W )aΛp,σ′
= D(λp ) u(0, σ) Dσσ′ (−φ
ωp ωp σ σ′
s r
mc2 ωΛp ~W )
X
= D(λp )D(−φ u(0, σ)aΛp,σ
ωp ωp σ
s r
mc2 ωΛp X
= D(λp )D(λ−1 p Λ −1
λ Λp ) u(0, σ)aΛp,σ
ωp ωp σ
s r
mc2 ωΛp X
= D(Λ−1 )D(λΛp) u(0, σ)aΛp,σ
ωp ωp σ
r s
ωΛp mc2 X
= D(Λ−1 ) u(Λp, σ)aΛp,σ
ωp ωp σ
ωΛp
= D(Λ−1 )A(Λp) (J.59)
ωp
Similarly, using (J.36)
s
† mc2 X ic ~ ic ~
U0 (Λ; 0)A (p)U0−1 (Λ; 0) = u(p, σ)e− ~ K0 θ a†p,σ e ~ K0 θ
ωp σ
s r
mc2 ωΛp X X
~ W )a† ′
= u(p, σ) (D 1/2 )∗σσ′ (−φ Λp,σ
ωp ωp σ
σ′
s r
mc2 ωΛp X X ~ W )D −1 (λp )a† ′
= u(0, σ ′ )(D 1/2 )∗σσ′ (−φ Λp,σ
ωp ωp σ σ ′
s r
mc2 ωΛp X †
= u(0, σ)D(λ−1 −1
Λp Λλp )D (λp )aΛp,σ
ωp ωp σ
s r
mc2 ωΛp X
= u(Λp, σ)D(Λ)aΛp,σ
ωp ωp σ
704 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
ωΛp †
= A (Λp)D(Λ) (J.60)
ωp
Let us show that quantum field ψα (x̃) has the required covariant trans-
formation law (9.1)
X
U0 (Λ; ã)ψα (x̃)U0−1 (Λ; ã) = Dαβ (Λ−1 )ψβ (Λ(x̃ + ã)) (J.61)
j
= D(Λ−1)ψ(Λx̃)
We leave to the reader the proof of equation (J.61) in the case of rotations.
Thus we conclude that in agreement with Step 1(II) in subsection 9.1.1,
the Dirac field transforms according to the 4D bispinor representation of the
Lorentz group.
J.8. FUNCTIONS Uµ AND Wµ . 705
U µ Λp, R−1 (p, Λ)σ; Λp′ , R(p′ , Λ)σ ′
≡ u Λp, R−1 (p, Λ)σ γ µ u (Λp′ , R(p′ , Λ)σ ′)
= u 0, R−1 (p, Λ)σ D −1 (λΛp )γ µ D(λΛp′ )u (0, R(p′ , Λ)σ ′ )
= u 0, R−1 (p, Λ)σ D −1 Λλp R−1 (p, Λ) γ µ D Λλp′ R−1 (p′ , Λ) u (0, R(p′ , Λ)σ ′)
= u 0, R−1 (p, Λ)σ D R−1 (p, Λ) D −1 (λp ) D −1 (Λ)γ µ D(Λ)D (λp′ ) D R−1 (p′ , Λ) ×
u (0, R(p′ , Λ)σ ′ )
= u(0, σ)D −1 (λp )D −1 (Λ)γ µ D(Λ)D(λp′ )u(0, σ ′ )
= u(p, σ)D −1 (Λ)γ µ D(Λ)u(p′, σ ′ )
= u(p, σ) (Λµν γ ν ) u(p′ , σ ′ )
= Λµν U ν (p, σ; p′ , σ ′ )
r r
p p 2 p2
ωp + mc2 ≈ mc2 + + mc2 = 2mc2 +
r2m
2m
√ p 2 √ p2
= 2
2mc 1 + 2
≈ 2mc 1 +
4m2 c2 8m2 c2
r
p p2 p
ωp − mc2 ≈ mc2 + − mc2 = √
2m 2m
Mmc4
p
Ωp−k ωq+k Ωp ωq
1 1 1 1
≈ q q q q
2 2 2 2
1 + (p−k)
2M 2 c2
1 + 2Mp 2 c2 1 + (q+k)
2m2 c2
1 + 2mq2 c2
(p − k)2 p2 (q + k)2 q2
≈ 1− − − −
4M 2 c2 4M 2 c2 4m2 c2 4m2 c2
2 2 2
p pk k q qk k2
= 1− + − − − − (J.65)
2M 2 c2 2M 2 c2 4M 2 c2 2m2 c2 2m2 c2 4m2 c2
To obtain the (v/c)2 approximation for expressions (J.62), (J.63) we use
equations (J.40) - (J.43) and (H.6) - (H.8)
lim ωp = mc2
c→∞
lim Ωp = Mc2
c→∞
4
Mmc
lim p = 1 (J.70)
c→∞ Ωp−k ωq+k Ωp ωq
lim U0 (p, σ; p′ , σ ′ ) = χ†σ χσ′ = δσ,σ′ (J.71)
c→∞
lim W0 (p, σ; p′ , σ ′ ) = δσ,σ′
c→∞
lim U(p, σ; p′ , σ ′ ) = 0
c→∞
708 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
lim W(p, σ; p′ , σ ′ ) = 0
c→∞
i ′ i ′
e ~ p y u†β (p′ , σ ′ )a†p′ ,σ′ + e− ~ p y vβ† (p′ , σ ′ )bp′ ,σ′ }
Z 1/2
dpdp′ mc2 X i i ′
= √ e− ~ px+ ~ p y uα (p, σ)u†β (p′ , σ ′ ){ap,σ , a†p′ ,σ′ }
(2π~)3 ωp ωp′
σ,σ′ =−1/2
i
px− ~i p′ y
+e ~ vα (p, σ)vβ† (p′ , σ ′ ){b†p,σ , bp′ ,σ′ }
Z 1/2
dpdp′ mc2 X i
= e− ~ p(x−y) uα (p, σ)u†β (p′ , σ ′ )δ(p − p′ )δσ,σ′
(2π~)3 ωp
σ,σ′ =−1/2
i
+e ~ p(x−y) vα (p, σ)vβ† (p′ , σ ′ )δ(p − p′ )δσ,σ′
Z 1/2
−3 dpmc2 X
= (2π~)
ωp
σ=−1/2
− ~i p(x−y) i
e uα (p, σ)u†β (p, σ) +e ~
p(x−y)
vα (p, σ)vβ† (p, σ)
Z 1/2
dpmc2 − i p(x−y) X † †
= e ~ u α (p, σ)u β (p, σ) + vα (−p, σ)vβ (−p, σ)
(2π~)3 ωp
σ=−1/2
Z 2
dpmc − i p(x−y) ωp 0 0
= e ~ (γ γ )αβ
(2π~)3 ωp mc2
= δ(x − y)δαβ (J.72)
12
Here we used (J.45) and (J.47).
J.11. DIRAC EQUATION 709
† mc2 X
{Aα (p), Aβ (p′ )} = uα (p, σ)u†β (p′ , σ ′ ){ap,σ , a†p′ ,σ′ }
ωp σσ′
!
mc2 X
= uα (p, σ)uβ (p, σ) δ(p − p′ )
ωp σ
1
= (γ 0 ωp − ~γ pc + mc2 )αβ δ(p − p′ ) (J.73)
2ωp
X
{A†α (p), Aα (p′ )} = 2δ(p − p′ ) (J.74)
α
† 1
{Bα (p), B β (p′ )} = (γ 0 ωp − ~γ pc − mc2 )αβ δ(p − p′ ) (J.75)
2ωp
X
{Bα† (p), B α (p′ )} = 2δ(p − p′ ) (J.76)
α
0 ∂ ∂ imc2
γ + c~γ − ψ + (x̃)
∂t ∂x ~
13
Here we use explicit definitions of gamma matrices from (J.1) and (J.2) as well as
equation (J.40).
710 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
XZ s
2
∂ ∂ imc dp mc2 − i px+ i ωp t
= γ 0 + c~γ − e ~ ~ u(p, σ)ap,σ
∂t ∂x ~ σ
(2π~)3/2 ωp
Z s
iX dp mc2 0 i i
= 3/2
(γ ωp − c~γ · p − mc2 )u(p, σ)e− ~ px+ ~ ωp t ap,σ
~ σ (2π~) ωp
This leads to the Dirac equation for the field component ψ + (x̃)
0 ∂ ∂ imc2
γ + c~γ − ψ + (x̃) = 0 (J.78)
∂t ∂x ~
The same equation is satisfied by the component ψ − (x̃). So, the Dirac equa-
tion for the full field is
0 ∂ ∂ imc2
γ + c~γ − ψ(x) = 0 (J.79)
∂t ∂x ~
The equation conjugate to (J.77) is
0 = u† (p, σ) (γ 0 )† ωp − c(~γ )† · p − mc2 = u† (p, σ) γ 0 ωp + c~γ · p − mc2
= u† (p, σ)γ 0 γ 0 γ 0 ωp + c~γ · p − mc2 = u(p, σ)γ 0 γ 0 ωp + c~γ · p − mc2
= u(p, σ) γ 0 ωp − c~γ · p − mc2 γ 0 (J.80)
∂ † ∂ imc2 †
ψ (x̃)γ 0 − c ψ † (x̃)~γ † + ψ (x̃) = 0
∂t ∂x ~
∂ ∂ imc2
ψ(x̃)γ 0 + c ψ(x̃)~γ + ψ(x̃) = 0 (J.81)
∂t ∂x ~
It should be emphasized that in our approach to QFT Dirac equation
appears as a rather unremarkable property of the electron-positron quan-
tum field ψ(x̃) . This equation does not play a fundamental role assigned
to it in many textbooks. Definitely, Dirac equation cannot be regarded as a
“relativistic analog of the Schrödinger equation for electrons”.14 The correct
electron wave functions and corresponding relativistic Schrödinger equations
should be constructed by using Wigner-Dirac theory of unitary representa-
tions of the Poincaré group. For free electrons such derivations are performed
in chapter 5. The relativistic analog of the Schrödinger equation for an in-
teracting electron-proton system is constructed in chapter 12.
In the slash notation (J.22) the momentum-space Dirac equations (J.77)
and (J.80) take compact forms
/ − mc2 )u(p, τ ) = 0
(p (J.82)
/ − mc2 ) = 0
u(p, τ )(p (J.83)
If we denote /k ≡ /p′ − /,
p then it follows from (J.82) - (J.83)
if t1 > t2 we can omit the time ordering sign and use (J.46)
Dab (x̃1 , x̃2 ) = h0|ψa (x̃1 )ψ b (x̃2 )|0i ∝ h0|(a + b† )(a† + b)|0i ∝ h0|aa† |0i
Z s !
dp mc2 X − i p̃·x̃1
= h0| e ~ ua (p, σ)ap,σ ×
(2π~)3/2 ωp σ
Z s !
