AJAY-9971313179

(Tutor Marked Assignment)

Animal Diversity-II
Course Code: LSE-10
Assignment Code: LSE-10/TMA/2020
Maximum Marks: 100
1. a) Mention at least five important affinities between echinoderms and chordates.
Answer- The origin and affinities of chordates and echinoderms have long been a subject of
interesting speculation. Relationships between creatures are postulated mainly on grounds of
comparative anatomy and development. For existing creatures, the methods of comparative
physiology and serology are also of great importance. In any comparison also involving fossil
form, it is important to remember that any evolutionary change does not affect the whole
existing stock. Such a change could occur in one locality only and the existing stock might still
survive in other areas. Thus it is that we have such ”living fossils’’ as the kingcrab, the
coelacanth, cycas and Equisetum. A primitive existing form may be very closely related to the
ancestor of more advanced existing forms.

From the available evidence, it seems fairly certain that chordates and echinoderms are related.
In the first place, we have the striking resemblance between the tornaria larva of Balanoglossus
and the auricularia larva of echinoderms. Both are strikingly different from the characteristic
trochophore larva of annelid and molluscs. Also, during the development of lower chordates and
echinoderms, the mesoderm is formed in the same manner, by budding of pouches
dorso-laterally from the archenteron. The cavities of these pouches constitute the beginning of
the coelom. This is different from the manner in which mesoderm and coelom. This is in
annelids, arthropods and molluscs. Both in echinoderms and chordates, thecentral nervous
system develops from a dorsal strip of epiblast. A final point of comparison lies in the type of
phosphagen present in the muscle.

In chordates the phosphate. However, in Balanoglossus and in a few echinoderms, both types
of phosphagen are found. The chordate and echinoderm stocks must have diverged very early
in animal evolution; fossils of both types are found in early Palaeozoic rocks. It is often
suggested that we must look for chordate origins in the coelenterates. There seems to be no
evidence that Rhabdopleura, a deep-sea hemichordate, shows features in its colony formation
which show a strong resemblance to the same process in the fossil graptolites. Unfortunately,
Rhabdopleura has very slender qualifications for inclusion in the chordate. It has no visceral
clefts or dorsal hollow nerve cord, and its notochord is a structure like that of Balanoglossus.
Here again we may possibly consider that both the graptolits and the ancestral hemichordate
were offshoots which diverged early from the coelenterate stock. Comparison of Amphioxus has
been made with two Silurian fossils of Jamoytius Kerwoodi. These fossils show a soft- bodies
animal with a distinct notochord and with the same general arrangement of intestine and
myotomes as aree found in Amphioxus. But Jamoytius had undoubted eyes. It seems that by
the Silurian period, the graptolites, Jamoytius Ostracoderms related to the present lampreys,
and the bony fishes had already been evolved.
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b) Briefly explain the following terms:

i) Holostyly
Answer- A type of jaw suspension in which there is support both from hyomandibular - and a
direct articulation of upper jaw of braincase seen in Holocephali.

ii) Homocercal tail

Answer- Homocercal tail : the type of tail fin found in most living bony fishes. The two lobes of
the tail are symmetrical and supported only by dermal fin rays.

iii) Living fossils

Answer- A living fossil is an extant taxon that closely resembles organisms otherwise known
only from the fossil record. To be considered a living fossil, the fossil species must be old
relative to the time of origin of the extant clade. Living fossils commonly are of species-poor
lineages, but they need not be.

iv) Hemipenes
Answer- A hemipenis (plural hemipenes) is one of a pair of intromittent organs of male
squamates (snakes, lizards and worm lizards). Hemipenes are usually held inverted within the
body, and are everted for reproduction via erectile tissue, much like that in the human penis.
They come in a variety of shapes, depending on species, with ornamentation, such as spines or
hooks.

v) Neoteny
Answer- Neoteny : a condition in which an organism attains sexual maturity while certain larval
or
juvenile characters are retained permanently.

2. With suitable diagrams explain jaw suspensorium in fishes. (10)

Answer- Jaw suspension means attachment of the lower jaw with the upper jaw or the skull for
efficient biting and chewing. There are different ways in which these attachments are attained
depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.

In primitive elasmobranchs there is no modification of visceral arches and they are made of
cartilage. Pterygoqadrate makes the upper jaw and meckel’s cartilage makes lower jaw and
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they are highly flexible. Hyoid arch is also unchanged. Lower jaw is attached to both
pterygoqadrate and hyoid arch and hence it is called amphistylic.

Upper jaw is attached with the skull and lower jaw is directly attached to the upper jaw. The
second arch is a branchial arch and does not take part in jaw suspension.

In modern sharks, lower jaw is attached to pterygoquadrate which is in turn attached to

hyomandibular cartilage of the 2nd arch. It is the hyoid arch which braces the jaw by ligament
attachment and hence it is called hyostylic.

In bony fishes pterygoquadrate is broken into epipterygoid, metapterygoid and quadrate, which
become part of the skull. Meckel’s cartilage is modified as articular bone of the lower jaw,
through which the lower jaw articulates with quadrate and then with symplectic bone of the
hyoid arch to the skull. This is a modified hyostylic jaw suspension that is more advanced.

Pterygoquadrate is modified to form epipterygoid and quadrate, the latter braces the lower jaw
with the skull. Hyomandibular of the second arch transforms into columella bone of the middle
ear cavity and hence not available for jaw suspension.

3. a) Describe the important adaptations found in birds that allow them to fly.
Answer- Over the aeons, birds have evolved not only wings but many other adaptations that
help them to fly. Birds have a strong, but a lightweight framework of bones. This is achieved by
the fusion and elimination of some bones while hollowing the remaining. Some bones of the
pelvic girdle and vertebrae are fused together. Generally, there are two types of flight
adaptations in birds:

Morphological Adaptations

Anatomical Adaptations

Morphological Adaptations
Body Contour
The birds have a spindle-shaped body to offer less air resistance during flight. This helps the
birds to conserve energy and become more efficient at flying.

Compact Body
The body of a bird is compact, dorsally strong and ventrally heavy to maintain equilibrium in the
air. Their wings are attached on the thorax, the light organs like lungs and sacs are positioned
high, the heavy muscles placed centrally are other features that help in flight.

Body Covered With Feathers

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The feathers are smooth, directed backwards, and closely fitting which make the body
streamlined and reduce friction during flight. It lightens the body weight and protects it from the
effect of environmental temperature. They also have a wide surface area for striking the air.

Feathers add to the body buoyancy. It insulates the body and prevents any loss of heat from the
body. This helps the birds to bear low temperatures at higher altitudes.

Forelimbs Modified into Wings

The forelimbs are modified into wings which is the only organ of flight. These consist of a
framework of bones, muscles, nerves, feathers, and blood vessels.

The wings have a large surface area. They also support the bird in the air. The wings have a
thick strong leading edge with a concave lower surface and a convex upper surface. This helps
in increasing the air pressure below and reducing the air pressure above. Thus the bird can fly
upward and forward during flight.

Mobile Neck and Head

The birds have a long and flexible neck which helps in the movement of head important for
various functions. They possess a horny beak which helps them to pick the grains and insects
while feeding.

Bipedal Locomotion
The anterior part of the body of a bird helps in taking off during flight. The anterior part of the
body also helps birds to land. The hindlimbs help in the locomotion on land. They can support
the entire body weight of a bird.

Perching
When a bird sits on the branch of a tree, its toes wrap around the twig. This is known as
perching. The muscles are so well-developed that a bird can sleep in that position without
falling.

Short Tail
The tail bears long feathers that spread like a fan and function as a rudder during flight. They
also help in balancing, lifting, and steering while flying and perching.

Anatomical Adaptations
Flight Muscles
The well-developed muscles control the action of the flight muscles. It weighs about 1/6th of the
entire bird. The flight muscles are striated. The muscles on the wings are large. Other muscles
help the above muscles in functioning.

Light and Rigid Endoskeleton

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The birds have a very stout and light skeleton. The bones are hollow, filled with air sacs. They
are provided with a secondary plastering to increase their rigidity. The bones are fused and lack
bone marrow.

The birds lack teeth. The thoracic vertebrae are fused except for the last one. This plays an
essential role in the action of wings striking the air.

Digestive System
The birds have a very high rate of metabolism. Therefore, food digests rapidly. The length of the
rectum is reduced because of the minimum undigested waste. They have no gall bladder which
reduces the weight of the bird.