dq mc2 X i q̃·x̃2 †
e ~ ub (q, τ )a†q,τ γ 0 |0i
(2π~)3/2 ωq τ
Z
dpdq mc2 X − i p̃·x̃1 i
= 3 √ e ~ ua (p, σ)e ~ q̃·x̃2 ub (q, τ )δ(p − q)δστ
(2π~) ωp ωq στ
Z
dp mc2 i p̃·(x̃2 −x̃1 ) X
= e~ ua (p, σ)ub (p, σ)
(2π~)3 ωp σ
Z
dp i 1
= 3
e ~ (ωp (t2 −t1 )−p(x2 −x1 )) γ 0 ωp − ~γ pc + mc2 ab
(2π~) 2ωp
Dab (x̃1 , x̃2 ) = −h0|ψ b (x̃2 )ψa (x̃1 )|0i ∝ −h0|(a† + b)(a + b† )|0i ∝ −h0|bb† |0i
Z Z
−3/2 − ~i p̃·x̃2 −3/2 i
= −h0|(2π~) dpe Bb (p)2π~) dqe ~ q̃·x̃1 Ba† (q)|0i
Z
−3 mc2 i p̃·(x̃1 −x̃2 ) X
= −(2π~) dp e~ vb (p, σ)va (p, σ)
ωp σ
Z
dp i
(ωp (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) 1 0 2
= − e ~ γ ω p − ~
γ pc − mc ab
(2π~)3 2ωp
The sum of these two terms gives
Z
dp i 1
Dab (x̃1 , x̃2 ) = θ(t1 − t2 ) 3
e ~ (ωp (t2 −t1 )−p(x2 −x1 )) Pab (p, ωp )
(2π~) 2ωp
Z
dp i 1
+ θ(t2 − t1 ) 3
e ~ (ωp (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) Pab (−p, −ωp )
(2π~) 2ωp
(J.88)
where we denoted
Pab (p, ωp ) = γ 0 ωp − ~γ pc + mc2 ab
and θ(t) is the step function defined in (B.3). Our next goal is to rewrite
equation (J.88) so that integration goes by 4 independent components of
the 4-vector of momentum (p0 , px , py , pz ). We use an integral representation
(B.4) for the step function to obtain
ψa (x̃1 )ψ b (x̃2 ), if t1 > t2
T [ψa (x̃1 )ψ b (x̃2 )] = (J.87)
−ψb (x̃2 )ψa (x̃1 ), if t1 < t2
714 APPENDIX J. QUANTUM FIELDS FOR FERMIONS
Z Z
1 dp eis(t1 −t2 ) i (ωp (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) 1
− ds e~ Pab (−p, −ωp )
2πi (2π~)3 s + iǫ 2ωp
Z Z
1 dp 1 1
= − 3
ds ×
2πi (2π~) s + iǫ 2ωp
h i i
i
e− ~ ((ωp+~s )(t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) Pab (p, ωp ) + e ~ ((ωp +~s)(t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) Pab (−p, −ωp )
Z Z
1 dp 1 1
= − dp 0 ×
2πi (2π~)3 p0 − ωp + iǫ 2ωp
h i i
i
− ~ (p0 (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) (p0 (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 ))
e Pab (p, ωp ) + e ~ Pab (−p, −ωp )
Z Z
1 dp 1 1
= − 3
dp0 ×
2πi (2π~) p0 − ωp + iǫ 2ωp
h i i
i
e− ~ (p0 (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) Pab (p, p0 ) + e− ~ (−p0 (t1 −t2 )+p(x1 −x2 )) Pab (−p, −p0 )
Z Z
1 dp − ~i (p0 (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) 1 Pab (p, p0 ) Pab (p, p0 )
= − dp0 e +
2πi (2π~)3 2ωp p0 − ωp + iǫ −p0 − ωp + iǫ
Z Z
1 dp i 1 2ωp
= 3
dp0 e− ~ (p0 (t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) Pab (p, p0 ) 2
2πi (2π~) 2ωp p0 − ωp2 + iǫ
Z
1 i Pab (p, p0 )
= 3
d4 pe− ~ (p̃·x̃) 2
2πi(2π~) p0 − c p2 − m2 c4 + iǫ
2
Z 0
1 4 − ~i (p̃·x̃) (γ p0 − ~ γ pc + mc2 )ab
= d pe
2πi(2π~)3 p̃2 c2 − m2 c4 + iǫ
Z
1 4 − ~i (p̃·x̃) (p/ + mc2 )ab
= d pe (J.89)
2πi(2π~)3 p̃2 c2 − m2 c4 + iǫ
Appendix K
X
U0 (Λ; ã)Aµ (x̃)U0−1 (Λ; ã) = Λ−1 ν
µν A (Λ(x̃ + ã)) (K.1)
ν
Aµ (x̃) ≡ Aµ (x, t)
√ Z
~ c dp X h − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ ∗ †
i
= √ e ~ eµ (p, τ )c p,τ + e ~ eµ (p, τ )c p,τ (K.2)
(2π~)3/2 2p τ
1
See subsection 8.1.5.
2
In equation (K.23) we will see that, actually, this field does not satisfy our requirement
(K.1) for boosts.
715
716 APPENDIX K. QUANTUM FIELD FOR PHOTONS
0
1 1
eµ (k, τ ) = √ (K.3)
2 iτ
0
where λp is a boost transformation which takes the particle from the standard
momentum k to an arbitrary p.
λp = Rp Bp (K.6)
e0 (p, τ ) = 0 (K.7)
A0 (x, t) = 0 (K.8)
3
see equation (5.54)
4
This is similar in spirit to the massive case (J.37) - (J.38)
K.2. EXPLICIT FORMULA FOR Eµ (P, τ ) 717
Let us now find the 3-vector part of eµ (p, τ ), which we denote by e(p, τ ).
From (K.3), (K.4), (K.6), and (D.22) we obtain
√
2e(p, τ )
cos φ + n2x (1 − cos φ) nx ny (1 − cos φ) − nz sin φ nx nz (1 − cos φ) + ny sin φ
= nx ny (1 − cos φ) + nz sin φ cos φ + n2y (1 − cos φ) ny nz (1 − cos φ) − nx sin φ ×
nx nz (1 − cos φ) − ny sin φ ny nz (1 − cos φ) + nx sin φ cos φ + n2z (1 − cos φ)
1
iτ
0
pz p2y (p−pz ) px py (p−pz ) px
+ p(p2x +p2y )
− p(p2x +p2y ) 1
p p
= − px py (p−pz ) pz + p2x (p−pz ) py iτ
p(p2x +p2y ) p p(p2x +p2y ) p
−p px
−p py pz 0
p
pz p2x +pp2y px py (p−pz ) px
p(p 2 +p2 ) − p(p2 +p2 ) p 1
x y x y
− px py (p−pz ) pz p2y +pp2x py iτ
= 2 2 2 2
p(px +py ) p(px +py ) p
−p px
−p py pz 0
p
pz p2x + pp2y − iτ px py (p − pz )
1 −px py (p − pz ) + iτ (pz p2y + pp2x )
=
p(px + p2y )
2
−px (p2x + p2y ) − iτ py (p2x + p2y )
Therefore
0
1 pz p2x + pp2y − iτ px py (p − pz )
e(p, τ ) = √ 2 2
(K.9)
2p(p2x + p2y ) −px py (p − pz ) + iτ (pz py + ppx )
−px (p2x + p2y ) − iτ py (p2x + p2y )
One can easily see that e(p, τ ) is orthogonal to the momentum vector p =
(px , py , pz ) and that
√
~ c µ X
Cαβ (p) = √ γαβ eµ (p, τ )cp,τ (K.11)
2p τ
h
†
i ~2 c X µ ν †
Cαβ (p), Cγδ (p′ ) = √ ′ γαβ γγδ eµ (p, τ )eν (p′ , τ ′ )[c†p,τ , cp′ ,τ ′ ]
2 pp τ τ ′
~2 c X µ ν †
= − γαβ γγδ eµ (p, τ )eν (p′ , τ ′ )δ(p − p′ )δτ,τ ′
2p ′
ττ
2 X
~ c µ ν †
= − γαβ γγδ eµ (p, τ )eν (p, τ )δ(p − p′ )
2p τ
~2 c µ ν
= − γ γ hµν (p)δ(p − p′ ) (K.12)
2p αβ γδ
where
X
hµν (p) ≡ eµ (p, τ )e†ν (p, τ )
τ
0 0
1
1
1 1
hµν (k) = 0 1 −i 0 + 0 1 i 0
2 i 2 −i
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
0 1 −i 0 1 0 1 i 0
= +
2 0 i 1 0 2 0 −i 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
K.3. USEFUL COMMUTATOR 719
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
=
0
0 1 0
0 0 0 0
which can be also expressed in terms of components of the standard vector
k
X
hµν (p) = eµ (p, τ )e†ν (p, τ )
τ
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
= Rp Bp B −1 R−1
0 0 1 0 p p
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
= Rp R−1
0 0 1 0 p
0 0 0 0
It then follows that h0µ (p) = hµ0 (p) = 0, that the 3 × 3 submatrix is
ki kj pi pj
hij (p) = Rp δij − 2 Rp−1 = δij − 2 (K.13)
k p
and the final formula for hµν (p) is
0 0 0 0
p2x px py px pz
0 1 − p2 − p2 − p2
hµν (p) = p p p 2
0 − x 2 y 1 − y2 − py p2 z
(K.14)
p p p
2
0 − pxp2pz − pzpp2 y 1 − ppz2
720 APPENDIX K. QUANTUM FIELD FOR PHOTONS
2πi 2(2π~)3p s + iǫ s + iǫ
−∞
Z∞ Z
~2 c dp 1
= − ds 3
hµν (p) ×
2πi 2(2π~) p s + iǫ
−∞
h i i
i
e ~ (cp(t1 −t2 )−p(x1 −x2 )) e−is(t1 −t2 ) + e ~ (−cp(t1 −t2 )+p(x1 −x2 )) eis(t1 −t2 )
Z∞ Z " i
(cp−~s)·(t1 −t2 ) − ~i (cp−~s)·(t1 −t2 )
#
~2 c dp i e ~ e
= − ds hµν (p)e− ~ p(x1 −x2 ) +
2πi 2(2π~)3p s + iǫ s + iǫ
−∞
Z
~ 2 c2 d4 p i p̃(x̃1 −x̃2 ) gµν
h0|T [Aµ(x̃1 )Aν (x̃2 )]|0i = e~ (K.17)
2πi (2π~)3 p̃2 + iǫ
722 APPENDIX K. QUANTUM FIELD FOR PHOTONS
X
U0 (Λ; 0)Aµ(x̃)U0−1 (Λ; 0) = Λ−1 ν
µν A (Λx̃) (K.19)
ν
λ−1 −1
p Λ λΛp e(k, τ ) = S(X1 , X2 , −φW )e(k, τ )
1 + (X12 + X22 )/2 X1 X2 −(X12 + X22 )/2 0
X1 cos φW − X2 sin φW cos φW − sin φW −X1 cos φW + X2 sin φW 1
=
X1 sin φW + X2 cos φW sin φW cos φW −X1 sin φW − X2 cos φW
iτ
(X12 + X22 )/2 X1 X2 1 − (X12 + X22 )/2 0
0 1
1
0
= e−iτ φW (p,Λ)
iτ + (X1 + iτ X2 ) 0
0 1
X1 + iτ X2
= e−iτ φW (p,Λ) e(k, τ ) + k̃
c
where kµ = (c, 0, 0, c) and X1 , X2 are certain functions of Λ and p. Our next
goal is to eliminate these unknown functions from our formulas. Denoting
X1 + iτ X2
Xτ (p, Λ) = (K.21)
c
we obtain
3
X
Λ−1 ν
µν e (Λp, τ ) = e
−iτ φW (p,Λ)
λp eµ (k, τ ) + Xτ (p, Λ)λp kµ
ν=0
pµ
= e−iτ φW (p,Λ) eµ (p, τ ) + Xτ (p, Λ) (K.22)
p
5
see subsection 5.3.2
724 APPENDIX K. QUANTUM FIELD FOR PHOTONS
3
X p0
Λ−1 ν
0ν e (Λp, τ ) = e
−iτ φW (p,Λ)
e0 (p, τ ) + Xτ (p, Λ) = Xτ (p, Λ)
ν=0
p
3
−iτ φW (p,Λ)
X pµ
e eµ (p, τ ) = Λ−1 ν
µν e (Λp, τ ) − Xτ (p, Λ)
ν=0
p
3 3
X pµ X −1 ν
= Λ−1 −ν
µν e (Λp, τ )Λ e (Λp, τ )
ν=0
p ν=0 0ν
3
−1 pµ
X
−1
= Λµν − Λ0ν eν (Λp, τ )
ν=0
p
The complex conjugate of this equation is
3
−1 pµ
X
eiτ φW (p,Λ) e∗µ (p, τ ) = −1
Λµν − Λ0ν e∗ν (Λp, τ )
ν=0
p
√ Z 1 3
~ c dp X (Λ−1 p)µ X −1 − i Λ−1 p̃·x̃ ν i −1
Λ p̃·x̃ ∗ν †
− √ Λ e ~ e (p, τ )cp,τ + e ~ e (p, τ )cp,τ
(2π~)3/2 p τ =−1 |Λ−1p| ν=0 0ν
3
X
= Λ−1 ν
µν A (Λx̃) + Ωµ (x̃, Λ) (K.23)
ν=0
Thus we see that property (K.19) is not satisfied. In addition to the desired
covariant transformation Λ−1 A(Λx̃), there is an extra term
√ Z 1 3
~ c dp X (Λ−1 p)µ X −1
Ωµ (x̃, Λ) ≡ − √ Λ ×
(2π~)3/2 2p τ =−1 |Λ−1 p| ν=0 0ν
h i −1 i −1
i
e− ~ Λ p̃·x̃ eν (p, τ )cp,τ + e ~ Λ p̃·x̃ e∗ν (p, τ )c†p,τ (K.24)
in the boost transformation law. The presence of this extra term is the rea-
son why QED with massless photons cannot be formulated via simple steps
outlined in subsection 9.1.1. A more elaborate construction is required in
order to maintain the relativistic invariance of QED as detailed in subsection
9.1.2 and in Appendix N.2.
From
3
X 3
X
lim Λ−1 ρ
0ρ e (p, τ ) = δ0ρ eρ (p, τ ) = e0 (p, τ ) = 0 (K.25)
θ→0
ρ=0 ρ=0
Ω(x̃, 1) = 0 (K.26)
726 APPENDIX K. QUANTUM FIELD FOR PHOTONS
Appendix L
where e is the absolute value of the electron charge, gamma matrices γ µ are
defined in equations (J.1) - (J.2) and quantum fields ψ(x̃), ψ(x̃), Ψ(x̃), Ψ(x̃)
are defined in Appendix J.3.1 Let us consider the electron/positron part
J µ (x̃) of the current density and derive three important properties of this
operator.2 First, with the help of (J.19), (J.21), and (J.61) we can find that
the current operator (L.1) transforms as a 4-vector function on the Minkowski
space-time
727
728APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
[K0z , J0 (x̃)]
i~ d ic ic
= − lim e ~ K0z θ J0 (x̃)e− ~ K0z θ
c θ→0 dθ
i~ dh z
= − lim J0 x, y, z cosh θ − ct sinh θ, t cosh θ − sinh θ cosh θ
c θ→0 dθ c i
z
+Jz x, y, z cosh θ − ct sinh θ, t cosh θ − sinh θ sinh θ
c
z d d i~
= i~ 2 + t J0 (x̃) − Jz (x̃) (L.3)
c dt dz c
Space-time translations act by shifting the argument of the current
Second, the current density satisfies the continuity equation which can be
proven by using Dirac equations (J.79), (J.81), and property (J.3)
∂ 0 ∂
J (x̃) = −ec (ψ(x̃)γ 0 ψ(x̃))
∂t ∂t
∂ 0 0 ∂
= −ec ψ(x̃) γ ψ(x̃) + ψ(x̃) γ ψ(x̃)
∂t ∂t
∂ i
= ec c ψ † (x̃)~γ † + mc2 ψ † (x̃) γ 0 ψ(x̃)
∂x ~
L.1. CURRENT DENSITY 729
∂ i 2
+ecψ(x̃) c~γ ψ(x̃) − mc ψ(x̃)
∂x ~
∂ ∂
= ec2 ψ(x̃)~γ ψ(x̃) + ec2 ψ(x̃)~γ ψ(x̃)
∂x ∂x
∂
= ec2 (ψ(x̃)~γ ψ(x̃))
∂x
∂
= −c J(x̃) (L.5)
∂x
Third, from equation (J.72) it follows that current components commute at
spacelike separations
Let us show that the two last terms vanish. We use anticommutator (J.75)
and properties of gamma matrices to rewrite these two terms as
Z
−3 µ
ec(2π~) dpdp′ γαβ ×
1 i ′
− (γ 0 ωp + ~γ pc − mc2 )βα δ(p − p′ )e ~ (p̃ −p̃)·x
2ωp
1 i ′
+ (γ 0 Ωp + ~γ pc − Mc2 )βα δ(p − p′ )e ~ (P̃ −P̃ )·x
2Ωp
Z 2
−3 µ mc Mc2
= ec(2π~) dpγαα −
2ωp 2Ωp
Z
−3 µ 0 1 1
+ ec(2π~) dp(γ γ )αα − + (L.6)
2 2
Z
−3 µ pc pc
+ ec(2π~) dp(γ ~γ )αα − +
2ωp 2Ωp
Z 2
−3 µ mc Mc2
= ec(2π~) T r(γ ) dp −
2ωp 2Ωp
Z
2 −3 µ 1 1
+ ec (2π~) T r(γ ~γ ) dpp − +
2ωp 2Ωp
The first term vanishes due to the property (J.7). The second integral is
zero, because the integrand is an odd function of p.4 So, finally, the normally
ordered form of the current density is
Z
−3 µ
µ
j (x̃) = ec(2π~) dpdp′ γαβ ×
4
Note that cancelation in (L.6) was possible only because our theory contains two
particle types (electrons and protons) with opposite electric charges.
L.2. FIRST-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 731
† i ′ † i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )e− ~ (p̃ −p̃)·x̃ − Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )e ~ (p̃ +p̃)·x̃
i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Aβ (p′ )e− ~ (p̃ +p̃)·x̃ + Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)e ~ (p̃ −p̃)·x̃
† i ′ −P̃ )·x̃ † i ′ +P̃ )·x̃
+ Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )e− ~ (P̃ + D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )e+ ~ (P̃
i ′ +P̃ )·x̃ i ′ −P̃ )·x̃
+ F α (p)Dβ (p′ )e− ~ (P̃ − Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)e ~ (P̃ (L.7)
Z
e ′ † ′ − ~i (p′ −p)·x
V1 = dxdpdp dk −A α (p)Aβ (p )e + . . . ×
(2π~)9/2
i i
†
e− ~ kx Cαβ (k) + e ~ kx Cαβ (k)
Z
e
= dkdp ×
(2π~)3/2
† †
†
− Aα (p + k)Aβ (p)Cαβ (k) − Aα (p − k)Aβ (p)Cαβ (k)
† ††
+ D α (p + k)Dβ (p)Cαβ (k) + D α (p − k)Dβ (p)Cαβ (k)
+ Bβ† (p + k)B α (p)Cαβ (k) + Bβ† (p − k)B α (p)Cαβ
†
(k)
− Fβ† (p + k)F α (p)Cαβ (k) − Fβ† (p − k)F α (p)Cαβ
†
(k)
† †
− Aα (p + k)Bβ† (p)Cαβ (k) − Aα (p − k)Bβ† (p)Cαβ
†
(k)
†
− Aβ (p + k)B α (p)Cαβ (k) − Aβ (p − k)B α (p)Cαβ (k)
† †
+ D α (p + k)Fβ† (p)Cαβ (k) + Dα (p − k)Fβ† (p)Cαβ
†
(k)
†
+ Dβ (p + k)F α (p)Cαβ (k) + Dβ (p − k)F α (p)Cαβ (k) (L.8)
Z
1 1
V2 = 2 dxdyj0 (x, 0) j0 (y, 0)
c 8π|x − y|
Z Z
−6
X 1
2
= e (2π~) γαβ γγδ dxdy dpdp′ dqdq′
0 0
×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† i ′ † i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )e− ~ (p −p)·x − Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )e ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Aβ (p′ )e− ~ (p +p)·x − B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ † i ′
+ D α (p)Dβ (p′ )e− ~ (p −p)·x + D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )e+ ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Dβ (p′ )e− ~ (p +p)·x + F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )e ~ (p −p)·x ×
† i ′ † i ′
− Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y − Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y
i ′ i ′
− B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y − B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y
† i ′ † i ′
+ D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y + D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y
i ′ i ′
+ F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y + F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y
XZ Z
γαβ0 0
γγδ
−6
2
= e (2π~) dxdy dpdp′ dqdq′ ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
L.3. SECOND-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 733
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Aβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Aβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Aβ (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Aβ (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Aβ (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Aβ (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Aβ (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Aβ (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− B α (p)Bβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Dβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Dβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Dβ (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Dβ (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Dβ (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
734APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Dβ (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Dβ (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Dβ (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Dβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Dβ (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Dβ (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Dβ (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Dβ (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Dβ (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Dβ (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Dβ (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
L.3. SECOND-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 735
i ′ i ′
+ F α (p)Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x (L.9)
We need to convert this expression to the normal order, i.e., move all creation
operators in front of annihilation operators. After this is done we will obtain
a sum of phys, unphys, and renorm terms. It can be shown that the renorm
terms are infinite. This is an indication of renormalization troubles with
QED. These troubles are discussed in detail in chapter 10. In the rest of this
section we will simply ignore the renorm part of interaction.
There are some cancelations among unphys terms. To see how they work,
let us convert to the normal order the 12th term in (L.9)
XZ Z 0
γαβ 0
γγδ
2 −6 ′ ′
e (2π~) dxdy dpdp dqdq ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† i ′ i ′
Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
XZ Z 0
γαβ 0
γγδ
−6
2
= −e (2π~) dxdy dpdp′ dqdq′ ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† i ′ i ′
Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
XZ Z 0
γαβ 0
γγδ
2 −6 ′ ′
+ e (2π~) dxdy dpdp dqdq ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† i ′ i ′
Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ ){B γ (q), Bδ† (q′ )}e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
Now we denote the second term on the right hand side of this expression by
I and use (J.75), (J.7) - (J.8), and (B.6)
XZ Z 0
γαβ 0
γγδ
2 −6 ′ ′
I = e (2π~) dxdy dpdp dqdq ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† 1 i ′ i ′
Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ ) (γ 0 ωq + ~γ qc − mc2 )γδ δ(q′ − q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
2ωq
XZ Z 0
γαβ
−6
2
= e (2π~) dxdy dpdp′ dq ×
αβ
8π|x − y|
† 1 i ′
Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ ) (ωq T r(γ 0 γ 0 ) + qcT r(γ 0~γ ) − mc2 T r(γ 0 ))e ~ (p +p)·x
2ωq
736APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
XZ Z 0
γαβ † i ′
2
= 2e (2π~) −6
dxdy dpdp′ dq Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )e ~ (p +p)·x
αβ
8π|x − y|
2 2 Z ′
2e ~ X ′ 0 † † ′ δ(p + p)
= dpdp dqγ αβ Aα (p)Bβ (p ) (L.10)
(2π~)3 αβ (p′ + p)2
This term is infinite. However there are three other infinite terms in (L.9)
that arise in a similar manner from −A† B † F F † + BB † A† B † − F F † A† B † .
These terms cancel exactly with (L.10). Similar to (L.6), this cancelation is
possible only because of the condition qelectron + qproton = 0.
Taking into account the above results and using anticommutators like
(J.73) and (J.75) we can bring the second order interaction (L.9) to the
normal order
XZ Z 0
γαβ 0
γγδ
2 −6 ′ ′
V2 = e (2π~) dxdy dpdp dqdq ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† † i ′ i ′
( − Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aγ (q)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Dγ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Dγ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
L.3. SECOND-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 737
† i ′ i ′
− Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B α (p)e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Aβ (p′ )B α (p)Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Aβ (p′ )B α (p)Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aγ (q)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Fδ† (q′ F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )D α (p)Dβ (p′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)D α (p)Dβ (p′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)D α (p)Dβ (p′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Dα (q)D γ (p)Dβ (q′ )Dδ (p′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Dα (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
738APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
† † i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )Dα (p)Fβ† (p′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )e− ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)Dα (p)Fβ† (p′ )e ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)D γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)Dδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Dβ (p′ )F α (p)e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )Dβ (p′ )F α (p)e ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)Dβ (p′ )F α (p)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Bβ† (q′ )B γ (q)Dβ (p′ )F α (p)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F α (p)e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ Aγ (q)Bδ† (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ D γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Dδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x )
XZ Z 0
γαβ 0
γγδ
−6
2
V2 = e (2π~) dxdy dpdp′ dqdq′ ×
αβγδ
8π|x − y|
† † i ′ i ′
( − Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ 2Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ Aα (p)Aγ (q)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )e ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2Aα (p)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ 2Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
740APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
† i ′ i ′
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
i ′ i ′
− 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− D α (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )e− ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
− 2D α (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2D α (p)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2D α (p)Dβ (p′ )Fγ† (q′ )F δ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p −p)·x
† † i ′ i ′
+ D α (p)D γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )e+ ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
+ 2D α (p)Dδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
† i ′ i ′
− 2D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e+ ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e− ~ (q +q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
+ 2Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e− ~ (p +p)·x
i ′ i ′
− Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)e ~ (q −q)·y e ~ (p −p)·x )
Z
e2 ~2 X
V2 = dpdp′ dqdq′ γαβ
0 0
γγδ ×
2(2π~)3 αβγδ
† † 1
− Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )δ(q′ − q + p′ − p)
− q|2 |q′
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B γ (q)δ(q′ + q + p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)δ(q′ − q − p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Dδ (q′ )δ(q′ − q + p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Fδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q − p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ + q + p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
L.3. SECOND-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 741
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ − q − p′ + p)
|q′ − q|2
† † 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )δ(q′ − q − p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
+ Aα (p)Aγ (q)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q + p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aδ (q′ )Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q)δ(q′ + q − p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B γ (q)δ(q′ − q + p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )δ(q′ − q − p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q + p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ + q − p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ − q + p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
1
+ Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)δ(q′ + q + p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
1
+ 2Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)δ(q′ − q − p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† 1
− 2Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )δ(q′ − q + p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
† 1
− 2Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q − p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
1
− 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ + q + p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
1
+ 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ − q − p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
1
− Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q′ )B α (p)B γ (q)δ(q′ − q + p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† 1
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q′ )δ(q′ − q − p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
742APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
† 1
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Dγ (q)Fδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q + p′ − p)
|q′ + q|2
1
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ + q − p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
1
− 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ − q + p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
− Dα (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )δ(q′ − q + p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
− 2Dα (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q − p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
+ 2Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ + q + p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
− 2Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )Fγ† (q′ )F δ (q)δ(q′ − q − p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
† † 1
+ Dα (p)D γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )δ(q′ + q + p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
+ 2Dα (p)Dδ (q′ )Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ + q − p′ − p) ′
|q + q|2
† 1
− 2Dα (p)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F γ (q)δ(q′ − q + p′ + p) ′
|q − q|2
1
+ Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)δ(q′ + q + p′ + p) ′
|q + q|2
1
+ 2Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)δ(q′ − q − p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
1
− Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q′ )F α (p)F γ (q)δ(q′ − q + p′ − p) ′
|q − q|2
Finally, we integrate this expression on q′ and divide V2 into phys and unphys
parts
V2 = V2phys + V2unphys
Z
e2 ~2 X
V2phys = dpdp′ dqγαβ
0 0
γγδ ×
2(2π~)3 αβγδ
L.3. SECOND-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 743
† † 1
− Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (q − p′ + p)
|p′ − p|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q + p′ − p)B γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dγ (q)Dδ (q − p′ + p) ′
|p − p|2
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Fδ† (+q + p′ − p)F γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aδ (−q + p′ + p)Bβ† (p′ )B γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Dδ (−q + p′ + p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
† 1
− 2Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (−q + p′ + p) ′
|p + p|2
1
− 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Dδ (−q − p′ − p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
− Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q − p′ + p)B α (p)B γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† 1
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q + p′ − p) ′
|p − p|2
1
− 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Fδ† (q − p′ + p)F γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† † 1
− D α (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (q − p′ + p) ′
|p − p|2
† 1
− 2D α (p)Dβ (p′ )Fγ† (q + p′ − p)F δ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† 1
+ 2D α (p)Dδ (−q + p′ + p)Fβ† (p′ )F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
† ′ † ′
− Fβ (p )Fδ (q − p + p)F α (p)F γ (q) ′ (L.11)
|p − p|2
Z
e2 ~2 X
V2unphys = 3
dpdp′ dqγαβ
0 0
γγδ ×
2(2π~) αβγδ
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Aδ (−q − p′ + p)B γ (q)
|p′ − p|2
744APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (−q + p′ − p)
|p′ − p|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Aβ (p′ )Dδ (−q − p′ + p)F γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† † 1
+ 2Aα (p)Aγ (q)Aδ (q + p′ + p)Bβ† (p′ ) ′
|p + p|2
† † 1
+ Aα (p)Aγ (q)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (−q − p′ − p) ′
|p + p|2
† 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Bδ† (q − p′ − p)B γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Dδ (q) + p′ + p) ′
|p + p|2
† † 1
− 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )D γ (q)Fδ† (−q − p′ − p) ′
|p + p|2
† 1
+ 2Aα (p)Bβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q − p′ − p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
+ Aβ (p′ )Aδ (−q − p′ − p)B α (p)B γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
+ 2Aβ (p′ )Bδ† (q + p′ + p)B α (p)B γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
† 1
− 2Aβ (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Dδ (q − p′ − p) ′
|p + p|2
1
− 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Dδ (−q − p′ − p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
+ 2Aβ (p′ )Bα (p)Fδ† (q + p′ + p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
† 1
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)D γ (q)Fδ† (−q − p′ + p) ′
|p − p|2
1
+ 2Bβ† (p′ )B α (p)Dδ (−q + p′ − p)F γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
† † 1
− 2Dα (p)D γ (q)Dβ (p′ )Fδ† (−q + p′ − p) ′
|p − p|2
† 1
+ 2Dα (p)Dβ (p′ )Dδ (−q − p′ + p)F γ (q) ′
|p − p|2
L.3. SECOND-ORDER INTERACTION IN QED 745
† † 1
+ D α (p)D γ (q)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (−q − p′ − p)
|p′ + p|2
† 1
− 2D α (p)Fβ† (p′ )Fδ† (q − p′ − p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
+ Dβ (p′ )Dδ (−q − p′ − p)F α (p)F γ (q) ′
|p + p|2
1
′ † ′
+ 2Dβ (p )Fδ (q + p + p)F α (p)F γ (q) ′ (L.12)
|p + p|2
746APPENDIX L. QED INTERACTION IN TERMS OF PARTICLE OPERATORS
Appendix M
Z
1 i
e ~ (p̃·x̃) d4 x = δ 4 (p̃) (M.2)
(2π~)4
In our notation
x̃ = (t, x)
p̃ = (p0 , p)
p̃ · x̃ = p0 t − p · x
d4 x ≡ dtdx
747
748 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Calculations become much simpler if one can replace the integrand 1/(abc . . .)