Respiratory System
The respiratory system of birds is designed in such a manner that the food is oxidised rapidly
and a large amount of energy is liberated. Since the metabolism rate is higher, a large number
of oxygen molecules are required by the body. For this, the lungs are provided which occupy the
entire space between the internal organs.

Circulatory System
Rapid supply of oxygen is required by the blood due to rapid metabolism rate in birds.
Therefore, birds require an efficient circulatory system. Birds have a four-chambered heart that
performs double circulation. This prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Also, the birds contain a large amount of haemoglobin in their red blood cells which helps in the
quick aeration of body tissues.

Warm Blooded
The temperature of the body of a bird remains high and does not change with the change in the
environment. This facilitates the birds to fly at very high altitudes.

Excretory System
The nitrogenous waste is converted to less toxic organic compounds such as uric acid, and
urates. They have no urinary bladder. The uriniferous tubules efficiently absorb water.

b) What is winter sleep? Mention the changes in physiology and behaviour which help
heterothermic mammals overcome severe winter.(5)(5)
Answer- Winter rest (from the German term Winterruhe) is a state of reduced activity of plants
and warm-blooded animals living in extratropical regions of the world during the more hostile
environmental conditions of winter. In this state, they save energy during cold weather while
they have limited access to food sources.

Winter rest in an animal is different from true hibernation, since the metabolism is not reduced
drastically. The body temperature is not significantly lowered, however the heart rate is reduced.
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This means that animals like the raccoon can quickly become active again if temperatures rise
or the snow melts. Other animals that winter rest are badgers and brown bears.

Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in endotherms. Hibernation refers to

a season of heterothermy characterized by low body-temperature, slow breathing and
heart-rate, and low metabolic rate. It most commonly occurs during winter months.

Although traditionally reserved for "deep" hibernators such as rodents, the term has been
redefined to include animals such as bears and is now applied based on active metabolic
suppression rather than any absolute decline in body temperature. Many experts believe that
the processes of daily torpor and hibernation form a continuum and utilize similar mechanisms.
The equivalent during the summer months is aestivation.

Hibernation functions to conserve energy when sufficient food is unavailable. To achieve this
energy saving, an endothermic animal decreases its metabolic rate and thereby its body
temperature. Hibernation may last days, weeks, or months - depending on the species, ambient
temperature, time of year, and the individual's body-condition. Before entering hibernation,
animals need to store enough energy to last through the duration of their dormant period,
possibly as long as an entire winter. Larger species become hyperphagic, eating a large amount
of food and storing the energy in fat deposits. In many small species, food caching replaces
eating and becoming fat.

Some species of mammals hibernate while gestating young, which are born either while the
mother hibernates or shortly afterwards. For example, female polar-bears go into hibernation
during the cold winter months in order to give birth to their offspring. The pregnant mothers
significantly increase their body mass prior to hibernation, and this increase is further reflected
in the weight of the offspring. The fat accumulation enables them to provide a sufficiently warm
and nurturing environment for their newborns. During hibernation, they subsequently lose
15–27% of their pre-hibernation weight by using their stored fats for energy.

True hibernation is restricted to endotherms; ectotherms, by definition, cannot hibernate

because they cannot actively down-regulate their body temperature or their metabolic rate. Still,
many ectothermic animals undergo periods of dormancy which are sometimes confused with
hibernation. Some reptile species are said to brumate, but possible similarities between
brumation and hibernation are not firmly established. Many insects, such as the wasp Polistes
exclamans, exhibit periods of dormancy which have often been referred to as hibernation,
despite their ectothermy. Botanists can use the term "seed hibernation" to refer to a form of
seed dormancy.

4. Describe the most important adaptations in reptiles that allowed them to make a
complete transition from water to land environment. (10)
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Answer- Reptiles separated from their water-dwelling ancestors and climbed onto land during
the Paleozoic era, over 280 million years ago. When that era gave way to the Mesozoic,
following a mass planetary extinction, reptiles survived and continued to evolve. They
dominated the earth between 248 and 213 million years ago and live on today as modern-day
snakes, turtles, lizards, crocodiles and even birds.

Skin
Reptile skin contains keratin, a water-resistant substance that maintains hydration. Reptiles also
have scales to keep in moisture and help avoid skin damage, though the scales are sometimes
too small to be visible. This feature is most evident in turtles, whose scales fuse to form a shell,
while you can see a bird’s scales on its feet and in the form of feathers.