with an expression in which a, b, c, . . . are present in the denominator in a
linear form. This can be achieved using a trick first introduced by Feynman
[Fey49].
The simplest example of such a trick is given by the integral representation
of the product 1/(ab)
Z1 1
dx 1
=
(ax + b(1 − x))2 (b − a)(ax + b(1 − x)) 0
0
1 1 1
= − = (M.3)
(b − a)a (b − a)b ab
The denominator on the left hand side is a square of a function linear in a and
b. In spite of adding one more integral (on x), the overall integration task is
greatly simplified, as we will see in many examples in this Appendix. Using
this result, we can convert to the linear form more complex expressions, e.g.,
Z1
1 d 1 d dx
= − =−
a2 b da ab da (ax + b(1 − x))2
0
Z1
2xdx
= (M.4)
(ax + b(1 − x))3
0
These two results can be used to get an integral representation for 1/(abc)
1
Z
1 1 1 dy 1
= = 2
abc bc a (by + c(1 − y)) a
0
Z1 Z1
1
= dy 2xdx
[(by + c(1 − y))x + a(1 − x)]3
0 0
Z1 Z1
dy
= 2 xdx (M.5)
[byx + cx(1 − y) + a(1 − x)]3
0 0
M.3. SOME BASIC 4D INTEGRALS 749
Z1 Z1 Z1
1 δ(x + y + z − 1)
= 2 dx dy dz
abc [ax + by + cz]3
0 0 0
Z1 Z1−x
1
= 2 dx dy (M.6)
[ax + by + c(1 − x − y)]3
0 0
Z1 Z1
1 1 d 1 d zdz z 2 dz
3
= − =− =3
ad 2 da a2 d da [az + d(1 − z)]3 [az + d(1 − z)]4
0 0
This results in
1
abcd
Z1 Z1
1 1
= 2 xdx dy 3
[a(1 − x) + bxy + cx(1 − y)] d
0 0
Z1 Z1 Z1
z 2 dz
= 6 xdx dy (M.7)
[az(1 − x) + bxyz + cxz(1 − y) + d(1 − z)]4
0 0 0
Z Z
d4 k dk0 dk
K = ≡ (M.8)
(k̃ 2 − L)3 (k02 − c k2 − L
2 + iǫ)3
√
The integral on k0 has two 3rd order poles at k0 = ± c2 k 2 + L. We can
rotate2 the integration contour on k0 , so that it goes along the imaginary
axis and then change the integration variables ik0 = m4 and ck = m. Then
the integral is
Zi∞ Z Z∞ Z
1 dm i dm
K = 3 dk0 2
= 3 dm4
c 2
(k0 − m − L) 3 c (−m24 − m2 − L)3
−i∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞
2π 2 i r 3 dr π2i (t − L)dt π2
K = − 3 = − = − (M.9)
c (r 2 + L)3 c3 t3 2ic3 L
0 L
Z
kσ
d4 k =0 (M.10)
(k̃ 2 − L)3
Z Z
π2 d4 k d4 k
− = =
2i(p̃2 + ∆)c3 ((k̃ − p̃)2 − L)3 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ + p̃2 − L)3
Z
d4 k
= (M.11)
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)3
Z Z
d4 k(kσ − pσ ) d4 k(kσ − pσ )
0 = =
((k̃ − p̃)2 − L)3 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)3
Then
Z Z
d4 kkσ d4 kpσ π 2 pσ
= =− (M.12)
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)3 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)3 2i(p̃2 + ∆)c3
Z
d4 k π2
= (M.13)
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)4 6i(p̃2 + ∆)2 c3
Z
d4 kkσ π 2 pσ
= (M.14)
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)4 6i(p̃2 + ∆)2 c3
Z
d4 kkσ kτ π 2 pσ pτ
= (M.15)
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)4 6i(p̃2 + ∆)2 c3
If τ = σ
Z
d4 kkσ kσ π 2 pσ pσ π2
= −
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)4 6i(p̃2 + ∆)2 c3 12i(p̃2 + ∆)c3
(M.16)
Z
d4 kkσ kτ π 2 (pσ pτ − 12 δστ (p̃2 + ∆))
=
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ − ∆)4 6i(p̃2 + ∆)2 c3
Z
d4 k
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃1 k̃ − ∆1 )2 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 )
Z1 Z
d4 k
= 2xdx
[(k̃ 2 − 2p̃1 k̃ − ∆1 )x + (k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 )(1 − x)]3
0
Z1 Z
d4 k
= 2xdx
[k̃ 2 x − 2p̃1 k̃x − ∆1 x + k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 − k̃ 2 x + 2p̃2 k̃x + ∆2 x]3
0
Z1 Z Z1
d4 k π2 xdx
= 2xdx =− 3 (M.17)
[k̃ 2 − 2p̃x k̃ − ∆x ]3 ic p̃2x
+ ∆x
0 0
where p̃1 , p̃2 are two arbitrary 4-vectors, ∆1 , ∆2 are numerical constants and
Z
d4 kkσ
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃1 k̃ − ∆1 )2 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 )
Z1 Z Z1
d4 kkσ π2 pxσ xdx
= 2xdx =− 3 (M.18)
[k̃ 2 − 2p̃x k̃ − ∆x ]3 ic p̃2x + ∆x
0 0
Z Z1
d4 k π2 x(1 − x)dx
= 3
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃1 k̃ − ∆1 )2 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 )2 ic (p̃2x + ∆x )2
0
(M.19)
Z Z1
d4 kkτ π2 pxτ x(1 − x)dx
= 3
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃1 k̃ − ∆1 )2 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 )2 ic (p̃2x + ∆x )2
0
M.4. ELECTRON SELF-ENERGY INTEGRAL 753
(M.20)
Z 4
d kkσ kτ
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃1 k̃ − ∆1 )2 (k̃ 2 − 2p̃2 k̃ − ∆2 )2
Z1
π2 (pxσ pxτ − 1/2δστ (p̃2x + ∆x ))x(1 − x)dx
= (M.21)
ic3 (p̃2x + ∆x )2
0
where
Z
d4 k
I ≡
[(p̃ − k̃)2 − m2 c4 ]k̃ 2
Z
d4 kk κ
Iκ ≡
[(p̃ − k̃)2 − m2 c4 ]k̃ 2
The factor 1/k̃ 2 in the integrand is a source of both ultraviolet and infrared
divergences. So, the integrals need to be regularized, as described in subsec-
tion 10.1.1. To do that, we introduce two parameters: the ultraviolet cutoff
Λ and the infrared cutoff λ.5 Then we replace the troublesome factor 1/k̃ 2
by the integral
Z2 c4
Λ
dL
1/k̃ 2 → − (M.23)
(k̃ 2 − L)2
λ2 c4
4
Here we used equations (J.9), (J.10), and (J.11).
5
Λ and λ have the dimensionality of (mass)
754 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Z∞ Z∞
dL dx 1
− = − 2
=
(k̃ − L)2
2 x k̃ 2
0 −k̃ 2
Z2 c4
Λ Z
d4 k
I = − dL
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃k̃ + p̃2 − m2 c4 )(k̃ 2 − L)2
λ2 c4
Z2 c4
Λ Z1
π2 xdx
= dL
ic3 (p̃2x
+ ∆x )
λ2 c4 0
Λ2 c 4
Z Z1
π2 xdx
= dL
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xL + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
λ2 c4 0
Z1
π2
2 2 2 4 2
L=Λ2 c4
= dx ln (1 − x) p̃ + xL + (1 − x)(m c − p̃ )
ic3 L=λ2 c4
0
Z1
π2 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xΛ2 c4 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
= dx ln
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xλ2 c4 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
Z1
π2 xΛ2 c4
≈ dx ln (M.26)
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
6
we have assumed that Λ2 ≫ m2 c4
M.4. ELECTRON SELF-ENERGY INTEGRAL 755
Z2 c4
Λ Z
κ kκ
I = − dL d4 k
(k̃ 2 − 2p̃ · k̃ + p̃2 − m2 c4 )(k̃ 2 − L)2
λ2 c4
Z2 c4
Λ Z1
π2 pκ x(1 − x)dx
= dL
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xL + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
λ2 c4 0
Z1
π2 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xΛ2 c4 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
= dx(1 − x)pκ ln
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xλ2 c4 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
Z1
π2 xΛ2 c4
≈ dx(1 − x)pκ ln
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
(M.27)
Z1
π2 xΛ2 c4
/) ≈
Jad (p 3
/ + 4mc2 )
(−2p dx ln
ic (1 − x)2 p̃2 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
Z1
2π 2/p xΛ2 c4
+ 3 dx(1 − x) ln
ic (1 − x)2 p̃2 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
Z1
π2 xΛ2 c4
= dx(4mc2 − 2p
/x) ln
ic3 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
0
(M.28)
Z1
2π 2 mc2 xΛ2 c4
C0 = dx(2 − x) ln
ic3 (1 − x)2 m2 c4
0
Z1 Z1
2π 2 mc2 Λ2 2π 2 mc2 x
≈ (2 − x)dx ln 2 + (2 − x)dx ln
ic3 m ic 3 (1 − x)2
0 0
3π 2 mc2 Λ2 3π 2 mc2 3π 2 mc2 Λ
= ln 2 + = 4 ln + 1 (M.30)
ic3 m 2ic3 2ic3 m
dJad
C1 =
dp
/ /=mc
p 2
Z1
2π 2 xΛ2 c4
= − 3 xdx ln 2 2 2 4 2 4 2
ic (1 − x) p̃ + xλ c + (1 − x)(m c − p̃ ) /=mc
p 2
0
Z1
2π 2 (1 − x)2 p̃2 + xλ2 c4 + (1 − x)(m2 c4 − p̃2 )
− 3 mc2 (2 − x)dx ×
ic xΛ2 c4
0
xΛ c (2(1 − x)2/p − 2(1 − x)p
2 4
/)
2 2 2 4 2 4 2 2
((1 − x) p̃ + xλ c + (1 − x)(m c − p̃ )) /=mc
p 2
Z1
2π 2 xΛ2
= − 3 xdx ln
ic (1 − x)2 m2
0
Z1
2π 2 mc2 2(1 − x)2 mc2 − 2(1 − x)mc2
− dx(2 − x)
ic3 (1 − x)2 m2 c4 + xλ2 c4
0
7
Note that p̃2 is a function of /p due to (J.23). When doing calculations with slash
symbols /p and γ-matrices, it is convenient to use properties (J.3) - (J.13)
8
R1
Here we used integral dxx ln(1/(1 − x)2 ) = 5/4.
0
M.5. INTEGRAL FOR THE VERTEX RENORMALIZATION 757
Z1 Z1
2π 2 xΛ2 4π 2 (2 − x)(x2 − x)
= − 3 xdx ln − dx
ic (1 − x)2 m2 ic3 (1 − x)2 + xλ2 /m2
0 0
Z1
2π 2 x π2 Λ2 2π 2 λ2
= − 3 xdx ln − ln − 3 1 + ln 2
ic (1 − x)2 ic3 m2 ic m
0
2π 2 Λ λ 9
= − 3 ln + 2 ln + (M.31)
ic m m 4
Then the residual term
R(p
/) = Jad (p / − mc2 )ad
/) − C0 δad − C1 (p
Z1 Z1
π2 2π 2 mc2
ln Λ2 dx(4mc2 − 2p
/x) − ln Λ2 dx(2 − x)
ic3 ic3
0 0
Z1
2π 2
/ − mc2 )
+ (p ln Λ2 xdx = 0
ic3
0
Z
κ ′ −h / + /q + mc2 −h/ + /q′ + mc2 1
I (q̃, q̃ ) = d4 hγµ γκ γµ
(h̃ − q̃)2 − m2 c4 (h̃ − q̃ ′ )2 − m2 c4 h̃2
9
We used equation (M.23) and took into account that q̃ and q̃ ′ are on the mass shell,
so that q̃ 2 = (q̃ ′ )2 = m2 c4 .
758 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Z2 c4
Λ Z
γµ (−h/ + /q + mc2 )γκ (−h / + /q′ + mc2 )γµ
≈ − dL d4 h
(h̃2 − 2q̃ h̃)(h̃2 − 2q̃ ′ h̃)(h̃2 − L)2
λ2 c4
Z1 Z2 c4
Λ Z
d4 h
J = − dy dL (M.33)
[h̃2 − 2h̃ · q̃y ]2 [h̃2 − L]2
0 λ2 c4
Z1 Z2 c4
Λ Z
d4 hhσ
Jσ = − dy dL (M.34)
[h̃2 − 2h̃ · q̃y ]2 [h̃2 − L]2
0 λ2 c4
Z1 Z2 c4
Λ Z
d4 hhσ hτ
Jστ = − dy dL (M.35)
[h̃2 − 2h̃ · q̃y ]2 [h̃2 − L]2
0 λ2 c4
These are particular cases of integrals (M.19) - (M.21) with parameters p̃1 =
q̃y , ∆1 = 0, p̃2 = 0, ∆2 = L, p̃x = xq̃y , and ∆x = (1 − x)L
2 Z1 Z2 c4
Λ Z1
π x(1 − x)dx
J = − 3 dy dL (M.36)
ic (x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)L)2
0 λ2 c4 0
10
The denominators were combined using (M.3) and q̃y ≡ y q̃ + (1 − y)q̃ ′ .
M.5. INTEGRAL FOR THE VERTEX RENORMALIZATION 759
Z1 Z2 c4
Λ Z1
π2 qyσ x2 (1 − x)dx
Jσ = − 3 dy dL (M.37)
ic (x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)L)2
0 λ2 c4 0
Z1 Λ2 c 4
Z Z1
π2 [x2 qyσ qyτ − 1/2δστ (x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)L)]x(1 − x)dx
Jστ = − 3 dy dL
ic (x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)L)2
0 λ2 c4 0
(M.38)
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
π2 x L=∞
π2 x
J = dx dy 2 2 = − dx dy
ic3 x q̃y + (1 − x)L L=λ2 c4 ic3 x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)λ2 c4
0 0 0 0
Z1 Z1
π2 dy 2 2 2 4
x=1 π2 dy 2 2 4
≈ − ln(−x q̃y − (1 − x)λ c ) = − ln(−q̃y ) − ln(−λ c )
2ic3 q̃y2 x=0 2ic3 q̃y2
0 0
Z1
π2 1 q̃y2
= − dy ln (M.39)
2ic3 q̃y2 λ2 c4
0
k̃ ≡ q̃ ′ − q̃ (M.40)
2q̃ · k̃ = −k̃ 2
q̃y = q̃ + (1 − y)k̃
q̃y2 = m2 c4 − (1 − y)y k̃ 2
Integral J is infrared-divergent12
Zθ
π2 dα m2 cos2 θ
J = − 3 2 4
ln
2ic m c sin(2θ) λ2 cos2 α
−θ
Zθ
2π 2 θ m π2 cos2 θ
= − 3 2 4 ln − dα ln
ic m c sin(2θ) λ 2ic3 m2 c4 sin(2θ) cos2 α
−θ
Zθ
2π 2 θ m 2π 2
= − 3 2 4 ln − 3 2 4 dα ln(cos θ) − ln(cos α)
ic m c sin(2θ) λ ic m c sin(2θ)
0
Zθ
2π 2 θ m 2π 2 θ ln(cos θ) 2π 2
= − 3 2 4 ln − 3 2 4 + 3 2 4 dα ln(cos α)
ic m c sin(2θ) λ ic m c sin(2θ) ic m c sin(2θ)
0
Zθ
m
= 2A θ ln − α tan αdα (M.42)
λ
0
12
Rθ Rθ
Here we took the following integral by parts dα ln(cos α) = θ ln(cos θ) + α tan αdα
0 0
M.5. INTEGRAL FOR THE VERTEX RENORMALIZATION 761
where we defined
π2 θ
A ≡ −
ic3 m2 c4 sin(2θ)
Z1 Z1 Z1
π2 x2 qyσ L=Λ2 c4
π2 qyσ
Jσ = dx dy 2 2 ≈− 3 dy
ic3 x q̃y + (1 − x)L L=λ2 c4 ic q̃y2
0 0 0
Zθ
π2 dα kσ tan α
= − 3 qσ + 1−
ic m2 c4 sin(2θ) 2 tan θ
−θ
Zθ
π2 2θ kσ π 2 kσ
= − 3 2 4 qσ + + dα tan α
ic m c sin(2θ) 2 2ic3 m2 c4 sin(2θ) tan θ
−θ
= A(qσ + qσ′ ) (M.43)
2 Z2 c4
Λ Z1 Z1
π x3 (1 − x)qyσ qyτ
Jστ = − 3 dL dx dy
ic (x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)L)2
λ2 c4 0 0
Λ2 c 4
Z Z1 Z1
π2 δστ x(1 − x)
+ 3 dL dx dy
2ic x q̃y2 + (1 − x)L
2
λ2 c4 0 0
Z1 Z1
π2 x3 qyσ qyτ xqyσ qyτ
≈ dx dy −
ic3 x2 q̃y2 + (1 − x)Λ2 c4 q̃y2
0 0
13
R1
Here we assumed that Λ2 c4 ≫ q̃y2 ≫ λ2 c4 and used integral dxx ln (1 − x)/x2 =
0
2 1
(x /2) ln (1 − x)/x2 + x2 /4 − x/2 − 1/2 ln(1 − x) = −1/4.
0
762 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Z1 Z1
π2
+ 3 dx dyδστ x[ln((1 − x)Λ2 c4 ) − ln(x2 q̃y2 )]
2ic
0 0
Z1 Z1 Z1
π2 qyσ qyτ π 2 δστ (1 − x)Λ2 c4
≈ − 3 dy 2 + dx dyx ln
2ic q̃y 2ic3 x2 q̃y2
0 0 0
Z1 Z1 Z1
π2 qyσ qyτ π 2 δστ (1 − x) π 2 δστ Λ 2 c4
= − 3 dy 2 + dxx ln + dy ln
2ic q̃y 2ic3 x2 4ic3 q̃y2
0 0 0
Z1 Z1
π2 qyσ qyτ π 2 δστ Λ2 c4 π 2 δστ
= − dy + dy ln −
2ic3 qy2 4ic3 q̃y2 8ic3
0 0
Z1 Zθ
qyσ qyτ 1 kσ tan α 1 kτ tan α dα
dy 2 = qσ + kσ − qτ + kτ − 2 4
q̃y 2 2 tan θ 2 2 tan θ m c sin(2θ)
0 −θ
Zθ Zθ
1 1 dα kσ kτ tan2 α dα
= qσ + kσ qτ + kτ 2 4
+ 2 2 4
2 2 m c sin(2θ) 4 tan θ m c sin(2θ)
−θ −θ
Zθ
θ kσ kτ cos θ
= (qσ + qσ′ )(qτ + qτ′ ) + tan2 αdα
2 4
2m c sin(2θ) 4m2 c4 sin3 θ
0
θ kσ kτ
= 2 4
(qσ + qσ′ )(qτ + qτ′ ) + (1 − θ cot θ)
2m c sin(2θ) k̃ 2
Z1 Zθ
Λ 2 c4 dα Λ2 cos2 α
dy ln = ln
q̃y2 tan θ cos2 α m2 cos2 θ
0 0
Λ2 1
= ln 2 2
+ (−2θ + ln(cos2 θ) tan θ + 2 tan θ)
m cos θ tan θ
Λ
= 2 ln + 2(1 − θ cot θ)
m
R R
R
14
Here we used integrals tan2 (x)dx = tan(x) − x + C, cos−2 (x)dx = tan(x) + C and
ln(cos2 (x))/ cos2 (x)dx = −2x + 2 tan(x) + tan(x) ln(cos2 (x)) + C.
M.5. INTEGRAL FOR THE VERTEX RENORMALIZATION 763
A
Jστ = (qσ + qσ′ )(qτ + qτ′ ) + Dkσ kτ + Eδστ (M.44)
4
π 2 (1 − θ cot θ)
D ≡ −
3 2
2
2ic k̃
π Λ 3
E ≡ ln + − θ cot θ
2ic3 m 4
Using results (M.42), (M.43), (M.44), we obtain for the full integral (M.32)
I κ (q̃, q̃ ′ ) = Jγµ (q
/ + mc2 )γκ (q /′ + mc2 )γµ
−Aγµ (q/ + /q′ )γκ (q
/′ + mc2 )γµ − Aγµ (q / + /q′ )γµ
/ + mc2 )γκ (q
A
+ γµ (q/ + /q′ )γκ (q
/ + /q′ )γµ + Dγµ/kγκ/kγµ + 4Eγκ
4
A
= JT1 − AT2 − AT3 + T4 + Dγµ/kγκ/kγµ + 4Eγκ (M.45)
4
Let us now use (J.11) - (J.13) and process these terms one-by-one
T1 = / + mc2 )γκ (q
γµ (q /′ + mc2 )γµ
= q κ/q′ γµ + mc2 γµ γκ/q′ γµ + mc2 γµ/γ
γµ/γ q κ γµ + m2 c4 γµ γκ γµ
= −2q/′ γκ/q + 2mc2 γκ/q′ + 2mc2/q′ γκ + 2mc2/γ q κ + 2mc2 γκ/q − 2m2 c4 γκ
= −2(q / + /k)γκ(q /′ − /k) + 2mc2 γκ/q′ + 2mc2 (q/ + /k)γκ + 2mc2/γ
q κ
2 ′ 2 4
+2mc γκ (q / − /k) − 2m c γκ
′
= −2q/γκ/q − 2k /γκ/q′ + 2q /γκ/k + 2mc2 γκ/q′
/γκ/k + 2k
+2mc2/γ q κ + 2mc2/kγκ + 2mc2/γ q κ + 2mc2 γκ/q′ − 2mc2 γκ/k − 2m2 c4 γκ
The last term vanishes when sandwiched between u(q, σ) and u(q′ , σ ′ ). So,
we can set /kγκ/k = −k̃ 2 γκ . Then
We use the same techniques to obtain the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th terms in (M.45)
T2 = / + /q′ )γκ (q
γµ (q /′ + mc2 )γµ
= q κ/q′ γµ + γµ/q′ γκ/q′ γµ + mc2 γµ/γ
γµ/γ q κ γµ + mc2 γµ/q′ γκ γµ
= −2q/′ γκ/q − 2q/′ γκ/q′ + 2mc2/γ q κ + 2mc2 γκ/q + 2mc2/q′ γκ + 2mc2 γκ/q′
= −2(q / + /k)γκ (q/′ − /k) − 2(q / + /k)γκ/q′ + 2mc2/γ /′ − /k)
q κ + 2mc2 γκ (q
+2mc2 (q / + /k)γκ + 2mc2 γκ/q′
= −2q/γκ/q′ − 2k /γκ/q′ + 2q /γκ/k + 2k/γκ/k − 2q /γκ/q′
−2k /γκ/q′ + 2mc2/γ q κ + 2mc2 γκ/q′ − 2mc2 γκ/k
+2mc2/γ q κ + 2mc2/kγκ + 2mc2 γκ/q′
= −2m2 c4 γκ − 2mc2/kγκ + 2mc2 γκ/k + 2k /γκ/k − 2m2 c4 γκ
−2mc2/kγκ + 2m2 c4 γκ + 2m2 c4 γκ − 2mc2 γκ/k
+2m2 c4 γκ + 2mc2/kγκ + 2m2 c4 γκ
= /γκ/k − 2mc2/kγκ + 4m2 c4 γκ
2k
= (−2k̃ 2 + 4m2 c4 )γκ − 2mc2/kγκ
T3 = / + mc2 )γκ (q
γµ (q / + /q′ )γµ
= γµ/γ q µ + γµ mc2 γκ/γ
q κ/γ q µ + γµ/γ q κ/q′ γµ + γµ mc2 γκ/q′ γµ
= −2q/γκ/q + 2mc2 γκ/q + 2mc2/γ q κ − 2q /′ γκ/q + 2mc2 γκ/q′ + 2mc2/q′ γκ
M.5. INTEGRAL FOR THE VERTEX RENORMALIZATION 765
2 2 2 4 Zθ 2
2π (−2k̃ + 4m c )
− θ ln
m
− α tan αdα − π (1 − θ cot θ)
ic3 m2 c4 sin(2θ) λ ic3