Kidneys
Living on land means limited access to drinking water, so reptiles’ kidneys have adapted. They
conserve water by producing less urine in more concentrated forms.

Reproduction
Laying soft-shelled eggs is safe in water, but land-dwelling creatures require a different
reproductive strategy. Scientists think this is why reptiles evolved a hard shell around their eggs,
and why some no longer lay eggs at all. In many types of snakes the eggs hatch internally, and
babies are born live.

Lungs
Adapting lungs in place of gills was a significant step in reptiles’ migration to land. While
amphibians all have gills at some stage in their development, either temporarily during the larval
stage or permanently through adulthood, reptiles are born with fully developed lungs.

Basking
For cold-blooded creatures on land, survival requires more than just physical changes. Since a
reptile’s temperature depends on its surroundings, it basks on rocks to warm its blood for
hunting. Without a place to bask, reptiles can’t get enough blood flow, as anyone who keeps
reptiles as pets can verify. Reptiles kept in captivity must have access to warming lights and
heat-absorbent surfaces to substitute for a natural basking environment.

Legs
Not all reptiles have legs now, but they all needed them to become land-dwelling creatures. This
was once a topic for debate due to the legless nature of snakes. Though scientists knew that
snakes once had legs, they could not determine whether they lost their limbs before or after
migrating to land. Scientists at Penn State resolved this issue in 2004 by comparing DNA
between snakes and their closest genetic relatives. They determined that snakes lost their legs
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after they left the water, possibly to enable their burrowing habits, but that snakes, like all
reptiles, initially required legs to relocate to land habitats.

5. Describe with the help of examples five different means of defence in animals. (10)
Answer- Defense mechanisms are very important to all animal life. Animals in every biome
must eat to survive. With predators being high on the food chain and always on the lookout for a
meal, prey must constantly avoid being eaten. Adaptations that prey employ adds to the
chances of survival for the species. Some of these adaptations include defense mechanisms
that can give prey an advantage against their enemies.

There are several ways animals avoid falling prey to a predator. One way is very direct and
comes naturally. Imagine you are a rabbit and you have just noticed a fox preparing to attack.

Camouflage
Another defense mechanism is camouflage or protective coloration. One form, cryptic
coloration, allows the animal to blend in with its environment and to mask its identity. Cryptic
coloration is important to the survival of many new-born and young animals, as it is often their
main defense against being detected by predators. Some animals blend in so well with their
environment that it is very difficult to identify them. For example, some insects and other animals
can look like leaves; both in their visual appearance and their behavior.

Playing Dead
When faced with danger, some animals pretend to be dead. This type of adaption is known as
thanatosis. Opossums and snakes can even emit a fluid that produces a foul smell, thus adding
to the pretense. Such behavior tricks predators into thinking that the animal is dead. Since most
predators avoid dead or rotting animals, this type of defense mechanism is often very effective.

Trickery
Trickery can also be used as a formidable defense. False features that appear to be enormous
eyes or appendages can serve to dissuade potential predators. Mimicking an animal that is
dangerous to a predator is another effective means of avoiding being eaten. For example, some
harmless snakes have bright warning colors that resemble the colors of dangerously venomous
snakes. Warning calls can also be used by one animal species to trick another animal species.
The African fork-tailed drongo bird has been known to mimic meerkat warning calls when
meerkats are eating their prey.

meerkats to flee, leaving their abandoned meal for the drongo to finish.

Physical Features
Physical anatomical structures can also serve as a type of defense mechanism. Some animals'
physical features make them very undesirable meals. Porcupines, for example, make a very
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difficult meal for predators because of their extremely sharp quills. Similarly, predators would
have a tough time trying to get to a turtle through its protective shell.

Chemical Features
Chemical features can be just as effective at deterring predators. We all know the hazards of
scaring a skunk! The chemicals released result in a not so pleasant aroma that an attacker will
never forget. The dart frog also uses chemicals (poisons secreted from its skin) to deter
attackers. Any animals that eat these small frogs are likely to get very sick or die.

Warning Calls
Some animals sound the alarm when danger approaches. For example, oxpeckers (birds that
live in mutualistic relationships with grazing animals) will give a loud warning call when
predators get too close. African elephants emit a rumbling alarm call when they hear the sound
of African bees. Animals can also give distinctive calls to identify the type of threat. For instance,
monkeys have one alarm sound for leopards and a different sound for eagles.