0
2π 2 Λ 1 14π 2 θ 7π 2 k̃ 2 θ
+ 3 ln + (1 − θ cot θ) − + 3 −
ic m 4 ic sin(2θ) 2ic3 m2 c4 sin(2θ)
2 2 4 2 2 4 Zθ
2π (−8m c sin θ + 4m c ) m
= − 3 2 4
θ ln − α tan αdα
ic m c sin(2θ) λ
0
π 2 (1 − θ cot θ) 2π 2 Λ π2 14π 2θ 14π 2 θm2 c4 sin2 θ
+ + ln − + −
ic3 ic3 m 2ic3 ic3 sin(2θ) ic3 m2 c4 sin(2θ)
Zθ
8π 2 m
= − 3 θ ln − α tan αdα
ic tan(2θ) λ
0
2 2
π (1 − θ cot θ) 2π Λ π2 7π 2 θ cot θ
+ + ln − +
ic3 ic3 m 2ic3 ic3
Therefore, finally
I κ (q̃, q̃ ′ )
Zθ
π2γ κ 8θ m 8 1 Λ
= 3
− ln + α tan αdα + + 6θ cot θ + 2 ln
ic tan(2θ) λ tan(2θ) 2 m
0
2 ′ κ
2π θ(q + q )
− (M.46)
imc5 sin(2θ)
Z
d4 h
b(p, q, k) =
[h̃2 + 2(q̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − 2(p̃ · h̃)][h̃2 − λ2 c4 ][h̃2 + 2(h̃ · k̃) + k̃ 2 − λ2 c4 ]
M.6. INTEGRAL FOR THE LADDER DIAGRAM 767
we follow the calculation technique from [Red53]. First use equation (M.7)
and notation
b(p, q, k)
Z Z1 Z1 Z1
= 6 d4 h dx dy xz 2 dz[(h̃2 + 2(k̃ · h̃) + k 2 − λ2 c4 )z(1 − x) + (h̃2 + 2(q̃ · h̃))xyz
0 0 0
Z Z1 Z1 Z1
= 6 d h dx dy xz 2 dz[h̃2 − 2h̃ · (−k̃z(1 − x) − q̃xyz + p̃xz(1 − y))
4
0 0 0
Z Z1 Z1 Z1
xz 2 dz
= 6 d4 h dx dy
[h̃2 − 2(h̃ · p̃x )z − ∆]4
0 0 0
where
∆ ≡ λ2 c4 (1 − zx) − k̃ 2 z(1 − x)
p̃x = −k̃(1 − x) + p̃x(1 − y) − q̃xy = −k̃(1 − x) + xp̃y
p̃y = p̃(1 − y) − q̃y
From (M.13) we obtain
Z1 Z1 Z1
π2 xz 2 dz
b(p, q, k) = 3 dx dy
ic (z 2 p̃2x + ∆)2
0 0 0
768 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Z1−δ Z1 Z1
π2 xdz
LII ≈ dx dy
ic3 [z(x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)) − k̃ 2 (1 − x)]2
ǫ 0 0
Z
dz 1
2
= − + const
(az + b) a(ax + b)
Z
dx
= ln(x) − ln(x − 1) + const
x(1 − x)
16
because other terms in the denominator can be even smaller
M.6. INTEGRAL FOR THE LADDER DIAGRAM 769
and obtain
Z1−δ Z1
π2 x z=1
LII = − 3 dx dy
ic [x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)][z(x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)) − k̃ 2 (1 − x)] z=0
ǫ 0
Z1−δ Z1
π2 x 1 1
= − 3 dx dy +
ic x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x) x2 p̃2y k̃ 2 (1 − x)
ǫ 0
Z1−δ Z1
π2 1
= − dx dy
ic3 k̃ 2 xp̃2y (1 − x)
ǫ 0
Z1
π2 1 x=1−δ
= − dy 2
(ln(x) − ln(x − 1))
ic3 k̃ 2 p̃y x=ǫ
0
Z1
π2 1
≈ − dy (− ln(δ) − ln(−1) − ln(ǫ) + ln(−1))
ic3 k̃ 2 p̃2y
0
Z1
π 2 ln(δǫ) dy
=
ic3 k̃ 2 p̃2y
0
Z0 Z1 Z1
π2 (1 − x)z 2 dz
LIII = − 3 dx dy
ic [z 2 ((1 − x)2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 x) + λ2 c4 (1 − z(1 − x)) − k̃ 2 zx]2
δ 0 0
Z0 Z1 Z1
π2 z 2 dz
≈ − 3 dx dy
ic [z 2 p̃2y + z 2 k̃ 2 x + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zx]2
δ 0 0
Z1 Z1 !
π2 zdz 1 x=0
= dy
ic3 k 2 (z − 1) z 2 p̃2y + z 2 k̃ 2 x + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zx x=δ
0 0
Z1 Z1 !
π2 zdz 1 1
= dy 2 2 2 4
−
ic3 k̃ 2 (z − 1) z p̃y + λ c (1 − z) z p̃y + z k̃ δ + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zδ
2 2 2 2
0 0
770 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Z1 Z1
π2 zdz z 2 p̃2y + z 2 k̃ 2 δ + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zδ − z 2 p̃2y − λ2 c4 (1 − z)
= dy ·
ic3 k̃ 2 (z − 1) (z 2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 (1 − z))(z 2 p̃2y + z 2 k̃ 2 δ + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zδ)
0 0
Z1 Z1
π2δ z 2 dz
= dy
ic3 [z 2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 (1 − z)][z 2 p̃2y + z 2 k̃ 2 δ + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zδ]
0 0
We now break the z integration into two regions 0 ≤ z < zc and zc ≤ z < 1,
where zc is chosen such that λ2 c4 ≪ zc2 p̃2y ≪ k̃ 2 zc δ. We also use table integrals
Z
dz 1
= [ln(z) − ln(az + b)] + const
z(az + b) b
Z r √
a + bz b 2 a −1 cz
dz 2
= ln(a + cz ) + tan √ + const
a + cz 2c c a
b
≈ ln(a + cz 2 ) + const (M.49)
Z 2c
a a
dz = ln(a + cz) + const
a + cz c
Then
Z1 Zzc
π2δ z 2 dz
LIIIa = dy
ic3 [z 2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 (1 − z)][z 2 p̃2y + z 2 k̃ 2 δ + λ2 c4 (1 − z) − k̃ 2 zδ]
0 0
Z1 Zzc
π2δ z 2 dz
≈ dy
ic3 (z 2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 )(λ2 c4 − k̃ 2 zδ)
0 0
Z1 Zzc !
π2δ 1 λ2 c4 + k̃ 2 zδ λ 2 c4
= − 3 dy dz −
ic p̃y λ c + k̃ 4 δ 2
2 2 4 z 2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 λ2 c4 − k̃ 2 zδ
0 0
2 Z1 2 2 4 z=zc
!
π δ 1 k̃ δ 2 4 2 2 λc 2 4 2
= − 3 dy 2
ln(λ c + z p̃y ) + ln(λ c − k̃ zδ)
ic p̃y λ c + k̃ 4 δ 2
2 2 4 2p̃y 2
k̃ δ z=0
0
Z1
π2δ 1 k̃ 2 δ
2 4 2 2 λ 2 c4
= − dy ln(λ c + zc yp̃ ) + ln(λ2 c4 − k̃ 2 zc δ)
ic3 p̃y λ c + k̃ δ 2p̃y
2 2 4 4 2 2 2
k̃ δ
0
k2δ 2 4 λ 2 c4 2 4
− ln(λ c ) − ln(λ c )
2p̃2y k̃ 2 δ
Z1
π2δ 1 k̃ 2 δ
2 2 λ 2 c4
≈ − 3 dy ln(z p̃
c y ) + ln(−k̃ 2 zc δ)
ic p̃2y λ2 c4 + k̃ 4 δ 2 2p̃2y k̃ 2 δ
0
2
k̃ δ 2 4 λ 2 c4 2 4
− ln(λ c ) − ln(λ c )
2p̃2y k̃ 2 δ
Z1 2 2
π2 1 zc p̃y
≈ − dy 2 ln (M.51)
3
ic 2k̃ 2 p̃y λ 2 c4
0
Z1 ! Z1
π2 dy −k̃ 2 δ π2 1 zc2 p̃2y
LIII = LIIIa + LIIIb =− ln − dy 2 ln
ic3 k̃ 2 p̃2y p̃2y zc ic3 2k̃ 2 p̃y λ 2 c4
0 0
Z1 ! Z1
π2 dy k̃ 4 δ 2 π2 1 zc2 p̃2y
≈ − ln − dy 2 ln
ic3 2k̃ 2 p̃2y p̃4y zc2 ic3 2k̃ 2 p̃y λ 2 c4
0 0
772 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
Z1 !
π2 dy k̃ 4 δ 2
= − ln
ic3 2k̃ 2 p̃2y p̃2y λ2 c4
0
Zǫ Z1
π2
LI = 3 dx dy ×
ic
0 0
Z1
x(1 − z)2 dz
[(1 − z)2 (x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)) + λ2 c4 (1 − (1 − z)x) − k̃ 2 (1 − z)(1 − x)]2
0
Zǫ Z1 Zzc
π2 xdz
LIa ≈ dx dy
ic3 [(1 − 2z)(x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)) + λ2 c4 − k̃ 2 (1 − z)(1 − x)]2
0 0 0
Zǫ Z1 Zzc
π2 xdz
= dx dy
ic3 [(x2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 ) − (2x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x))z]2
0 0 0
Zǫ Z1
π2 1 z=zc
= − xdx dy
ic3 [2x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)][−(x2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 ) + (2x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x))z] z=0
0 0
Zǫ Z1
π2 1 1
= − 3 xdx dy
ic (2x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)) −(x2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 ) + (2x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x))zc
0 0
1
+
x2 p̃2y
+ λ 2 c4
Zǫ Z1 Zǫ Z1
π2 x π2 x(1 + x)
≈ − 3 dx dy ≈− dx dy 2 2
ic k̃ 2(1 − x)(x2 p̃2y + λ2 c4 ) ic3 k̃ 2 x p̃y + λ2 c4
0 0 0 0
Zǫ Z1
π2 x 1
≈ − dx dy 2 2 2 4
+ 2
ic3 k̃ 2 x p̃y + λ c p̃y
0 0
M.6. INTEGRAL FOR THE LADDER DIAGRAM 773
Z1
π2 dy 2 2 2 4
x=ǫ
LIa ≈ − ln(x p̃ y + λ c )
ic3 k̃ 2 2p̃2y x=0
0
Z1
π2 dy ǫ2 p̃2y
= − ln
ic3 k̃ 2 2p̃2y λ 2 c4
0
Zǫ Z1 Z1
π2 x(1 − z)2 dz
LIb ≈ dx dy
ic3 [(1 − z)2 (x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x)) − k̃ 2 (1 − z)(1 − x)]2
0 0 zc
Zǫ Z1 Z1
π2 xdz
≈ dx dy
ic3 [−x2 p̃2y + (x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x))z]2
0 0 zc
Zǫ Z1
π2 1 z=1
= − xdx dy
ic3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
[x p̃y + k̃ (1 − x)][−x p̃y + (x py + k̃ (1 − x))z] z=zc
0 0
Zǫ Z1
π2 x 1 1
= − dx dy −
ic3 x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x) k̃ 2 (1 − x) −x2 p̃2y + (x2 p̃2y + k̃ 2 (1 − x))zc
0 0
Zǫ Z1
π2 1 1
≈ − dx dyx −
ic3 k̃ 2 k̃ 2 k̃ 2 zc
0 0
≈ 0
Collecting all non-vanishing contributions we obtain
Z1 !