Predator-Prey Relationship
To sum it all up, the predator-prey relationship is important to maintaining balance among
different animal species. Adaptations that are beneficial to prey, such as chemical and physical
defenses, ensure that the species will survive. At the same time, predators must undergo
certain adaptive changes to make finding and capturing prey less difficult.

Without predators, certain species of prey would drive other species to extinction through
competition. Without prey, there would be no predators. The animal organisms in such an
environment could become endangered or even extinct. The predator-prey relationship ensures
that the cycle of nutrients in biomes continues. Thus, this relationship is vital to the existence of
life as we know it.

6. Describe with the help of labeled diagrams the pectoral girdle of frog and rabbit. (10)
Answer- ​ Explanation:

FROG:

1. Pectoral girdle is present in the anterior part ot the trunk.

2. It is connected to the axial skeleton (vertebral column) dorsally with muscles & ligaments and
formed mostly with bone tissues.
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3. Same as in shark.

4. The os innominatum has the dorsal scapular part and ventral coracoid part. Stouter scapula
on the lateral side and the supra scapula formed of calcified cartilage which is a* thin, broad
present on the dorsal side. The clavicle membrane bone is present antero-ventral to the
pectoral girdle.

5. The coracoid part possess, proper stout uralid, infront of it calcified cartilaginous pre coracoid
along with another strip cartilaginous epicoracoid bones. The two epicoracoids are closely
associated with each other in the mid ventral line.

6. At the junction of scapular & coracoid bones on the posterior side, the depression of glenoid
cavity is present.

7. The sternum lies in the mid ventral line of the chest part. It has two portions. The anterior
presternum attached to the anterior part of the girdle. It possess a X - shaped omosternumand
at its distal end a small carlilaginous episternum. The posterior purt sternum is present behind
the girdle. It consists of a stout bone mesosternum and flat plate xiphisternum at the distal end.

8. The forelimb bones are articulating with pectoral girdle.

9. Coracoid fenestrae are present.

10. It not only helps the movements of the fore limbs but also protects the heart and lungs.

RABBIT:

(i) The axial skeleton is present along the longitudinal axis of the body and consists of the bones
of skull, the vertebral column, the ribs and the sternum;

(ii) The appendicular skeleton lies at right angle to the longitudinal axis of the body and consists
of the bones of limbs and the girdles.

Axial Skeleton:

Characteristics of Skull:
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Some important characteristic points in the mammalian skull are as follows:

1. Since there is a general tendency to increase in the size of the brain, the skull has a short
posterior cranial part for lodging the brain and the long anterior facial part comprising mainly the
jaws. In higher mammals the facial part lies below the cranial part.

2. The number of bones in the skull is much reduced, many of them are fused intimately so that
their separating boundaries are marked only by the sutures.

3. Skull is dicondylic, i.e., 2 occipital condyles. Each exoccipital bears an occipital condyle.

4. Tropibasic skull-a vertical interorbital septum is present in between two orbits. Cranium does
not extend into orbital region.

5. The food passage is well separated from the nasal passage due to the development of palate
which is formed of premaxillae, maxillae and palatines.

6. A zygomatic arch on either side of the skull is formed by squamosal, jugal and maxillary
bones.

7. The auditory capsules are formed by the union of periotic and tympanic forming a swollen
tympanic bulla.

8. The articular and quadrate of the jaws become separated and free, and form malleus and
incus respectively (two ear-ossicles of the three). Stapes forms the columella.

9. Otic bones, prootic, epiotic and opisthotic, are fused to form a single periotic.

10. Turbinal bones are much folded and, thus, increases the olfactory surface of nasal
chambers.

7. Why is the chordate brain considered to be an enlargement of the anterior end of the
neural tube? With the help of diagrams describe the generalised brain in vertebrates.
(2+8=10)
Answer- In the developing chordate (including vertebrates), the neural tube is the embryonic
precursor to the central nervous system, which is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The
neural groove gradually deepens as the neural folds become elevated, and ultimately the folds
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meet and coalesce in the middle line and convert the groove into the closed neural tube. In
humans, neural tube closure usually occurs by the fourth week of pregnancy (28th day after
conception). The ectodermal wall of the tube forms the rudiment of the nervous system. The
centre of the tube is the neural canal.

The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. In vertebrates (and most
other animals) the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the
main senses of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. As an animal moves forward, its
senses collect data about the surroundings, and that data goes directly to the brain.

Brains are extremely complex. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by
activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and
neurotransmitters. Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the
environment; hormones and the autonomic nervous system make slower changes in the body. It
is also a part of human and animal body. The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400
grams.

In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement
such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a
centralized brain.

The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same. At the same time, during the course
of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective. In
so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their
behaviour is mostly instinctive. In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed
further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their
environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.

Several brain areas have kept their identities across the whole range of vertebrates, from
hagfishes to humans.

Here is a list of some of the most important areas, with a brief description of their functions as
currently understood. These functions may still be disputed to some degree. Starting from the
back (or, in humans, the underneath part) the regions are: The medulla (and the spinal cord)
have many small nuclei, which deal with various autonomic functions. These include the heart
beat and blood pressure, breathing, and vomiting. The pons is a relay station, carrying
messages between the cerebrum and the medulla and cerebellum.
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The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain. It is the central control station
for sleep/wake cycles, control of eating and drinking, control of hormone release, and many
other functions. It sits immediately above the pituitary gland, and secretes hormones into the
gland. These hormones inhibit or stimulate the pituitary gland. The gland, in turn, makes
hormones which affect the rest of the body. The thalamus sits above the hypothalamus, and
below the cerebral cortex. It is a collection of nuclei with various functions. It acts as a relay
station, gathering sense information of all kinds (except olfactory) and passes it on to the
cerebral cortex. Also, it has a role in consciousness and sleep. There are action systems for
several types of behaviour, including eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.

The cerebellum adjusts the output of other brain systems to make them more precise. Removal
of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes
actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in, but learned by trial and error. Learning
how to ride a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely
within the cerebellum.

The tectum, often called 'optic tectum', directs actions to points in space. Its best studied
function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements. It gets strong visual
inputs, and inputs from other senses which are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input
in owls, input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes, etc. In some fish, such as
lampreys, it is the largest part of the brain.

8. a) Explain the mechanism of bioluminescence.

Answer- Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism. It is a
form of chemiluminescence. Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and
invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms including some bioluminescent bacteria
and terrestrial arthropod such as fireflies. In some animals, the light is bacteriogenic, produced
by symbiotic organisms such as Vibrio bacteria; in others, it is autogenic, produced by the
animals themselves.

In a general sense, the principal chemical reaction in bioluminescence involves some

light-emitting molecule and an enzyme, generally called the luciferin and the luciferase,
respectively. Because these are generic names, the luciferins and luciferases are often
distinguished by including the species or group, i.e. Firefly luciferin. In all characterized cases,
the enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of the luciferin.

In some species, the luciferase requires other cofactors, such as calcium or magnesium ions,
and sometimes also the energy-carrying molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In evolution,
luciferins vary little: one in particular, coelenterazine, is found in eleven different animal (phyla),
though in some of these, the animals obtain it through their diet. Conversely, luciferases vary
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widely between different species, and consequently bioluminescence has arisen over forty times
in evolutionary history.

Both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder mentioned that damp wood sometimes gives off a glow and
many centuries later Robert Boyle showed that oxygen was involved in the process, both in
wood and in glow-worms. It was not until the late nineteenth century that bioluminescence was
properly investigated. The phenomenon is widely distributed among animal groups, especially in
marine environments where dinoflagellates cause phosphorescence in the surface layers of
water. On land it occurs in fungi, bacteria and some groups of invertebrates, including insects.

The uses of bioluminescence by animals include counter-illumination camouflage, mimicry of

other animals, for example to lure prey, and signalling to other individuals of the same species,
such as to attract mates. In the laboratory, luciferase-based systems are used in genetic
engineering and for biomedical research. Other researchers are investigating the possibility of
using bioluminescent systems for street and decorative lighting, and a bioluminescent plant has
been created.

Bioluminescence is a form of chemiluminescence where light energy is released by a chemical

reaction. This reaction involves a light-emitting pigment, the luciferin, and a luciferase, the
enzyme component. Because of the diversity of luciferin/luciferase combinations, there are very
few commonalities in the chemical mechanism. From currently studied systems, the only
unifying mechanism is the role of molecular oxygen, though many examples have a concurrent
release of carbon dioxide.

b) How do:
i) wall lizards adhere to the smooth walls?
Answer- The toe pads on the underside of gecko feet contain tiny hair-like structures called
setae, which stick to surfaces through frictional forces as well as forces between molecules,
called van der Waals. These tiny structures are so strong that the setae on a single foot can
support 20 times the gecko's body weight.