π2 1 ǫ2 p̃2y k̃ 4 δ 2
= − dy 2 ln ·
ic3 k̃ 2 2p̃y λ2 c4 δ 2 ǫ2 p̃2y λ2 c4
0
! Z1
2 2
π k̃ 1
= − ln dy (M.52)
ic3 k̃ 2 λ 2 c4 p̃2y
0
Z
′ ds
D(q, q ) =
[(q − s)2 + λ2 c2 ][s2 − q 2 + iµ][(s − q′ )2 + λ2 c2 ]
in formula (14.22) for the 4th order commutator term in the electron-proton
interaction. We are interested in leading terms surviving in the limits λ → 0,
µ → 0. The calculation method was adopted from §121 in [BLP01].17
First we use (M.6) and the elastic scattering condition (q ′ )2 = q 2 to write
D(q, q′ )
Z1 Z1−x Z
ds
= 2 dx dy
[((q − s)2 + λ2 c2 )x + ((s − q′ )2 + λ2 c2 )y + (s2 − q 2 − iµ)(1 − x − y)]3
0 0
Z1 Z1−x Z
ds
= 2 dx dy
[s2 − 2(qs)x − 2(q′ s)y + λ2 c2 (x + y) + q 2 (2x + 2y − 1) − iµ]3
0 0
D(q, q′ )
17
see also [Kac59]
M.7. COULOMB SCATTERING IN 2ND ORDER 775
Z1 Z1−x Z
dh
= 2 dx dy
[h2 + q 2 (−x2 − y2 + 2x + 2y − 1) − 2(qq′ )xy + λ2 c2 (x + y) − iµ]3
0 0
Z1 1−x
Z Z
dh
= 2 dx dy
[h2 − q 2 (x +y− 1)2 + k 2 xy + λ2 c2 (x + y) − iµ]3
0 0
Z1 Z1−x
iπ 2 1
= dx dy
2 [q 2(x + y − 1)2 − k 2 xy − λ2 c2 (x + y) − iµ]3/2
0 0
Z1 Zξ
′ iπ 2 1
D(q, q ) = dξ dζ
2 (q 2 (ξ − 1)2 − k 2 ξ 2 /4 + k 2 ζ 2/4 − λ2 c2 ξ − iµ)3/2
0 0
Z1
iπ 2 ξdξ
= p
2 (q 2 (ξ − 1)2 − k 2 ξ 2 /4 − λ2 c2 ξ 2 − iµ) q 2 (ξ − 1)2 − λ2 c2 ξ − iµ
0
D1 (q, q′ )
Z1−δ
iπ 2 ξdξ
≈ 3
2q [(ξ − 1) − k ξ /(4q 2 ) − iµ](ξ − 1)
2 2 2
0
776 APPENDIX M. LOOP INTEGRALS IN QED
iπ 2 2q 2 −k 2 ξ 2 /(4q 2 ) + ξ 2 − 2ξ + 1 1−δ iπ 2 −k 2
= · ln ≈ 2 ln
2q 3 k 2 (1 − ξ)2 0 qk 4q 2 δ 2
D2 (q, q′ )
Z0 Zδ
iπ 2 dy(y + 1) 2iπ 2 dy
≈ p ≈ 2 p
2 (q 2 y 2 − k 2 /4) q 2 y 2 − λ2 c2 k q 2 y 2 − λ 2 c2
−δ 0
p !
2iπ 2 p δ 2iπ 2 q q 2 δ 2 − λ 2 c2 + q 2 δ
ln(q q 2 y 2 − λ2 c2 + q 2 y) =
= 2
ln
qk 0 qk 2 iqλc
2
2 2
iπ −4q δ
≈ 2
ln
qk λ 2 c2
′ iπ 2 −k 2 −4q 2 δ 2 iπ 2 k2
D(q, q ) ≈ ln · 2 2 = 2 ln (M.53)
qk 2 4q 2 δ 2 λc qk λ 2 c2
Z
V =
dxV (x, 0)
Z
1
Z = 2 dxxV (x, 0) (N.1)
c
in (9.9) - (9.10).
Equation (6.22) follows directly from the property (9.7) in the case of
space translations and rotations. The potential boost Z in (N.1) is a 3-
vector by construction, so equation (6.24) is valid as well. Let us now prove
the commutator (6.23)
i~
[P0i , Zj ] = V δij
c2
777
778 APPENDIX N. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF RQD
Z
i~ d i i
[P0z , Zz ] = − 2 lim dxe ~ P0z a zV (x, 0)e− ~ P0z a
c a→0 da
Z
i~ d
= − 2 lim dxzV (x, y, z + a, 0)
c a→0 da
Z
i~ d
= − 2 lim dx(z − a)V (x, y, z, 0)
c a→0 da
Z
i~ i~
= dxV (x, y, z, 0) = V (N.2)
c2 c2
which is exactly equation (6.23).
The proof of equation (6.26) is more challenging. Let us consider the case
i = z and attempt to prove1
For the first term on the left hand side we use (9.7) and
d d z
lim V (Λx̃) = lim V (x, y, z cosh θ − ct sinh θ, t cosh θ − sinh θ)
θ→0 dθ θ→0 dθ c
∂V ∂V z
= lim (z sinh θ − ct cosh θ) + (t sinh θ − cosh θ)
θ→0 ∂z ∂t c
∂V z ∂V
= −ct −
∂z c ∂t
where Λ is the boost matrix (I.11). Then
Z
i~ d ic K0z θ ic
[K0z , V (t)] = − lim e ~ dxV (x̃)e− ~ K0z θ
c θ→0 dθ
Z
i~ d
= − lim dxV (Λx̃)
c θ→0 dθ
Z
i~ ∂V (x, t) z ∂V (x, t)
= − dx −ct − (N.4)
c ∂z c ∂t
1
In this calculation it is convenient to write condition (6.26) in a t-dependent form, i.e.,
multiply this equation by exp( ~i H0 t) from the left and exp(− ~i H0 t) from the right, as in
(7.10). At the end of calculations we will set t = 0.
N.2. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF QED 779
Z
∂ i~ ∂
[Zz (t), H0 ] = −i~ Zz (t) = − dxzV (x, t) (N.5)
∂t c ∂t
The last term in (N.3) vanishes due to (9.8). Now we can set t = 0 and see
that (N.4) and (N.5) cancel each other, which proves (N.3).
Derivation of the last remaining nontrivial commutation relation
i~
[P0i , Zj (t)] = V (t)δij
c2
Consider the case i = j = x and denote
Z
~ 1
V (x, t) ≡ √ j(x, t)A(x, t) + 2 dyj0 (x, t)G(x − y)j0 (y, t)
c 2c
1
G(x) ≡
4π|x|
2
We write conditions (6.22) - (6.26) in a t-dependent form. See footnote on page 778.
780 APPENDIX N. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF RQD
so that
Z
V (t) = dxV (x, t)
Z Z
1 ~
Z(t) = 2 dxxV (x, t) + 5/2 dxj0 (x, t)C(x, t) (N.6)
c c
where
√ Z
i~2 c dp X − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ ∗ †
C(x̃) ≡ p e ~ e(p, τ )c p,τ − e ~ e (p, τ )c p,τ (N.7)
2(2π~)3 p3/2 τ
[P0x , Zx (t)]
d i i
= −i~ lim e ~ P0x a Zx (t)e− ~ P0x a
a→0 da
Z
i~ d i ~ i
= − 2 lim dxe ~ P 0x a
xV (x, t) + √ j0 (x, t)Cx (x, t) e− ~ P0x a
c a→0 da c
Z
i~ d ~
= − 2 lim dx xV (x + a, y, z, t) + √ j0 (x + a, y, z, t)Cx (x + a, y, z, t)
c a→0 da c
Z
i~ d ~
= − 2 lim dx (x − a)V (x, y, z, t) + √ j0 (x, y, z, t)Cx (x, y, z, t)
c a→0 da c
Z
i~ i~
= 2
dxV (x, y, z, t) = 2 V (t) (N.8)
c c
which is exactly equation (6.23).
The proof of equation (6.26) is more challenging. Let us consider the case
i = z and attempt to prove
d
[K0z , V1 (t)] + [K0z , V2 (t)] − i~ Zz (t) − [V (t), Zz (t)] = 0 (N.9)
dt
where we took into account that [Zz (t), H0 ] = −i~ dtd Zz (t). We will calculate
all four terms on the left hand side of (N.9) separately. Consider the first
term and use equations (L.3), (K.23), (K.26), (I.4)
N.2. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF QED 781
[K0z , V1 (t)]
i~ d ic ic
= − lim e ~ K0z θ V1 (t)e− ~ K0z θ
c θ→0 dθ Z
i~2 d ic K0z θ ic
= − 3/2 lim e ~ dxj̃(x̃) · Ã(x̃)e− ~ K0z θ
c θ→0 dθ
Z
i~2 d
= − 3/2 lim dx(Λ−1 j̃(Λx̃) · Λ−1 Ã(Λx̃) + Λ−1 j̃(Λx̃) · Ω(x̃, Λ))
c θ→0 dθ
Z
i~2 d
= − 3/2 lim dx(j̃(Λx̃) · Ã(Λx̃) + Λ−1 j̃(Λx̃) · Ω(x̃, Λ))
c θ→0 dθ
Z
i~2 d d d −1
= − 3/2 lim dx j̃(Λx̃) · Ã(x̃) + j̃(x̃) · Ã(Λx̃) + Λ j̃(x̃) · Ω(x̃, 1)
c θ→0 dθ dθ dθ
d d
+ j̃(Λx̃) · Ω(x̃, 1) + j̃(x̃) · Ω(x̃, Λ)
dθ Z dθ
i~2 d d d
= − 3/2 lim dx j̃(Λx̃) · Ã(x̃) + j̃(x̃) · Ã(Λx̃) + j̃(x̃) · Ω(x̃, Λ) (N.10)
c θ→0 dθ dθ dθ
where Ω(x̃, Λ) is given by equation (K.24) and Λ is matrix (I.11). Next we
use the following results
d d z
lim j̃(Λx̃) = lim j̃(x, y, z cosh θ − ct sinh θ, t cosh θ − sinh θ)
θ→0 dθ θ→0 dθ c
∂ j̃ ∂ j̃ z
= lim (z sinh θ − ct cosh θ) + (t sinh θ − cosh θ)
θ→0 ∂z ∂t c
∂ j̃ z ∂ j̃
= −ct − (N.11)
∂z c ∂t
d ∂ Ã z ∂ Ã
lim Ã(Λx̃) = −ct − (N.12)
θ→0 dθ ∂z c ∂t
Calculation of the dΩ/dθ term is more involved
d
lim Ωµ (x̃, Λ)
θ→0 dθ
√ 3 Z 1
~ c X d dp X (Λ−1 p)µ
= − lim √ ×
(2π~)3/2 θ→0 ν=0 dθ 2p τ =−1 |Λ−1p|
782 APPENDIX N. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF RQD
3
X
− ~i Λ−1 p̃·x̃ i −1
Λ−1
0ν e eν (p, τ )cp,τ + e ~
Λ p̃·x̃
e∗ν (p, τ )c†p,τ (N.13)
νρ=0
d −1 d
lim Λ0ρ = lim (cosh θ, 0, 0, sinh θ)
θ→0 dθ θ→0 dθ
= lim(− sinh θ, 0, 0, cosh θ)
θ→0
= (0, 0, 0, 1)
Thus
d
lim Ωµ (x̃, Λ)
θ→0 dθ
√ Z 1
~ c dppµ X − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ ∗ †
= − √ e ~ ez (p, τ )cp,τ + e ~ ez (p, τ )cp,τ
(2π~)3/2 2p3/2 τ =−1
√ Z 1
i~2 c dp X − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ ∗ †
= −p ∂µ e ~ e z (p, τ )c p,τ − e ~ ez (p, τ )c p,τ
2(2π~)3 p3/2 τ =−1
= −∂µ Cz (x̃) (N.14)
where ∂µ ≡ (− 1c ∂t
∂ ∂
, ∂x ∂
, ∂y ∂
, ∂z ). So, using (N.14) and the continuity equation
(L.5), we obtain that the last term on the right hand side of equation (N.10)
is3
3
due to the property (9.2) all functions f and g of quantum fields vanish at infinity,
therefore we can take integrals by parts (ξ ≡ (t, x, y, z))
Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
d d d
dx f (ξ) g(ξ) = dx (f (ξ)g(ξ)) − dxf (ξ) g(ξ)
dx dx dx
−∞ −∞ −∞
N.2. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF QED 783
Z
i~2 d
− 3/2 lim dxj̃(x̃) · Ω(x̃, Λ)
c θ→0 dθ
2 XZ
i~
= dxjµ (x, t)gµν ∂ν Cz (x, t)
c3/2 µν
Z Z
i~2 ∂Cz (x, t) i~2 ∂Cz (x, t)
= 5/2
dxj0 (x, t) + 3/2 dxj(x, t)
c ∂t c ∂x
2 Z 2 Z
i~ ∂Cz (x, t) i~ ∂j(x, t)
= 5/2
dxj0 (x, t) − 3/2 dx Cz (x, t)
c ∂t c ∂x
Z Z
i~2 ∂Cz (x, t) i~2 ∂j0 (x, t)
= 5/2
dxj0 (x, t) + 5/2 dx Cz (x, t)
c ∂t c ∂t
Z
i~2 ∂
= dxj0 (x, t)Cz (x, t) (N.15)
c5/2 ∂t
Substituting results (N.11), (N.12), (N.14), and (N.15) in equation (N.10)
and setting t = 0 we obtain
[K0z , V1 (t)]
Z !