Van der Waals forces is a term collectively used to refer to intermolecular forces. Atoms have
electrons, which are negatively charged particles. These revolve around the centre of the atom,
or the nucleus. Molecules are formed by the donating and accepting or sharing of electrons. As
mentioned, these electrons are not fixed in one place. Instead, they keep moving.

ii) chameleons grip the branches on which they move?

Answer- Native mostly to Madagascar and sub-Saharan Africa, chameleons are some of the
most unique-looking animals on earth. From their hooded heads to their strangely shaped feet,
chameleons possess a host of physical adaptations which have developed to help them survive.
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Some of these adaptations help the chameleon hunt, while others enable it to hide from
predators.

Many species of chameleons, including the veiled chameleon and calumma chameleon, have
hooded or veiled heads. This hood is formed by a bony ridge on the back of the chameleon's
skull. A chameleon's hood evolved to serve two main purposes. First, the hood helps
chameleons collect water.

iii) penguins swim in water?

(4) (2×3=6)
Answer- Most species of penguins swim together, in either small or large groups, when looking
for food. Some penguins spend almost 3/4 of their lives on the water. Some species of
penguins, like the Rockhopper and Macaroni, use the porpoising breathing technique while
swimming. They swim just below the surface, then leap above the water’s surface to take a
quick breath. Other penguin species, like the Gentoos, like to swim below the surface of 2
minutes and then take a short breathing break at the surface for 30 seconds. Penguins can
swim about 3 to 6 miles per an hour using either of these methods. The fastest swimmers, the
Emperor penguins, have an average speed of about 9 miles per an hour.

9. a) The various fossile ancestors of man are given below. Rearrange them in the order
of their appearance in the evolution of man.
i) Homo sapiens
ii) Homo erectus
iii) Ramapithecus
iv) Australopithecus
v) Proconsul
vi) Cromagnon man
vii) Neanderthal man
Answer- The sequence of evolution of man or Homo sapiens is Dryopethicus and
Ramapithecus are primates exist about 15 million years ago Evidence shows during 2 million
years ago Australopithecus probably lived in East African grassland. Homo habilis considered
as first human being like. Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage known as
Homo erectus about 1.5 million years ago with the brain capacity of 900 cc. The Neanderthal
man with the brain size of 1400 cc lived near east and central Asia between 1,00,00 to 40,000
years back. Cro-Magnon evolved from Neanderthal and are found in Europe known as early
modern man. Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents between 75,000 to
10,000 years ago and is known as a modern man. So the correct option is 'Australopithecus,
Neanderthal Man, Cro-Magnon Man, Modern Man.
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b) Give the characteristic features of Class Amphibia.

Answer- ​ Some of the general characters of class amphibian are listed below:

1. They are the first cold blooded vertebrates from evolution point of view which came to the
land. Class Amphibian includes about 3,000 species.

2. They are amphibious in nature, viz. they can live on land as well as in water. They are mostly
found in warm countries. They are ectothermic (cold blooded).

3. Body is divisible into head and trunk. Tail may be present in some amphibians.

4. The skin is smooth or rough having glands which keep it moist.

5. They are usually without scales, but if present they are hidden beneath the skin (e.g
caecilians).

6. Paired fins are absent. Unpaired fins may be present. Two pairs of limbs are used for
locomotion except caecilions.

7. The gills are present at least in the larval stage; some adult forms also carry external gills in
addition to lungs (e.g., Necturus, Proteus).

8. Skull is dicondylic, i.e., with two occipital condyles for articulation with vertebral column.

9. The respiratory organs are lungs, buccopharyngeal cavity, skin and gills.

10. The heart is three chambered, having two auricles and one ventricle. In the heart, there are
present sinus venosus and truncus arteriosus. Both hepatic portal and renal portal systems are
well developed. RBCs are biconvex, oval and nucleated.

10. Differentiate between the following:

i) Batesian and Mullerian mimicry
Answer- ​ Batesian mimicry
The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines Batesian mimicry as:

“…a form of biological resemblance in which a noxious, or dangerous, organism (the model),
equipped with a warning system such as conspicuous coloration, is mimicked by a harmless
organism (the mimic). The mimic gains protection because predators mistake it for the model
and leave it alone. This form of mimicry is named for its discoverer, the 19th-century English
naturalist H.W. Bates.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 1998)
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To, labor the point, Batesian mimicry is where an unprotected prey species, or mimic, imitates a
toxic or otherwise protected species, or model (Biodiversity Lab 2017). Initially, when Henry
Bates posited the theory, after a trip to the Amazon where he discovered how a variety of
butterfly species resembled an unpalatable species, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
hailed the discovery as a fine example of natural selection. Work on Batesian mimicry continues
to this day and scientists have a strong theoretical framework for providing evidence supporting
the theory (Biodiversity Lab 2017). In fact, many of the studies into Batesian mimicry in
Butterflies has become one of the strongest proof supporting evolutionary biology.

Nature is littered with examples of this. In Borneo, the grasshopper, Condylodera tricondyloides,
so strongly resembles tiger beetles that it has often been mistaken as tiger beetles in many a
museum collection. The tiger beetle is very aggressive and this is the trait the grasshopper
hopes to imitate to help try to ensure its survival (Salvato 1997).

Mullerian mimicry -​ The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines Mullerian mimicry as:

“…a form of biological resemblance in which two or more unrelated noxious, or dangerous,
organisms exhibit closely similar warning systems, such as the same pattern of bright colors.
According to the widely accepted theory advanced in 1878 by the German naturalist Fritz
Müller, this resemblance, although differing from the better-known Batesian mimicry (in which
one organism is not noxious), should be considered mimicry nonetheless, because a predator
that has learned to avoid an organism with a given warning system will avoid all similar
organisms, thus making the resemblance a protective mechanism.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica
2009)

Put differently Mullerian mimicry describes the phenomenon seen in a number of dangerous or
toxic species who come to exhibit similar colorings or other traits that facilitate predator learning.
This would imply that the predator after trying to consume one species would avoid the other
species displaying the same or similar coloring (Coyne 2017). Fritz Muller, after whom the
theory is named, discovered this mimic pattern approximately twenty years after Henry Bates
theorized Batesian mimicry (Hadley 2017).

ii) Single and double circulation of blood

Answer- When the blood flows through the heat two times it is called as double circulation. It
mainly takes place in amphibians, birds and mammals. The circulatory system has two main
routes to pass the blood. One is pulmonary circuit and the second one is systemic circuit. The
pulmonary circuit carries blood to the lungs where carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is
added to the blood. The systemic circuit then carries the oxygenated blood to all the parts of the
body and the deoxygenated blood back to the heart. In both the routes the blood is reaching the
heart twice so it is called as double circulation. Single circulation:In contrast to the animals, fish
have only one circulation system where the blood passes only once through the heart. Fishes
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have two chambered heart, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide happens across
the gills instead of lungs.

iii) Scales of fish and reptilian scales

Answer- No, fish scales are dermal (= formed in derma) bones like skull roof bones. Scales in
reptiles are formed by epidermis and are made primarily of protein (from keratinocytes), being
similar in derivation to hair, feather and nails.

On the other hand, in reptiles one must differentiate between scales and osteoderms (= scutes).
Scutes are widespread among reptiles and they are similar to fish scales in that they are
produced in derma and are ossified. Similar structures are found in some amphibians and in
armadillo. Nevertheless, different types of osteoderms are currently considered as converges: "it
is essential to recognize that osteoderms represent non-homologous structures that have been
independently evolved a number of times" and have no direct homology with fish scales.

iv) Horns and antlers

Answer- Antlers are paired, branched structures that are made entirely from bone and are
shed annually. Developing antlers have a high water and protein content and a soft, hair-like
covering known as velvet, which comprises blood vessels and nerves. As a result of hormonal
and environmental changes, the antler ossifies – the growing, spongy bone is converted into
harder, thicker lamellar bone – before the velvet falls away altogether. Antlers are usually only
present for a few months before being shed and, apart from reindeer, only occur in males.

Horns are unbranched, two-part structures with a bony core and covered by a keratin sheath
(the same material found in human hair and nails), which grows from specialised hair follicles.
Horns are a permanent feature and, in many species, grow continuously.