i~2 z ∂ j̃ z ∂ Ã 1 ∂
= − 3/2 dx − · Ã(x̃) − j̃(x̃) · − 2 (j0 (x̃)Cz (x̃))
c c ∂t c ∂t c ∂t
Z
i~2 ∂
= − 5/2 dx −z(j̃(x̃) · Ã(x̃)) − j0 (x̃)Cz (x̃) (N.16)
c ∂t
For the second term on the left hand side of (N.9) we use equation (L.3)
[K0z , V2 (t)]
Z Z
1 1
= dxdx [K0z , j0 (x̃)]G(x − x )j0 (x̃ ) + 2 dxdx′ j0 (x̃)G(x − x′ )[K0z , j0 (x̃′ )]
′ ′ ′
2c2 2c
Z∞
d
= f (x = ∞)g(x = ∞) − f (x = −∞)g(x = −∞) − dxf (ξ) g(ξ)
dx
−∞
Z∞
d
= − dxf (ξ) g(ξ)
dx
−∞
784 APPENDIX N. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF RQD
Z
1
= 2
dxdx′ [K0z , j0 (x̃)]G(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
c
Z
i~ ′ z ∂j0 (x̃) 1
= dxdx − jz (x̃) G(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
c2 c2 ∂t c
Z Z
i~ ′ ∂j0 (x̃) ′ ′ ′ i~ ′ ∂j0 (x̃)
= 4
dxdx (z − z )G(x − x )j0 (x̃ ) + 4
dxdx zG(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
2c ∂t 2c ∂t
Z Z
i~ ∂j 0 (x̃) i~
+ 4 dxdx′ z ′ G(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ ) − 3 dxdx′ jz (x̃)G(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
2c ∂t c
Z Z
i~ ′ ∂j(x̃) i~ ∂j0 (x̃)
= − 3 dxdx (z − z )G(x − x )j0 (x̃ ) + 4 dxdx′
′ ′ ′
zG(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
2c ∂x 2c ∂t
Z ′ Z
i~ ′ ′ ∂j0 (x̃ ) i~
+ 4 dxdx j0 (x̃)zG(x − x ) − 3 dxdx′ jz (x̃)G(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
2c ∂t c
Z Z
i~ ′ ∂((z − z ′ )G(x − x′ )) ′ i~ ∂
= dxdx j(x̃) j0 (x̃ ) + 4 dxdx′ j0 (x̃)zG(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ )
2c3 ∂x 2c ∂t
Z
i~
− 3 dxdx′ jz (x̃)G(x − x′ )j0 (x̃′ ) (N.17)
c
Using expression (N.6) for Z(t) we obtain for the third term on the left hand
side of equation (N.9)
Z Z
∂ i~2 ∂ i~2 ∂
− i~ Zz (t) = − 5/2 dxzj(x, t)A(x, t) − 5/2 dxj0 (x, t)Cz (x, t)
∂t c ∂t c ∂t
Z
i~ ∂
− dxdyj0 (x, t)zG(x − y)j0 (y, t) (N.18)
2c4 ∂t
In order to calculate the last term in (N.9), we notice that the only term in
Z(t) which does not commute with V (t) is that containing C, therefore
Z
~2
− [V (t), Zz (t)] = − 3 dxdx′ j(x̃)j0 (x̃′ )[A(x̃), Cz (x̃′ )] (N.19)
c
To calculate the commutator, we set t = 0 and use equation (B.12)
P0 = p1 + p2 (N.23)
J0 = [r1 × p1 ] + s1 + [r2 × p2 ] + s2 (N.24)
H0 = h1 + h2
p2 p2 p41 p42
≈ m1 c2 + m2 c2 + 1 + 2 − − (N.25)
2m1 2m2 8m31 c2 8m32 c2
h1 r1 [p1 × s1 ] h2 r2 [p2 × s2 ]
K0 = − 2 − 2
− 2 −
c m1 c + h1 c m2 c2 + h2
2 2
p r1 p r2
≈ −m1 r1 − m2 r2 − 1 2 − 2 2
2m1 c 2m2 c
1 [s1 × p1 ] [s2 × p2 ]
+ 2 + (N.26)
2c m1 m2
The full interacting generators are
H = H0 + V
K = K0 + Z (N.27)
4
see subsection 11.1.9
5
see equations (17.17) - (17.20)
N.3. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS787
The potential energy V is given by (15.2), and the potential boost is postu-
lated as [CV68, CO70, KF74]
q1 q2 (r1 + r2 )
Z ≈ − (N.28)
8πc2 r
The non-trivial Poisson brackets of the Poincaré Lie algebra (3.52) - (3.58)
that need to be verified are those involving interacting generators H and K
X
[J0i , Kj ]P = ǫijk Kk (N.29)
k=x,y,z
[J0 , H]P = [P0 , H]P = 0 (N.30)
1 X
[Ki , Kj ]P = − 2 ǫijk J0k (N.31)
c k=x,y,z
1
[Ki , P0j ]P = − Hδij (N.32)
c2
[K, H]P = −P0 (N.33)
where
H (−1) = m1 c2 + m2 c2
p21 p2 q1 q2
H (0) = + 2 +
2m1 2m2 4πr
788 APPENDIX N. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF RQD
(1) p41 p42 q1 q2 (p1 · r)(p2 · r)
Horb = − 3 2− − (p1 · p2 ) +
8m1 c 8m32 c2 8πm1 m2 c2 r r2
(1) q1 q2 [r × p1 ] · s1 q1 q2 [r × p2 ] · s2 q1 q2 [r × p2 ] · s1
Hspin−orb = − + +
8πm21 c2 r 3 8πm22 c2 r 3 4πm1 m2 c2 r 3
q1 q2 [r × p1 ] · s2
−
4πm1 m2 c2 r 3
(1) (s1 · s2 ) 3(s1 · r)(s2 · r)
Hspin−spin = 2 3
−
4πm1 m2 c r 4πm1 m2 c2 r 5
K(0) = −m1 r1 − m2 r2
(1) p2 r 1 p2 r 2 q1 q2 (r1 + r2 )
Korb = − 1 2− 2 2−
2m1 c 2m2 c 8πc2 r
(1) 1 [s1 × p1 ] [s2 × p2 ]
Kspin−orb = +
2c2 m1 m2
1 (−1) (0)
− 2
H δij = [Ki , P0j ]P (N.34)
c
(0)
0 = [Ki , H (−1) ]P (N.35)
(0)
−P0i = [Ki , H (0) ]P (N.36)
(0) (0)
0 = [Ki , Kj ]P (N.37)
1 (0) (1) (1)
− 2
H δij = [Ki−orb , P0j ]P + [Ki−spin−orb , P0j ]P (N.38)
c
(1) (1) (0) (1)
0 = [Ki−orb , H (0) ]P + [Ki−spin−orb, H (0) ]P + [Ki , Horb ]P
(0) (1) (0) (1)
+[Ki , Hspin−orb]P + [Ki , Hspin−spin]P (N.39)
3
1 X (1) (0) (1) (0) (0) (1)
− 2
ǫijk J0k = [Ki−orb , Kj ]P + [Ki−spin−orb, Kj ]P + [Ki , Kj−orb]P
c k=1
(0) (1)
+[Ki , Kj−spin−orb]P (N.40)
Again, we skip the easy-to-prove (N.34), (N.35), (N.36), and (N.37). For
equation (N.38) we obtain
(1) (1)
[Kx−orb + Kx−spin−orb, P0x ]P
N.3. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS789
2
p21 r1x p2 r2x q1 q2 r1x + r2x q1 q2 r1x + r2x
= − , p1x − , p2x − , p1x − , p2x
2m1 c2 P 2m2 c2 P 8πc2 r P 8πc2 r P
p21 p22 q1 q2
= − − −
2m1 c2 2m2 c2 4πc2 r
1
= − 2 H (0)
c
Individual terms on the right hand side of (N.39) are
(1)
[Kx−orb , H (0) ]P
p21 2 q1 q2 r1x 2 1 p22 2 q1 q2 r2x 2 1
= − 2 2 [r1x , p1 ]P − p , − [r2x , p2 ]P − p,
4m1 c 8πm1 c2 1 r P 4m22 c2 8πm2 c2 2 r P
q1 q2 2 q1 q2 r1x 1 2 q1 q2 r2x 1 2 q1 q2 r1x 1 2
− [r1x , p1 ]P − ,p − ,p − ,p
16πm1 c2 r 16πm1 c2 r 1 P 16πm1 c2 r 1 P 16πm2 c2 r 2 P
q1 q2 2 q1 q2 r2x 1 2
− [r2x , p2 ]P − ,p
16πm2 c2 r 16πm2 c2 r 2 P
p2 p1x q1 q2 (r1x − r2x ) (p1 · r) p22 p2x q1 q2 (r1x − r2x ) (p2 · r)
= − 12 2− 2 3
− 2 2
−
2m1 c 8πm1 c r 2m2 c 8πm2 c2 r3
q1 q2 p1x q1 q2 p2x
− − (N.41)
8πm1 c r 8πm2 c2 r
2
(1) (0) 1 1 1 q1 q2
[Kx−spin−orb, H ]P = 2 [s1 × p1 ]x + [s2 × p2 ]x ,
2c m1 m2 4πr P
q1 q2 [s1 × r]x q1 q2 [s2 × r]x
= − (N.42)
8πm1 c2 r 3 8πm2 c2 r 3
(1)
[Kx(0) , Horb]P
1 4 q1 q2 (p1 · r)(p2 · r)
= [r1x , p1 ]P + r1x , (p1 · p2 ) +
8m21 c2 8πm2 c2 r r2 P
1 q q
1 2 (p1 · r)(p2 · r)
+ 2 2 [r2x , p42 ]P + r2x , (p1 · p2 ) +
8m2 c 8πm1 c2 r r2 P
p21 p1x q1 q2 (r1x − r2x )(p2 · r)
= + p2x +
2m21 c2 8πm2 c2 r r2
p22 p2x q1 q2 (p1 · r)(r1x − r2x )
+ 2 2+ p1x + (N.43)
2m2 c 8πm1 c2 r r2
790 APPENDIX N. RELATIVISTIC INVARIANCE OF RQD
(1)
h q1 q2 [r × p1 ] · s1
[Kx(0) , Hspin−orb]P
= −m1 r1x − m2 r2x , −
8πm21 c2 r 3
q1 q2 [r × p2 ] · s2 q1 q2 [r × p2 ] · s1 q1 q2 [r × p1 ] · s2 i
+ + −
8πm22 c2 r 3 4πm1 m2 c2 r 3 4πm1 m2 c2 r 3 P
q1 q2 [s2 × r]x q1 q2 [s1 × r]x q1 q2 [s2 × r]x q1 q2 [s1 × r]x
= − + + −
8πm2 c2 r 3 8πm1 c2 r 3 4πm2 c2 r 3 4πm1 c2 r 3
q1 q2 [s1 × r]x q1 q2 [s2 × r]x
= − + (N.44)
8πm1 cr 3 8πm2 cr 3
(1)
[Kx(0) , Hspin−spin]P = 0 (N.45)
Summing up the right hand sides of equations (N.41) - (N.45) we see that
equation (N.39) is, indeed, satisfied. For equation (N.40) we obtain
Dimensionality checks
In our formulas in this book we chose to show explicitly all fundamental con-
stants, like c and ~, rather than adopt the usual convention ~ = c = 1. This
makes our expressions slightly lengthier, but has the benefit of easier control
of dimensions and checking correctness at each calculation step. In this sub-
section we are going to suggest a few rules for such dimension estimates in
formulas involving quantum fields.
From the familiar formula
Z
dpδ(p) = 1
1
hδ(p)i =
hp3 i
791
792 APPENDIX O. DIMENSIONALITY CHECKS
1
ha†p,σ i = hap′ ,σ′ i = hcp,τ i = hc†p′ ,τ ′ i = (O.1)
hp3/2 i
Z s
dp mc2 X − i p̃·x̃ i
p̃·x̃ †
ψ(x, t) = e ~ u(p, σ)ap,σ + e ~ v(p, σ)bp,σ
(2π~)3/2 ωp σ
4-vectors p̃ and x̃ have dimensions of energy hp̃i = hEi and time hx̃i = hti,
respectively. The dimension of the Planck’s constant is h~i = hpihri =
hEihti, which implies that arguments ~i p̃· x̃ of exponents are dimensionless, as
expected. Functions u and v are dimensionless as well.2 Then the dimension
of the Dirac quantum field is
hp3 i hp3/2 i 1
hψi = 3/2 3/2
= 3/2 = 3/2
h~ ihp i h~ i hr i
heihci
hji = hecψψi =
hr 3 i
2
see (J.40) - (J.43)
3
In different texts one can find various definitions of quantum fields, which can differ
from definitions adopted here by their numerical factors and dimensions. However, as we
stress in subsection 17.4.2, quantum fields do not correspond to any observable quantities.
They are just formal mathematical objects, whose role is to provide convenient “building
blocks” for interaction operators (9.13), (9.14) and (9.16). So, there is a significant freedom
in choosing concrete forms of quantum fields. All these choices should lead to the same
forms of the physically meaningful interaction operators V1 , V2 , and Z.
793
1
hδ 4 (p)i =
hEihp3i
Then the dimension of (9.34)
hd4 xi = htihr 3i
hd4 pi = hEihp3 i
4
This expression was simplified by using he2 i = h~ihci, which follows from the fact that
α ≡ e2 /(4π~c) ≈ 1/137 is the dimensionless fine structure constant.
794 APPENDIX O. DIMENSIONALITY CHECKS
Bibliography
795
796 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[Hob12] A. Hobson. There are no particles, there are only fields, 2012.
arXiv:1204.4616.
[Sar47] R.D Sard. The forces between moving charges. Electrical En-
gineering, January:61, 1947.
818 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[WX06] Z.-Y. Wang and C.-D. Xiong. Arrival time in relativistic quan-
tum mechanics, 2006. arXiv:quant-ph/0608031.
824
INDEX 825
832
INDEX 833
x’
B x